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id="toc-Epigenetic_regulation_of_gene_expression_in_15q11-13" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigenetic_regulation_of_gene_expression_in_15q11-13"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Epigenetic regulation of gene expression in 15q11-13</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epigenetic_regulation_of_gene_expression_in_15q11-13-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Folate-methionine_pathway_enzymes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folate-methionine_pathway_enzymes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Folate-methionine pathway enzymes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folate-methionine_pathway_enzymes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Valproate_exposure_as_a_histone_deacetylase_(HDAC)_inhibitor" 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id="toc-ASD_and_the_X_chromosome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_link_to_Rett_syndrome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_link_to_Rett_syndrome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>The link to Rett syndrome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_link_to_Rett_syndrome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_applications_of_epigenetic_research_to_treatment_of_ASD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_applications_of_epigenetic_research_to_treatment_of_ASD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Potential applications of epigenetic research to treatment of ASD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_applications_of_epigenetic_research_to_treatment_of_ASD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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The specific problem is: <b>References section is poorly formatted.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Epigenetics_of_autism" title="Special:EditPage/Epigenetics of autism">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2012</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Autism_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Autism spectrum">Autism spectrum</a> disorder (ASD) refers to a variety of conditions typically identified by challenges with social skills, communication, speech, and repetitive sensory-motor behaviors. The 11th <a href="/wiki/International_Classification_of_Diseases" title="International Classification of Diseases">International Classification of Diseases</a> (<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">ICD-11</a>), released in January 2021, characterizes ASD by the associated deficits in the ability to initiate and sustain two-way social communication and restricted or repetitive behavior unusual for the individual's age or situation.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although linked with early childhood, the symptoms can appear later as well. Symptoms can be detected before the age of two and experienced practitioners can give a reliable diagnosis by that age. However, official diagnosis may not occur until much older, even well into adulthood. There is a large degree of variation <i>in</i> how much support a person with ASD needs in day-to-day life. This can be classified by a further diagnosis of ASD level 1, level 2, or level 3. Of these, ASD level 3 describes people requiring very substantial support and who experience more severe symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ASD-related deficits in nonverbal and verbal social skills can result in impediments in personal, family, social, educational, and occupational situations. This disorder tends to have a strong correlation with genetics along with other factors. More research is identifying ways in which epigenetics is linked to autism. <a href="/wiki/Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a> generally refers to the ways in which chromatin structure is altered to affect gene expression. Mechanisms such as cytosine regulation and post-translational modifications of histones. Of the 215 genes contributing, to some extent in ASD, 42 have been found to be involved in epigenetic modification of gene expression.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of ASD signs are specific or repeated behaviors, enhanced sensitivity to materials, being upset by changes in routine, appearing to show reduced interest in others, avoiding <i>eye contact</i> and limitations in social situations, <i>as well as</i> verbal communication. When social interaction becomes more important, some whose condition might have been overlooked suffer social and other exclusion and are more likely to have coexisting mental and physical conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long-term problems include difficulties in daily living such as managing schedules, hypersensitivities (<i>e.g.,</i> to foods, noises, fabric textures, light), initiating and sustaining relationships, and maintaining jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diagnosis is based on observation of behavior and development. Many, especially girls and those who have fewer social difficulties, may have been misdiagnosed with other conditions. Males are diagnosed with ASD four to five times more often than females.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reasons for this remain predominantly unclear, but current hypotheses include a higher testosterone level in utero, different presentations of symptoms in females (leading to misdiagnosis or underdiagnosis) compared to males, and gender bias.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical assessment of children can involve a variety of individuals, including the caregiver(s), the child, and a core team of professionals (<a href="/wiki/Pediatrician" class="mw-redirect" title="Pediatrician">pediatricians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_psychiatrist" class="mw-redirect" title="Child psychiatrist">child psychiatrists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Speech%E2%80%93language_pathology" title="Speech–language pathology">speech-and-language therapists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">educational psychologists</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For adult diagnosis, clinicians identify neurodevelopmental history, behaviors, difficulties in communication, limited interests and problems in education, employment, and social relationships. Challenging behaviors may be assessed with <a href="/wiki/Functional_analysis_(psychology)" title="Functional analysis (psychology)">functional analysis</a> to identify the triggers causing them.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sex and gender disparity in ASD diagnostics requires further research in terms of adding diagnosis specifiers as well as female-oriented examples, which may be masked through camouflaging behaviors. Camouflaging is defined as a coping mechanism used in social situations, consisting of individuals pretending to be other people without any communication difficulties.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of camouflaging and other societal factors, females with ASD are more likely to be diagnosed late or with a different mental health concern. In general, it is critical for people to understand that the female ASD phenotype is less noticeable, especially when they present as "higher functioning" than others with ASD. Lastly, due to the imbalance in sexes participating in ASD studies, the literature is potentially biased towards the ways that it presents in male individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>ASD is considered a lifelong condition and has no "cure." Many professionals, advocates, and people in the autistic community agree that a cure is not the answer and efforts should instead focus on methods to help people with ASD have happier, healthier, and, if possible, independent lives.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Support efforts include teaching social and behavioral skills, monitoring, factoring-in co-existing conditions, and guidance for the caregivers, family, educators, and employers. There is no specific medication for ASD, however, drugs can be prescribed for other co-existing mental health conditions, such as anxiety. A study in 2019 found that the management of challenging behaviors was generally of low quality, with little support for long-term usage of psychotropic drugs, and concerns about their inappropriate prescription.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetic</a> research has improved the understanding of ASD-related <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">molecular pathways</a>. <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal research</a> has pointed to the reversibility of <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a> but the studies are at an early stage.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cortical_hyperexcitability_and_ASD">Cortical hyperexcitability and ASD</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Cortical hyperexcitability and ASD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the leading theories of a potential pathogenic process in ASD is <a href="/wiki/Cortex_(anatomy)" title="Cortex (anatomy)">cortical</a> hyperexcitability. Maintaining proper levels of cortical excitability is essential for many important cognitive functions, such as processing sensory information,<sup id="cite_ref-:8_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> communication between different regions of the brain, and <a href="/wiki/Neural_plasticity" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural plasticity">neural plasticity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hyperexcitability can disrupt these functions and thereby alter cognitive dynamism in important ways.