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class="site-main" id="main"> <article id="post-96" class="post-96 post type-post status-publish format-standard has-post-thumbnail hentry category-genetic-immunity tag-disease-resistance tag-epigenetics tag-genetic-immunity tag-genetic-polymorphism tag-host-parasite-interaction tag-inherited-immunity tag-mhc-genes" itemtype="https://schema.org/CreativeWork" itemscope> <div class="inside-article"> <div class="featured-image page-header-image-single "> <img width="1200" height="628" src="https://infect.blog/archive/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/banner-12-06-min-scaled-e1727522447683.jpg" class="attachment-full size-full" alt="" itemprop="image" decoding="async" fetchpriority="high" /> </div> <header class="entry-header"> <h1 class="entry-title" itemprop="headline">Genetic Basis of Immune Response in Animals</h1> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="posted-on"><time class="updated" datetime="2024-09-28T16:50:59+05:30" itemprop="dateModified">September 28, 2024</time><time class="entry-date published" datetime="2024-09-28T13:46:20+05:30" itemprop="datePublished">September 28, 2024</time></span> <span class="byline">by <span class="author vcard" itemprop="author" itemtype="https://schema.org/Person" itemscope><a class="url fn n" href="https://infect.blog/archive/author/infect/" title="View all posts by infect" rel="author" itemprop="url"><span class="author-name" itemprop="name">infect</span></a></span></span> </div> </header> <div class="entry-content" itemprop="text"> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Immune response is the main reason for the survival of any animal against pathogens in a pathology-enriched world. An effective immune response to most infections and diseases has its basis in genetics, not chance. Over the past few years, research has identified genetic determinants that control immune responses in animals, bringing into focus intricate interactions among genes, environment, and pathogens. Knowing this genetic basis is important not only for further understanding of biology but also for the improvement of animal health and the development of more appropriate strategies for the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. This paper discusses the genetic mechanisms controlling the immune response in animals, based on a selection of studies that reflect how genetic variation might affect immunity.</span></p> <h3><b>The Major Histocompatibility Complex’s Role in Immune Response</b></h3> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Probably one of the most studied genetic components in the immune system is that of the major histocompatibility complex. This is because the genes within the MHC encode proteins that present antigens on the surface of cells and thus are central to the adaptive immune response. These variations of MHC genes among different people mean a difference in presentation; therefore, variability in the response to antigens effectively presented through these differences is what influences the amplitude and specificity of the immune response. Inbred animal lines will have the same MHC types and almost similar immune responses; animals of two different MHC types will have varying responses, proving genetic control by the MHC.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Genetic studies have established that the genetic control of the antibody response, which, at any rate, is itself closely linked to MHC type, is heritable. The consequence of this in animals is that different MHC types result in antigen-specific polymorphisms, whereby animals of a different genetic makeup actually respond differently against the same pathogen. This polymorphism is very important for the survival of species by ensuring a wide population that can resist a wide diversity of pathogens.</span></p> <h3><b>Genetic Resistance and Susceptibility to Diseases</b></h3> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The genetic basis of disease resistance is another critical area of research. Animals show variations in susceptibility or resistance to infectious diseases, with the variation partly genetic. In chickens, for example, genetic studies have identified hereditary factors for resistance and susceptibility to cecal coccidiosis, a parasitic disease. The results suggest that through selective breeding, it might be possible to increase resistance against some diseases; however, this has to be balanced against other characteristics, like productivity and overall health.