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href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Evolution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Co-evolution_with_modern_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Co-evolution_with_modern_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Co-evolution with modern humans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Co-evolution_with_modern_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antibiotic_resistance_(ABR)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antibiotic_resistance_(ABR)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Antibiotic resistance (ABR) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antibiotic_resistance_(ABR)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Host_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Host_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Host genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Host_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-DNA_repair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#DNA_repair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 DNA repair </div> </a> <ul id="toc-DNA_repair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vaccine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaccine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Vaccine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaccine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" > 48 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%9B%E1%8B%AD%E1%8A%AE%E1%89%A3%E1%8A%AD%E1%89%B4%E1%88%AA%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9D_%E1%89%B1%E1%89%A0%E1%88%AD%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%8E%E1%88%B2%E1%88%B5" title="ማይኮባክቴሪየም ቱበርክሎሲስ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ማይኮባክቴሪየም ቱበርክሎሲስ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="متفطرة سلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="متفطرة سلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8" title="মাইকোব্যাক্টেরিয়াম টিউবারকিউলোসিস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মাইকোব্যাক্টেরিয়াম টিউবারকিউলোসিস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacil_de_Koch" title="Bacil de Koch – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bacil de Koch" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberkuloosi_m%C3%BCkobakter" title="Tuberkuloosi mükobakter – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuberkuloosi mükobakter" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="مایکوباکتریوم توبرکلوزیس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مایکوباکتریوم توبرکلوزیس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%B0%ED%95%B5%EA%B7%A0" title="결핵균 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="결핵균" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8" title="माइकोबैक्टीरियम ट्यूबर्क्युलोसिस – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="माइकोबैक्टीरियम ट्यूबर्क्युलोसिस" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberkulozes_mikobakt%C4%93rija" title="Tuberkulozes mikobaktērija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tuberkulozes mikobaktērija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="മൈക്കോബാക്റ്റീരിയം ട്യൂബർകുലോസിസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മൈക്കോബാക്റ്റീരിയം ട്യൂബർകുലോസിസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87" title="متفطره سليه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="متفطره سليه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E6%A0%B8%E8%8F%8C" title="結核菌 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="結核菌" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberkelbakterie" title="Tuberkelbakterie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tuberkelbakterie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%B2" title="مائکروبیکٹیریم ٹیوبرکلوزز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مائکروبیکٹیریم ٹیوبرکلوزز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%BA%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%84" title="ជំងឺរបេង – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ជំងឺរបេង" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C4%85tek_gru%C5%BAlicy" title="Prątek gruźlicy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prątek gruźlicy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacili_i_tuberkulozit" title="Bacili i tuberkulozit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Bacili i tuberkulozit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Species of pathogenic bacteria that causes tuberculosis</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the bacterium. For the infection, see <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)">Mycobacterium tuberculosis </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:TB_Culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TB_Culture.jpg/220px-TB_Culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TB_Culture.jpg/330px-TB_Culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TB_Culture.jpg/440px-TB_Culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="466" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">M. tuberculosis colonies </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Mycobacterium" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota">Actinomycetota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Actinomycetia" title="Actinomycetia">Actinomycetia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mycobacteriales" title="Mycobacteriales">Mycobacteriales</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Family: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mycobacteriaceae" title="Mycobacteriaceae">Mycobacteriaceae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genus: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">Mycobacterium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Species: </td> <td><div style="display:inline" class="species">M. tuberculosis</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center">Mycobacterium tuberculosis <div style="font-size: 85%;">Zopf 1883</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> Tubercle bacillus <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Koch</a> 1882 </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cavitary_tuberculosis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cavitary_tuberculosis.jpg/220px-Cavitary_tuberculosis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cavitary_tuberculosis.jpg/330px-Cavitary_tuberculosis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Cavitary_tuberculosis.jpg/440px-Cavitary_tuberculosis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>M. tuberculosis in the lungs, showing large cavities the bacteria have dissolved</figcaption></figure> Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb), also known as Koch's bacillus, is a species of <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogenic bacteria</a> in the family <a href="/wiki/Mycobacteriaceae" title="Mycobacteriaceae">Mycobacteriaceae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Causative_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Causative agent">causative agent</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gordon_&_Parish,_2018-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sherris-2">[2]</a> First discovered in 1882 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>, M. tuberculosis has an unusual, waxy coating on its cell surface primarily due to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Mycolic_acid" title="Mycolic acid">mycolic acid</a>. This coating makes the cells impervious to <a href="/wiki/Gram_staining" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram staining">Gram staining</a>, and as a result, M. tuberculosis can appear weakly Gram-positive.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Acid-fastness" title="Acid-fastness">Acid-fast</a> stains such as <a href="/wiki/Ziehl%E2%80%93Neelsen_stain" title="Ziehl–Neelsen stain">Ziehl–Neelsen</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescent</a> stains such as <a href="/wiki/Auramine_O" title="Auramine O">auramine</a> are used instead to identify M. tuberculosis with a microscope. The physiology of M. tuberculosis is highly <a href="/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">aerobic</a> and requires high levels of oxygen. Primarily a pathogen of the mammalian <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">respiratory system</a>, it infects the lungs. The most frequently used diagnostic methods for tuberculosis are the <a href="/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">tuberculin skin test</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acid-Fast_Stain" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-Fast Stain">acid-fast stain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sherris-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a> The M. tuberculosis <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> was <a href="/wiki/Sequenced" class="mw-redirect" title="Sequenced">sequenced</a> in 1998.