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, cortical hyperexcitability can affect how the duration of sensory stimuli are perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common trait of ASD is reduced somatosensory functioning, which has been linked to alterations in cortical hyperexcitability in ASD individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cortical hyperexcitability can also alter how "old" and "new" stimuli are perceived by changing <a href="/wiki/Habituation" title="Habituation">habituation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neural_adaptation" title="Neural adaptation">adaptation</a> processes in the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Altered habituation processes have been linked to characteristic traits of ASD, such as under-responsiveness to some stimuli and over-responsiveness to others.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are many genetic and epigenetic factors that can contribute to increased excitability, but one of the mechanisms implicated in ASD is alterations in <a href="/wiki/GABAergic" title="GABAergic">GABAergic</a> systems in the cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gamma-Aminobutyric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma-Aminobutyric acid">GABA</a> is the main <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> implicated in inhibition in the cortex of mammalian brains;<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> changes to this cortical inhibitory system can result in increased excitability.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alterations in this system have been associated not only with ASD but also with several other psychiatric disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive disorder (MDD)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alterations in the GABAergic system can occur through several epigenetic mechanisms, including modification of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_15" title="Chromosome 15">chromosome 15q11 to q13</a> regions which cause reduced levels of GABA signaling.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_19-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grafodatskaya_2010_794–809_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grafodatskaya_2010_794–809-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cortical excitability can also be increased by modifications in the <a href="/wiki/Glutamatergic" title="Glutamatergic">glutamatergic</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:9_19-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chromosome_15q11-13_and_GABA_signaling">Chromosome 15q11-13 and GABA signaling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Chromosome 15q11-13 and GABA signaling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chromosome 15q11-13 contain genes encoding subunits of <a href="/wiki/GABA_receptor" title="GABA receptor">GABA receptors</a>, and both deletion and duplication of this region can lead to cortical hyperexcitability.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_duplication" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosome duplication">Duplications</a> of 15q11-13 are associated with about 5% of patients with ASD<sup id="cite_ref-Schanen_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schanen-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and about 1% of patients diagnosed with classical Autism.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogart3_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogart3-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 15q11-13 in humans contains a cluster of genetically <a href="/wiki/Imprinted_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Imprinted gene">imprinted genes</a> important for normal <a href="/wiki/Neurodevelopment" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurodevelopment">neurodevelopment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Grafodatskaya_2010_794–809_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grafodatskaya_2010_794–809-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cook_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like other genetically imprinted genes, the parent of origin determines the <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a> associated with 15q11-13 duplications.<sup id="cite_ref-Cook_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cook-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Parent of origin effects" cause gene expression to occur only from one of the two copies of <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> that individuals receive from their parents. (For example, <a href="/wiki/MKRN3" title="MKRN3">MKRN3</a> shows a parent of origin effect and is paternally imprinted. This means that only the MKRN3 allele received from the paternal side will be expressed.) Duplications in the maternal copy lead to a distinct condition that often includes autism.<sup id="cite_ref-Chromosome_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chromosome-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genes that are deficient in paternal or maternal 15q11-13 alleles result in <a href="/wiki/Prader-Willi_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Prader-Willi syndrome">Prader-Willi</a> or <a href="/wiki/Angelman_syndrome" title="Angelman syndrome">Angelman syndromes</a>, respectively, both of which are linked to high incidence of ASD.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chromosome_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chromosome-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Overexpression" class="mw-redirect" title="Overexpression">Overexpression</a> of maternally imprinted genes is predicted to cause autism, which focuses attention to the maternally expressed genes on 15q11-13, although it is still possible that alterations in the expression of both imprinted and bilallelically expressed genes contribute to these disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-Chromosome_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chromosome-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The commonly duplicated region of chromosome 15 also includes paternally imprinted genes that can be considered candidates for ASD. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="GABAA_receptor_genes_on_15q11-13">GABA<sub>A</sub> receptor genes on 15q11-13</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: GABAA receptor genes on 15q11-13"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Members of the GABA receptor family, especially GABRB3, are attractive candidate genes for Autism because of their function in the nervous system. <a href="/wiki/GABRB3" title="GABRB3">GABRB3</a> null mice exhibit behaviors consistent with autism<sup id="cite_ref-Klose_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klose-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and multiple genetic studies have found significant evidence for association.<sup id="cite_ref-Kriaucionis_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kriaucionis-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, a significant decrease in abundance of GABRB3 has been reported in the brains of patients with autism and Rett syndrome.<sup id="cite_ref-Pickles2_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickles2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other GABA receptors residing on different chromosomes have also been associated with autism (e.g. GABRA4 and GABRB1 on chromosome 4p).<sup id="cite_ref-Ma_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ma-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epigenetic_regulation_of_gene_expression_in_15q11-13">Epigenetic regulation of gene expression in 15q11-13</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Epigenetic regulation of gene expression in 15q11-13"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Regulation of gene expression in the 15q11-13 is rather complex and involves a variety of mechanisms such as <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation" title="DNA methylation">DNA methylation</a>, non-coding and <a href="/wiki/Anti-sense_RNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-sense RNA">anti-sense RNA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicholls_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicholls-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The imprinted genes of 15q11-13 are under the control of a common regulatory sequence, the <a href="/wiki/Imprinting_control_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Imprinting control region">imprinting control region</a> (ICR). The ICR is a differentially methylated CpG island at the 5' end of <a href="/wiki/SNRPN" class="mw-redirect" title="SNRPN">SNRPN</a>. It is heavily methylated on the silent maternal allele and unmethylated on the active paternal allele.