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">In cases of infection with parasites, the host-parasite interactions are determined by the genotype of the host. Infection by cestodes has been shown to have complex genetic determination. The genetic factors that control only the potential of the host to resist infection are those that define the transmission dynamics of the parasite; therefore, genetic studies are very important in understanding and controlling parasitic diseases.</span></p> <p></div></div> <div style="background: #f7f7f7;border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07);"> <div style="padding: 30px;"><div class="Adblock-main"> <div class="Adblock-head"> <h2>Yearwise Publication Trend on <b>“<a href="https://infect.blog/publication-trends/index/genetic immunity" target="_blank" title="genetic immunity - yearwise publication trends">genetic immunity</a>”</b></h2> </div> </div><div class="results-container"><div class="chart-block" style="padding:15px;"> <div class="left"> <div id="results" class="results"></div> </div> <div class="right"> <div class="chart-container"><canvas id="publicationChart"></canvas></div> </div> <div class="keywordsdiv"> <div style="text-align:center;"><b>Find publication trends on relevant topics</b> </div> <span class="gp-icon icon-tags"><svg viewBox="0 0 512 512" aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1em" height="1em"><path d="M20 39.5c-8.836 0-16 7.163-16 16v176c0 4.243 1.686 8.313 4.687 11.314l224 224c6.248 6.248 16.378 6.248 22.626 0l176-176c6.244-6.244 6.25-16.364.013-22.615l-223.5-224A15.999 15.999 0 00196.5 39.5H20zm56 96c0-13.255 10.745-24 24-24s24 10.745 24 24-10.745 24-24 24-24-10.745-24-24z"></path><path d="M259.515 43.015c4.686-4.687 12.284-4.687 16.97 0l228 228c4.686 4.686 4.686 12.284 0 16.97l-180 180c-4.686 4.687-12.284 4.687-16.97 0-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97L479.029 279.5 259.515 59.985c-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97z"></path></svg></span> <span id="keyword-stats"></span> </div> </div></div></div><div class="inside-article"><style> table { margin: 0 0 1.5em; 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if (!statistics || Object.keys(statistics).length === 0) { resultsContainer.innerHTML = '<p>No data found.</p>'; return; } var tableHTML = `<div class='pub-scroll'> <table class='tablediv' border='1' cellspacing='0' cellpadding='0'> <tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Publication Count</th> </tr>`; Object.entries(statistics).sort(([yearA], [yearB]) => yearB - yearA).forEach(([year, count]) => { const displayCount = count === 0 ? 'NA' : count; tableHTML += ` <tr> <td>${year}</td> <td>${displayCount}</td> </tr> `; }); tableHTML += '</table></div>'; resultsContainer.innerHTML = tableHTML; } function displayLineChart(statistics) { var years = Object.keys(statistics); var counts = Object.values(statistics); var ctx = document.getElementById('publicationChart').getContext('2d'); // Destroy existing chart instance if it exists if (chart !== null) { chart.destroy(); } // Create a new chart instance chart = new Chart(ctx, { type: 'line', data: { labels: years, datasets: [{ label: 'Publication Counts', data: counts, fill: false, borderColor: 'rgba(75, 192, 192, 1)', tension: 0.1 }] }, options: { scales: { y: { beginAtZero: true } }, plugins: { legend: { display: true, position: 'top' } } } }); } function displayKeywordStats(keywords) { var resultsContainer = document.getElementById('keyword-stats'); resultsContainer.innerHTML = ''; if (!keywords || keywords.length === 0) { resultsContainer.innerHTML = '<p>No data found.</p>'; return; } var keywordHTML = ''; keywords.forEach((key, index) => { let key_replace = key.replace(/ /g, '-'); key_replace = key_replace.toLowerCase(); keywordHTML += `<a href="https://infect.blog/publication-trends/index/${key_replace}" target="_blank" title="${key} - yearwise publication trends">${key}</a>`; if (index < keywords.length - 1) { keywordHTML += ', '; } }); resultsContainer.innerHTML = keywordHTML; } // Call the function with the PHP data var statistics = { "2014": 134, "2015": 157, "2016": 175, "2017": 186, "2018": 195, "2019": 319, "2020": 529, "2021": 789, "2022": 902, "2023": 1506, "2024": 635 }; var keywordsArray = ["Genetic immunity","MHC Genes","Disease Resistance","Genetic polymorphism","Host-Parasite Interaction","Inherited immunity","Epigenetics"]; displayResults(statistics); displayLineChart(statistics); displayKeywordStats(keywordsArray); </script></p> <h3><b>Inheritance of Immunity</b></h3> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Inheritance has a significant contribution to how the characteristics of immune responses manifest in generations. Animals inherit genes that control their susceptibility to or resistance to different diseases. These genes interact with environmental factors to determine the net immune response. The concept of inherited immunity is therefore not a factor of direct genetic transmission but an interaction of genes responsible for the functioning of the immune system.