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Microbiology">Microbiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Microbiology">edit</a>]</div> M. tuberculosis <a href="/wiki/Obligate_aerobe" title="Obligate aerobe">requires oxygen to grow</a>, and is <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">nonmotile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10934532-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> It divides every 18–24 hours. This is extremely slow compared with other bacteria, which tend to have division times measured in minutes (<a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> can divide roughly every 20 minutes). It is a small <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_(shape)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacillus (shape)">bacillus</a> that can withstand weak <a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">disinfectants</a> and can survive in a dry state for weeks. Its unusual cell wall, rich in <a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">lipids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Mycolic_acid" title="Mycolic acid">mycolic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cord_factor" title="Cord factor">cord factor</a> <a href="/wiki/Glycolipid" title="Glycolipid">glycolipid</a>, is likely responsible for its resistance to <a href="/wiki/Desiccation_tolerance" title="Desiccation tolerance">desiccation</a> and is a key <a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">virulence factor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopy">Microscopy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Microscopy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M.tuberculosis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/M.tuberculosis.jpg/220px-M.tuberculosis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/M.tuberculosis.jpg/330px-M.tuberculosis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/M.tuberculosis.jpg/440px-M.tuberculosis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="958" /></a><figcaption>Growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis on Löwenstein-Jensen (A) and Ogawa medium (B), after six weeks at 37°C. </figcaption></figure> Other bacteria are commonly identified with a microscope by staining them with <a href="/wiki/Gram_staining" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram staining">Gram stain</a>. However, the mycolic acid in the cell wall of M. tuberculosis does not absorb the stain. Instead, acid-fast stains such as <a href="/wiki/Ziehl%E2%80%93Neelsen_stain" title="Ziehl–Neelsen stain">Ziehl–Neelsen stain</a>, or fluorescent stains such as <a href="/wiki/Auramine_O" title="Auramine O">auramine</a> are used.<a href="#cite_note-:0-4">[4]</a> Cells are curved rod-shaped and are often seen wrapped together, due to the presence of fatty acids in the cell wall that stick together.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> This appearance is referred to as cording, like strands of cord that make up a rope.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> M. tuberculosis is characterized in tissue by caseating <a href="/wiki/Granulomas" class="mw-redirect" title="Granulomas">granulomas</a> containing <a href="/wiki/Langhans_giant_cell" title="Langhans giant cell">Langhans giant cells</a>, which have a "horseshoe" pattern of nuclei.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slant_tubes_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Jensen_medium_with_control,_M_tuberculosis,_M_avium_and_M_gordonae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Slant_tubes_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Jensen_medium_with_control%2C_M_tuberculosis%2C_M_avium_and_M_gordonae.jpg/130px-Slant_tubes_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Jensen_medium_with_control%2C_M_tuberculosis%2C_M_avium_and_M_gordonae.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Slant_tubes_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Jensen_medium_with_control%2C_M_tuberculosis%2C_M_avium_and_M_gordonae.jpg/195px-Slant_tubes_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Jensen_medium_with_control%2C_M_tuberculosis%2C_M_avium_and_M_gordonae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Slant_tubes_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Jensen_medium_with_control%2C_M_tuberculosis%2C_M_avium_and_M_gordonae.jpg/260px-Slant_tubes_of_L%C3%B6wenstein-Jensen_medium_with_control%2C_M_tuberculosis%2C_M_avium_and_M_gordonae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Slant tubes of Löwenstein-Jensen medium. From left to right:<div><ul><li style="margin-bottom: 0">Negative control</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0">M. tuberculosis: Dry-appearing colonies</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium_complex" title="Mycobacterium avium complex">Mycobacterium avium complex</a>: Wet-appearing colonies</li><li style="margin-bottom: 0"><a href="/wiki/M._gordonae" class="mw-redirect" title="M. gordonae">M. gordonae</a>: Yellowish colonies</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mycobacteria_Growth_Indicator_Tube_(MGIT)_samples_in_ultraviolet_light.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mycobacteria_Growth_Indicator_Tube_%28MGIT%29_samples_in_ultraviolet_light.jpg/150px-Mycobacteria_Growth_Indicator_Tube_%28MGIT%29_samples_in_ultraviolet_light.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mycobacteria_Growth_Indicator_Tube_%28MGIT%29_samples_in_ultraviolet_light.jpg/225px-Mycobacteria_Growth_Indicator_Tube_%28MGIT%29_samples_in_ultraviolet_light.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mycobacteria_Growth_Indicator_Tube_%28MGIT%29_samples_in_ultraviolet_light.jpg/300px-Mycobacteria_Growth_Indicator_Tube_%28MGIT%29_samples_in_ultraviolet_light.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mycobacteria_growth_indicator_tube" title="Mycobacteria growth indicator tube">Mycobacteria growth indicator tube</a> samples emitting fluorescence in ultraviolet light</figcaption></figure> M. tuberculosis can be grown in the laboratory. Compared to other commonly studied bacteria, M. tuberculosis has a remarkably slow growth rate, doubling roughly once per day. Commonly used <a href="/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">media</a> include liquids such as <a href="/wiki/Middlebrook_7H9_Broth" title="Middlebrook 7H9 Broth">Middlebrook 7H9</a> or 7H12, egg-based solid media such as <a href="/wiki/L%C3%B6wenstein%E2%80%93Jensen_medium" title="Löwenstein–Jensen medium">Lowenstein-Jensen</a>, and solid agar-based such as <a href="/wiki/Middlebrook_7H11_Agar" title="Middlebrook 7H11 Agar">Middlebrook 7H11</a> or <a href="/wiki/Middlebrook_7H10_Agar" title="Middlebrook 7H10 Agar">7H10</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-8">[8]</a> Visible colonies require several weeks to grow on agar plates. <a href="/wiki/Mycobacteria_growth_indicator_tube" title="Mycobacteria growth indicator tube">Mycobacteria growth indicator tubes</a> can contain a gel that emits fluorescent light if mycobacteria are grown. It is distinguished from other mycobacteria by its production of <a href="/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Niacin_(substance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niacin (substance)">niacin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Other tests to confirm its identity include <a href="/wiki/Gene_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene probe">gene probes</a> and <a href="/wiki/MALDI-TOF" class="mw-redirect" title="MALDI-TOF">MALDI-TOF</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology">Morphology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Morphology">edit</a>]</div> Analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis via <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscope</a> shows the bacteria are 2.71±1.05 μm in length with an average diameter of 0.345±0.029 μm.