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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Old_Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Old Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Old_Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Classical Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standardization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standardization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Standardization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standardization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Spread </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Neo-Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nahda" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nahda"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Nahda </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nahda-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical,_Modern_Standard_and_spoken_Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical,_Modern_Standard_and_spoken_Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Classical, Modern Standard and spoken Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical,_Modern_Standard_and_spoken_Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_and_usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_and_usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Status and usage </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Status_and_usage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Status and usage subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Status_and_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diglossia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diglossia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Diglossia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diglossia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Status_in_the_Arab_world_vis-à-vis_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Status_in_the_Arab_world_vis-à-vis_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Status in the Arab world vis-à-vis other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Status_in_the_Arab_world_vis-à-vis_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_foreign_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_foreign_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 As a foreign language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_foreign_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lexicography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexicography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Lexicography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexicography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-modern_Arabic_lexicography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-modern_Arabic_lexicography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Pre-modern Arabic lexicography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-modern_Arabic_lexicography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_lexicography_of_Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_lexicography_of_Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Western lexicography of Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_lexicography_of_Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Arabic_lexicography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Arabic_lexicography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.3 Modern Arabic lexicography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Arabic_lexicography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loanwords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loanwords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Loanwords </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loanwords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_on_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Influence on other languages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_on_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spoken_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spoken_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Spoken varieties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Spoken_varieties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Spoken varieties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Spoken_varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Koiné" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Koiné"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Koiné </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Koiné-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialect_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialect_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Dialect groups </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialect_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Phonology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literary_Arabic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_Arabic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Literary Arabic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_Arabic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns_and_adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns_and_adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Nouns and adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns_and_adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.3 Derivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colloquial_varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colloquial_varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Colloquial varieties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colloquial_varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Writing system </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writing system subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calligraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calligraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Calligraphy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calligraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Romanization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Numerals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Arabic alphabet and nationalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lebanon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lebanon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.1 Lebanon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lebanon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4.2 Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Sample text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Arabic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 248 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-248" aria-hidden="true" > 248 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Arab" title="Basa Arab – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Basa Arab" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbd mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%8C%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B7%D1%8D" title="Хьэрыпыбзэ – Kabardian" lang="kbd" hreflang="kbd" data-title="Хьэрыпыбзэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгэбзэ" data-language-local-name="Kabardian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгэбзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B7%D1%8D" title="Арапыбзэ – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Арапыбзэ" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabies" title="Arabies – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Arabies" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabische_Sprache" title="Arabische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Arabische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%93%E1%88%A8%E1%89%A5%E1%8A%9B" title="ዓረብኛ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዓረብኛ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiakiel%C3%A2" title="Arabiakielâ – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Arabiakielâ" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Anarâškielâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80" title="अरबी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अरबी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisc_spr%C7%A3c" title="Arabisc sprǣc – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Arabisc sprǣc" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%88%D3%99%D0%B0" title="Араб бызшәа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Араб бызшәа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة العربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة العربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_arabe" title="Idioma arabe – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Idioma arabe" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%A5%DC%AA%DC%92%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܥܪܒܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܥܪܒܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A7%D5%B6" title="Արաբերէն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Արաբերէն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabo" title="Arabo – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Arabo" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="আৰবী ভাষা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="আৰবী ভাষা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe" title="Árabe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Árabe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबी भाषा – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="अरबी भाषा" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arave%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BD" title="Araveñe'ẽ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Araveñe'ẽ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D3%80" title="ГӀараб мацӀ – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ГӀараб мацӀ" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target">Авар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99b_dili" title="Ərəb dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ərəb dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="عرب دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="عرب دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Arab" title="Basa Arab – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Basa Arab" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE" title="আরবি ভাষা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আরবি ভাষা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Arab" title="Basa Arab – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Basa Arab" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-la-pek-g%C3%AD" title="A-la-pek-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="A-la-pek-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Arab" title="Basa Arab – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Basa Arab" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Banyumasan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D3%99%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BF_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Ғәрәп теле – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғәрәп теле" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Арабская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арабская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Арабская мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Арабская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबी भाषा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="अरबी भाषा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon_na_Arabe" title="Tataramon na Arabe – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon na Arabe" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Арабски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Арабски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabische_Sproch" title="Arabische Sproch – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Arabische Sproch" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A8%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%90%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="ཨ་རབ་སྐད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཨ་རབ་སྐད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapski_jezik" title="Arapski jezik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Arapski jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabeg" title="Arabeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arabeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Араб хэлэн – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Араб хэлэн" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80rab" title="Àrab – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Àrab" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8" title="Арап чĕлхи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Арап чĕлхи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inarabigo" title="Inarabigo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Inarabigo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C5%A1tina" title="Arabština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Arabština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiarabu" title="Chiarabu – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Chiarabu" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiarabhu" title="Chiarabhu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chiarabhu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_%C3%A0raba" title="Lingua àraba – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Lingua àraba" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabeg" title="Arabeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Arabeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisk_(sprog)" title="Arabisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arabisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لعربية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لعربية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C3%A1bagiella" title="Arábagiella – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Arábagiella" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabische_Sprache" title="Arabische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arabische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%A2%DE%A6%DE%83%DE%A6%DE%84%DE%A8" title="ޢަރަބި – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ޢަރަބި" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81s%C3%A1%C3%AD_Bizaad" title="Ásáí Bizaad – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Ásáí Bizaad" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabska_r%C4%9Bc" title="Arabska rěc – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Arabska rěc" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araabia_keel" title="Araabia keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Araabia keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Αραβική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αραβική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areb" title="Areb – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Areb" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Арабонь кель – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Арабонь кель" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Эрзянь</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_%C3%A1rabe" title="Idioma árabe – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma árabe" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araba_lingvo" title="Araba lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Araba lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabi" title="Arabi – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Arabi" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiera" title="Arabiera – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arabiera" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="زبان عربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان عربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbii_bhasa" title="Arbii bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Arbii bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiskt_m%C3%A1l" title="Arabiskt mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Arabiskt mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe" title="Arabe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arabe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabysk" title="Arabysk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Arabysk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Araibis" title="An Araibis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Araibis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabish" title="Arabish – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Arabish" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gag mw-list-item"><a href="https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_dili" title="Arab dili – Gagauz" lang="gag" hreflang="gag" data-title="Arab dili" data-language-autonym="Gagauz" data-language-local-name="Gagauz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gagauz</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabais" title="Arabais – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Arabais" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_%C3%A1rabe" title="Lingua árabe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua árabe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Ӏарбий мотт – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Ӏарбий мотт" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target">ГӀалгӀай</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="阿拉伯語 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="阿拉伯語" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%85%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%AD%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%BE" title="અરબી ભાષા – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="અરબી ભાષા" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B1%F0%90%8C%B9%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%BA%F0%90%8C%B0_%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B6%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌱𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌱𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target">𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%82-l%C3%A2-pak-ng%C3%AE" title="Â-lâ-pak-ngî – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Â-lâ-pak-ngî" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD" title="Арабмудин келн – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Арабмудин келн" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8D%EC%96%B4" title="아랍어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아랍어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larabci" title="Larabci – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Larabci" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BB%C5%8Clelo_%CA%BBAlapia" title="ʻŌlelo ʻAlapia – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="ʻŌlelo ʻAlapia" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hawaiʻi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Արաբերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Արաբերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबी भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अरबी भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Arabšćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Arabšćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapski_jezik" title="Arapski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arapski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arab" title="Bahasa Arab – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Bahasa Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiana_linguo" title="Arabiana linguo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Arabiana linguo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Arabic" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsasao_nga_Arabiko" title="Pagsasao nga Arabiko – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pagsasao nga Arabiko" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arab" title="Bahasa Arab – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_arabe" title="Lingua arabe – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua arabe" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%8A%E1%95%8B%E1%95%95" title="ᐊᕋᕕ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐊᕋᕕ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%B3_%C3%A6%D0%B2%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Араббаг æвзаг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Араббаг æвзаг" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C3%ADska" title="Arabíska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Arabíska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_araba" title="Lingua araba – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua araba" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ערבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ערבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Arab" title="Basa Arab – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Arab" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C9%A9%C9%A9_k%CA%8An%CA%8A%C5%8B" title="Arabɩɩ kʊnʊŋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Arabɩɩ kʊnʊŋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%80_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86" title="ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಭಾಷೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಭಾಷೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Араб тил – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Араб тил" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="არაბული ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="არაბული ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%8E%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عَربی زَبان – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="عَربی زَبان" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Араб тілі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Араб тілі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabek" title="Arabek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Arabek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icyarabu" title="Icyarabu – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Icyarabu" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ikinyarwanda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiarabu" title="Kiarabu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kiarabu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Араб кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Араб кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilabu" title="Kilabu – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Kilabu" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kongo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab" title="Arab – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Arab" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab" title="Arab – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Arab" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AA_ereb%C3%AE" title="Zimanê erebî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanê erebî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingaz_arab" title="Lingaz arab – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Lingaz arab" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_ar%C3%A1biga" title="Lingua arábiga – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Lingua arábiga" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B7" title="Аьраб маз – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Аьраб маз" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лакку</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%9A" title="ພາສາອາຣັບ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ພາສາອາຣັບ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Arabica" title="Lingua Arabica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Arabica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C4%81bu_valoda" title="Arābu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Arābu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabesch" title="Arabesch – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Arabesch" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%87%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Араб чӀал – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Араб чӀал" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C5%B3_kalba" title="Arabų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Arabų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_%C3%A0raba" title="Lengua àraba – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengua àraba" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisch" title="Arabisch – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liarabi" title="Liarabi – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Liarabi" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabi_(lingua)" title="Arabi (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Arabi (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruabien_kieli" title="Aruabien kieli – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Aruabien kieli" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/rabybau" title="rabybau – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="rabybau" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengua_araba" title="Lengua araba – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Lengua araba" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_nyelv" title="Arab nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Arab nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C3%A2sa_Arab" title="Bhâsa Arab – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Bhâsa Arab" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबी भाषा – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="अरबी भाषा" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Арапски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Арапски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_arabo" title="Fiteny arabo – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny arabo" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%AD%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B7" title="അറബി ഭാഷ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അറബി ഭാഷ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwa_G%C4%A7arbija" title="Lingwa Għarbija – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lingwa Għarbija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reo_%C4%80rapi" title="Reo Ārapi – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Reo Ārapi" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target">Māori</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबी भाषा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अरबी भाषा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="არაბული ნინა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="არაბული ნინა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%89" title="لغه عربى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغه عربى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="عربی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="عربی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arab" title="Bahasa Arab – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%9B_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯑꯔꯥꯕꯤꯛ ꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯑꯔꯥꯕꯤꯛ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahaso_Arab" title="Bahaso Arab – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Bahaso Arab" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80-l%C3%A1-b%C3%A1ik-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84" title="Ā-lá-báik-ngṳ̄ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ā-lá-báik-ngṳ̄" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%BA%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Арабонь кяль – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Арабонь кяль" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Араб хэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Араб хэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC%E1%80%85%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="အာရပ်ဘာသာစကား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အာရပ်ဘာသာစကား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisch" title="Arabisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabies" title="Arabies – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Arabies" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबी भाषा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अरबी भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबी भाषा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="अरबी भाषा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%93%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="アラビア語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アラビア語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B0%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82" title="Ӏаьрбийн мотт – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏаьрбийн мотт" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araabisk_spriak" title="Araabisk spriak – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Araabisk spriak" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erabek" title="Erabek – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Erabek" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norfuk / Pitkern</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisk" title="Arabisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arabisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisk" title="Arabisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Arabisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe" title="Arabe – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Arabe" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabum" title="Arabum – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Arabum" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabi" title="Arabi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Arabi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afaan_Arabaa" title="Afaan Arabaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Afaan Arabaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_tili" title="Arab tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Arab tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE" title="ਅਰਬੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਅਰਬੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="عربی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عربی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rabe" title="Árabe – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Árabe" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%D9%87" title="عربي ژبه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عربي ژبه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabik_languij" title="Arabik languij – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Arabik languij" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Араб кыв – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Араб кыв" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%8B" title="ភាសាអារ៉ាប់ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ភាសាអារ៉ាប់" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe" title="Arabe – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Arabe" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_ar%C3%A0bica" title="Lenga aràbica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga aràbica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araabsche_Spraak" title="Araabsche Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Araabsche Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_arabski" title="Język arabski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język arabski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_%C3%A1rabe" title="Língua árabe – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua árabe" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_tili" title="Arab tili – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Arab tili" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arap_tili" title="Arap tili – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Arap tili" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh mw-list-item"><a href="https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabische_Sprooch" title="Arabische Sprooch – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh" data-title="Arabische Sprooch" data-language-autonym="Ripoarisch" data-language-local-name="Colognian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ripoarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_arab%C4%83" title="Limba arabă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba arabă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arawiya_simi" title="Arawiya simi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Arawiya simi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Арабскый язык – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Арабскый язык" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Арабский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арабский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Арааб тыла – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Арааб тыла" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/u_kamu_nu_Alapo" title="u kamu nu Alapo – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="u kamu nu Alapo" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="अरबीभाषा – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="अरबीभाषा" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱟᱨᱚᱵᱤᱠ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱟᱨᱚᱵᱤᱠ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عربی زبان – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="عربی زبان" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_%C3%A0raba" title="Limba àraba – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limba àraba" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Arabic" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Searabia" title="Searabia – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Searabia" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sesotho sa Leboa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_arabe" title="Gjuha arabe – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha arabe" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_%C3%A0rabba" title="Lingua àrabba – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua àrabba" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%85%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="අරාබි භාෂාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="අරාබි භාෂාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Arabic language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A" title="عربي ٻولي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="عربي ٻولي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C4%8Dina" title="Arabčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Arabčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Arabščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Arabščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%8A_%D1%A9%EA%99%81%EA%99%91%D0%BA%D1%8A" title="Аравьскъ ѩꙁꙑкъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Аравьскъ ѩꙁꙑкъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabsk%C5%8F_godka" title="Arabskŏ godka – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Arabskŏ godka" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ślůnski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carabi" title="Carabi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Carabi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%B9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="زمانی عەرەبی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانی عەرەبی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Арапски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Арапски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapski_jezik" title="Arapski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Arapski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Arab" title="Basa Arab – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Basa Arab" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_kieli" title="Arabian kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arabian kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiska" title="Arabiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arabiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikang_Arabe" title="Wikang Arabe – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Wikang Arabe" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF" title="அரபு மொழி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அரபு மொழி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt_Ta%C9%9B%E1%B9%9Babt" title="Tutlayt Taɛṛabt – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tutlayt Taɛṛabt" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayt_ta%C9%9Brabt" title="Tutlayt taɛrabt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tutlayt taɛrabt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D1%80%D3%99%D0%BF_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="Гарәп теле – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Гарәп теле" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shn mw-list-item"><a href="https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%81%BD%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%80%9E%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%80%A2%E1%82%83%E1%82%87%E1%80%9B%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA%E1%82%89" title="ၽႃႇသႃႇဢႃႇရပ်ႉ – Shan" lang="shn" hreflang="shn" data-title="ၽႃႇသႃႇဢႃႇရပ်ႉ" data-language-autonym="ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး " data-language-local-name="Shan" class="interlanguage-link-target">ၽႃႇသႃႇတႆး </a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%80_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B7" title="అరబ్బీ భాష – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అరబ్బీ భాష" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A" title="ภาษาอาหรับ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาอาหรับ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D3%A3" title="Забони арабӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Забони арабӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%B8%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%B3%E1%8F%88%E1%8F%AF_%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%AC%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%AF%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%97" title="ᎠᎸᎠᎳᏈᏯ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᎸᎠᎳᏈᏯ ᎦᏬᏂᎯᏍᏗ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/He%C3%A9v%C8%A7hevetan%C3%A9v%C8%AFhk%C4%97ha%27etanetse" title="Heévȧhevetanévȯhkėha'etanetse – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Heévȧhevetanévȯhkėha'etanetse" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tsetsêhestâhese</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%85%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%86" title="ಅರಬ್ಬಿ ಬಾಸೆ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಅರಬ್ಬಿ ಬಾಸೆ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">ತುಳು</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arap%C3%A7a" title="Arapça – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Arapça" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arap_dili" title="Arap dili – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Arap dili" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%CC%B1ra%CC%B1ba_(a%CC%B1lyem)" title="La̱ra̱ba (a̱lyem) – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="La̱ra̱ba (a̱lyem)" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Араб дыл – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Араб дыл" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Араб кыл – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Араб кыл" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Арабська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Арабська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عربی زبان – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عربی زبان" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89" title="ئەرەب تىلى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ئەرەب تىلى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahahlahboh" title="Vahahlahboh – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vahahlahboh" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81%C3%A9ngua_araba" title="Łéngua araba – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Łéngua araba" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araban_kel%27" title="Araban kel' – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Araban kel'" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_%E1%BA%A2_R%E1%BA%ADp" title="Tiếng Ả Rập – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Ả Rập" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larab" title="Larab – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Larab" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araabia_kiil" title="Araabia kiil – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Araabia kiil" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabe_(lingaedje)" title="Arabe (lingaedje) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Arabe (lingaedje)" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alijunaiki_Tutko" title="Alijunaiki Tutko – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Alijunaiki Tutko" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Wayuunaiki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="阿拉伯語 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="阿拉伯語" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aroabiesche_toale" title="Aroabiesche toale – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Aroabiesche toale" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inarabo" title="Inarabo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Inarabo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AF%AD" title="阿拉伯语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="阿拉伯语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9" title="אראביש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אראביש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88d%C3%A8_L%C3%A1r%C3%BAb%C3%A1w%C3%A1" title="Èdè Lárúbáwá – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Èdè Lárúbáwá" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E6%96%87" title="阿拉伯文 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="阿拉伯文" data-language-autonym="粵語" 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id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Semitic language and lingua franca of the Arab world</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the general language (macrolanguage). For specific varieties of Arabic and other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Arabic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Arabic (disambiguation)">Arabic (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expert_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs attention from an expert in linguistics. The specific problem is: There seems to be some confusion surrounding the chronology of Arabic's origination, including notably in the paragraph on Qaryat Al-Faw (also discussed on talk). There are major sourcing gaps from "Literary Arabic" onwards. <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Linguistics" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Linguistics">WikiProject Linguistics</a> may be able to help recruit an expert. (August 2022)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Arabic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ al-ʿarabiyyah</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg/150px-Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg/225px-Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg/300px-Arabic_albayancalligraphy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="151" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">al-ʿarabiyyah in written Arabic (<a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh script</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[ˈʕarabiː]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c4\/Arabi.ogg\/Arabi.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Arabi.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Arabi.ogg/Arabi.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Arabi.ogg" title="File:Arabi.ogg">ⓘ</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[al ʕaraˈbijːa]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/8e\/Al_arabic.ogg\/Al_arabic.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Al arabic.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/Al_arabic.ogg/Al_arabic.