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Studies on such pathogens have documented that their reactions to individuals in a species can vary greatly, with no effect in some, morbidity in others, or even the death of some from the disease. Variation results from the genetic diversity of the population. Using viruses as an example, some alleles may confer resistance by increasing the ability of the immune system to recognize and clear the virus. By contrast, others may increase the susceptibility of the host to certain alleles.</span></p> <h3><b>Genetic Polymorphisms and the Control of Disease</b></h3> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Genetic polymorphisms, especially in immune-related genes, play a very critical role in disease resistance. For example, polymorphisms at MHC genes are very well documented and recognized as one of the major ways through which populations are able to respond to most, if not all, pathogens. These polymorphisms result in different MHC molecules that will blind different peptides, hence providing immunity to a broad spectrum of pathogens.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The study of the genetic resistance of domestic animals applies practically to agriculture and veterinary medicine. By studying the genetic factors for disease resistance, one can breed more resistant strains to infections, reducing the use of antibiotics and other treatments. Doing so will not only help improve animal welfare, but such methods will also bring in economic gains associated with increased productivity and the life expectancy of livestock.</span></p> <h3><b>Genetics versus environment: interactions</b></h3> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Although the genetic basis forms the cornerstone of dictating immune responses, environmental factors also dramatically impact the expression of these genes. Among these are nutritional factors, stress, and exposure to various pathogens, which could substantially modify immune responsiveness and sometimes even override genetic predisposition. For example, even in a genetically resistant animal, it will still die from the disease if it has suboptimal nutrition or is under stress.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The interaction between genetics and the environment is best appreciated in studies on immunity in animals under attack from several pathogens or that are under environmental stress. In resistant strains, their immunity can be severely compromised, usually resulting in increased susceptibility to infection. This underlines the fact that while studying immune responses, both genetic and environmental factors need to be taken into consideration.</span></p> <p></div></div> <div style="background: #f7f7f7;border: 1px solid rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.07);"> <div style="padding: 30px;"><div class="Adblock-main"> <div class="Adblock-head"> <h2>Recent Publications on <b>“<a href="https://infect.blog/recent-publications/index/genetic immunity" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="genetic immunity - yearwise publication list">genetic immunity</a>”</b></h2> </div> </div> <div class="pb-main"><div class="article-scroll"><div id="results_recent" class="results"></div></div><div class="keywordsdiv" style="margin: 0px 15px;margin-top:20px;"> <div style="text-align:center;"><b>Find publications on relevant topics</b> </div> <span class="gp-icon icon-tags"><svg viewBox="0 0 512 512" aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1em" height="1em"><path d="M20 39.5c-8.836 0-16 7.163-16 16v176c0 4.243 1.686 8.313 4.687 11.314l224 224c6.248 6.248 16.378 6.248 22.626 0l176-176c6.244-6.244 6.25-16.364.013-22.615l-223.5-224A15.999 15.999 0 00196.5 39.5H20zm56 96c0-13.255 10.745-24 24-24s24 10.745 24 24-10.745 24-24 