<a href="#cite_note-:10-15">[15]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">outer membrane</a> and plasma membrane surface areas were measured to be 3.04±1.33 µm2 and 2.67±1.19 µm2, respectively. The cell, outer membrane, periplasm, plasma membrane, and cytoplasm volumes were 0.293±0.113 fl (= μm3), 0.006±0.003 fl, 0.060±0.021 fl, 0.019±0.008 fl, and 0.210±0.091 fl, respectively. The average total <a href="/wiki/Ribosome_recycling_factor" title="Ribosome recycling factor">ribosome</a> number was 1672±568 with ribosome density about 716.5±171.4/(0.1 fl).<a href="#cite_note-:10-15">[15]</a> <table class="wikitable floatcenter"> <caption>M. tb morphology summary<a href="#cite_note-:10-15">[15]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Feature </th> <th>Magnitude </th></tr> <tr> <td>Length </td> <td>2.71 ± 1.05μm </td></tr> <tr> <td>Outer membrane surface area </td> <td>3.04 ± 1.33 μm2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cell volume </td> <td>0.293 ± 0.113 fl (= μm3) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_Mycobacterium_species">Related Mycobacterium species</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Related Mycobacterium species">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_complex" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex">Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex</a></div> M. tuberculosis is part of a genetically related group of Mycobacterium species that has at least 9 members: <ul><li>M. tuberculosis<a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a> sensu stricto</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_africanum" title="Mycobacterium africanum">M. africanum</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_canettii" title="Mycobacterium canettii">M. canettii</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_bovis" title="Mycobacterium bovis">M. bovis</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_caprae" title="Mycobacterium caprae">M. caprae</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_microti" title="Mycobacterium microti">M. microti</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_pinnipedii" title="Mycobacterium pinnipedii">M. pinnipedii</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_mungi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mycobacterium mungi (page does not exist)">M. mungi</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_orygis" title="Mycobacterium orygis">M. orygis</a><a href="#cite_note-van_Ingen2012-16">[16]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology">edit</a>]</div> Humans are the only known reservoirs of M. tuberculosis. A misconception is that M. tuberculosis can be spread by shaking hands, making contact with toilet seats, sharing food or drink, or sharing toothbrushes. However, major spread is through <a href="/wiki/Air_droplets" class="mw-redirect" title="Air droplets">air droplets</a> originating from a person who has the disease either coughing, sneezing, speaking, or singing.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> When in the lungs, M. tuberculosis is <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosed</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage" title="Alveolar macrophage">alveolar macrophages</a>, but they are unable to kill and digest the bacterium. Its cell wall is made of <a href="/wiki/Cord_factor" title="Cord factor">cord factor</a> glycolipids that inhibit the fusion of the <a href="/wiki/Phagosome" title="Phagosome">phagosome</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Lysosome" title="Lysosome">lysosome</a>, which contains a host of antibacterial factors.<a href="#cite_note-pmid8975927-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-10">[10]</a> Specifically, M. tuberculosis blocks the bridging molecule, early endosomal autoantigen 1 (<a href="/wiki/EEA1" title="EEA1">EEA1</a>); however, this blockade does not prevent fusion of vesicles filled with nutrients. In addition, production of the diterpene <a href="/wiki/Isotuberculosinol" title="Isotuberculosinol">isotuberculosinol</a> prevents maturation of the phagosome.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The bacteria also evades macrophage-killing by neutralizing reactive nitrogen intermediates.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> More recently, M. tuberculosis has been shown to secrete and cover itself in 1-tuberculosinyladenosine (1-TbAd), a special <a href="/wiki/Nucleoside" title="Nucleoside">nucleoside</a> that acts as an <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">antacid</a>, allowing it to neutralize pH and induce swelling in lysosomes.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-22">[22]</a> In M. tuberculosis infections, <a href="/wiki/PPM1A" title="PPM1A">PPM1A</a> levels were found to be upregulated, and this, in turn, would impact the normal apoptotic response of macrophages to clear pathogens, as PPM1A is involved in the intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways. Hence, when PPM1A levels were increased, the expression of it inhibits the two apoptotic pathways.<a href="#cite_note-Schaaf_2017-23">[23]</a> With kinome analysis, the <a href="/wiki/JNK/AP-1_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="JNK/AP-1 pathway">JNK/AP-1 signalling pathway</a> was found to be a downstream effector that PPM1A has a part to play in, and the apoptotic pathway in macrophages are controlled in this manner.<a href="#cite_note-Schaaf_2017-23">[23]</a> As a result of having apoptosis being suppressed, it provides M. tuberculosis with a safe replicative niche, and so the bacteria are able to maintain a latent state for a prolonged time.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23841514-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Granuloma" title="Granuloma">Granulomas</a>, organized aggregates of immune cells, are a hallmark feature of tuberculosis infection. Granulomas play dual roles during infection: they regulate the immune response and minimize tissue damage, but also can aid in the expansion of infection.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The ability to construct M. tuberculosis mutants and test individual gene products for specific functions has significantly advanced the understanding of its <a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">pathogenesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virulence_factors" class="mw-redirect" title="Virulence factors">virulence factors</a>. Many secreted and exported proteins are known to be important in pathogenesis.<a href="#cite_note-WooldridgeK-30">[30]</a> For example, one such virulence factor is <a href="/wiki/Cord_factor" title="Cord factor">cord factor</a> (trehalose dimycolate), which serves to increase survival within its host. Resistant strains of M. tuberculosis have developed resistance to more than one TB drug, due to mutations in their genes. In addition, pre-existing first-line TB drugs such as rifampicin and streptomycin have decreased efficiency in clearing <a href="/wiki/Intracellular_parasite" title="Intracellular parasite">intracellular</a> M. tuberculosis due to their inability to effectively penetrate the macrophage niche.<a href="#cite_note-Schaaf_2016-31">[31]</a> JNK plays a key role in the control of apoptotic pathways—intrinsic and extrinsic. In addition, it is also found to be a substrate of PPM1A activity,<a href="#cite_note-Takekawa_19989-32">[32]</a> hence the phosphorylation of JNK would cause apoptosis to occur.<a href="#cite_note-Dhanasekaran_2008-33">[33]</a> Since PPM1A levels are elevated during M. tuberculosis infections, by inhibiting the PPM1A signalling pathways, it could potentially be a therapeutic method to kill M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages by restoring its normal apoptotic function in defence of pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-Schaaf_2017-23">[23]</a> By targeting the PPM1A-JNK signalling axis pathway, then, it could eliminate M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages.<a href="#cite_note-Schaaf_2017-23">[23]</a> The ability to restore macrophage apoptosis to M. tuberculosis-infected ones could improve the current tuberculosis chemotherapy treatment, as TB drugs can gain better access to the bacteria in the niche.