<sup id="cite_ref-duplication2_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-duplication2-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/MeCP2" class="mw-redirect" title="MeCP2">MeCP2</a>, which is a candidate gene for <a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a>, has been shown to affect regulation of expression in 15q11-13. Altered (decreased) expression of UBE3A and GABRB3 is observed in MeCP2 deficient mice and ASD patients. This effect seems to happen without MeCP2 directly binding to the promoters of UBE3A and GABRB3. (Mechanism unknown)<sup id="cite_ref-Pickles2_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pickles2-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Chromatin_immunoprecipitation" title="Chromatin immunoprecipitation">chromatin immunoprecipitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bisulfite_sequencing" title="Bisulfite sequencing">bisulfite sequencing</a> have demonstrated that MeCP2 binds to methylated CpG sites within GABRB3 and the <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoter</a> of SNRPN/SNURF.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogart3_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogart3-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, homologous 15q11-13 pairing in neurons that is disrupted in RTT and autism patients, has been shown to depend on MeCP2.<sup id="cite_ref-gabaa_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gabaa-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Combined, these data suggest a role for MeCP2 in the regulation of imprinted and biallelic genes in 15q11-13. However, evidently, it does not play a role in the maintenance of imprinting.<sup id="cite_ref-Hogart3_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hogart3-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Folate-methionine_pathway_enzymes">Folate-methionine pathway enzymes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Folate-methionine pathway enzymes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One current theory of the pathophysiology of ASD is that it arises from a deficit in the folate-methionine pathway.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Folate donates methyl groups to convert homocysteine into methionine, which is the precursor of S-adenosylmethionine. S-adenosylmethionine is the methyl group donor responsible for DNA and histone methylation.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epigenetic changes can result in changed gene expression of pathway enzymes resulting in a change in folate levels which can contribute to ASD. These changes to the epigenetic regulation interact with the pregnant woman's immune system activation and can result in an ASD phenotype in the fetus' brain.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To add, low levels of folate in the pregnant woman are correlated with DNA hypomethylation in the fetus. </p><p>The gene MTHFR codes for the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Methylenetetrahydrofolate_reductase" title="Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase">methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase</a> which is necessary for the synthesis of 5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate, a biologically active form of folate<sup id="cite_ref-:5_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:10_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One important risk factor that has been identified for ASD is polymorphism in MTHFR. A meta-analysis demonstrated that polymorphism of the MTHFR C677T genotype is correlated with an ASD diagnosis in children from countries lacking <a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">food fortification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While MTHFR is a proposed genetic factor for ASD, there is limited clinical evidence from testing for MTHFR gene polymorphisms in the diagnostic setting.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason for these complications may be due to other modifiers of the folate metabolism pathway or other genes included in the pathway. Additionally, the levels of <a href="/wiki/Homocysteine" title="Homocysteine">homocysteine</a> (HCy) seem to result in an increased utility of the folate metabolism pathway as a predictor for ASD diagnosis.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Valproate_exposure_as_a_histone_deacetylase_(HDAC)_inhibitor"><span id="Valproate_exposure_as_a_histone_deacetylase_.28HDAC.29_inhibitor"></span>Valproate exposure as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Valproate exposure as a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the fetus is exposed to the mood stabilizer drug <a href="/wiki/Valproate" title="Valproate">valproate</a> (VPA), the risk of ASD as well as other developmental abnormalities (decreased intrauterine growth, <a href="/wiki/Spina_bifida" title="Spina bifida">spina bifida</a>, limb defects, craniofacial defects, etc.) is increased.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> VPA is an anticonvulsant drug commonly administered for generalized and partial seizures, but also for the treatment of migraines and bipolar mood disorder. Its mechanisms of action are varied, including enhanced GABA neurotransmission, modified <a href="/wiki/Inositol" title="Inositol">inositol</a> metabolism, and interaction with the ERK and Wnt/B-catenin signaling systems.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If taken while pregnant, the risk of ASD is 8.9% to 10.8%. When VPA and another antiepileptic drug are taken, the risk increases to 11.7%.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to the general population, this risk of ASD is 16 times higher.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently, there are two proposed epigenetic mechanisms for VPA increasing the risk in ASD: alteration in folate metabolism and HDAC inhibition. VPA is a weak HDAC inhibitor. The VPA model discerns the potential pathogenesis and mechanisms of action of ASD in animal models. HDAC inhibition is the most understood. In animal models, mice prenatally exposed to VPA had transient hyperacetylation of histones H3 and H4, decreased HDACs, and developed ASD-like symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, mice prenatally exposed to <a href="/wiki/Valpromide" title="Valpromide">valpromide</a>, analogous to VPA but not an HDAC inhibitor, did not experience transient hyperacetylation of histones H3 and H4 and did not develop ASD-like symptoms.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important thing to note is the time of VPA. In the animal models, the significant effects of VPA in causing ASD-like symptoms was demonstrated mainly in rats exposed to VPA on gestation day 12.5, not in other gestation days like day 9, 14.5, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ASD-like symptoms of mice included decreased distressed pup calls, decreased social exploration, decreased social behaviors, increased stereotypic <i>locomotion</i>, decreased acoustic <a href="/wiki/Prepulse_inhibition" title="Prepulse inhibition">prepulse inhibition</a>, and increased sensitivity to non-painful stimuli.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This same association was replicated in the longitudinal studies. Children prenatally exposed to VPA or with fetal valproate syndrome (FVS) have a higher prevalence of ASD. FVS is a rare condition in children that happens due to VPA exposure during the first trimester of pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Romidepsin" title="Romidepsin">Romidepsin</a> and MS-275, both HDAC inhibitors, improve social preference, which is the preference of social stimuli over non social stimuli, and interaction times of SHANK 3 deficient mice. <a href="/wiki/Trichostatin_A" title="Trichostatin A">Trichostatin A</a> (TSA) is another example of an HDAC inhibitor. It results in increased histone acetylation at the oxytocin and vasopressin receptors of the nucleus accumbens (NA) in female voles, increasing pair bonding. In a small clinical trial, beta hydroxybutyrate, a product of the <a href="/wiki/Ketogenic_diet" title="Ketogenic diet">ketogenic diet</a> and inhibitor of class 1 HDACs, has shown promise in improving the social behavior and skills in children with ASD.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>'The inhibition of HDAC is correlated with overexpression of other genes.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treatment of mice with valproate also increases hippocampal histone H3 acetylation.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Current candidate genes relating to ASD in mice exposed to valproate <i>in utero</i> are NRXN1, NRXN2, NRXN3, NLGN1, NLGN2, and NLGN3. In the somatosensory cortex, CA1, dentate gyrus, and hippocampus, NLGN3 is significantly downregulated in mice treated with valproate.