24-24-10.745-24-24z"></path><path d="M259.515 43.015c4.686-4.687 12.284-4.687 16.97 0l228 228c4.686 4.686 4.686 12.284 0 16.97l-180 180c-4.686 4.687-12.284 4.687-16.97 0-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97L479.029 279.5 259.515 59.985c-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97z"></path></svg></span> <span id="keyword-papers"></span> </div></div></div><div class="inside-article"> <style> .pb-main{ border: solid 1px #ccc; border-top: none; margin-bottom: 20px; padding-bottom: 25px; background:#fff; } .author-main { border: solid 1px #ccc; border-top: none; margin-bottom: 20px; padding-bottom: 25px; background:#fff; } .publication-block { padding: 10px; margin-bottom: 10px; background-color: #f9f9f9; text-align: left; background: #FFF; border-bottom: solid 1px #ccc; margin-left: 15px; margin-right: 15px; } .publication-block h3 { margin: 0 0 10px; color: #000!important; } .publication-block a { font-size: 16px !important; line-height: 1em; font-weight: 600; text-transform: none; color: #000; padding: 0px; } .publication-block a:hover{ color: #227cdc; text-decoration:underline; } .article-scroll { max-height: 445px; overflow-y: auto; overflow-x: hidden; } ::-webkit-scrollbar-track { -webkit-box-shadow: inset 0 0 6px rgba(0,0,0,0.3); background-color: #efefef; border-radius:30px; } ::-webkit-scrollbar { width: 6px; background-color: #efefef; border-radius:30px; } ::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb { background-color: #ababab; border-radius:30px; } .publication-block p { margin-bottom: .5em; font-size: 15px; color: #000; } h3 { font-size: 18px !important; margin-bottom: 20px; line-height: 1.2em; font-weight: 600; text-transform: none; } a { padding: 5px; color: #a71c49; } #keyword-papers{ margin-top: 20px; text-align: center; } </style> <script> function decodeString(str) { str = str.replace(/\\'/g, "'"); str = str.replace(/\\'/g, "'"); str = str.replace(/\\'/g, "'"); return str; } function displayResults_recent(papers) { var resultsContainer = document.getElementById('results_recent'); if (!papers || papers.length === 0) { resultsContainer.innerHTML = '<p>No recent publications found.</p>'; return; } papers.forEach(paper => { var publicationBlock = document.createElement('div'); publicationBlock.className = 'publication-block'; var title_de = decodeString(paper.title); var publicationHTML = ` <div style="margin-bottom: 10px;line-height: 24px;"><a href="${paper.url}" target="_blank" title="${title_de}">${title_de}</a></div> <p><strong>Issue Release:</strong> ${paper.publishedDate}</p> `; publicationBlock.innerHTML = publicationHTML; resultsContainer.appendChild(publicationBlock); }); } function displayKeywordPapers(keywords) { var resultsContainer = document.getElementById('keyword-papers'); resultsContainer.innerHTML = ''; if (!keywords || keywords.length === 0) { resultsContainer.innerHTML = '<p>No data found.</p>'; return; } var keywordHTML = ''; keywords.forEach((key, index) => { let key_replace = key.replace(/ /g, '-'); key_replace = key_replace.toLowerCase(); keywordHTML += `<a href="https://infect.blog/recent-publications/index/${key_replace}" target="_blank" title="${key} - publication list">${key}</a>`; if (index < keywords.length - 1) { keywordHTML += ', '; } }); resultsContainer.innerHTML = keywordHTML; } // Call the function with the PHP data var recent_papers = [ { "title": "DNA PAMPs as Molecular Tools for the cGAS-STING Signaling Pathways.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39192124", "publishedDate": "2025" }, { "title": "CRISPR-Mediated Library Screening of Gene-Knockout Cell Lines for Investigating Antiviral Innate Immunity.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39192118", "publishedDate": "2025" }, { "title": "CRISPR-Mediated Viral Gene Knockout to Investigate Viral Evasion of Antiviral Innate Immunity.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39192117", "publishedDate": "2025" }, { "title": "Zebrafish as a Model for Investigating Antiviral Innate Immunity.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39192133", "publishedDate": "2025" }, { "title": "Identifying a Gene Deficiency in the Antiviral Innate Immune Signaling Pathway.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/39192135", "publishedDate": "2025" }, { "title": "HIF-1\u03b1 and MIF enhance neutrophil-driven type 3 immunity and chondrogenesis in a murine spondyloarthritis model.