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> thus decreasing the treatment times for M. tuberculosis infections. Symptoms of M. tuberculosis include coughing that lasts for more than three weeks, <a href="/wiki/Hemoptysis" title="Hemoptysis">hemoptysis</a>, chest pain when breathing or coughing, weight loss, fatigue, fever, night sweats, chills, and loss of appetite. M. tuberculosis also has the potential of spreading to other parts of the body. This can cause blood in urine if the kidneys are affected, and back pain if the spine is affected.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strain_variation">Strain variation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Strain variation">edit</a>]</div> Typing of strains is useful in the investigation of tuberculosis outbreaks, because it gives the investigator evidence for or against transmission from person to person. Consider the situation where person A has tuberculosis and believes he acquired it from person B. If the bacteria isolated from each person belong to different types, then transmission from B to A is definitively disproven; however, if the bacteria are the same strain, then this supports (but does not definitively prove) the hypothesis that B infected A.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Until the early 2000s, M. tuberculosis strains were typed by <a href="/wiki/Pulsed_field_gel_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsed field gel electrophoresis">pulsed field gel electrophoresis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> This has now been superseded by <a href="/wiki/Variable_number_tandem_repeat" title="Variable number tandem repeat">variable numbers of tandem repeats</a> (VNTR), which is technically easier to perform and allows better discrimination between strains. This method makes use of the presence of repeated <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> sequences within the M. tuberculosis genome.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Three generations of VNTR typing for M. tuberculosis are noted. The first scheme, called exact tandem repeat, used only five loci,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> but the resolution afforded by these five loci was not as good as PFGE. The second scheme, called mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit, had discrimination as good as PFGE.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The third generation (mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit – 2) added a further nine loci to bring the total to 24. This provides a degree of resolution greater than PFGE and is currently the standard for typing M. tuberculosis.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> However, with regard to archaeological remains, additional evidence may be required because of possible contamination from related soil bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Antibiotic resistance in M. tuberculosis typically occurs due to either the accumulation of mutations in the genes targeted by the antibiotic or a change in titration of the drug.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> M. tuberculosis is considered to be multidrug-resistant (MDR TB) if it has developed drug resistance to both rifampicin and isoniazid, which are the most important antibiotics used in treatment. Additionally, extensively drug-resistant M. tuberculosis (XDR TB) is characterized by resistance to both isoniazid and rifampin, plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs (i.e., amikacin, kanamycin, or capreomycin).<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_Ziehl-Neelsen_stain_640.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_Ziehl-Neelsen_stain_640.jpg/220px-Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_Ziehl-Neelsen_stain_640.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_Ziehl-Neelsen_stain_640.jpg/330px-Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_Ziehl-Neelsen_stain_640.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_Ziehl-Neelsen_stain_640.jpg/440px-Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_Ziehl-Neelsen_stain_640.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>M. tuberculosis (stained red) in tissue (blue)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chording_mycobacterium_tuberculesis_culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Chording_mycobacterium_tuberculesis_culture.jpg/220px-Chording_mycobacterium_tuberculesis_culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Chording_mycobacterium_tuberculesis_culture.jpg/330px-Chording_mycobacterium_tuberculesis_culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Chording_mycobacterium_tuberculesis_culture.jpg/440px-Chording_mycobacterium_tuberculesis_culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1258" /></a><figcaption>Cording M. tuberculosis (H37Rv strain) culture on the luminescent microscopy</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genome">Genome</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Genome">edit</a>]</div> The genome of the <a href="/wiki/H37Rv" title="H37Rv">H37Rv</a> strain was published in 1998.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Its size is 4 million base pairs, with 3,959 genes; 40% of these genes have had their function characterized, with possible function postulated for another 44%. Within the genome are also six <a href="/wiki/Pseudogene" title="Pseudogene">pseudogenes</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Fatty acid metabolism. The genome contains 250 genes involved in <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acid</a> metabolism, with 39 of these involved in the <a href="/wiki/Polyketide" title="Polyketide">polyketide</a> metabolism generating the waxy coat. Such large numbers of conserved genes show the evolutionary importance of the waxy coat to pathogen survival. Furthermore, experimental studies have since validated the importance of a lipid metabolism for M. tuberculosis, consisting entirely of host-derived lipids such as fats and cholesterol. Bacteria isolated from the lungs of infected mice were shown to preferentially use fatty acids over carbohydrate substrates.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> M. tuberculosis can also grow on the lipid <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> as a sole source of carbon, and genes involved in the cholesterol use pathway(s) have been validated as important during various stages of the infection lifecycle of M. tuberculosis, especially during the chronic phase of infection when other nutrients are likely not available.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> PE/PPE gene families. About 10% of the coding capacity is taken up by the PE/PPE gene families that encode acidic, glycine-rich proteins. These proteins have a conserved N-terminal motif, deletion of which impairs growth in macrophages and granulomas.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Noncoding RNAs. <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_sRNA" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis sRNA">Nine noncoding sRNAs</a> have been characterised in M. tuberculosis,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> with a further 56 predicted in a <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> screen.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Antibiotic resistance genes. In 2013, a study on the genome of several sensitive, ultraresistant, and multiresistant M. tuberculosis strains was made to study antibiotic resistance mechanisms. Results reveal new relationships and drug resistance genes not previously associated and suggest some genes and intergenic regions associated with drug resistance may be involved in the resistance to more than one drug. Noteworthy is the role of the intergenic regions in the development of this resistance, and most of the genes proposed in this study to be responsible for drug resistance have an essential role in the development of M. tuberculosis.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Epigenome. <a href="/wiki/Single-molecule_real-time_sequencing" title="Single-molecule real-time sequencing">Single-molecule real-time sequencing</a> and subsequent bioinformatic analysis has identified three <a href="/wiki/DNA_methyltransferase" title="DNA methyltransferase">DNA methyltransferases</a> in M. tuberculosis, Mycobacterial Adenine Methyltransferases A (MamA),<a href="#cite_note-:11-52">[52]</a> B (MamB),<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> and C (MamC).