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this evidence of NLGN3 downregulation due to valproate suggests a potential relevant mechanism for ASD, further research is needed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genes_linked_to_ASD_and_other_disorders">Genes linked to ASD and other disorders</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Genes linked to ASD and other disorders"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phelan-McDermid_syndrome,_schizophrenia,_and_ASD"><span id="Phelan-McDermid_syndrome.2C_schizophrenia.2C_and_ASD"></span>Phelan-McDermid syndrome, schizophrenia, and ASD</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phelan-McDermid syndrome, schizophrenia, and ASD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>SHANK proteins are scaffolding proteins at glutamatergic synapses crucial for synaptic development. The disruption of SHANK genes is associated with neurocognitive impairments and disorders. The disruptions, either from mutations or deletions, are associated with disorders such as <a href="/wiki/22q13_deletion_syndrome" title="22q13 deletion syndrome">Phelan-McDermid syndrome</a> (PMS), schizophrenia, and ASD. SHANK 3 is the most studied gene from the SHANK gene family. Several studies have found that disruptions to SHANK 3 cause more severe cognitive impairments than disruptions to SHANK 1 or 2. These findings suggest that the SHANK gene that is disrupted may determine the severity of the cognitive impairments.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A study on two mutant mice lines, one line with an ASD-linked SHANK 3 mutation on exon 21 and the other with a schizophrenia-linked SHANK 3 mutation on exon 21, found differences in the synaptic and behavioral impairments caused by disruptions to SHANK 3. The ASD-linked mutation results in a complete loss of SHANK 3 (like a deletion) and impaired striatal synaptic transmission. The schizophrenia-linked mutation results in a truncated SHANK 3 protein and severe synaptic impairments in the prefrontal cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other studies suggest that SHANK3 knockout mice display behavioral phenotypes of ASD. These mice display self-injurious grooming, anxiety, and social deficits. Restoration of SHANK 3 in adult mice improved social deficits and self-grooming behaviors. These findings indicate the potential therapeutic effect of restoring SHANK 3. SHANK 3 restoration may alleviate some symptoms of ASD. In addition, modulators and proteins associated with SHANK 3 are potential therapeutic targets for ASD. However, the effects of targeting modulators differ depending on the specific SHANK 3 disruption. For instance, studies have shown that increasing mGluR5 activity improved self grooming and behavioral deficits. Yet, other studies have shown the opposite effect. This demonstrates that the therapeutic effects are dependent on specific SHANK 3 mutation.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ASD_and_the_X_chromosome">ASD and the X chromosome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: ASD and the X chromosome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a definite <a href="/wiki/Gender_bias" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender bias">gender bias</a> in the distribution of ASD. There are about four times as many affected males across the ASD population. Even when patients with mutations in <a href="/wiki/X-linked_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="X-linked gene">X-linked genes</a> (<a href="/wiki/MECP2" title="MECP2">MECP2</a> and <a href="/wiki/FMR1" title="FMR1">FMR1</a>) are excluded, the gender bias remains. However, when only looking at patients with the most severe cognitive impairment, the gender bias is not as extreme. While the most obvious conclusion is that an X-linked gene of major effect is involved in contributing to ASD, the mechanism appears to be much more complex and perhaps epigenetic in origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Schanen_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schanen-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based on the results of a study on females with <a href="/wiki/Turner_syndrome" title="Turner syndrome">Turner syndrome</a>, a hypothesis involving epigenetic mechanisms was proposed to help describe the gender bias of ASD. Turner syndrome patients have only one X chromosome which can be either maternal or paternal in origin. When 80 females with <a href="/wiki/Monosomy" title="Monosomy">monosomy</a> X were tested for measures of social cognition, the patients with a paternally derived X chromosome performed better than those with a maternally derived X chromosome. Males have only one X chromosome, derived from their mother. If a gene on the paternal X chromosome confers improved social skills, males are deficient in the gene. This could explain why males are more likely to be diagnosed with ASD.<sup id="cite_ref-Skuse_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skuse-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the proposed model, the candidate gene is silenced on the maternal copy of the X chromosome. Thus, males do not express this gene and are more susceptible to subsequent impairments in social and communication skills. Females, on the other hand, are more resistant to ASD.<sup id="cite_ref-Imprinting_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imprinting-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-abd_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-abd-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Telvi_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Telvi-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donnelly_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donnelly-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently a cluster of imprinted genes on the mouse X chromosome was discovered; the paternal allele was expressed while the female copy was imprinted and silenced.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Raefski_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raefski-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further studies are aimed at discovering whether these genes contribute directly to behavior and whether the counterpart genes in humans are imprinted.<sup id="cite_ref-Schanen_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schanen-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_link_to_Rett_syndrome">The link to Rett syndrome</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The link to Rett syndrome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Epigenetic alterations of the methylation states of genes such as <a href="/wiki/MECP2" title="MECP2">MECP2</a> and <a href="/wiki/EGR2" title="EGR2">EGR2</a> have been shown to play a role in autism and autism spectrum disorders. MECP2 abnormalities have been shown to lead to a wide range of phenotypic variability and molecular complexities.<sup id="cite_ref-Percy_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Percy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These variabilities have led to the exploration of the clinical and molecular convergence between <a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a> and autism.<sup id="cite_ref-Percy_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Percy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sleeping_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleeping disorder">Sleeping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Language_disorder" title="Language disorder">language impairments</a>, seizures, and developmental timing are common in both autism and Rett syndrome (RTT). Because of these phenotypic similarities, there has been research into the specific genetic similarities between these two pervasive developmental disorders. MECP2 has been identified as the predominant gene involved in RTT. It has also been shown that the regulation of the MECP2 gene expression has been implicated in autism.<sup id="cite_ref-Nagarajan_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nagarajan-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rett syndrome brain samples and autism brain samples show immaturity of <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">dendrite spines</a> and reduction of cell-body size due to errors in coupled regulation between MECP2 and EGR2.<sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because of the multigene involvement in autism, the MECP2 gene has only been identified as a vulnerability factor in autism.<sup id="cite_ref-Shahbazian_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shahbazian-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most current model illustrating MECP2 is known as the transcriptional activator model. </p><p>Another potential molecular convergence involves the <a href="/wiki/EGR2" title="EGR2">early growth response gene-2</a> (EGR2).<sup id="cite_ref-Percy_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Percy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EGR2 is the only gene in the EGR family that is restricted to the central nervous system and is involved in <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex#Development" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral development</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Percy_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Percy-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> EGR2 expression has been shown to decrease in the cortexes of individuals with both autism and RTT.<sup id="cite_ref-Swanberg_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swanberg-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MECP2 expression has also been shown to decrease in individuals with RTT and autism. MECP2 and EGR2 have been shown to regulate each other during <a href="/wiki/Neural_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural development">neuronal maturation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Swanberg_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swanberg-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A role for the dysregulation of the activity-dependent EGR2/MECP2 pathway in RTT and autism has been proposed.