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Al_arabic.ogg" title="File:Al arabic.ogg">ⓘ</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> and surrounding regions</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Speakers</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">380 million native speakers of all <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">varieties</a> (2024)<a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a> 330 million <a href="/wiki/L2_speakers" class="mw-redirect" title="L2 speakers">L2 users</a> of <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (2023)<a href="#cite_note-arb-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Arabic</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Afroasiatic">Proto-Afroasiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Arabic">Proto-Arabic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Standard forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni dialects</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div>Other official scripts</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a>) </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language" title="Manually coded language">Signed forms</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Signed Arabic <a href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">(different national forms)</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Official status</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Official language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_and_territories_where_Arabic_is_an_official_language" title="List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language">27 states and territories</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_Arab_Democratic_Republic" title="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic</a> (partially recognized state) </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Somaliland" title="Somaliland">Somaliland</a> (unrecognized state) </li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div>International Organizations</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> </li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;"><div>Special status in Constitution</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[a]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[b]</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Recognised minority language in</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="vertical-align:middle;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a><a href="#cite_note-israelbasiclaw-9">[7]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a><a href="#cite_note-HassaniyaAlphabet-13">[11]</a> </li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a><a href="#cite_note-constitution.1.6-14">[12]</a> </li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_regulators" title="List of language regulators">Regulated by</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>List</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>: <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_the_Arabic_language_in_Algeria" title="Supreme Council of the Arabic language in Algeria">Supreme Council of the Arabic language in Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>: <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Arabic_Language_in_Cairo" title="Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo">Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>: <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Arabic_Language_in_Israel" title="Academy of the Arabic Language in Israel">Academy of the Arabic Language in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>: <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Iraqi Academy of Sciences">Iraqi Academy of Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>: <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Academy_of_Arabic" title="Jordan Academy of Arabic">Jordan Academy of Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>: Academy of the Arabic Language in Jamahiriya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>: Academy of the Arabic Language in Rabat</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>: Academy of the Arabic Language in Riyadh</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>: Academy of the Arabic Language in Mogadishu</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>: Academy of the Arabic Language in Khartoum</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Academy_of_Damascus" title="Arab Academy of Damascus">Arab Academy of Damascus</a> (the oldest)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Academy_of_Sciences,_Letters,_and_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Arts">Beit Al-Hikma Foundation</a></li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-1" title="ISO 639-1">ISO 639-1</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?iso_639_1=ar">ar</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=22">ara</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ara" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ara">ara</a></code> – inclusive code Individual codes: <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arq" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:arq">arq</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/xaa" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:xaa">xaa</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/abv" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:abv">abv</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/avl" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:avl">avl</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Bedawi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bedawi Arabic">Bedawi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/shu" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:shu">shu</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acy" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:acy">acy</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/adf" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:adf">adf</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arz" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:arz">arz</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acm" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:acm">acm</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Gelet_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelet Arabic">Gelet Iraqi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/afb" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:afb">afb</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayh" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ayh">ayh</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/mey" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:mey">mey</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acw" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:acw">acw</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/apc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:apc">apc</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayl" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ayl">ayl</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ary" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ary">ary</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ars" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ars">ars</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acx" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:acx">acx</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ayp">ayp</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Moslawi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Moslawi Arabic">Qeltu Iraqi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aao" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:aao">aao</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Saharan_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Saharan Arabic">Saharan Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aec" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:aec">aec</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ayn" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ayn">ayn</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ssh" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ssh">ssh</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/sqr" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:sqr">sqr</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arb" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:arb">arb</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Standard_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Arabic">Standard Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/apd" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:apd">apd</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/acq" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:acq">acq</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/abh" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:abh">abh</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Tajiki_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tajiki Arabic">Tajiki Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aeb" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:aeb">aeb</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian Arabic</a> <code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/auz" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:auz">auz</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Uzbeki_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzbeki Arabic">Uzbeki Arabic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/arab1395">arab1395</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=12-AAC">12-AAC</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_speaking_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arabic_speaking_world.svg/320px-Arabic_speaking_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arabic_speaking_world.svg/480px-Arabic_speaking_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Arabic_speaking_world.svg/640px-Arabic_speaking_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><div style="text-align:left;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Sole official language, Arabic-speaking majority</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Co-official language, Arabic-speaking majority</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Co-official language, Arabic-speaking minority</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Not an official language, Arabic-speaking minority</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: al-ʿarabiyyah, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[al ʕaraˈbijːa]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-3" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/8\/8e\/Al_arabic.ogg\/Al_arabic.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Al arabic.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8e/Al_arabic.ogg/Al_arabic.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Al_arabic.ogg" title="File:Al arabic.ogg">ⓘ</a>, or عَرَبِيّ, ʿarabīy, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">pronounced <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[ˈʕarabiː]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-4" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c4\/Arabi.ogg\/Arabi.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Arabi.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c4/Arabi.ogg/Arabi.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Arabi.ogg" title="File:Arabi.ogg">ⓘ</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991">or <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[ʕaraˈbij]</a>) is a <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic language family</a> spoken primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a> assigns language codes to 32 <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">varieties of Arabic</a>, including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-www-01.sil.org-16">[14]</a> which is derived from <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>. This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā (اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā (اَلْفُصْحَىٰ). Arabic is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_the_number_of_countries_in_which_they_are_recognized_as_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by the number of countries in which they are recognized as an official language">third most widespread official language</a> after English and French,<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> one of six <a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">official languages of the United Nations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-19">[17]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical language</a> of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-20">[18]</a> Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-20">[18]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowed</a> words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European languages</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_influence_on_the_Spanish_language" title="Arabic language influence on the Spanish language">Spanish</a> and to a lesser extent <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages#Portuguese" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages#Catalan" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Catalan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> era. <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan</a> languages, including Albanian, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, Serbo-Croatian, and <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turkish" title="Ottoman Turkish">Ottoman Turkish</a>. Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Versteegh19972-22">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashmiri_language" title="Kashmiri language">Kashmiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malaysian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian language">Malaysian</a>), <a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Maldivian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pashto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>, Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odia_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Odia Language">Odia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Raya-1981-23">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and African languages such as <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tamazight" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamazight">Tamazight</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>. Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its <a href="/wiki/Sister_language" title="Sister language">sister-language</a> Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to a lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world,<a href="#cite_note-e27-1">[1]</a> making it the <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_total_number_of_speakers" title="List of languages by total number of speakers">fifth most spoken language</a> in the world,<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-19">[17]</a> In 2011, <a href="/wiki/Bloomberg_Businessweek" title="Bloomberg Businessweek">Bloomberg Businessweek</a> ranked Arabic the fourth most useful language for business, after English, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Mandarin_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a>, and French.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> Arabic is written with the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjad</a> script that is written from <a href="/wiki/Right-to-left" class="mw-redirect" title="Right-to-left">right to left</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Arabic_languages" title="Classification of Arabic languages">Classification of Arabic languages</a></div> Arabic is usually classified as a <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic language</a>. Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups.<a href="#cite_note-Stefan_Weninger_2011-28">[26]</a> The Semitic languages changed between <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic</a> and the emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: <ol><li>The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation (jalas-) into a past tense.</li> <li>The conversion of the prefix-conjugated <a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a>-tense formation (yajlis-) into a present tense.</li> <li>The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms (e.g., a present tense formed by doubling the middle root, a <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> formed by <a href="/wiki/Infix" title="Infix">infixing</a> a /t/ after the first root consonant, probably a jussive formed by a stress shift) in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms (e.g., -u for indicative, -a for subjunctive, no ending for jussive, -an or -anna for energetic).</li> <li>The development of an internal passive.</li></ol> There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Safaitic" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hismaic_(Old_Arabic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hismaic (Old Arabic)">Hismaic</a> inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the <a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a> languages of the <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">northern Hejaz</a>. These features are evidence of common descent from a <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">hypothetical ancestor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Arabic">Proto-Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a8-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence:<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> <ol><li>negative particles m * /mā/; lʾn */lā-ʾan/ to Classical Arabic lan</li> <li>mafʿūl G-passive participle</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">prepositions</a> and adverbs f, ʿn, ʿnd, ḥt, ʿkdy</li> <li>a subjunctive in -a</li> <li>t-demonstratives</li> <li>leveling of the -at <a href="/wiki/Allomorph" title="Allomorph">allomorph</a> of the feminine ending</li> <li>ʾn <a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">complementizer</a> and subordinator</li> <li>the use of f- to introduce modal clauses</li> <li>independent object pronoun in (ʾ)y</li> <li>vestiges of <a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">nunation</a></li></ol> On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBirnstiel2019368-32">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a> Thus, Arabic <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernaculars</a> do not descend from Classical Arabic:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014172-34">[32]</a> Classical Arabic is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAl-Jallad2020a8-29">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Old_Arabic">Old Arabic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></div> Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, as perceived by geographers from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a> In the southwest, various <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic languages</a> both belonging to and outside the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Ancient South Arabian</a> family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It is believed that the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Modern South Arabian languages</a> (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a> held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In <a href="/wiki/Najd" title="Najd">Najd</a> and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested.<a href="#cite_note-Al-Jallad-37">[35]</a> In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in a script derived from ASA attest to a language known as <a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a>. On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as <a href="/wiki/Thamudic_B" title="Thamudic B">Thamudic B</a>, Thamudic D, <a href="/wiki/Safaitic" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a> are attested. The last two share important <a href="/wiki/Isogloss" title="Isogloss">isoglosses</a> with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered <a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Al-Jallad-37">[35]</a> Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic", a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stefan_Weninger_2011-28">[26]</a> Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in <a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic script</a> at <a href="/wiki/Qaryat_al-Faw" title="Qaryat al-Faw">Qaryat al-Faw</a>, in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as the conversion of Semitic <a href="/wiki/Mimation" title="Mimation">mimation</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">nunation</a> in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced—<a href="/wiki/Epigraphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigraphic">epigraphic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a> (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic).<a href="#cite_note-Stefan_Weninger_2011-28">[26]</a> However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-Al-Jallad-37">[35]</a> The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">ancestor of the modern Arabic script</a> are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in <a href="/wiki/Avdat" title="Avdat">En Avdat, Israel</a>, and dated to around 125 CE.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> This is followed by the <a href="/wiki/Namara_inscription" title="Namara inscription">Namara inscription</a>, an epitaph of the <a href="/wiki/Lakhmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhmids">Lakhmid</a> king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria (<a href="/wiki/Zabad_inscription" title="Zabad inscription">Zabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jebel_Usays_inscription" title="Jebel Usays inscription">Jebel Usays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harran_inscription" title="Harran inscription">Harran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Umm_el-Jimal" title="Umm el-Jimal">Umm el-Jimal</a>). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of the Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into "<a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Stefan_Weninger_2011-28">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Arabic">Classical Arabic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a></div> In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijra</a>, most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic).<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an <a href="/wiki/Old_Higazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Higazi">Old Higazi</a> register. It is clear that the orthography of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">spoken vernaculars</a> developed based on the <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> dialects of <a href="/wiki/Najd" title="Najd">Najd</a>, probably in connection with the court of <a href="/wiki/Al-Hirah" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Hirah">al-Ḥīra</a>. During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> elements in morphology and syntax.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standardization">Standardization</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Aswad_al-Du%27ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali">Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 603–689) is credited with standardizing <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic grammar</a>, or an-naḥw (النَّحو "the way"<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a>), and pioneering a system of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">diacritics</a> to differentiate consonants (نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate <a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">vocalization</a> (التشكيل at-tashkīl).<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al-Farahidi" title="Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi">Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi</a> (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, <a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-%27Ayn" title="Kitab al-'Ayn">Kitāb al-'Ayn</a> (كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter <a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">ع</a>"), and is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> (776–868) proposed to <a href="/wiki/Al-Akhfash_al-Akbar" title="Al-Akhfash al-Akbar">Al-Akhfash al-Akbar</a> an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Landmarks_in_linguistic_thought_III-1997-46">[44]</a> The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", <a href="/wiki/Sibawayh" title="Sibawayh">Sībawayhi's</a> al-Kitāb, is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya.<a href="#cite_note-referenceworks.brillonline.com-47">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread">Spread</h3></div> Arabic spread with the spread of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a>, Arabic gained vocabulary from <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_National-2016-48">[46]</a> In the early <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid period</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Classical Greek</a> terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad's</a> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_National-2016-48">[46]</a> By the 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Andalusi</a> Jewish philosopher, authored works in <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a>—Arabic written in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jinni" title="Ibn Jinni">Ibn Jinni</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>, a pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kit%C4%81b_Al-Mun%E1%B9%A3if&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kitāb Al-Munṣif (page does not exist)">Kitāb Al-Munṣif</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kit%C4%81b_Al-Mu%E1%B8%A5tasab&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab (page does not exist)">Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kit%C4%81b_Al-Kha%E1%B9%A3%C4%81%CA%BEi%E1%B9%A3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ (page does not exist)">Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ</a>  [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B5_(%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8)" class="extiw" title="ar:الخصائص (كتاب)">ar</a>].<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Mada%27" title="Ibn Mada'">Ibn Mada'</a> of <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B3rdoba,_Spain" title="Córdoba, Spain">Cordoba</a> (1116–1196) realized the overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">Al-Jahiz</a> 200 years prior.<a href="#cite_note-Landmarks_in_linguistic_thought_III-1997-46">[44]</a> The Maghrebi lexicographer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Manzur" title="Ibn Manzur">Ibn Manzur</a> compiled <a href="/wiki/Lis%C4%81n_al-%CA%BFArab" class="mw-redirect" title="Lisān al-ʿArab">Lisān al-ʿArab</a> (لسان العرب, "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> of Arabic, in 1290.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Arabic">Neo-Arabic</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Ferguson" title="Charles A. Ferguson">Charles Ferguson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koine</a> theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on the eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories.<a href="#cite_note-referenceworks.brillonline.com-47">[45]</a> According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidginized</a> Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Creolization" title="Creolization">creolization</a> among Arabs and <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">arabized</a> peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014299-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> In around the 11th and 12th centuries in <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zajal" title="Zajal">zajal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwashah</a> poetry forms developed in the <a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian Arabic">dialectical Arabic of Cordoba</a> and the Maghreb.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nahda">Nahda</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a> was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression."<a href="#cite_note-Gelvin-2020-55">[53]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/James_L._Gelvin" title="James L. Gelvin">James L. Gelvin</a>, "Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to a wider audience."<a href="#cite_note-Gelvin-2020-55">[53]</a> In the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrial revolution</a> and European <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, pioneering Arabic presses, such as the <a href="/wiki/Amiri_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Amiri Press">Amiri Press</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali</a> (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">literature</a> and publications.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a> proposed the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Madrasat_al-Alsun" title="Madrasat al-Alsun">Madrasat al-Alsun</a> in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted the need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship').<a href="#cite_note-57">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the <a href="/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise" class="mw-redirect" title="Académie française">Académie française</a> were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations,<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a> first in <a href="/wiki/Arab_Academy_of_Damascus" title="Arab Academy of Damascus">Damascus</a> (1919), then in <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Arabic_Language_in_Cairo" title="Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo">Cairo</a> (1932), <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Iraqi Academy of Sciences">Baghdad</a> (1948), <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Studies_and_Research_on_Arabization" title="Institute for Studies and Research on Arabization">Rabat</a> (1960), <a href="/wiki/Jordan_Academy_of_Arabic" title="Jordan Academy of Arabic">Amman</a> (1977), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Academy_of_the_Arabic_Language_in_Khartum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Academy of the Arabic Language in Khartum (page does not exist)">Khartum</a> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%85" class="extiw" title="ar:مجمع اللغة العربية بالخرطوم">ar</a>] (1993), and <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Academy_of_Sciences,_Letters,_and_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Academy of Sciences, Letters, and Arts">Tunis</a> (1993).<a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-2019-60">[58]</a> They review language development, monitor new words and approve the inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League_Educational,_Cultural_and_Scientific_Organization" title="Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization">Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-2019-60">[58]</a> These academies and organizations have worked toward the <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> of the sciences, <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">creating terms</a> in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward the standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a <a href="/wiki/World_language" title="World language">world language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-2019-60">[58]</a> This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco,<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> and Sudan.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical,_Modern_Standard_and_spoken_Arabic">Classical, Modern Standard and spoken Arabic</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties of Arabic</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_dictionaries" title="List of Arabic dictionaries">List of Arabic dictionaries</a></div>Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> and Modern Standard Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-Kamusella-63">[61]</a> It could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic dialects</a>, which are not necessarily mutually intelligible.<figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safaitic_script_with_a_figure_of_a_camel_on_a_red_sandstone_fragment,_from_es-Safa,_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Safaitic_script_with_a_figure_of_a_camel_on_a_red_sandstone_fragment%2C_from_es-Safa%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg/250px-Safaitic_script_with_a_figure_of_a_camel_on_a_red_sandstone_fragment%2C_from_es-Safa%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Safaitic_script_with_a_figure_of_a_camel_on_a_red_sandstone_fragment%2C_from_es-Safa%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg/375px-Safaitic_script_with_a_figure_of_a_camel_on_a_red_sandstone_fragment%2C_from_es-Safa%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Safaitic_script_with_a_figure_of_a_camel_on_a_red_sandstone_fragment%2C_from_es-Safa%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg/500px-Safaitic_script_with_a_figure_of_a_camel_on_a_red_sandstone_fragment%2C_from_es-Safa%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5219" data-file-height="3692" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Safaitic" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a> inscription</figcaption></figure>Classical Arabic is the language found in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>, used from the period of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre-Islamic Arabia</a> to that of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the <a href="/wiki/Syntactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic">syntactic</a> and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as <a href="/wiki/Sibawayh" title="Sibawayh">Sibawayh</a>) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as the <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Manzur#Lisān_al-ʿArab" title="Ibn Manzur">Lisān al-ʻArab</a>).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">post-industrial era</a>, especially in modern times.<a href="#cite_note-auto-64">[62]</a> Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while the latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children.<a href="#cite_note-auto-64">[62]</a> The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a> vernaculars (which became <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>) in medieval and early modern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Kamusella-63">[61]</a> MSA is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" (فُصْحَى fuṣḥá) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>Certain grammatical constructions of CA that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Energetic_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Energetic mood">energetic mood</a>) are almost never used in Modern Standard Arabic.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">Case</a> distinctions are very rare in Arabic vernaculars. As a result, MSA is generally composed without case distinctions in mind, and the proper cases are added after the fact, when necessary. Because most case endings are noted using final short vowels, which are normally left unwritten in the Arabic script, it is unnecessary to determine the proper case of most words. The practical result of this is that MSA, like English and <a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a>, is written in a strongly determined word order and alternative orders that were used in CA for emphasis are rare. In addition, because of the lack of case marking in the spoken varieties, most speakers cannot consistently use the correct endings in extemporaneous speech. As a result, spoken MSA tends to drop or regularize the endings except when reading from a prepared text.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>The numeral system in CA is complex and heavily tied in with the case system. This system is never used in MSA, even in the most formal of circumstances; instead, a greatly simplified system is used, approximating the system of the conservative spoken varieties.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/220px--Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="24411" data-mwtitle="Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/5c/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm/Arabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AArabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AArabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm&lang=es&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="es" label="español ‪(es)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AArabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AArabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AArabic_Swadesh_list_1-100.webm&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>Arabic <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a> (1–100)</figcaption></figure> MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve.<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy').[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The current preference is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use <a href="/wiki/Loan_translation" class="mw-redirect" title="Loan translation">loan translations</a> (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">roots</a> (استماتة istimātah '<a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_verbs#Formation_of_derived_stems_("forms")" title="Arabic verbs">Xth form</a>, or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk').[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutually unintelligible</a>, and some linguists consider them distinct languages.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/220px-Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/330px-Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg/440px-Epitaph_Imru-l-Qays_Louvre_AO4083.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3680" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Namara_inscription" title="Namara inscription">Namara inscription</a>, a sample of <a href="/wiki/Nabataean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabataean alphabet">Nabataean script</a>, considered a direct precursor of Arabic script<a href="#cite_note-The_National-2016-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a></figcaption></figure>The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as <a href="/wiki/Soap_opera" title="Soap opera">soap operas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talk_show" title="Talk show">talk shows</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Jenkins-69">[67]</a> as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. <a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot Arabic</a> are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> Hassaniya is official in Mali<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> and recognized as a minority language in Morocco,<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it.<a href="#cite_note-HassaniyaAlphabet-13">[11]</a> Maltese is official in (predominantly <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a>) <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> and written with the <a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Latin script</a>. Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a>, though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not a type of Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-Čéplö-73">[71]</a> Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status_and_usage">Status and usage</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diglossia">Diglossia</h3></div> The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>, which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-GUP-75">[73]</a> In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on the region may be mutually unintelligible.<a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a> Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own.<a href="#cite_note-81">[79]</a> When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code-switch</a> back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg/170px-Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg/255px-Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg/340px-Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>, used in some cases for the Arabic language</figcaption></figure> The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">varieties of Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindi language">Hindi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urdu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Urdu language">Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> While there is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions.<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a> From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a> This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for the Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>, a linguistically innovative variety such as <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a> is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a>, much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg/170px-Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg/255px-Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg/340px-Flag_of_Hejaz_1917.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Flag used in some cases for the Arabic language (Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Kingdom of Hejaz</a> 1916–1925). The flag contains the four <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a>: <a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">black</a>, <a href="/wiki/White" title="White">white</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a>. </figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Status_in_the_Arab_world_vis-à-vis_other_languages">Status in the Arab world vis-à-vis other languages</h3></div> With the sole example of Medieval linguist <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hayyan_al-Gharnati" title="Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati">Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati</a> – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh2014107-85">[83]</a> In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. <a href="/wiki/Yasir_Suleiman" title="Yasir Suleiman">Yasir Suleiman</a> wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of the Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises."<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_a_foreign_language">As a foreign language</h3></div> Arabic has been taught worldwide in many <a href="/wiki/Elementary_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Elementary school">elementary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary</a> schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around the world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Languages">foreign languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_studies" title="Middle Eastern studies">Middle Eastern studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">religious studies</a> courses. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_school" title="Arabic language school">Arabic language schools</a> exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic <a href="/wiki/Language_school" title="Language school">language schools</a> in the Arab world and other <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim</a> countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam" title="Glossary of Islam">Islamic terms</a> are in Arabic, millions<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study the language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> A number of websites on the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexicography">Lexicography</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_dictionaries" title="List of Arabic dictionaries">List of Arabic dictionaries</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-modern_Arabic_lexicography">Pre-modern Arabic lexicography</h4></div> The tradition of Arabic <a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">lexicography</a> extended for about a millennium before the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia_of_Islam,_THREE-2020-90">[88]</a> Early lexicographers (لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn) sought to explain words in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia_of_Islam,_THREE-2020-90">[88]</a> They gathered shawāhid (شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from <a href="/wiki/Arabic_poetry" title="Arabic poetry">poetry</a> and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin <a href="/w/index.php?title=%CA%BEa%CA%BFr%C4%81b_(Bedouins)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ʾaʿrāb (Bedouins) (page does not exist)">ʾaʿrāb</a> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8" class="extiw" title="ar:أعراب">ar</a>] (أَعْراب) who were perceived to speak the "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah (جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia_of_Islam,_THREE-2020-90">[88]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpg/220px-Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpg/330px-Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpg/440px-Birmingham_Quran_manuscript.