<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> All three are <a href="/wiki/DNA_adenine_methylase" title="DNA adenine methylase">adenine methyltransferases</a>, and each are functional in some clinical strains of M. tuberculosisand not in others.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> Unlike DNA methyltransferases in most bacteria, which invariably methylate the <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">adenines</a> at their targeted sequence,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> some strains of M. tuberculosis carry mutations in MamA that cause partial methylation of targeted adenine bases.<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> This occurs as intracellular stochastic methylation, where a some targeted adenine bases on a given DNA molecule are methylated while others remain unmethylated.<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> MamA mutations causing intercellular mosaic methylation are most common in the globally successful Beijing sublineage of M. tuberculosis.<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> Due to the influence of methylation on gene expression at some locations in the genome,<a href="#cite_note-:11-52">[52]</a> it has been hypothesized that IMM may give rise to phenotypic diversity, and partially responsible for the global success of Beijing sublineage.<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evolution">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_complex" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex">M. tuberculosis complex</a> evolved in Africa and most probably in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Blouin2012-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Comes_et._al.-59">[59]</a> In addition to M. tuberculosis, the <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_complex" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex">M. tuberculosis complex</a> (MTBC) has a number of members infecting various animal species, these include M. africanum, M. bovis (Dassie's bacillus), M. caprae, M. microti, M. mungi, M. orygis, and M. pinnipedii. This group may also include the M. canettii clade. These animal strains of MTBC do not strictly deserve species status, as they are all closely related and embedded in the M. tuberculosis phylogeny, but for historic reasons, they currently hold species status.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The M. canettii clade – which includes M. prototuberculosis – is a group of smooth-colony Mycobacterium species. Unlike the established members of the M. tuberculosis group, they undergo recombination with other species. The majority of the known strains of this group have been isolated from the Horn of Africa. The ancestor of M. tuberculosis appears to be M. canettii, first described in 1969.<a href="#cite_note-Blouin2014-60">[60]</a> The established members of the M. tuberculosis complex are all clonal in their spread. The main human-infecting species have been classified into seven lineages. Translating these lineages into the terminology used for spoligotyping, a very crude genotyping methodology, lineage 1 contains the <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East African</a>-<a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> (EAI), the Manila family of strains and some Manu (Indian) strains; lineage 2 is the <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> group; lineage 3 includes the <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asian</a> (CAS) strains; lineage 4 includes the <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a> (H/T), <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> (LAM) and X strains; types 5 and 6 correspond to M. africanum and are observed predominantly and at high frequencies in <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>. A seventh type has been isolated from the Horn of Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Blouin2012-58">[58]</a> The other species of this complex belong to a number of spoligotypes and do not normally infect humans.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Lineages 2, 3 and 4 all share a unique deletion event (tbD1) and thus form a monophyletic group.<a href="#cite_note-Galagan_307–320-61">[61]</a> Types 5 and 6 are closely related to the animal strains of MTBC, which do not normally infect humans. Lineage 3 has been divided into two clades: CAS-Kili (found in <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>) and CAS-Delhi (found in India and <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Lineage 4 is also known as the Euro-American lineage. Subtypes within this type include Latin American Mediterranean, Uganda I, Uganda II, Haarlem, X, and Congo.<a href="#cite_note-Malm2017-62">[62]</a> A much cited study reported that M. tuberculosis has co-evolved with human populations, and that the <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">most recent common ancestor</a> of the M. tuberculosis complex evolved between 40,000 and 70,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Wirth2008-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Galagan_307–320-61">[61]</a> However, a later study that included genome sequences from M. tuberculosis complex members extracted from three 1,000-year-old Peruvian mummies, came to quite different conclusions. If the <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">most recent common ancestor</a> of the M. tuberculosis complex were 40,000 to 70,000 years old, this would necessitate an evolutionary rate much lower than any estimates produced by genomic analyses of heterochronous samples, suggesting a far more recent common ancestor of the M. tuberculosis complex as little as 6000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Eldholm_et_al-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> An analysis of over 3000 strains of M. bovis from 35 countries suggested an Africa origin for this species.<a href="#cite_note-Loiseau2020-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Co-evolution_with_modern_humans">Co-evolution with modern humans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Co-evolution with modern humans">edit</a>]</div> There are currently two narratives existing in parallel regarding the age of <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis_complex" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex">MTBC</a> and how it has spread and co-evolved with humans through time. One study compared the M. tuberculosis phylogeny to a human mitochondrial genome phylogeny and interpreted these as being highly similar. Based on this, the study suggested that M. tuberculosis, like humans, evolved in Africa and subsequently spread with anatomically modern humans out of Africa across the world. By calibrating the mutation rate of M. tuberculosis to match this narrative, the study suggested that MTBC evolved 40,000–70,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Comes_et._al.-59">[59]</a> Applying this time scale, the study found that the M. tuberculosis <a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> expanded during the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Demographic_Transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic Demographic Transition">Neolithic Demographic Transition</a> (around 10,000 years ago) and suggested that M. tuberculosis was able to adapt to changing human populations and that the historical success of this pathogen was driven at least in part by dramatic increases in human host population density. It has also been demonstrated that after emigrating from one continent to another, a human host's region of origin is predictive of which TB lineage they carry,<a href="#cite_note-pmid16477032-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid15041743-68">[68]</a> which could reflect either a stable association between host populations and specific M. tuberculosis lineages and/or social interactions that are shaped by shared cultural and geographic histories. Regarding the congruence between human and M. tuberculosis phylogenies, a study relying on M. tuberculosis and human <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a> DNA sequences to formally assess the correlation between them, concluded that they are not congruent.