<sup id="cite_ref-Swanberg_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swanberg-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further molecular linkages are being examined; however, the exploration of MECP2 and EGR2 have provided a common link between RTT, autism, and similarities in phenotypic expression. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Potential_applications_of_epigenetic_research_to_treatment_of_ASD">Potential applications of epigenetic research to treatment of ASD</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Potential applications of epigenetic research to treatment of ASD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Folate pathways have been studied to be potential predictors of ASD. A few genetic polymorphisms such as folate hydrolase 1 and hydroxymethyltransferase 1 along with <a href="/wiki/Hyperhomocysteinemia" title="Hyperhomocysteinemia">hyperhomocysteinemia</a> were used as risk factors to develop an <a href="/wiki/Artificial_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial neural network">artificial neural network</a> (ANN). Studies showed that this model was around 63.8% accurate in predicting ASD risk, implying a moderate association between genetic polymorphisms of the folate pathway and autism risk.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> *8* </p><p>The most important methyl donor for DNA methylation is 5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate. Consequently, any changes in folate levels or folate metabolism could significantly impact DNA methylation and contribute to what causes autism. This idea is what makes folate pathways a potential predictor of ASD because genetic <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphisms</a> of the folate pathway could have different effects on DNA methylation. In general, lower folate levels in pregnant women have been associated with increased ASD risk. The effect of enhancing folate levels on the symptoms of ASD are still being researched and have yet to be confirmed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news/item/18-06-2018-who-releases-new-international-classification-of-diseases-(icd-11)">"WHO releases new International Classification of Diseases (ICD 11)"</a>. <i>www.who.int</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89042-554-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89042-554-1"><bdi>978-0-89042-554-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042815534">1042815534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diagnostic+and+statistical+manual+of+mental+disorders%3A+DSM-5.&rft.place=Arlington%2C+VA&rft.pub=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1042815534&rft.isbn=978-0-89042-554-1&rft.au=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft.au=American+Psychiatric+Association&rft.au=DSM-5+Task+Force&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1042815534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigenetics+of+autism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWisniowiecka-Kowalnik2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wisniowiecka-Kowalnik, Barbara (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6373410">"Genetics and Epigenetics of Autism Spectrum Disorders- Current Evidence in the Field"</a>. <i>Journal of Applied Genetics</i>. <b>60</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">37–</span>47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13353-018-00480-w">10.1007/s13353-018-00480-w</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6373410">6373410</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30627967">30627967</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Applied+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genetics+and+Epigenetics+of+Autism+Spectrum+Disorders-+Current+Evidence+in+the+Field&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6373410%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30627967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs13353-018-00480-w&rft.aulast=Wisniowiecka-Kowalnik&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6373410&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigenetics+of+autism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCDC2020" class="citation web cs1">CDC (2020-03-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/screening.html">"Screening and Diagnosis | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD"</a>. <i>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Y.; Cheng, Ho Yu (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpcn.12606">"Genetics and epigenetics of autism: A Review: Genetics and epigenetics of autism"</a>. <i>Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences</i>. <b>72</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">228–</span>244. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fpcn.12606">10.1111/pcn.12606</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28941239">28941239</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206257210">206257210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatry+and+Clinical+Neurosciences&rft.atitle=Genetics+and+epigenetics+of+autism%3A+A+Review%3A+Genetics+and+epigenetics+of+autism&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E228-%3C%2Fspan%3E244&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206257210%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28941239&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fpcn.12606&rft.aulast=Waye&rft.aufirst=Mary+M.+Y.&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Ho+Yu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fpcn.12606&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEpigenetics+of+autism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epigenetics_of_autism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLaSalle,_J.M.Hogart,_A.Thatcher,_K.N.2005" class="citation journal cs1">LaSalle, J.M.; Hogart, A. & Thatcher, K.N. (2005). 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_autism" title="Causes of autism">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diagnosis_of_autism" title="Diagnosis of autism">Diagnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_autism" title="Epidemiology of autism">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Epigenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability_of_autism" title="Heritability of autism">Heritability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_autism" title="History of autism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_and_memory" title="Autism and memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathophysiology_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathophysiology of autism">Pathophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Sex and gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_and_cultural_aspects_of_autism" title="Societal and cultural aspects of autism">Societal and cultural aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_therapies" title="Autism therapies">Therapies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diagnoses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder" title="Pervasive developmental disorder">Pervasive developmental disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classic_autism" title="Classic autism">Autistic disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asperger_syndrome" title="Asperger syndrome">Asperger syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pervasive_developmental_disorder_not_otherwise_specified" title="Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified">Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_disintegrative_disorder" title="Childhood disintegrative disorder">Childhood disintegrative disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-functioning_autism" title="High-functioning autism">High-functioning autism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Associated conditions<br />and phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexithymia" title="Alexithymia">Alexithymia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_and_LGBTQ_identities" title="Autism and LGBTQ identities">Autism and LGBTQ identities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_burnout" title="Autistic burnout">Autistic burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_catatonia" title="Autistic catatonia">Autistic catatonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_masking" title="Autistic masking">Autistic masking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_meltdown" title="Autistic meltdown">Autistic meltdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echolalia" title="Echolalia">Echolalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echopraxia" title="Echopraxia">Echopraxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_dysregulation" title="Emotional dysregulation">Emotional dysregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperlexia" title="Hyperlexia">Hyperlexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infodumping" title="Infodumping">Infodumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_talker" title="Late