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38839914", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Whole-genome sequencing reveals genomic diversity and selection signatures in Xia\\\\\\'nan cattle.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38840048", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Genomic exploration of the fermented meat isolate Staphylococcus shinii IMDO-S216 with a focus on competitiveness-enhancing secondary metabolites.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38849728", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Two novel compound heterozygous loss-of-function mutations cause fetal IRAK-4 deficiency presenting with Pseudomonas Aeruginosa sepsis.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38838930", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Effects of aflatoxin B on metabolism- and immunity-related gene expression in Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae).", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38879301", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Sonocatalytic oncolysis microbiota curb intrinsic microbiota lactate metabolism and blockade CD24-Siglec10 immune escape to revitalize immunological surveillance.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38878482", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Gut dysbiosis impacts the immune system and promotes prostate cancer.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38852888", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "HLA Genes: A Hallmark of Functional Genetic Variation and Complex Evolution.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38907887", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Significant Correlation Between Cutaneous Abundance of Streptococcus and Psoriasis Severity in Patients with FBXL19 Gene Variants.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38898675", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "PIKfyve, expressed by CD11c-positive cells, controls tumor immunity.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38942798", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "The rapidly changing field of predictive biomarkers of non-small cell lung cancer.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38953007", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Coexistence of nonfluorescent chromoproteins and fluorescent proteins in massive spp. corals manifesting a pink pigmentation response.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38952870", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Human Inborn Errors of Immunity in Pyoderma Gangrenosum: A Systematic Review.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38951460", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Ileal Paneth Cell Phenotype is a Cellular Biomarker for Pouch Complications in Ulcerative Colitis.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38953127", "publishedDate": "2024" }, { "title": "Monogenic Inborn Errors of Immunity with impaired IgG response to polysaccharide antigens but normal IgG levels and normal IgG response to protein antigens.", "url": "https:\/\/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/38933494", "publishedDate": "2024" } ]; var keywordsArray = ["Genetic immunity","MHC Genes","Disease Resistance","Genetic polymorphism","Host-Parasite Interaction","Inherited immunity","Epigenetics"]; displayResults_recent(recent_papers); displayKeywordPapers(keywordsArray); // function stripslashes(str) { // if (typeof str === 'string') { // return str.replace(/\/g, ''); // } // } </script></p> <h3><b>Future Directions in Genetic Studies of Immunity</b></h3> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The more that is known about the genetic basis of immune responses in animals, the more interesting avenues for further research open up. Gene editing technologies, notably CRISPR, hold great promise for elevating disease resistance in animals. Such technology might mean that specific genes connected with immunity are modified with a view to making animals more resistant to a wide variety of diseases, reducing dependence on chemical treatments, and leading to improved animal health.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">One area of interest that would be in the field of research in epigenetics of the immune response is epigenetic changes, which are those processes of gene expression that do not include changes in the DNA sequence. They can be affected by environmental factors and, in turn, could be transmitted through generations. An understanding of how epigenetics acts in association with genetic factors on immunity could give rise to new strategies for the prevention and treatment of diseases.