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1333" /></a><figcaption>Arabic from the Quran in the old Hijazi dialect (Hijazi script, 7th century AD)</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-%27Ayn" title="Kitab al-'Ayn">Kitāb al-'Ayn</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 8th century), attributed to <a href="/wiki/Al-Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al-Farahidi" title="Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi">Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi</a>, is considered the first <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">lexicon</a> to include all <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Arabic roots</a>; it sought to exhaust all possible root <a href="/wiki/Permutation" title="Permutation">permutations</a>—later called taqālīb (تقاليب)—calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal (مستعمَل) and those that are not used muhmal (مُهمَل).<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia_of_Islam,_THREE-2020-90">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lisan_al-Arab" title="Lisan al-Arab">Lisān al-ʿArab</a> (1290) by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Manzur" title="Ibn Manzur">Ibn Manzur</a> gives 9,273 roots, while <a href="/wiki/Taj_al-%CA%BFArus_Min_Jawahir_al-Qamus" title="Taj al-ʿArus Min Jawahir al-Qamus">Tāj al-ʿArūs</a> (1774) by <a href="/wiki/Murtada_al-Zabidi" title="Murtada al-Zabidi">Murtada az-Zabidi</a> gives 11,978 roots.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia_of_Islam,_THREE-2020-90">[88]</a> This lexicographic tradition was traditionalist and corrective in nature—holding that linguistic correctness and eloquence derive from Qurʾānic usage, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jahili_poetry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jahili poetry (page does not exist)">pre-Islamic poetry</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litt%C3%A9rature_pr%C3%A9islamique" class="extiw" title="fr:Littérature préislamique">fr</a>; <a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AF%D8%A8_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%84%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:أدب جاهلي">ar</a>], and Bedouin speech—positioning itself against laḥnu‿l-ʿāmmah (لَحْن العامة), the <a href="/wiki/Solecism" title="Solecism">solecism</a> it viewed as defective.<a href="#cite_note-Encyclopaedia_of_Islam,_THREE-2020-90">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Western_lexicography_of_Arabic">Western lexicography of Arabic</h4></div> In the second half of the 19th century, the British Arabist <a href="/wiki/Edward_William_Lane" title="Edward William Lane">Edward William Lane</a>, working with the Egyptian scholar <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_Abd_al-Ghaff%C4%81r_ad-Das%C5%ABq%C4%AB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibrāhīm Abd al-Ghaffār ad-Dasūqī (page does not exist)">Ibrāhīm Abd al-Ghaffār ad-Dasūqī</a> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%82%D9%8A" class="extiw" title="ar:إبراهيم عبد الغفار الدسوقي">ar</a>],<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> compiled the <a href="/wiki/Arabic%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="Arabic–English Lexicon">Arabic–English Lexicon</a> by translating material from earlier Arabic lexica into English.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> The German Arabist <a href="/wiki/Hans_Wehr" title="Hans Wehr">Hans Wehr</a>, with contributions from <a href="/wiki/Hedwig_Klein" title="Hedwig Klein">Hedwig Klein</a>,<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> compiled the <a href="/wiki/Arabisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch_f%C3%BCr_die_Schriftsprache_der_Gegenwart" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart">Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart</a> (1952), later translated into English as <a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Modern_Written_Arabic" title="A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic">A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic</a> (1961), based on established usage, especially in literature.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_Arabic_lexicography">Modern Arabic lexicography</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_the_Arabic_Language_in_Cairo" title="Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo">Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo</a> sought to publish a <a href="/wiki/Historical_dictionary" title="Historical dictionary">historical dictionary</a> of Arabic in the vein of the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>, tracing the changes of meanings and uses of Arabic words over time.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> A first volume of <a href="/wiki/Al-Mu%27jam_al-Kabir_(dictionary)" title="Al-Mu'jam al-Kabir (dictionary)">Al-Muʿjam al-Kabīr</a> was published in 1956 under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Taha_Hussein" title="Taha Hussein">Taha Hussein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> The project is not yet complete; its 15th volume, covering the letter <a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_ṣād" title="Tsade">ṣād</a>, was published in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loanwords">Loanwords</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg/220px-Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg/330px-Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg/440px-Folio_Blue_Quran_Met_2004.88.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3791" data-file-height="2581" /></a><figcaption>The Qur'an has served and continues to serve as a fundamental reference for Arabic. (<a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a> script, <a href="/wiki/Blue_Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue Qur'an">Blue Qur'an</a>, 9th–10th century.)</figcaption></figure> The most important sources of borrowings into (pre-Islamic) Arabic are from the related (Semitic) languages <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> which used to be the principal, international language of communication throughout the ancient Near and Middle East, and <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ethiopic</a>. Many cultural, religious and political terms have entered Arabic from <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a>, and (Classical) Persian,<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> and Hellenistic Greek (kīmiyāʼ has as origin the Greek khymia, meaning in that language the melting of metals; see <a href="/wiki/Roger_Dachez" title="Roger Dachez">Roger Dachez</a>, Histoire de la Médecine de l'Antiquité au XXe siècle, Tallandier, 2008, p. 251), alembic (distiller) from ambix (cup), almanac (climate) from almenichiakon (calendar). For the origin of the last three borrowed words, see Alfred-Louis de Prémare, Foundations of Islam, Seuil, L'Univers Historique, 2002. Some Arabic borrowings from Semitic or Persian languages are, as presented in De Prémare's above-cited book: [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>madīnah/<a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">medina</a> (مدينة, city or city square), a word of Aramaic origin ܡܕ݂ܝܼܢ݇ܬܵܐ məḏī(n)ttā (in which it means "state/city").[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>jazīrah (جزيرة), as in the well-known form الجزيرة "Al-Jazeera", means "island" and has its origin in the Syriac ܓܵܙܲܪܬܵܐ gāzartā.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>lāzaward (لازورد) is taken from Persian لاژورد lājvard, the name of a blue stone, lapis lazuli. This word was borrowed in several European languages to mean (light) blue – azure in English, azur in French and azul in Portuguese and Spanish.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_script_evolution.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Arabic_script_evolution.svg/220px-Arabic_script_evolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Arabic_script_evolution.svg/330px-Arabic_script_evolution.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Arabic_script_evolution.svg/440px-Arabic_script_evolution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="817" /></a><figcaption>Evolution of early <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> (9th–11th century), with the <a href="/wiki/Basmala" title="Basmala">Basmala</a> as an example, from <a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">kufic</a> <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'ān</a> manuscripts: (1) Early 9th century, script with no dots or diacritic marks;(2) and (3) 9th–10th century under the Abbasid dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Aswad_al-Du%27ali" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali">Abu al-Aswad's</a> system established red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel; later, a second black-dot system was used to differentiate between letters like fā' and qāf; (4) 11th century, in <a href="/wiki/Al-Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al-Farahidi" title="Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi">al-Farāhidi's</a> system (system used today) dots were changed into shapes resembling the letters to transcribe the corresponding long vowels.</figcaption></figure>A comprehensive overview of the influence of other languages on Arabic is found in Lucas & Manfredi (2020).<a href="#cite_note-Lucas2020-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_on_other_languages">Influence on other languages</h3></div> The influence of Arabic has been most important in Islamic countries, because it is the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Quran. Arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as <a href="/wiki/Amharic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amharic language">Amharic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baluchi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluchi language">Baluchi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bosnian_language" title="Bosnian language">Bosnian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaldean Neo-Aramaic">Chaldean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chechen_language" title="Chechen language">Chechen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chittagonian_language" title="Chittagonian language">Chittagonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatian_language" title="Croatian language">Croatian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dagestani language">Dagestani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Dhivehi</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_language" title="Gujarati language">Gujarati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindi" title="Hindi">Hindi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakh_language" title="Kazakh language">Kazakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_language" title="Kurdish language">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kutchi_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kutchi Language">Kutchi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_language" title="Kyrgyz language">Kyrgyz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malaysian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaysian language">Malaysian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>), <a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rohingya_language" title="Rohingya language">Rohingya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, etc.) <a href="/wiki/Saraiki_language" title="Saraiki language">Saraiki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sylheti_language" title="Sylheti language">Sylheti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_language" title="Turkmen language">Turkmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbek_language" title="Uzbek language">Uzbek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visayan_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Visayan languages">Visayan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wolof_language" title="Wolof language">Wolof</a>, as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken.<a href="#cite_note-Lucas2020-100">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> has been also influenced by Arabic especially during the process of <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">revival</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">MSA</a> was used as a source for modern Hebrew vocabulary and roots.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> has many Arabic loanwords, some directly, but most via other Mediterranean languages. Examples of such words include admiral, adobe, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, alkaline, almanac, amber, arsenal, assassin, candy, carat, cipher, coffee, cotton, ghoul, hazard, jar, kismet, lemon, loofah, magazine, mattress, sherbet, sofa, sumac, tariff, and zenith.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Other languages such as <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinubi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinubi">Kinubi</a> derive ultimately from Arabic, rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules. Terms borrowed range from religious terminology (like <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> taẓallit, "prayer", from <a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">salat</a> (صلاة ṣalāh)), academic terms (like <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_language" title="Uyghur language">Uyghur</a> mentiq, "logic"), and economic items (like English coffee) to <a href="/wiki/Placeholder_name" title="Placeholder name">placeholders</a> (like <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> fulano, "so-and-so"), everyday terms (like <a href="/wiki/Hindustani_language" title="Hindustani language">Hindustani</a> lekin, "but", or Spanish taza and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> tasse, meaning "cup"), and expressions (like <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> a betzef, "galore, in quantity"). Most Berber varieties (such as <a href="/wiki/Kabyle_language" title="Kabyle language">Kabyle</a>), along with <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a>, borrow some numbers from Arabic. Most Islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from Arabic, such as صلاة (ṣalāh), "prayer", and إمام (imām), "prayer leader".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In languages not directly in contact with the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, Arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from Arabic. For example, most Arabic loanwords in Hindustani and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> entered through <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>. Older Arabic loanwords in <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a> were borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Kanuri_language" title="Kanuri language">Kanuri</a>. Most Arabic loanwords in <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a> entered through <a href="/wiki/Hausa_language" title="Hausa language">Hausa</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Arabic words made their way into several West African languages as Islam spread across the Sahara. Variants of Arabic words such as كتاب kitāb ("book") have spread to the languages of African groups who had no direct contact with Arab traders.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Since, throughout the Islamic world, Arabic occupied a position similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> in Europe, many of the Arabic concepts in the fields of science, philosophy, commerce, etc. were coined from Arabic roots by non-native Arabic speakers, notably by <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> and Persian translators, and then found their way into other languages. This process of using Arabic roots, especially in <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a> and Persian, to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries, when swaths of Arab-inhabited lands were under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman rule</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spoken_varieties">Spoken varieties</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties of Arabic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/660px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png" decoding="async" width="660" height="370" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/990px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg/1320px-Arabic_Varieties_Map-2023.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2051" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>Geographical distribution of the varieties of Arabic per <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> and <a href="/wiki/File:Arabic_Varieties_Map.svg" title="File:Arabic Varieties Map.svg">other sources</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1256394559">.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ol{margin-left:1.3em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key>ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media(min-width:300px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key,.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:2}.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-narrow{column-count:1}}@media(min-width:450px){.mw-parser-output figure[typeof="mw:File/Thumb"] .image-key-wide{column-count:3}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist image-key image-key-wide"><ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  1: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:mey" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:mey">Hassaniyya</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  2: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ary" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ary">Moroccan Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  3: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:aao" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:aao">Algerian Saharan Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  4: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:arq" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:arq">Algerian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  5: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:aeb" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:aeb">Tunisian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  6: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayl" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayl">Libyan Arabic – Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  7: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:arz" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:arz">Egyptian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  8: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:avl" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:avl">Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  9: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:aec" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:aec">Saidi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  10: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:shu" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:shu">Chadian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  11: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:apd" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:apd">Sudanese Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  12: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:pga" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:pga">Sudanese Creole Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  13: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ars" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ars">Najdi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  14: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:apc" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:apc">Levantine Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  15: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayp" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayp">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  16: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acm" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acm">Mesopotamian Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  17: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:afb" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:afb">Gulf Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  18: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:abv" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:abv">Baharna Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  19: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acw" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acw">Hijazi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  20: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ssh" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ssh">Shihhi Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  21: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acx" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acx">Omani Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  22: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:adf" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:adf">Dhofari Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  23: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayn" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayn">Sanaani Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  24: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acq" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acq">Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  25: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:ayh" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:ayh">Hadrami Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  26: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:auz" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:auz">Uzbeki Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  27: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:abh" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:abh">Tajiki Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  28: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:acy" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:acy">Cypriot Arabic</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  29: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:mlt" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:mlt">Maltese</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  30: <a href="/wiki/ISO_639:kcn" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 639:kcn">Nubi</a></div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Sparsely populated area or no indigenous Arabic speakers</div></li><li>Solid area fill: variety natively spoken by at least 25% of the population of that area or variety indigenous to that area only</li><li>Hatched area fill: minority scattered over the area</li><li>Dotted area fill: speakers of this variety are mixed with speakers of other Arabic varieties in the area</li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> Colloquial Arabic is a collective term for the spoken dialects of Arabic used throughout the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, which differ radically from the <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a>. The main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>, followed by that between <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic#Typological_differences" title="Varieties of Arabic">sedentary</a> varieties and the much more conservative <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> varieties. All the varieties outside of the Arabian peninsula, which include the large majority of speakers, have many features in common with each other that are not found in Classical Arabic. This has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koine</a> dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Arab conquest</a>, whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas. These features are present to varying degrees inside the Arabian peninsula. Generally, the Arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the non-peninsula varieties, but these have been understudied.