talker">Late talker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotropism" title="Monotropism">Monotropism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_autism" title="Nonverbal autism">Nonverbal autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathological_demand_avoidance" title="Pathological demand avoidance">Pathological demand avoidance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronoun_reversal" title="Pronoun reversal">Pronoun reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savant_syndrome" title="Savant syndrome">Savant syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_interest_(autism)" title="Special interest (autism)">Special interests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimming" title="Stimming">Stimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_overload" title="Sensory overload">Sensory overload</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conditions_comorbid_to_autism" title="Conditions comorbid to autism">Comorbid conditions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avoidant/restrictive_food_intake_disorder" title="Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder">Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">Anxiety disorder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obsessive%E2%80%93compulsive_disorder" title="Obsessive–compulsive disorder">obsessive–compulsive disorder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_coordination_disorder" title="Developmental coordination disorder">Developmental coordination disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">Epilepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">Sensory processing disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_developmental_delay" title="Global developmental delay">Global developmental delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_verbal_dyspraxia" title="Developmental verbal dyspraxia">Developmental verbal dyspraxia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Syndromic_autism" title="Syndromic autism">Associated syndromes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/22q13_deletion_syndrome" title="22q13 deletion syndrome">22q13 deletion syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angelman_syndrome" title="Angelman syndrome">Angelman syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CHARGE_syndrome" title="CHARGE syndrome">CHARGE syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohen_syndrome" title="Cohen syndrome">Cohen syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelia_de_Lange_syndrome" title="Cornelia de Lange syndrome">Cornelia de Lange syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DiGeorge_syndrome" title="DiGeorge syndrome">DiGeorge syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetal_valproate_spectrum_disorder" title="Fetal valproate spectrum disorder">Fetal valproate spectrum disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MECP2_duplication_syndrome" title="MECP2 duplication syndrome">MECP2 duplication syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurofibromatosis_type_I" title="Neurofibromatosis type I">Neurofibromatosis type I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noonan_syndrome" title="Noonan syndrome">Noonan syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_hamartoma_syndrome" title="Multiple hamartoma syndrome">Multiple hamartoma syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Lemli%E2%80%93Opitz_syndrome" title="Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome">Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_syndrome" title="Timothy syndrome">Timothy syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberous_sclerosis" title="Tuberous sclerosis">Tuberous sclerosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_syndrome" title="Williams syndrome">Williams syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_rights_movement" title="Autism rights movement">Autism rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_autism_studies" title="Critical autism studies">Critical autism studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_empathy_problem" title="Double empathy problem">Double empathy problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_of_autistic_people" title="Employment of autistic people">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_complex_developmental_disorder" title="Multiple complex developmental disorder">Multiple complex developmental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_and_Education_of_Autistic_and_Related_Communication_Handicapped_Children" title="Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children">TEACCH program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twice_exceptional" title="Twice exceptional">Twice exceptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_and_autism" title="Violence and autism">Violence and autism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Controversies_in_autism" title="Controversies in autism">Controversies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancet_MMR_autism_fraud" title="Lancet MMR autism fraud">Lancet MMR autism fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism" title="MMR vaccine and autism">MMR vaccine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiomersal_and_vaccines" title="Thiomersal and vaccines">Thiomersal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combating_Autism_Act" title="Combating Autism Act">Combating Autism Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_supremacism" title="Autistic supremacism">Autistic supremacism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diagnostic scales</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Diagnostic_Interview" title="Autism Diagnostic Interview">Autism Diagnostic Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Diagnostic_Observation_Schedule" title="Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule">Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_Autism_Rating_Scale" title="Childhood Autism Rating Scale">Childhood Autism Rating Scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilliam_Asperger%27s_disorder_scale" title="Gilliam Asperger's disorder scale">Gilliam Asperger's disorder scale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Screening scales</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism-spectrum_quotient" title="Autism-spectrum quotient">Autism-spectrum quotient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_Autism_Spectrum_Test" title="Childhood Autism Spectrum Test">Childhood Autism Spectrum Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritvo_Autism_and_Asperger_Diagnostic_Scale" title="Ritvo Autism and Asperger Diagnostic Scale">Ritvo Autism and Asperger Diagnostic Scale</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_autism" title="Outline of autism">Autism-related topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_autistic_fictional_characters" title="List of autistic fictional characters">Fictional characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_for_people_on_the_autism_spectrum" title="List of schools for people on the autism spectrum">Schools</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accommodations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism-friendly" title="Autism-friendly">Autism-friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curb_cut_effect" title="Curb cut effect">Curb cut effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_design" title="Inclusive design">Inclusive design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity_and_labor_rights" title="Neurodiversity and labor rights">Neurodiversity and labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_friendly" title="Sensory friendly">Sensory friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supported_employment" title="Supported employment">Supported employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_design" title="Universal design">Universal design</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Autism" title="Category:Autism">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Autism_resources172" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Autism_resources" title="Template:Autism resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Autism_resources" title="Template talk:Autism resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Autism_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Autism resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Autism_resources172" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a> resources</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism" title="Autism">Autism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_autism" title="Outline of autism">outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_autism" title="History of autism">history</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awareness</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism-friendly" title="Autism-friendly">Autism-friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Sunday" title="Autism Sunday">Autism Sunday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_Shutdown" title="Communication Shutdown">Communication Shutdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Autism_Awareness_Day" title="World Autism Awareness