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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forma_sustancial" title="Forma sustancial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Forma sustancial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formo_(filozofio)" title="Formo (filozofio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Formo (filozofio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="صورت جوهری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="صورت جوهری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forme_(philosophie)" title="Forme (philosophie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Forme (philosophie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%95%EC%8B%9D" title="형식 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="형식" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forma_(filosofia)" title="Forma (filosofia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Forma (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Форма (философия) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Форма (философия)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakl" title="Shakl – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Shakl" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forma_(filosofia)" title="Forma (filosofia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Forma (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form%C4%83_(filozofie)" title="Formă (filozofie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Formă (filozofie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Форма (философия) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Форма (философия)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical concept</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Substantial_form" title="Special:EditPage/Substantial form">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Substantial+form%22">"Substantial form"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Substantial+form%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Substantial+form%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Substantial+form%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Substantial+form%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Substantial+form%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Substantial form is a central philosophical concept in <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and, afterwards, in <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>. The <i>form</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_theory_of_universals" title="Aristotle's theory of universals">idea</a>, existent or embodied in a being, that completes or actualizes the potentiality latent in the matter composing the being itself. For <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in fact, <i><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a></i> is the basis of all that exists; it comprises the <i><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality_(Aristotle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)">potentiality</a></i> of everything, but of itself is not actually anything. A determinate thing only comes into being when the <i>potentiality</i> in matter is converted into <i><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality_(Aristotle)" class="mw-redirect" title="Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)">actuality</a>;</i> this is achieved by the substantial form. It is <i>substantial</i> because it is the principle by which a material kind of thing is recognised as such.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This concept was designed by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> to explain several phenomena considered perplexing in the ancient world. One was how physical things can exist as certain types of intelligible things, e.g., <a href="/wiki/Argos_(dog)" title="Argos (dog)">Argos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garmr" title="Garmr">Garmr</a> are both dogs despite being very different because they have the same type of substantial form: it is the substantial form that makes the physical thing <a href="/wiki/Intelligibility_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligibility (philosophy)">intelligible</a> as a particular kind of thing; in other words, such is the Aristotelean solution of the <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_universals" title="Problem of universals">problem of universals</a>. Another one was how the activities of physical things can transcend the limitations of matter to different degrees (for Aristotle, matter was considered unable of any kind of self-organization): <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> through their vegetative substantial form transcend the capacities of inanimate matter via growth and nutritive activities; <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> through their sentient substantial form by sensation, perception and emotions; and <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> by their rational substantial form, so making them "<a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">rational animals</a>". A third one was how one physical thing can change into another, e.g.the tiger that eats an antilope not only ends the ability of the antilope's substantial forms to continue animating its prime matter but also enables that same prime matter to become absorbed or animated by the tiger's substantial form. For Aristotle, prime matter is the ultimate principle of physicality and has the potency to being activated by substantial forms into physical entities. Without this potency of prime matter, in Aristotle's opinion, change would either be impossible or would require matter to be destroyed and created rather than altered. </p><p>Aristotle's doctrine of substantial form animating prime matter differs from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a> in several ways. Unlike substantial forms, Platonic forms or <i><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a></i> exist as exemplars in the invisible world and are imposed by a supreme god (<a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a> in some translations of the <i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i>) upon chaotic matter. Physical things thus only participate to some degree in the perfection of Plato's paradigmatic Forms. Aristotle, on the other hand, holds that substantial forms actualize the potency of prime matter made receptive by agents of change. The chick's substantial form actualizes prime matter that has been individualized into being a receptive potency for the chicken substantial form by the hen and the rooster. </p><p>While the concept of substantial forms dominates <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">ancient Greek philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophy</a>, it fell out of favor in modern philosophy.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Previous citation old, broken link (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Modern philosophy was changed by the discovery of nature's mathematical and mechanical laws. So, the idea of substantial forms was abandoned for a <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(philosophy)" title="Mechanism (philosophy)">mechanical</a>, or "bottom-up" theory of organization.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each substance being in its nature fixed and determined, nothing is farther from the spirit of Aristotelianism or Scholasticism than a theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> which would regard even the essences of things as products of change. However, such mechanistic treatments have been criticized by proponents of <a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a> for merely denying the existence of certain kinds of substantial forms in favor of others (for example that of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>) and not denying substantial forms as such. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Articulation">Articulation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantial_form&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Articulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platonic_forms">Platonic forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantial_form&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Platonic forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">Theory of Forms</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> maintains in the <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedo" title="Phaedo">Phaedo</a></i> regarding our knowledge of equals:<br /> </p> <dl><dd>Do they [equal things] seem to us to be equal in the same sense as what is Equal itself? Is there some deficiency in their being such as the Equal, or is there not? ...