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Also, a more recent study which included genome sequences from M. tuberculosis complex members extracted from three 1,000-year-old Peruvian mummies, estimated that the <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">most recent common ancestor</a> of the M. tuberculosis complex lived only 4,000 – 6,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a> The M. tuberculosis evolutionary rate estimated by the Bos et al. study<a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a> is also supported by a study on Lineage 4 relying on genomic <a href="/wiki/Ancient_DNA" title="Ancient DNA">aDNA</a> sequences from Hungarian mummies more than 200 years old.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In total, the evidence thus favors this more recent estimate of the age of the MTBC most recent common ancestor, and thus that the global evolution and dispersal of M. tuberculosis has occurred over the last 4,000–6,000 years.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Among the seven recognized lineages of M. tuberculosis, only two are truly global in their distribution: Lineages 2 and 4. Among these, Lineage 4 is the most well dispersed, and almost totally dominates in the Americas. Lineage 4 was shown to have evolved in or in the vicinity of Europe, and to have spread globally with Europeans starting around the 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-:3-72">[72]</a> This study also found that Lineage 4 tuberculosis spread to the Americas shortly after the European discovery of the continent in 1492, and suggests that this represented the first introduction of human TB on the continent (although animal strains have been found in human remains predating Columbus.<a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a> Similarly, Lineage 4 was found to have spread from Europe to Africa during the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, starting in the early 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-:3-72">[72]</a> It has been suggested that ancestral mycobacteria may have infected early hominids in East Africa as early as three million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16201017-73">[73]</a> DNA fragments from M. tuberculosis and tuberculosis disease indications were present in human bodies dating from 7000 BC found at <a href="/wiki/Atlit-Yam" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlit-Yam">Atlit-Yam</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antibiotic_resistance_(ABR)">Antibiotic resistance (ABR)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Antibiotic resistance (ABR)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ganfeborole" title="Ganfeborole">the experimental antibiotic Ganfeborole</a></div> M. tuberculosis is a clonal organism and does not exchange DNA via <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. Despite an additionally slow evolution rate, the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance in M. tuberculosis poses an increasing threat to global public health.<a href="#cite_note-Eldholm_&_Balloux-75">[75]</a> In 2019, the WHO reported the estimated incidence of antibiotic resistant TB to be 3.4% in new cases, and 18% in previously treated cases.<a href="#cite_note-:5-76">[76]</a> Geographical discrepancies exist in the incidence rates of drug-resistant TB. Countries facing the highest rates of ABR TB China, India, Russia, and South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-:5-76">[76]</a> Recent trends reveal an increase in drug-resistant cases in a number of regions, with Papua New Guinea, Singapore, and Australia undergoing significant increases.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is characterised by resistance to at least the two front-line drugs <a href="/wiki/Isoniazid" title="Isoniazid">isoniazid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rifampin" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifampin">rifampin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-76">[76]</a> MDR is associated with a relatively poor treatment success rate of 52%. Isoniazid and rifampin resistance are tightly linked, with 78% of the reported rifampin-resistant TB cases in 2019 being resistant to isoniazid as well.<a href="#cite_note-:5-76">[76]</a> Rifampin-resistance is primarily due to resistance-conferring mutations in the rifampin-resistance determining region (RRDR) within the rpoB gene.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> The most frequently observed mutations of the codons in RRDR are 531, 526 and 516. However, alternative more elusive resistance-conferring mutations have been detected. Isoniazid function occurs through the inhibition of mycolic acid synthesis through the NADH-dependent enoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP)-reductase.<a href="#cite_note-:6-80">[80]</a> This is encoded by the inhA gene. As a result, isoniazid resistance is primarily due to mutations within inhA and the KatG gene or its promoter region - a catalase peroxidase which is required to activate Isoniazid.<a href="#cite_note-:6-80">[80]</a> As MDR in M. tuberculosis becomes increasingly common, the emergence of pre-extensively drug resistant (pre-XDR) and extensively drug resistant (XDR-) TB threatens to exacerbate the public health crisis. XDR-TB is characterised by resistance to both rifampin and Isoniazid, as well second-line fluoroquinolones and at least one additional front-line drug.<a href="#cite_note-:5-76">[76]</a> Thus, the development of alternative therapeutic measures is of utmost priority.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] An intrinsic contributor to the antibiotic resistant nature of M. tuberculosis is its unique cell wall. Saturated with long-chain fatty acids or mycolic acids, the mycobacterial cell presents a robust, relatively insoluble barrier.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> This has led to its synthesis being the target of many antibiotics - such as Isoniazid. However, resistance has emerged to the majority of them. A novel, promising therapeutic target is mycobacterial membrane protein large 3 (MmpL3).<a href="#cite_note-:7-82">[82]</a> The mycobacterial membrane protein large (MmpL) proteins are transmembrane proteins which play a key role in the synthesis of the cell wall and the transport of the associated lipids. Of these, MmpL3 is essential; knock-out of which has been shown to be bactericidal.<a href="#cite_note-:7-82">[82]</a> Due to its essential nature, MmpL3 inhibitors show promise as alternative therapeutic measures in the age of antibiotic resistance. Inhibition of MmpL3 function showed an inability to transport trehalose monomycolate - an essential cell wall lipid - across the plasma membrane.<a href="#cite_note-:7-82">[82]</a> The recently reported structure of MmpL3 revealed resistance-conferring mutations to associate primarily with the transmembrane domain.<a href="#cite_note-:8-83">[83]</a> Although resistance to pre-clinical MmpL3 inhibitors has been detected, analysis of the widespread mutational landscape revealed a low level of environmental resistance.<a href="#cite_note-:8-83">[83]</a> This suggests that MmpL3 inhibitors currently undergoing clinical trials would face little resistance if made available. Additionally, the ability of many MmpL3 inhibitors to work synergistically with other antitubercular drugs presents a ray of hope in combatting the TB crisis.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Host_genetics">Host genetics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Host genetics">edit</a>]</div> The nature of the host-pathogen interaction between humans and M. tuberculosis is considered to have a genetic component. A group of rare disorders called Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial diseases was observed in a subset of individuals with a genetic defect that results in increased susceptibility to mycobacterial infection.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Early case and twin studies have indicated that genetic components are important in host susceptibility to M. tuberculosis. Recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified three genetic risk loci, including at positions 11p13 and 18q11.