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuscript_page_by_Maimonides_Arabic_in_Hebrew_letters_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Manuscript_page_by_Maimonides_Arabic_in_Hebrew_letters_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Manuscript_page_by_Maimonides_Arabic_in_Hebrew_letters_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Manuscript_page_by_Maimonides_Arabic_in_Hebrew_letters_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Manuscript_page_by_Maimonides_Arabic_in_Hebrew_letters_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Manuscript_page_by_Maimonides_Arabic_in_Hebrew_letters_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Manuscript_page_by_Maimonides_Arabic_in_Hebrew_letters_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="1054" /></a><figcaption>Maimonides' <a href="/wiki/Autograph_(manuscript)" title="Autograph (manuscript)">autograph</a> draft of <a href="/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed" title="The Guide for the Perplexed">The Guide for the Perplexed</a> (דלאלת אלחאירין, دلالة الحائرين Dalālatu‿l-ḥāʾirīn), in Arabic written with <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew letters</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a></figcaption></figure>Within the non-peninsula varieties, the largest difference is between the non-Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">North African dialects</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, and the others. Moroccan Arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to Arabic speakers east of <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> (although the converse is not true, in part due to the popularity of Egyptian films and other media).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided many new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order. However, a more weighty factor for most dialects is, as among <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Iraqi</a> aku, <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a> fīh and <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">North African</a> kayən all mean 'there is', and all come from Classical Arabic forms (yakūn, fīhi, kā'in respectively), but now sound very different.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Koiné">Koiné</h3></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Ferguson" title="Charles A. Ferguson">Charles A. Ferguson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> the following are some of the characteristic features of the <a href="/wiki/Koin%C3%A9_language" title="Koiné language">koiné</a> that underlies all the modern dialects outside the Arabian peninsula. Although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties, Ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine: <ul><li>Loss of the <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual number</a> except on nouns, with consistent plural agreement (cf. feminine singular agreement in plural inanimates).</li> <li>Change of a to i in many affixes (e.g., non-past-tense prefixes ti- yi- ni-; wi- 'and'; il- 'the'; feminine -it in the <a href="/wiki/Construct_state" title="Construct state">construct state</a>).</li> <li>Loss of third-weak verbs ending in w (which merge with verbs ending in y).</li> <li>Reformation of geminate verbs, e.g., ḥalaltu 'I untied' → ḥalēt(u).</li> <li>Conversion of separate words lī 'to me', laka 'to you', etc. into indirect-object <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a> suffixes.</li> <li>Certain changes in the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal number (linguistics)">cardinal number</a> system, e.g., khamsat ayyām 'five days' → kham(a)s tiyyām, where certain words have a special plural with prefixed t.</li> <li>Loss of the feminine <a href="/wiki/Elative_(gradation)" title="Elative (gradation)">elative</a> (comparative).</li> <li>Adjective plurals of the form kibār 'big' → kubār.</li> <li>Change of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar#Nisba" title="Arabic grammar">nisba</a> suffix -iyy > i.</li> <li>Certain <a href="/wiki/Lexical_item" title="Lexical item">lexical items</a>, e.g., jāb 'bring' < jāʼa bi- 'come with'; shāf 'see'; ēsh 'what' (or similar) < ayyu shayʼ 'which thing'; illi (relative pronoun).</li> <li>Merger of /ɮˤ/ and /ðˤ/.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialect_groups">Dialect groups</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, spoken by 67 million people in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ARZ-107">[105]</a> It is one of the most understood varieties of Arabic, due in large part to the widespread distribution of Egyptian films and television shows throughout the Arabic-speaking world.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a>, spoken by about 44 million people in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_of_Palestine" title="State of Palestine">Palestine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-e25apc-108">[106]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese Arabic</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">variety</a> of <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> spoken primarily in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian Arabic</a> is a continuum of mutually intelligible varieties of <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> spoken by the population of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Jordan">Kingdom of Jordan</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian Arabic</a> is a name of several dialects of the subgroup of <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> spoken by the Palestinians in <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian National Authority">Palestine</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Arab_citizens_of_Israel" title="Arab citizens of Israel">Arab citizens of Israel</a> and in most Palestinian populations around the world.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan alphabet">Samaritan Arabic</a>, spoken by only several hundred in the <a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Nablus</a> region.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Maronite_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cypriot Maronite Arabic">Cypriot Maronite Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> by around 9,800 people (2013 UNSD).<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a>, also called "Darija", spoken by about 70 million people in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>. It also forms the basis of <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> via the extinct <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian Arabic</a> dialect.<a href="#cite_note-Borg,_Albert_J._1997-110">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> is very hard to understand for Arabic speakers from the <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the most comprehensible being <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a> and the most difficult <a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>. The others such as <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a> can be considered in between the two in terms of difficulty. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> and neighboring countries.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> and north-eastern <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian Arabic</a> was spoken by <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Jews</a> in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> until 1962, now it is spoken by a few elderly <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algerian Jews</a> in France and Israel.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya Arabic</a> (3 million speakers), spoken in <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, some parts of the <a href="/wiki/Azawad" title="Azawad">Azawad</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, and south-western <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Andalusian Arabic">Andalusian Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> until the 16th century.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sicilian Arabic">Sicilian Arabic</a>), was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> between the end of the 9th century and the end of the 12th century and eventually evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese language</a>. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a>, spoken on the <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">island of Malta</a>, is the only fully separate standardized language to have originated from an Arabic dialect, the extinct <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> dialect, with independent literary norms. Maltese has evolved independently of Modern Standard Arabic and its varieties into a standardized language over the past 800 years in a gradual process of <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Latinisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> Maltese is therefore considered an exceptional descendant of Arabic that has no <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossic</a> relationship with <a href="/wiki/Standard_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Arabic">Standard Arabic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> Maltese is different from Arabic and other <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a> since its <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> has been deeply influenced by <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sicilian_language" title="Sicilian language">Sicilian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> It is the only Semitic language written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>. In terms of basic everyday language, speakers of Maltese are reported to be able to understand less than a third of what is said to them in <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian Arabic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> which is related to Siculo-Arabic,<a href="#cite_note-Borg,_Albert_J._1997-110">[108]</a> whereas speakers of Tunisian are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">asymmetric intelligibility</a> is considerably lower than the <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> found between Maghrebi Arabic dialects.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a> Maltese has its own dialects, with urban varieties of Maltese being closer to Standard Maltese than rural varieties.<a href="#cite_note-isser-118">[116]</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a>, spoken by about 41.2 million people in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> (where it is called "Aamiyah"), eastern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and southwestern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan Province">Khuzestan</a>) and in the southeastern of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Region,_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Region, Turkey">Mediterranean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Anatolia Region">Southeastern Anatolia Region</a>). <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a> is a spoken north of the <a href="/wiki/Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, in western <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> (in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Region,_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Region, Turkey">Mediterranean Region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeastern Anatolia Region">Southeastern Anatolia Region</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Anatolia_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Anatolia Region">Eastern Anatolia Region</a>).<a href="#cite_note-119">[117]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Mesopotamian Arabic</a>, also known as Iraqi Judeo Arabic and Yahudic, is a variety of Arabic spoken by <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraqi Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mosul" title="Mosul">Mosul</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Arabic">Baghdad Arabic</a> is the Arabic dialect spoken in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, and the surrounding cities and it is a subvariety of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</a> is the dialect spoken by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraqi Jews</a> of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South Mesopotamian Arabic</a> (Basrawi dialect) is the dialect spoken in southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dhi_Qar_Governorate" title="Dhi Qar Governorate">Dhi Qar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani Arabic</a>, spoken in the Iranian province of <a href="/wiki/Khuzestan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khuzestan Province">Khuzestan</a>. This is a mix of <a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">Southern Mesopotamian Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani Arabic</a>, spoken in the Iranian province of <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorasan Province">Khorasan</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti Arabic</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a> <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialect</a> spoken in <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese Arabic</a>, spoken by 17 million people in <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and some parts of southern <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Sudanese Arabic is quite distinct from the dialect of its neighbor to the north; rather, the Sudanese have a dialect similar to the Hejazi dialect.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a> and southern far <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a>, spoken by around four million people, predominantly in <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, some parts of <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> coastal areas and some parts of <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">UAE</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>. Also spoken in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bushehr_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushehr Province">Bushehr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hormozgan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormozgan Province">Hormozgan</a> provinces. Although Gulf Arabic is spoken in <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, most Qatari citizens speak <a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a> (Bedawi).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani Arabic</a>, distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, spoken in Central <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>. With its oil wealth and mobility it has spread to various areas of the former <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Muscat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Muscat">Sultanate of Muscat</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Swahili Coast">Swahili Coast</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami Arabic</a>, spoken by around 8 million people, predominantly in <a href="/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut">Hadhramaut</a>, and in parts of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> by <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhrami people">Hadhrami</a> descendants.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> by 15 million people. Similar to <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a>, spoken by around 10 million people, mainly spoken in <a href="/wiki/Najd" title="Najd">Najd</a>, central and northern <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. Most Qatari citizens speak Najdi Arabic (Bedawi).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi Arabic</a> (6 million speakers), spoken in <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saharan_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Saharan Arabic">Saharan Arabic</a> spoken in some parts of <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baharna_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baharna Arabic">Baharna Arabic</a> (800,000 speakers), spoken by <a href="/wiki/Bahrani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahrani people">Bahrani Shias</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qatif" title="Qatif">Qatif</a>, the dialect exhibits many big differences from <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a>. It is also spoken to a lesser extent in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> dialects – these are the dialects spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> that had lived or continue to live in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab World</a>. As Jewish migration to Israel took hold, the language did not thrive and is now considered endangered. So-called Qəltu Arabic.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, some parts of <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_African_Republic" title="Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cameroon" title="Cameroon">Cameroon</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> by around 8,000 people.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> Tajiki Arabic is highly endangered.<a href="#cite_note-ELTajiki-123">[121]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani Arabic</a>, spoken in <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> until the 1930s, now extinct.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Arabic" title="Indonesian Arabic">Indonesian Arabic</a>, spoken in Arab ethnic enclaves in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, especially along the north coast of <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>. It has about 60,000 speakers according to a rough estimate in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Arabic phonology</a></div> While many languages have numerous dialects that differ in <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, contemporary spoken Arabic is more properly described as a <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">continuum of varieties</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (MSA), is the <a href="/wiki/Standard_variety" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard variety">standard variety</a> shared by educated speakers throughout Arabic-speaking regions. MSA is used in writing in formal print media and orally in newscasts, speeches and formal declarations of numerous types.<a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> Modern Standard Arabic has 28 <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> and 6 <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel</a> phonemes. All phonemes contrast between "<a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealized" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharyngealized">pharyngealized</a>) consonants and non-emphatic ones. Some of these phonemes have <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic merger">coalesced</a> in the various modern dialects, while new phonemes have been introduced through <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">borrowing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phonemic_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic split">phonemic splits</a>. A "phonemic quality of length" applies to <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">consonants</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length" title="Vowel length">vowels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fa33aalah_EN.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Fa33aalah_EN.pdf/page1-330px-Fa33aalah_EN.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="467" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Fa33aalah_EN.pdf/page1-495px-Fa33aalah_EN.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Fa33aalah_EN.pdf/page1-660px-Fa33aalah_EN.