Day">World Autism Awareness Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Societal_and_cultural_aspects_of_autism" title="Societal and cultural aspects of autism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_art" title="Autistic art">Autistic art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_in_popular_culture" title="Autism in popular culture">Autism in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_autistic_fictional_characters" title="List of autistic fictional characters">Fictional characters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_autism" title="List of films about autism">Films about autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_Friends_(disabled_care)" title="Circle of Friends (disabled care)">Circle of Friends</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accommodations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_friendly" title="Sensory friendly">Sensory friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KultureCity" title="KultureCity">KultureCity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Therapies0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Autism_therapies" title="Autism therapies">Therapies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Psychotropic medication (<a href="/wiki/Antipsychotic" title="Antipsychotic">antipsychotics</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aripiprazole" title="Aripiprazole">Aripiprazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risperidone" title="Risperidone">Risperidone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Behavioral</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_trial_training" title="Discrete trial training">Discrete trial training</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ole_Ivar_Lovaas" title="Ole Ivar Lovaas">Lovaas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picture_exchange_communication_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Picture exchange communication system">Picture exchange communication system</a> (PECS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pivotal_response_treatment" title="Pivotal response treatment">Pivotal response treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_behavior_support" title="Positive behavior support">Positive behavior support</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Start_Denver_Model" title="Early Start Denver Model">Early Start Denver Model</a> (ESDM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">Cognitive behavioral therapy</a> (CBT)</li> <li>Social skills training</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Developmental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Floortime" title="Floortime">Floortime</a> (<a href="/wiki/PLAY_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="PLAY Project">PLAY Project</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Controversial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_behavior_analysis" title="Applied behavior analysis">Applied behavior analysis</a> (ABA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auditory_integration_training" title="Auditory integration training">Auditory integration training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aversion_therapy" title="Aversion therapy">Aversion therapy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judge_Rotenberg_Center" title="Judge Rotenberg Center">Judge Rotenberg Center</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation of mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluten-free,_casein-free_diet" title="Gluten-free, casein-free diet">Gluten-free, casein-free diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hug_machine" title="Hug machine">Hug machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_oxygen_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric oxygen therapy">Hyperbaric oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holding_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Holding therapy">Holding therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relationship_development_intervention&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Relationship development intervention (page does not exist)">Relationship development intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretin" title="Secretin">Secretin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_integration_therapy" title="Sensory integration therapy">Sensory integration therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son-Rise" title="Son-Rise">Son-Rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">Vitamin B12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder#Medication" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">ADHD medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapy" title="Occupational therapy">Occupational therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Stories" title="Social Stories">Social Stories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Speech therapy">Speech therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_serotonin_reuptake_inhibitor" title="Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor">Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_and_Education_of_Autistic_and_Related_Communication_Handicapped_Children" title="Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication Handicapped Children">Structured teaching (TEACCH)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Centers0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Centers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Science_in_Autism_Treatment" title="Association for Science in Autism Treatment">Association for Science in Autism Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Research_Institute" title="Autism Research Institute">Autism Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Science_Foundation" title="Autism Science Foundation">Autism Science Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_Krieger_Institute" title="Kennedy Krieger Institute">Kennedy Krieger Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_for_Autism_Research" title="National Alliance for Autism Research">National Alliance for Autism Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simons_Foundation_Autism_Research_Initiative" title="Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative">Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yale_Child_Study_Center" title="Yale Child Study Center">Yale Child Study Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Research_Centre" title="Autism Research Centre">Autism Research Centre</a> (UK)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_autism#Conditions_and_research_areas" title="Outline of autism">Conditions and research areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_autism#Researchers_and_therapists" title="Outline of autism">Researchers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Therapy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Autism_and_Related_Disorders" title="Center for Autism and Related Disorders">Center for Autism and Related Disorders</a> (CARD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MIND_Institute" title="MIND Institute">MIND Institute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_for_people_on_the_autism_spectrum" title="List of schools for people on the autism spectrum">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_Learning_Group" title="Alpine Learning Group">Alpine Learning Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_II_School_for_Autistic_Children" title="Eden II School for Autistic Children">Eden II School for Autistic Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ESPA_College" title="ESPA College">ESPA College</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_Minds" title="Exceptional Minds">Exceptional Minds</a> (USA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England_Center_for_Children" title="New England Center for Children">New England Center for Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathlight_School" title="Pathlight School">Pathlight School</a> (Singapore)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_School" title="Rebecca School">Rebecca School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunfield_Children%27s_Home" title="Sunfield Children's Home">Sunfield Children's Home</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TreeHouse_School" title="TreeHouse School">TreeHouse School</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Autistic_School" title="Western Autistic School">Western Autistic School</a> (Australia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Organizations0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organizations</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_rights_movement" title="Autism rights movement">Autism rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrong_Planet" title="Wrong Planet">Wrong Planet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Network_International" title="Autism Network International">Autism Network International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Science_Foundation" title="Autism Science Foundation">Autism Science Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_Self_Advocacy_Network" title="Autistic Self Advocacy Network">Autistic Self Advocacy Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Society_of_America" title="Autism