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> As is common in GWAS, the variants discovered have moderate effect sizes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="DNA_repair">DNA repair</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: DNA repair">edit</a>]</div> As an <a href="/wiki/Intracellular_parasite" title="Intracellular parasite">intracellular pathogen</a>, M. tuberculosis is exposed to a variety of DNA-damaging assaults, primarily from host-generated antimicrobial toxic radicals. Exposure to reactive oxygen species and/or reactive nitrogen species causes different types of DNA damage including oxidation, depurination, methylation, and deamination that can give rise to single- and double-strand breaks (DSBs). DnaE2 polymerase is upregulated in M. tuberculosis by several DNA-damaging agents, as well as during infection of mice.<a href="#cite_note-Boshoff-87">[87]</a> Loss of this DNA polymerase reduces the virulence of M. tuberculosis in mice.<a href="#cite_note-Boshoff-87">[87]</a> DnaE2 is an error-prone DNA repair polymerase that appears to contribute to M. tuberculosis survival during infection. The two major pathways employed in repair of DSBs are <a href="/wiki/Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombinational</a> repair (HR) and <a href="/wiki/Nonhomologous_end_joining" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhomologous end joining">nonhomologous end joining</a> (NHEJ). Macrophage-internalized M. tuberculosis is able to persist if either of these pathways is defective, but is attenuated when both pathways are defective.<a href="#cite_note-Brzostek-88">[88]</a> This indicates that intracellular exposure of M. tuberculosis to reactive oxygen and/or reactive nitrogen species results in the formation of DSBs that are repaired by HR or NHEJ.<a href="#cite_note-Brzostek-88">[88]</a> However deficiency of DSB repair does not appear to impair M. tuberculosis virulence in animal models.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24842925-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_tuberculosis" title="History of tuberculosis">History of tuberculosis</a></div> M. tuberculosis, then known as the "<a href="/wiki/Tubercle_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubercle (anatomy)">tubercle</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacillus" title="Bacillus">bacillus</a>", was first described on 24 March 1882 by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>, who subsequently received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> for this discovery in 1905; the bacterium is also known as "Koch's bacillus".<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> M. tuberculosis has existed throughout history, but the name has changed frequently over time. In 1720, though, the history of tuberculosis started to take shape into what is known of it today; as the physician <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Marten" title="Benjamin Marten">Benjamin Marten</a> described in his A Theory of Consumption, tuberculosis may be caused by small living creatures transmitted through the air to other patients.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vaccine">Vaccine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vaccine">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/BCG_vaccine" title="BCG vaccine">BCG vaccine</a> (bacille Calmette-Guerin), which was derived from M. bovis, while effective against childhood and severe forms of tuberculosis, has limited success in preventing the most common form of the disease today, adult pulmonary tuberculosis.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Because of this, it is primarily used in high tuberculosis incidence regions, and is not a recommended vaccine in the United States due to the low risk of infection. To receive this vaccine in the United States, an individual is required to go through a consultation process with an expert in M. tuberculosis and is only given to those who meet the specific criteria.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Administration of the BCG vaccine has been shown to induced so called "<a href="/wiki/Trained_immunity" title="Trained immunity">trained immunity</a>", which refers to the enhanced response of the innate immune system.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immunity</a>, trained immunity involves long-lasting changes in innate immune cells like monocytes and macrophages, which become more responsive to infections. These changes occur through <a href="/wiki/Epigenetic_reprogramming" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigenetic reprogramming">epigenetic reprogramming</a>, such as histone modifications, leading to increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Research indicates there may be a correlation between BCG vaccination and better immune response to <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The DNA vaccine can be used alone or in combination with BCG. DNA vaccines have enough potential to be used with TB treatment and reduce the treatment time in future.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philip_D%27Arcy_Hart" title="Philip D'Arcy Hart">Philip D'Arcy Hart</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mycobacterium_tuberculosis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gordon_&_Parish,_2018-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Gordon_&_Parish,_2018_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGordonParish2018" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon SV, Parish T (April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.000601">"Microbe Profile: Mycobacterium tuberculosis: Humanity's deadly microbial foe"</a>. 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Retrieved 14 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kyodo+News%2B&rft.atitle=Tuberculosis+vaccine+drawing+attention+in+fight+against+coronavirus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.kyodonews.net%2Fnews%2F2020%2F04%2F3cd4a913c3cf-tuberculosis-vaccine-drawing-attention-in-fight-against-coronavirus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMycobacterium+tuberculosis" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnwarQureshiShahzadZaman2022" class="citation journal cs1">Anwar S, Qureshi J, Shahzad MI, Zaman M, Jilani A (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4103%2Fjpdtsm.jpdtsm_63_22">"DNA vaccine construct formation using Mycobacterium-specific gene Inh-A"</a>. 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href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser">"Mycobacterium tuberculosis"</a>. 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haemolyticum">Arcanobacterium haemolyticum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcanobacterium_haemolyticum_infection" title="Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection">Arcanobacterium haemolyticum infection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinomyces_gerencseriae" title="Actinomyces gerencseriae">Actinomyces gerencseriae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Propionibacteriaceae" title="Propionibacteriaceae">Propionibacteriaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propionibacterium_acnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Propionibacterium acnes">Propionibacterium acnes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Corynebacterium" title="Corynebacterium">Corynebacterineae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">Mycobacteriaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">M. tuberculosis</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_bovis" title="Mycobacterium bovis">M. bovis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ghon_focus" title="Ghon focus">Ghon focus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ghon%27s_complex" title="Ghon's complex">Ghon's complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pott_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Pott disease">Pott disease</a></li> <li>brain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculous_meningitis" title="Tuberculous meningitis">Meningitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rich_focus" title="Rich focus">Rich focus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculous_lymphadenitis" title="Tuberculous lymphadenitis">Tuberculous lymphadenitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculous_cervical_lymphadenitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis">Tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutaneous_tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutaneous tuberculosis">cutaneous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrofuloderma" title="Scrofuloderma">Scrofuloderma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythema_induratum" title="Erythema induratum">Erythema