</dd> <dd>Whenever someone, on seeing something, realizes that that which he now sees wants to be like some other reality but falls short and cannot be like that other since it is inferior, do we agree that the one who thinks this must have prior knowledge of that to which he says it is like, but deficiently so? ...</dd> <dd>We must then possess knowledge of the Equal before that time when we first saw the equal objects and realized that all these objects strive to be like the Equal but are deficient in this.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristotelian_forms">Aristotelian forms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantial_form&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Aristotelian forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">Aristotle's biology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> was the first to distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter (philosophy)">matter</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyle">hyle</a></i>) and form (<i>morphe</i>). For Aristotle, matter is the undifferentiated primal element: it is rather that from which things develop than a <a href="/wiki/Thing_in_itself" class="mw-redirect" title="Thing in itself">thing in itself</a>. The development of particular things from this germinal matter consists in differentiation, the acquiring of particular forms of which the knowable universe consists (cf. <a href="/wiki/Formal_cause" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal cause">Formal cause</a>). The perfection of the form of a thing is its <a href="/wiki/Entelechy" class="mw-redirect" title="Entelechy">entelechy</a> in virtue of which it attains its fullest realization of function (<i><a href="/wiki/De_anima" class="mw-redirect" title="De anima">De anima</a></i>, ii. 2). Thus, the entelechy of the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">body</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>. The origin of the differentiation process is to be sought in a <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">prime mover</a>, i.e. pure form entirely separate from all matter, eternal, unchangeable, operating not by its own activity but by the impulse which its own absolute existence excites in matter.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_adoption">Early adoption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantial_form&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early adoption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both Platonic and Aristotelian forms appear in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophy</a>. </p><p>Medieval theologians, newly exposed to Aristotle's philosophy, applied hylomorphism to Christianity, such as to the <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a> of the Eucharist's bread and wine to the body and blood of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>. Theologians such as <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a> developed Christian applications of hylomorphism. </p><p>The Aristotelian conception of form was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Scholastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastics">Scholastics</a>, to whom, however, its origin in the observation of the physical universe was an entirely foreign idea. The most remarkable adaptation is probably that of <a href="/wiki/Aquinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquinas">Aquinas</a>, who distinguished the spiritual world with its subsistent forms (formae separatae) from the material with its inherent forms which exist only in combination with matter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantial_form&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>, referring to substantial forms, says: </p> <blockquote><p>They were introduced by philosophers solely to account for the proper action of natural things, of which they were supposed to be the principles and bases ... But no natural action at all can be explained by these substantial forms, since their defenders admit that they are occult, and that they do not understand them themselves. If they say that some action proceeds from a substantial form, it is as if they said it proceeds from something they do not understand; which explains nothing.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> criticised 'substantial forms' as ill-defined, stating that they "signify nothing"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the supposition that "the same precise and internal constitution goes always with the same specific name, makes men forward to take those names for the representatives of those real essences".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Response_to_criticism">Response to criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantial_form&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Response to criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> made efforts to return to forms. Substantial forms, in the strictest sense for Leibniz, are primitive active forces and are required for his metaphysics.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Metaphysics" title="Discourse on Metaphysics">Discourse on Metaphysics</a></i> (§10): </p> <blockquote><p>[...] the belief in substantial forms has a certain basis in fact, but that these forms effect no changes in the phenomena and must not be employed for the explanation of particular events.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Substantial_form&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Greek Philosophy" entry in <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school#CITEREFSeyffert1895" title="Peripatetic school">Seyffert 1895</a>, p. 482</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.anselm.edu/sites/default/files/Documents/Institute%20of%20SA%20Studies/4.5.3.2c_51Hill.pdf">Benjamin Hill. Substantial Forms and the Rise of Modern Science</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noprint"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span> </span>This article incorporates text from a publication now in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Form" class="extiw" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Form">Form</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Form&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstantial+form" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Descartes. "Letter to Regius," January 1642, in Oeuvres de Descartes.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1825" class="citation book cs1">Locke, John (1825). <i>Of the Conduct of the Understanding</i>. Baynes & Son. pp. 57–8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Of+the+Conduct+of+the+Understanding&rft.pages=57-8&rft.pub=Baynes+%26+Son&rft.date=1825&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstantial+form" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLocke1892" class="citation book cs1">Locke, John (1892). <i>The Philosophical Works of John Locke Volume 2</i>. George Bell & Sons. p. 106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophical+Works+of+John+Locke+Volume+2&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=George+Bell+%26+Sons&rft.date=1892&rft.aulast=Locke&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstantial+form" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adams, Robert Merrihew. Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist, February 1999, pp. 308–341 (34)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/leib-met.htm#SH9c">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFG_W_Leibniz" class="citation web cs1">G W Leibniz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020612043559/https://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/Leibniz-Discourse.htm#X">"Discourse on Metaphysics"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/Leibniz-Discourse.htm#X">the original</a> on 12 June 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Discourse+on+Metaphysics&rft.au=G+W+Leibniz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.anselm.edu%2Fhomepage%2Fdbanach%2FLeibniz-Discourse.htm%23X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASubstantial+form" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_intellect" title="Active intellect">Active intellect</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiperistasis" title="Antiperistasis">Antiperistasis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arete" title="Arete">Arete</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catharsis" title="Catharsis">Catharsis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence theory of truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a>–<a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accident</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_causes" title="Four causes">Four causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_future_contingents" title="Problem of future contingents">Future contingents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genus%E2%80%93differentia_definition" title="Genus–differentia definition">Genus–differentia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexis" title="Hexis">Hexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hylomorphism" title="Hylomorphism">Hylomorphism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lexis_(Aristotle)" title="Lexis (Aristotle)">Lexis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mimesis#Aristotle" title="Mimesis">Mimesis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minima_naturalia" title="Minima naturalia">Minima naturalia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderate_realism" title="Moderate realism">Moderate realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythos_(Aristotle)" title="Mythos (Aristotle)">Mythos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horror_vacui_(physics)" title="Horror vacui (physics)">Horror vacui (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_animal" title="Rational animal">Rational animal</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potentiality_and_actuality" title="Potentiality and actuality">Potentiality and actuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hypokeimenon" title="Hypokeimenon">hypokeimenon</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">ousia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syllogism" title="Syllogism">Syllogism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Telos" title="Telos">Telos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiddity" title="Quiddity">Quiddity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haecceity" title="Haecceity">Haecceity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">Unmoved mover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_realist_philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Aristotelian realist philosophy of mathematics">Mathematical realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Works_of_Aristotle" title="Works of Aristotle">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Organon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Categories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Interpretation" title="On Interpretation">On Interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prior_Analytics" title="Prior Analytics">Prior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_Analytics" title="Posterior Analytics">Posterior Analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">Sophistical Refutations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)" title="Physics (Aristotle)">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens">On the Heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Generation_and_Corruption" title="On Generation and Corruption">On Generation and Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">On Animals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parts_of_Animals" title="Parts of Animals">Parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_of_Animals" title="Movement of Animals">Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progression_of_Animals" title="Progression of Animals">Progression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_of_Animals" title="Generation of Animals">Generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metaphysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Ethics</a> and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemian_Ethics" title="Eudemian Ethics">Eudemian Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Athenians_(Aristotle)" title="Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)">Constitution of the Athenians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric and poetics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)" title="Poetics (Aristotle)">Poetics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parva_Naturalia" title="Parva Naturalia">Parva Naturalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sense_and_Sensibilia_(Aristotle)" title="Sense and Sensibilia (Aristotle)">Sense and Sensibilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Memory" title="On Memory">On Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sleep" title="On Sleep">On Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Dreams" title="On Dreams">On Dreams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Divination_in_Sleep" title="On Divination in Sleep">On Divination in Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Length_and_Shortness_of_Life" title="On Length and Shortness of Life">On Length and Shortness of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Youth,_Old_Age,_Life_and_Death,_and_Respiration" title="On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration">On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protrepticus_(Aristotle)" title="Protrepticus (Aristotle)">Protrepticus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristotle" title="Pseudo-Aristotle">Pseudepigrapha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_Breath" title="On Breath">On Breath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Colors" title="On Colors">On Colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Plants" title="On Plants">On Plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Indivisible_Lines" title="On Indivisible Lines">On Indivisible Lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Melissus,_Xenophanes,_and_Gorgias" title="On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias">On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Universe" title="On the Universe">On the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Things_Heard" title="On Things Heard">On Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiognomonics" title="Physiognomonics">Physiognomonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Marvellous_Things_Heard" title="On Marvellous Things Heard">On Marvellous Things Heard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_(Aristotle)" title="Mechanics (Aristotle)">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problems_(Aristotle)" title="Problems (Aristotle)">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Situations_and_Names_of_Winds" title="The Situations and Names of Winds">The Situations and Names of Winds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Virtues_and_Vices" title="On Virtues and Vices">On Virtues and Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_(Aristotle)" title="Economics (Aristotle)">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Moralia" title="Magna Moralia">Magna Moralia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Followers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Peripatetic_school" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoxenus" title="Aristoxenus">Aristoxenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearchus_of_Soli" title="Clearchus of Soli">Clearchus of Soli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus of Rhodes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strato_of_Lampsacus" title="Strato of Lampsacus">Strato of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyco_of_Troas" title="Lyco of Troas">Lyco of Troas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristo_of_Ceos" title="Aristo of Ceos">Aristo of Ceos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critolaus" title="Critolaus">Critolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_of_Tyre" title="Diodorus of Tyre">Diodorus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erymneus" title="Erymneus">Erymneus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Rhodes" title="Andronicus of Rhodes">Andronicus of Rhodes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Islamic_Golden_Age" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Jewish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Jewish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Scholasticism" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lombard" title="Peter Lombard">Peter Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns 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