</span></p> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">Moreover, genetic data can be combined with other sources of biological data in such a way as to provide a much more complete picture of the immune system. With these techniques combined, there would be a better understanding of how genetic variation can affect the whole immune system, leading to more specifically targeted and effective interventions.</span></p> <h3><b>Conclusion</b></h3> <p><span style="font-weight: 400;">The genetic basis of immune responses in animals is an intricate and multifaceted study area. Genetic, environmental, and pathogen interactions drive the enormous diversity and adaptability of the immune system, the basis of species survival. Genetic advancement increases not only our basic understanding of immunity but also opens new avenues on how to enhance health and disease resistance in animals. The more that is learned about the genetic underpinnings of immune response, the more possibilities appear for innovative solutions to some of the thorniest challenges in animal health.</span></p> <p></p> <h3><b>References</b></h3> <ol> <li>McDevitt, H.O. and Chinitz, A., 1969. <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.163.3872.1207">Genetic control of the antibody response: relationship between immune response and histocompatibility (H-2) type.</a> <i>Science</i>, <i>163</i>(3872), pp.1207-1208.</li> <li>Rosenberg, M.M., Alicata, J.E. and Palafox, A.L., 1954. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119365757">Further evidence of hereditary resistance and susceptibility to cecal coccidiosis in chickens.</a> <i>Poultry Science</i>, <i>33</i>(5), pp.972-980.</li> <li>Larsh, J.E., 1951. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3273570">Host-parasite relationships in cestode infections, with emphasis on host resistance.</a> <i>The Journal of Parasitology</i>, <i>37</i>(4), pp.343-352.</li> <li>Hutt, F.B., 1958. <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.5555/19582203809">Genetic resistance to disease indomestic animals.</a></li> <li> <div class="citation-text">PARISH HJ. I<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2069005/">nherited immunity</a>. Br Med J. 1951 May 26;1(4716):1164-8. doi: 10.1136/bmj.1.4716.1164. PMID: 14830864; PMCID: PMC2069005.</div> </li> <li></li> </ol> </div> <footer class="entry-meta" aria-label="Entry meta"> <span class="cat-links"><span class="gp-icon icon-categories"><svg viewBox="0 0 512 512" aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1em" height="1em"><path d="M0 112c0-26.51 21.49-48 48-48h110.014a48 48 0 0143.592 27.907l12.349 26.791A16 16 0 00228.486 128H464c26.51 0 48 21.49 48 48v224c0 26.51-21.49 48-48 48H48c-26.51 0-48-21.49-48-48V112z" /></svg></span><span class="screen-reader-text">Categories </span><a href="https://infect.blog/archive/category/genetic-immunity/" rel="category tag">Genetic immunity</a></span> <span class="tags-links"><span class="gp-icon icon-tags"><svg viewBox="0 0 512 512" aria-hidden="true" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="1em" height="1em"><path d="M20 39.5c-8.836 0-16 7.163-16 16v176c0 4.243 1.686 8.313 4.687 11.314l224 224c6.248 6.248 16.378 6.248 22.626 0l176-176c6.244-6.244 6.25-16.364.013-22.615l-223.5-224A15.999 15.999 0 00196.5 39.5H20zm56 96c0-13.255 10.745-24 24-24s24 10.745 24 24-10.745 24-24 24-24-10.745-24-24z"/><path d="M259.515 43.015c4.686-4.687 12.284-4.687 16.97 0l228 228c4.686 4.686 4.686 12.284 0 16.97l-180 180c-4.686 4.687-12.284 4.687-16.97 0-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97L479.029 279.5 259.515 59.985c-4.686-4.686-4.686-12.284 0-16.97z" /></svg></span><span class="screen-reader-text">Tags </span><a href="https://infect.blog/archive/tag/disease-resistance/" rel="tag">Disease Resistance</a>, <a href="https://infect.blog/archive/tag/epigenetics/" rel="tag">Epigenetics</a>, <a href="https://infect.blog/archive/tag/genetic-immunity/" rel="tag">Genetic immunity</a>, <a href="https://infect.blog/archive/tag/genetic-polymorphism/" rel="tag">Genetic polymorphism</a>, <a href="https://infect.blog/archive/tag/host-parasite-interaction/" rel="tag">Host-Parasite Interaction</a>, <a href="https://infect.blog/archive/tag/inherited-immunity/" 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