induratum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_vulgaris" title="Lupus vulgaris">Lupus vulgaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosector%27s_wart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosector's wart">Prosector's wart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis_cutis_orificialis" title="Tuberculosis cutis orificialis">Tuberculosis cutis orificialis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculous_cellulitis" title="Tuberculous cellulitis">Tuberculous cellulitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculous_gumma" title="Tuberculous gumma">Tuberculous gumma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_scrofulosorum" title="Lichen scrofulosorum">Lichen scrofulosorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberculid">Tuberculid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Papulonecrotic_tuberculid" title="Papulonecrotic tuberculid">Papulonecrotic tuberculid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_inoculation_tuberculosis" title="Primary inoculation tuberculosis">Primary inoculation tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miliary_tuberculosis" title="Miliary tuberculosis">Miliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculous_pericarditis" title="Tuberculous pericarditis">Tuberculous pericarditis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urogenital_tuberculosis" title="Urogenital tuberculosis">Urogenital tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculous_dactylitis" title="Tuberculous dactylitis">Tuberculous dactylitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-drug-resistant_tuberculosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis">Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extensively_drug-resistant_tuberculosis" title="Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis">Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_leprae" title="Mycobacterium leprae">M. leprae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">Leprosy</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tuberculoid_leprosy" title="Tuberculoid leprosy">Tuberculoid leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borderline_tuberculoid_leprosy" title="Borderline tuberculoid leprosy">Borderline tuberculoid leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borderline_leprosy" title="Borderline leprosy">Borderline leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borderline_lepromatous_leprosy" title="Borderline lepromatous leprosy">Borderline lepromatous leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepromatous_leprosy" title="Lepromatous leprosy">Lepromatous leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histoid_leprosy" title="Histoid leprosy">Histoid leprosy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nontuberculous_mycobacteria" title="Nontuberculous mycobacteria">Nontuberculous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Runyon_classification#Runyon_I:_Photochromogens" title="Runyon classification">R1</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_kansasii" title="Mycobacterium kansasii">M. kansasii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_marinum" title="Mycobacterium marinum">M. marinum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquarium_granuloma" title="Aquarium granuloma">Aquarium granuloma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Runyon_classification#Runyon_II:_Scotochromogens" title="Runyon classification">R2</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_gordonae" title="Mycobacterium gordonae">M. gordonae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Runyon_classification#Runyon_III:_Nonchromogenic" title="Runyon classification">R3</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium_complex" title="Mycobacterium avium complex">M. avium complex</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacterium avium">Mycobacterium avium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_intracellulare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacterium intracellulare">Mycobacterium intracellulare</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium_subsp._paratuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis">MAP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium-intracellulare_infection" title="Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection">MAI infection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_ulcerans" title="Mycobacterium ulcerans">M. ulcerans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buruli_ulcer" title="Buruli ulcer">Buruli ulcer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_haemophilum" title="Mycobacterium haemophilum">M. haemophilum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Runyon_classification#Runyon_IV:_Rapid_Growers" title="Runyon classification">R4</a>/<a href="/wiki/Rapid_growing_mycobacterium" title="Rapid growing mycobacterium">RG</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_fortuitum" title="Mycobacterium fortuitum">M. fortuitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_chelonae" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacterium chelonae">M. chelonae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_abscessus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacterium abscessus">M. abscessus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nocardiaceae" title="Nocardiaceae">Nocardiaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nocardia_asteroides" title="Nocardia asteroides">Nocardia asteroides</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nocardia_brasiliensis" title="Nocardia brasiliensis">Nocardia brasiliensis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nocardia_farcinica" title="Nocardia farcinica">Nocardia farcinica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nocardiosis" title="Nocardiosis">Nocardiosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodococcus_equi" title="Rhodococcus equi">Rhodococcus equi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Corynebacterium" title="Corynebacterium">Corynebacteriaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corynebacterium_diphtheriae" title="Corynebacterium diphtheriae">Corynebacterium diphtheriae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">Diphtheria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corynebacterium_minutissimum" title="Corynebacterium minutissimum">Corynebacterium minutissimum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erythrasma" title="Erythrasma">Erythrasma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corynebacterium_jeikeium" title="Corynebacterium jeikeium">Corynebacterium jeikeium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_JK_corynebacterium_sepsis" title="Group JK corynebacterium sepsis">Group JK corynebacterium sepsis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bifidobacteriaceae" title="Bifidobacteriaceae">Bifidobacteriaceae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gardnerella_vaginalis" title="Gardnerella vaginalis">Gardnerella vaginalis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q130971" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q130971">Q130971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></li> <li>BioLib: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id652871">652871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/44W74">44W74</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/6385875">6385875</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/MYCBTU">MYCBTU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/3225140">3225140</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/552103">552103</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=10033268">10033268</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=963806">963806</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">LPSN</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lpsn.dsmz.de/species/mycobacterium-tuberculosis">mycobacterium-tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=1773">1773</a></li> <li>NZOR: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/0eacbd01-3309-4cb9-b540-02e30b88611c">0eacbd01-3309-4cb9-b540-02e30b88611c</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=604112">604112</a></li> <li>uBio: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubio.org/browser/details.php?namebankID=5356288">5356288</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" 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