Society of America">Autism Society of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Speaks" title="Autism Speaks">Autism Speaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centro_Ponce%C3%B1o_de_Autismo" title="Centro Ponceño de Autismo">Centro Ponceño de Autismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Jordan_Fiddle_Foundation" title="Daniel Jordan Fiddle Foundation">Daniel Jordan Fiddle Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_Rescue" title="Generation Rescue">Generation Rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_Autism_Network" title="Interactive Autism Network">Interactive Autism Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interagency_Autism_Coordinating_Committee" title="Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee">Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LENA_Foundation" title="LENA Foundation">LENA Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_for_Autism_Research" title="National Alliance for Autism Research">National Alliance for Autism Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_on_Severe_Autism" title="National Council on Severe Autism">National Council on Severe Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Database_for_Autism_Research" title="National Database for Autism Research">National Database for Autism Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Autism_Community_in_Action" title="The Autism Community in Action">The Autism Community in Action</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centro_Ann_Sullivan_del_Per%C3%BA" title="Centro Ann Sullivan del Perú">Centro Ann Sullivan</a> (Peru)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domus_Instituto_de_Autismo" title="Domus Instituto de Autismo">Domus Instituto de Autismo</a> (Mexico)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_for_Autism" title="Action for Autism">Action for Autism</a> (India)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Resource_Centre_(Singapore)" title="Autism Resource Centre (Singapore)">Autism Resource Centre (Singapore)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_Society_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Autistic Society of Trinidad and Tobago">Autistic Society of Trinidad and Tobago</a> (Trinidad and Tobago)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maia_Chung_Autism_and_Disabilities_Foundation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maia Chung Autism and Disabilities Foundation (page does not exist)">Maia Chung Autism and Disabilities Foundation</a> (Jamaica)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="UK2" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">UK</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Anglia" title="Autism Anglia">Autism Anglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Autism_Directory" title="The Autism Directory">The Autism Directory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Awareness_Campaign_UK" title="Autism Awareness Campaign UK">Autism Awareness Campaign UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Cymru" title="Autism Cymru">Autism Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Plus" title="Autism Plus">Autism Plus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistica" title="Autistica">Autistica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Autistic_Society" title="National Autistic Society">National Autistic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacar_(charity)" title="Sacar (charity)">Sacar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Specialisterne" title="Specialisterne">Specialisterne</a> (Denmark)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspies_For_Freedom" title="Aspies For Freedom">Aspies For Freedom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luke_Priddis_Foundation" title="Luke Priddis Foundation">Luke Priddis Foundation</a> (Australia)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Literature0" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Accidental_Teacher:_Life_Lessons_from_My_Silent_Son" class="mw-redirect" title="The Accidental Teacher: Life Lessons from My Silent Son">The Accidental Teacher: Life Lessons from My Silent Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Translation" title="Animals in Translation">Animals in Translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspergirls:_Empowering_Females_with_Asperger%27s_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspergirls: Empowering Females with Asperger's Syndrome">Aspergirls: Empowering Females with Asperger's Syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism%27s_False_Prophets" title="Autism's False Prophets">Autism's False Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_Love:_Autism" title="Extreme Love: Autism">Extreme Love: Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freaks,_Geeks,_and_Asperger_Syndrome:_A_User_Guide_to_Adolescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Freaks, Geeks, and Asperger Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence">Freaks, Geeks, and Asperger Syndrome: A User Guide to Adolescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_a_Different_Key" title="In a Different Key">In a Different Key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life,_Animated" title="Life, Animated">Life, Animated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Like_Colour_to_the_Blind" title="Like Colour to the Blind">Like Colour to the Blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Look_Me_in_the_Eye" title="Look Me in the Eye">Look Me in the Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Warriors" title="Mother Warriors">Mother Warriors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/My_Autobiography_(Miedzianik)" class="mw-redirect" title="My Autobiography (Miedzianik)">My Autobiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NeuroTribes" title="NeuroTribes">NeuroTribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobody_Nowhere" title="Nobody Nowhere">Nobody Nowhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Reason_I_Jump" title="The Reason I Jump">The Reason I Jump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somebody_Somewhere_(book)" title="Somebody Somewhere (book)">Somebody Somewhere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son-Rise:_The_Miracle_Continues" title="Son-Rise: The Miracle Continues">Son-Rise: The Miracle Continues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_Son" title="Strange Son">Strange Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switched_On_(book)" title="Switched On (book)">Switched On</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unstrange_Minds" title="Unstrange Minds">Unstrange Minds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Curious_Incident_of_the_Dog_in_the_Night-Time" title="The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time">The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dear_John_(novel)" title="Dear John (novel)">Dear John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_Rules_(novel)" title="House Rules (novel)">House Rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mockingbird_(Erskine_novel)" title="Mockingbird (Erskine novel)">Mockingbird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saving_Max" title="Saving Max">Saving Max</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_Dark" title="Speed of Dark">Speed of Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Winter_Journey_(novel)" title="The Winter Journey (novel)">The Winter Journey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/With_the_Light" title="With the Light">With the Light</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">For younger people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Everybody_Is_Different:_A_Book_for_Young_People_Who_Have_Brothers_or_Sisters_With_Autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Everybody Is Different: A Book for Young People Who Have Brothers or Sisters With Autism">Everybody Is Different: A Book for Young People Who Have Brothers or Sisters With Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian%27s_Walk:_A_Story_about_Autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ian's Walk: A Story about Autism">Ian's Walk: A Story about Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcelo_in_the_Real_World" title="Marcelo in the Real World">Marcelo in the Real World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rage:_A_Love_Story" title="Rage: A Love Story">Rage: A Love Story</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_(novel)" title="Rules (novel)">Rules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autism_(journal)" title="Autism (journal)">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_in_Adulthood" title="Autism in Adulthood">Autism in Adulthood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Research" title="Autism Research">Autism Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Autism_and_Developmental_Disorders" title="Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders">Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_Autism" title="Molecular Autism">Molecular Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_in_Autism_Spectrum_Disorders" title="Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders">Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: 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