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="1754" /></a><figcaption>Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic grammar</a></div>The <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">grammar of Arabic</a> has similarities with the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages#Grammar" title="Semitic languages">grammar of other Semitic languages</a>. Some of the typical differences between Standard Arabic (فُصْحَى) and vernacular varieties are a loss of <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morphological markings</a> of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">grammatical case</a>, changes in <a href="/wiki/Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>, a shift toward more <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic</a> morphosyntax, loss of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">grammatical mood</a>, and loss of the inflected <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_Arabic">Literary Arabic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a></div> As in other Semitic languages, Arabic has a complex and unusual <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, i.e. method of constructing words from a basic <a href="/wiki/Root_(linguistics)" title="Root (linguistics)">root</a>. Arabic has a <a href="/wiki/Nonconcatenative_morphology" title="Nonconcatenative morphology">nonconcatenative</a> "root-and-pattern" morphology: A root consists of a set of bare consonants (usually <a href="/wiki/Triliteral" class="mw-redirect" title="Triliteral">three</a>), which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern to form words. For example, the word for 'I wrote' is constructed by combining the root k-t-b 'write' with the pattern -a-a-tu 'I Xed' to form katabtu 'I wrote'. Other verbs meaning 'I Xed' will typically have the same pattern but with different consonants, e.g. qaraʼtu 'I read', akaltu 'I ate', dhahabtu 'I went', although other patterns are possible, e.g. sharibtu 'I drank', qultu 'I said', takallamtu 'I spoke', where the subpattern used to signal the past tense may change but the suffix -tu is always used. From a single root k-t-b, numerous words can be formed by applying different patterns: <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style>كَتَبْتُ‎ katabtu 'I wrote'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كَتَّبْتُ‎ kattabtu 'I had (something) written'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كَاتَبْتُ‎ kātabtu 'I corresponded (with someone)'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">أَكْتَبْتُ‎ 'aktabtu 'I dictated'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">اِكْتَتَبْتُ‎ iktatabtu 'I subscribed'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">تَكَاتَبْنَا‎ takātabnā 'we corresponded with each other'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">أَكْتُبُ‎ 'aktubu 'I write'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">أُكَتِّبُ‎ 'ukattibu 'I have (something) written'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">أُكَاتِبُ‎ 'ukātibu 'I correspond (with someone)'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">أُكْتِبُ‎ 'uktibu 'I dictate'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">أَكْتَتِبُ‎ 'aktatibu 'I subscribe'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">نَتَكَتِبُ‎ natakātabu 'we correspond each other'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كُتِبَ‎ kutiba 'it was written'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">أُكْتِبَ‎ 'uktiba 'it was dictated'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">مَكْتُوبٌ‎ maktūbun 'written'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">مُكْتَبٌ‎ muktabun 'dictated'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كِتَابٌ‎ kitābun 'book'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كُتُبٌ‎ kutubun 'books'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كَاتِبٌ‎ kātibun 'writer'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كُتَّابٌ‎ kuttābun 'writers'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">مَكْتَبٌ‎ maktabun 'desk, office'</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">مَكْتَبَةٌ‎ maktabatun 'library, bookshop'</li> <li>etc.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nouns_and_adjectives">Nouns and adjectives</h4></div> Nouns in Literary Arabic have three grammatical <a href="/wiki/Noun_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun case">cases</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> [also used when the noun is governed by a preposition]); three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a> (singular, dual and plural); two <a href="/wiki/Gender_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender (grammar)">genders</a> (masculine and feminine); and three "states" (indefinite, definite, and <a href="/wiki/Status_constructus" class="mw-redirect" title="Status constructus">construct</a>). The cases of singular nouns, other than those that end in long ā, are indicated by <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixed</a> short vowels (/-u/ for nominative, /-a/ for accusative, /-i/ for genitive). The feminine singular is often marked by <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ـَة‎ /-at/, which is pronounced as /-ah/ before a pause. Plural is indicated either through endings (the <a href="/wiki/Sound_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound plural">sound plural</a>) or internal modification (the <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">broken plural</a>). Definite nouns include all proper nouns, all nouns in "construct state" and all nouns which are <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixed</a> by the definite article <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">اَلْـ‎ /al-/. Indefinite singular nouns, other than those that end in long ā, add a final /-n/ to the case-marking vowels, giving /-un/, /-an/ or /-in/, which is also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">nunation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tanw%C4%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanwīn">tanwīn</a>. <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjectives</a> in Literary Arabic are marked for case, number, gender and state, as for nouns. The plural of all non-human nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective, which takes the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ـَة‎ /-at/ suffix. <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronouns</a> in Literary Arabic are marked for person, number and gender. There are two varieties, independent pronouns and <a href="/wiki/Enclitic#Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitics</a>. Enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb, noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns. The first-person singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ـنِي‎ /-nī/) and for nouns or prepositions (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ـِي‎ /-ī/ after consonants, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ـيَ‎ /-ya/ after vowels). Nouns, verbs, pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects. Non-human plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular. A verb in a verb-initial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun. Numerals between three and ten show "chiasmic" agreement, in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbs">Verbs</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_verbs" title="Arabic verbs">Arabic verbs</a></div> Verbs in Literary Arabic are marked for person (first, second, or third), gender, and number. They are <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugated</a> in two major paradigms (<a href="/wiki/Past" title="Past">past</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-past" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-past">non-past</a>); two <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">voices</a> (active and passive); and six <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative">indicative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irrealis_mood#Jussive" title="Irrealis mood">jussive</a>, shorter <a href="/wiki/Energetic_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Energetic mood">energetic</a> and longer energetic); the fifth and sixth moods, the energetics, exist only in Classical Arabic but not in MSA.<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> There are two <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participles</a>, active and passive, and a <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a>, but no <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a>. The past and non-past paradigms are sometimes termed <a href="/wiki/Perfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfective">perfective</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfective" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperfective">imperfective</a>, indicating the fact that they actually represent a combination of <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>. The moods other than the <a href="/wiki/Indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative">indicative</a> occur only in the non-past, and the <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future tense</a> is signaled by prefixing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">سَـ‎ sa- or <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">سَوْفَ‎ sawfa onto the non-past. The past and non-past differ in the form of the stem (e.g., past <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كَتَبـ‎ katab- vs. non-past <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">ـكْتُبـ‎ -ktub-), and use completely different sets of affixes for indicating person, number and gender: In the past, the person, number and gender are fused into a single <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixal</a> morpheme, while in the non-past, a combination of <a href="/wiki/Prefix" title="Prefix">prefixes</a> (primarily encoding person) and suffixes (primarily encoding gender and number) are used. The passive voice uses the same person/number/gender affixes but changes the vowels of the stem. The following shows a paradigm of a regular Arabic verb, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كَتَبَ‎ kataba 'to write'. In Modern Standard, the energetic mood, in either long or short form, which has the same meaning, is almost never used. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Derivation">Derivation</h4></div> Like other <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a>, and unlike most other languages, Arabic makes much more use of <a href="/wiki/Nonconcatenative_morphology" title="Nonconcatenative morphology">nonconcatenative morphology</a>, applying many templates applied to roots, to <a href="/wiki/Morphological_derivation" title="Morphological derivation">derive</a> words than adding prefixes or suffixes to words. For verbs, a given root can occur in many different <a href="/wiki/Derived_stem" title="Derived stem">derived verb stems</a>, of which there are about fifteen, each with one or more characteristic meanings and each with its own templates for the past and non-past stems, active and passive participles, and verbal noun. These are referred to by Western scholars as "Form I", "Form II", and so on through "Form XV", although Forms XI to XV are rare. These stems encode grammatical functions such as the <a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">causative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Intensive">intensive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">reflexive</a>. Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs, albeit often semantically related, and each is the basis for its own <a href="/wiki/Verb_conjugation" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb conjugation">conjugational</a> paradigm. As a result, these derived stems are part of the system of <a href="/wiki/Derivational_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Derivational morphology">derivational morphology</a>, not part of the <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> system. Examples of the different verbs formed from the root <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">كتب‎ k-t-b 'write' (using <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">حمر‎ ḥ-m-r 'red' for Form IX, which is limited to colors and physical defects): <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Most of these forms are exclusively <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Form</th> <th>Past</th> <th>Meaning</th> <th>Non-past</th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td>kataba</td> <td>'he wrote'</td> <td>yaktubu</td> <td>'he writes' </td></tr> <tr> <td>II</td> <td>kattaba</td> <td>'he made (someone) write'</td> <td>yukattibu</td> <td>"he makes (someone) write" </td></tr> <tr> <td>III</td> <td>kātaba</td> <td>'he corresponded with, wrote to (someone)'</td> <td>yukātibu</td> <td>'he corresponds with, writes to (someone)' </td></tr> <tr> <td>IV</td> <td>ʾaktaba</td> <td>'he dictated'</td> <td>yuktibu</td> <td>'he dictates' </td></tr> <tr> <td>V</td> <td>takattaba</td> <td>nonexistent</td> <td>yatakattabu</td> <td>nonexistent </td></tr> <tr> <td>VI</td> <td>takātaba</td> <td>'he corresponded (with someone, esp. mutually)'</td> <td>yatakātabu</td> <td>'he corresponds (with someone, esp. mutually)' </td></tr> <tr> <td>VII</td> <td>inkataba</td> <td>'he subscribed'</td> <td>yankatibu</td> <td>'he subscribes' </td></tr> <tr> <td>VIII</td> <td>iktataba</td> <td>'he copied'</td> <td>yaktatibu</td> <td>'he copies' </td></tr> <tr> <td>IX</td> <td>iḥmarra</td> <td>'he turned red'</td> <td>yaḥmarru</td> <td>'he turns red' </td></tr> <tr> <td>X</td> <td>istaktaba</td> <td>'he asked (someone) to write'</td> <td>yastaktibu</td> <td>'he asks (someone) to write' </td></tr></tbody></table> Form II is sometimes used to create transitive <a href="/wiki/Denominative_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Denominative verb">denominative verbs</a> (verbs built from nouns); Form V is the equivalent used for intransitive denominatives. The associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns in Arabic. This is similar to the process by which, for example, the <a href="/wiki/English_gerund" class="mw-redirect" title="English gerund">English gerund</a> "meeting" (similar to a verbal noun) has turned into a noun referring to a particular type of social, often work-related event where people gather together to have a "discussion" (another lexicalized verbal noun). Another fairly common means of forming nouns is through one of a limited number of patterns that can be applied directly to roots, such as the "nouns of location" in ma- (e.g. maktab 'desk, office' < k-t-b 'write', maṭbakh 'kitchen' < ṭ-b-kh 'cook'). The only three genuine suffixes are as follows: <ul><li>The feminine suffix -ah; variously derives terms for women from related terms for men, or more generally terms along the same lines as the corresponding masculine, e.g. maktabah 'library' (also a writing-related place, but different from maktab, as above).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar#Nisba" title="Arabic grammar">nisbah</a> suffix -iyy-. This suffix is extremely productive, and forms adjectives meaning "related to X". It corresponds to English adjectives in -ic, -al, -an, -y, -ist, etc.</li> <li>The feminine <a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar#Nisba" title="Arabic grammar">nisbah</a> suffix -iyyah. This is formed by adding the feminine suffix -ah onto nisba adjectives to form abstract nouns. For example, from the basic root š-r-k 'share' can be derived the Form VIII verb ishtaraka 'to cooperate, participate', and in turn its verbal noun ištirāk 'cooperation, participation' can be formed. This in turn can be made into a nisbah adjective ištirākiyy 'socialist', from which an abstract noun ishtirākiyyah 'socialism' can be derived. Other recent formations are jumhūriyyah 'republic' (lit. "public-ness", < jumhūr 'multitude, general public'), and the <a href="/wiki/Gaddafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaddafi">Gaddafi</a>-specific variation jamāhīriyyah 'people's republic' (lit. "masses-ness", < jamāhīr 'the masses', pl. of jumhūr, as above).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colloquial_varieties">Colloquial varieties</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties of Arabic</a></div> The spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual (it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances). They have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative, but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes (most often /bi-/ for indicative vs. unmarked subjunctive). They have also mostly lost the indefinite "nunation" and the internal passive. The following is an example of a regular verb paradigm in Egyptian Arabic. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Example of a regular Form I verb in <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a>, kátab/yíktib "write" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2">Tense/Mood </th> <th>Past </th> <th>Present Subjunctive </th> <th>Present Indicative </th> <th>Future </th> <th>Imperative </th></tr> <tr> <th style="width:100%;" colspan="7">Singular </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st </th> <td>katáb-t </td> <td>á-ktib </td> <td>bá-ktib </td> <td>ḥá-ktib </td> <td style="background: silver;">" </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd </th> <th>masculine </th> <td>katáb-t </td> <td>tí-ktib </td> <td>bi-tí-ktib </td> <td>ḥa-tí-ktib </td> <td>í-ktib </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>katáb-ti </td> <td>ti-ktíb-i </td> <td>bi-ti-ktíb-i </td> <td>ḥa-ti-ktíb-i </td> <td>i-ktíb-i </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd </th> <th>masculine </th> <td>kátab </td> <td>yí-ktib </td> <td>bi-yí-ktib </td> <td>ḥa-yí-ktib </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background: silver;">" </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>kátab-it </td> <td>tí-ktib </td> <td>bi-tí-ktib </td> <td>ḥa-tí-ktib </td></tr> <tr> <th style="width:100%;" colspan="7">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st </th> <td>katáb-na </td> <td>ní-ktib </td> <td>bi-ní-ktib </td> <td>ḥá-ní-ktib </td> <td style="background: silver;">" </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">2nd </th> <td>katáb-tu </td> <td>ti-ktíb-u </td> <td>bi-ti-ktíb-u </td> <td>ḥa-ti-ktíb-u </td> <td>i-ktíb-u </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">3rd </th> <td>kátab-u </td> <td>yi-ktíb-u </td> <td>bi-yi-ktíb-u </td> <td>ḥa-yi-ktíb-u </td> <td style="background: silver;">" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system </h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic alphabet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Menulis_khat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Menulis_khat.jpg/220px-Menulis_khat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Menulis_khat.jpg/330px-Menulis_khat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Menulis_khat.jpg/440px-Menulis_khat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2288" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a> written by a Malay Muslim in Malaysia. The calligrapher is making a rough draft.</figcaption></figure> The Arabic alphabet derives from the Aramaic through <a href="/wiki/Nabatean_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabatean alphabet">Nabatean</a>, to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of <a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic scripts</a> to <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek script</a>. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (North African) and Middle Eastern versions of the alphabet—in particular, the faʼ had a dot underneath and qaf a single dot above in the Maghreb, and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools (<a href="/wiki/Zaouia" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaouia">zaouias</a>) of West Africa. Arabic, like all other Semitic languages (except for the Latin-written Maltese, and the languages with the <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez script">Ge'ez script</a>), is written from right to left. There are several styles of scripts such as <a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">thuluth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">muhaqqaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">tawqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rayhan" class="mw-redirect" title="Rayhan">rayhan</a>, and notably <a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">naskh</a>, which is used in print and by computers, and <a href="/wiki/Ruq%27ah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruq'ah">ruqʻah</a>, which is commonly used for correspondence.<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[128]</a> Originally Arabic was made up of only rasm without diacritical marks<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> Later diacritical points (which in Arabic are referred to as nuqaṯ) were added (which allowed readers to distinguish between letters such as b, t, th, n and y). Finally signs known as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a> were used for short vowels known as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">harakat</a> and other uses such as final postnasalized or long vowels. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="7">Arabic Alphabet </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Wikipedia Romanization </th> <th rowspan="2">Value in MSA (<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>) </th> <th colspan="3">Contextual forms </th> <th rowspan="2">Isolated form </th> <th rowspan="2">No. </th></tr> <tr> <th>Final </th> <th>Medial </th> <th>Initial </th></tr> <tr> <td>ʾ or ʔ, ā </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">aː</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2">ـا </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/%D8%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="ا">ا</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="01.">1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>b </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/ </td> <td>ـب </td> <td>ـبـ </td> <td>بـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="ب">ب</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="02.">2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>t </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td>ـت </td> <td>ـتـ </td> <td>تـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%AA" class="mw-redirect" title="ت">ت</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="03.">3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ṯ or th </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>/ </td> <td>ـث </td> <td>ـثـ </td> <td>ثـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="ث">ث</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="04.">4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>j </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>/* </td> <td>ـج </td> <td>ـجـ </td> <td>جـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="05.">5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḥ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>/ </td> <td>ـح </td> <td>ـحـ </td> <td>حـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="ح">ح</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="06.">6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḵ or kh </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td>ـخ </td> <td>ـخـ </td> <td>خـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="خ">خ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="07.">7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>d </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2">ـد </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/%D8%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="د">د</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="08.">8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḏ or dh </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2">ـذ </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="ذ">ذ</a> </td> <td data-sort-value="09.">9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>r </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2">ـر </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="ر">ر</a> </td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>z </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2">ـز </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/%D8%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="ز">ز</a> </td> <td>11 </td></tr> <tr> <td>s </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td>ـس </td> <td>ـسـ </td> <td>سـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="س">س</a> </td> <td>12 </td></tr> <tr> <td>š or sh </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ </td> <td>ـش </td> <td>ـشـ </td> <td>شـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B4" class="mw-redirect" title="ش">ش</a> </td> <td>13 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ṣ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a>/ </td> <td>ـص </td> <td>ـصـ </td> <td>صـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B5" class="mw-redirect" title="ص">ص</a> </td> <td>14 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḍ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>/ </td> <td>ـض </td> <td>ـضـ </td> <td>ضـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="ض">ض</a> </td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ṭ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a>/ </td> <td>ـط </td> <td>ـطـ </td> <td>طـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="ط">ط</a> </td> <td>16 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ẓ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>/ </td> <td>ـظ </td> <td>ـظـ </td> <td>ظـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="ظ">ظ</a> </td> <td>17 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ʿ or ʕ </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/ </td> <td>ـع </td> <td>ـعـ </td> <td>عـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%B9" class="mw-redirect" title="ع">ع</a> </td> <td>18 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ḡ or gh </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/ </td> <td>ـغ </td> <td>ـغـ </td> <td>غـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D8%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="غ">غ</a> </td> <td>19 </td></tr> <tr> <td>f </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td>ـف </td> <td>ـفـ </td> <td>فـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D9%81" class="mw-redirect" title="ف">ف</a> </td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>q </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>/ </td> <td>ـق </td> <td>ـقـ </td> <td>قـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a> </td> <td>21 </td></tr> <tr> <td>k </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td>ـك </td> <td>ـكـ </td> <td>كـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D9%83" class="mw-redirect" title="ك">ك</a> </td> <td>22 </td></tr> <tr> <td>l </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td>ـل </td> <td>ـلـ </td> <td>لـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D9%84" class="mw-redirect" title="ل">ل</a> </td> <td>23 </td></tr> <tr> <td>m </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td>ـم </td> <td>ـمـ </td> <td>مـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D9%85" class="mw-redirect" title="م">م</a> </td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td>n </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td>ـن </td> <td>ـنـ </td> <td>نـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D9%86" class="mw-redirect" title="ن">ن</a> </td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>h </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td>ـه‎ </td> <td>ـهـ‎‎ </td> <td>هـ‎ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%EF%BB%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="ﻩ">ﻩ</a> </td> <td>26 </td></tr> <tr> <td>w, ū </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">uː</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2">ـو </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/%D9%88" class="mw-redirect" title="و">و</a> </td> <td>27 </td></tr> <tr> <td>y, ī </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/, /<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a>/ </td> <td>ـي </td> <td>ـيـ </td> <td>يـ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/%D9%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="ي">ي</a> </td> <td>28 </td></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <ul><li>Modern Standard Arabic (Literary Arabic) ⟨ج⟩ can be pronounced /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>/ or /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>/ (or /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a>/ only in Egypt) depending on the speaker's regional dialect.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a> ⟨ء⟩ can be considered a letter and plays an important role in Arabic spelling but it is not considered part of the alphabet.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calligraphy">Calligraphy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a></div> After <a href="/wiki/Khalil_ibn_Ahmad_al_Farahidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi">Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi</a> finally fixed the Arabic script around 786, many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Quran and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration. Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the Western world, and is still considered by <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the Latin script, Arabic script is used to write down a <a href="/wiki/Ayah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayah">verse</a> of the Quran, a <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>, or a <a href="/wiki/Proverb" title="Proverb">proverb</a>. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. One of the current masters of the genre is <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Massoudy" title="Hassan Massoudy">Hassan Massoudy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> In modern times the intrinsically calligraphic nature of the written Arabic form is haunted by the thought that a typographic approach to the language, necessary for digitized unification, will not always accurately maintain meanings conveyed through calligraphy.<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanization">Romanization</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization of Arabic</a></div>There are a number of different standards for the <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanization of Arabic</a>, i.e. methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the Latin script. There are various conflicting motivations involved, which leads to multiple systems. Some are interested in <a href="/wiki/Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliteration</a>, i.e. representing the spelling of Arabic, while others focus on <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">transcription</a>, i.e. representing the pronunciation of Arabic. (They differ in that, for example, the same letter <a href="/wiki/%D9%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="ي">ي</a> is used to represent both a consonant, as in "you" or "yet", and a vowel, as in "me" or "eat".) Some systems, e.g. for scholarly use, are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of Arabic, generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the Arabic script. These systems are heavily reliant on <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritical</a> marks such as "š" for the sound equivalently written sh in English. Other systems (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_orthography" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahá'í orthography">Bahá'í orthography</a>) are intended to help readers who are neither Arabic speakers nor linguists with intuitive pronunciation of Arabic names and phrases.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] These less "scientific" systems tend to avoid <a href="/wiki/Diacritics" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacritics">diacritics</a> and use <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> (like sh and kh). These are usually simpler to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems, and may lead to ambiguities, e.g. whether to interpret sh as a single sound, as in gash, or a combination of two sounds, as in gashouse. The <a href="/wiki/ALA-LC" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC">ALA-LC</a> romanization solves this problem by separating the two sounds with a <a href="/wiki/Prime_(symbol)" title="Prime (symbol)">prime</a> symbol ( ′ ); e.g., as′hal 'easier'. During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the Arab world, such as <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a>, the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, <a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">email</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_board_system" title="Bulletin board system">bulletin board systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Relay Chat">IRC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_text_messaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile phone text messaging">mobile phone text messaging</a>. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the Latin script only, and some of them still do not have the Arabic script as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script. To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral "3" may be used to represent the Arabic letter ⟨ع⟩. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it <a href="/wiki/Arabic_Chat_Alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic Chat Alphabet">Arabic Chat Alphabet</a> or IM Arabic. Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the "emphatic" counterparts of certain consonants. For instance, using capitalization, the letter ⟨د⟩, may be represented by d. Its emphatic counterpart, ⟨ض⟩, may be written as D. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Numerals">Numerals</h3></div> In most of present-day North Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Arabic_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Arabic numerals">Western Arabic numerals</a> (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are used. However, in Egypt and Arabic-speaking countries to the east of it, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern Arabic numerals</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٠‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">١‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٢‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٣‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٤‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٥‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٦‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٧‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٨‎ – <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315">٩‎) are in use. When representing a number in Arabic, the lowest-valued <a href="/wiki/Positional_notation" title="Positional notation">position</a> is placed on the right, so the order of positions is the same as in left-to-right scripts. Sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right, but numbers are spoken in the traditional Arabic fashion, with units and tens reversed from the modern English usage. For example, 24 is said "four and twenty" just like in the German language (vierundzwanzig) and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Hebrew">Classical Hebrew</a>, and 1975 is said "a thousand and nine-hundred and five and seventy" or, more eloquently, "a thousand and nine-hundred five seventy". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arabic_alphabet_and_nationalism">Arabic alphabet and nationalism</h3></div> There have been many instances of national movements to convert Arabic script into Latin script or to Romanize the language. Currently, the only Arabic variety to use Latin script is <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lebanon">Lebanon</h4></div> The Beirut newspaper La Syrie pushed for the change from Arabic script to Latin letters in 1922. The major head of this movement was <a href="/wiki/Louis_Massignon" title="Louis Massignon">Louis Massignon</a>, a French Orientalist, who brought his concern before the Arabic Language Academy in Damascus in 1928. Massignon's attempt at Romanization failed as the academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the Western world to take over their country. <a href="/wiki/Sa%27id_al-Afghani" title="Sa'id al-Afghani">Sa'id Afghani</a>, a member of the academy, mentioned that the movement to Romanize the script was a <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> plan to dominate Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-shirvtiel188-135">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Said_Akl" title="Said Akl">Said Akl</a> created a Latin-based alphabet for <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a> and used it in a newspaper he founded, Lebnaan, as well as in some books he wrote. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt">Egypt</h4></div> After the period of colonialism in Egypt, Egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and re-emphasize Egyptian culture. As a result, some Egyptians pushed for an Egyptianization of the Arabic language in which the formal Arabic and the colloquial Arabic would be combined into one language and the Latin alphabet would be used.<a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-shirvtiel188-135">[133]</a> There was also the idea of finding a way to use <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphics">Hieroglyphics</a> instead of the Latin alphabet, but this was seen as too complicated to use.<a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-shirvtiel188-135">[133]</a> A scholar, <a href="/wiki/Salama_Musa" class="mw-redirect" title="Salama Musa">Salama Musa</a> agreed with the idea of applying a Latin alphabet to Arabic, as he believed that would allow Egypt to have a closer relationship with the West. He also believed that Latin script was key to the success of Egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology. This change in alphabet, he believed, would solve the problems inherent with Arabic, such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for non-native speakers to learn.<a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-shirvtiel188-135">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Lutfi_el-Sayed" title="Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed">Ahmad Lutfi As Sayid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Azmi" title="Muhammad Mustafa Azmi">Muhammad Azmi</a>, two Egyptian intellectuals, agreed with Musa and supported the push for Romanization.<a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel189-136">[134]</a> The idea that Romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in Egypt continued with Abd Al-Aziz Fahmi in 1944. He was the chairman for the Writing and Grammar Committee for the Arabic Language Academy of Cairo.<a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel189-136">[134]</a> This effort failed as the Egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the Arabic alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel179-134">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-shrivtiel189-136">[134]</a> In particular, the older Egyptian generations believed that the Arabic alphabet had strong connections to Arab values and history, due to the long history of the Arabic alphabet (Shrivtiel, 189) in Muslim societies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_text">Sample text</h2></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>From Article 1 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/ALA-LC" class="mw-redirect" title="ALA-LC">ALA-LC</a> transliteration </th> <th>English<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right">يولد جميع الناس أحراراً متساوين في الكرامة والحقوق، وقد وهبوا عقلاً وضميراً وعليهم أن يعامل بعضهم بعضاً بروح الإخاء.</div> </td> <td>Yūlad jamīʻ al-nās aḥrār-an mutasāwīn fil-karāma-ti wal-huqūq-i, wa-qad wuhibū ʻaql-an wa-ḍamīr-an wa-ʻalayhim an yuʻāmil-u baʻduhum baʻd-an bi-rūh al-ikhāʼ-i. </td> <td>All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/27px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/40px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/54px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/28px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/42px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Globe_of_letters.svg/56px-Globe_of_letters.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Language" title="Portal:Language">Language portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Ontology" title="Arabic Ontology">Arabic Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diglossia#Arabic" title="Diglossia">Arabic diglossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_influence_on_the_Spanish_language" title="Arabic language influence on the Spanish language">Arabic language influence on the Spanish language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Language_International_Council" title="Arabic Language International Council">Arabic Language International Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="Arabic–English Lexicon">Arabic–English Lexicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabist" title="Arabist">Arabist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Modern_Written_Arabic" title="A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic">A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam" title="Glossary of Islam">Glossary of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Arabic_Dialectology" title="International Association of Arabic Dialectology">International Association of Arabic Dialectology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_newspapers" title="List of Arab newspapers">List of Arab newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic-language_television_channels" title="List of Arabic-language television channels">List of Arabic-language television channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_given_names" title="List of Arabic given names">List of Arabic given names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_where_Arabic_is_an_official_language" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries where Arabic is an official language">List of countries where Arabic is an official language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Arabic-based creole languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties of Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Arabic_origin" title="List of French words of Arabic origin">List of French words of Arabic origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Replacement_of_loanwords_in_Turkish" class="mw-redirect" title="Replacement of loanwords in Turkish">Replacement of loanwords in Turkish</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes the Arabic language as the language of Islam, giving it a formal status as the language of religion, and regulates its spreading within the Iranian national curriculum. The constitution declares in Chapter II: (The Official Language, Script, Calendar, and Flag of the Country) in Article 16 "Since the language of the Qur`an and Islamic texts and teachings is Arabic, ..., it must be taught after elementary level, in all classes of secondary school and in all areas of study."<a href="#cite_note-constituteproject.org-4">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> The constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan states in Article 31 No. 2 that "The State shall endeavour, as respects the Muslims of Pakistan (a) to make the teaching of the Holy Quran and Islamiat compulsory, to encourage and facilitate the learning of Arabic language ..."<a href="#cite_note-pakistanconstitutionlaw.com-6">[5]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAl_MalwiHerrero_De_HaroBaker2023" class="citation journal cs1">Al Malwi, Ibrahim; Herrero De Haro, Alfredo; Baker, Amanda (2023). "Abha Arabic". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association: 1–19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100323000269">10.1017/S0025100323000269</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association&rft.atitle=Abha+Arabic&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0025100323000269&rft.aulast=Al+Malwi&rft.aufirst=Ibrahim&rft.au=Herrero+De+Haro%2C+Alfredo&rft.au=Baker%2C+Amanda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988">, with supplementary sound recordings.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e27-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-e27_1-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ara">Arabic</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (27th ed., 2024) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-arb-2"><a href="#cite_ref-arb_2-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/language/arb">Arabic, Standard</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (27th ed., 2024) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eritrea/">"Eritrea"</a>, The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 26 April 2023, retrieved 29 April 2023</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Eritrea&rft.date=2023-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Feritrea%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-constituteproject.org-4"><a href="#cite_ref-constituteproject.org_4-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Iran_1989?lang=en">Iran (Islamic Republic of)'s Constitution of 1979. – Article: 16 Official or national languages</a>, 1979, retrieved 25 July 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-pakistanconstitutionlaw.com-6"><a href="#cite_ref-pakistanconstitutionlaw.com_6-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Pakistan" title="Constitution of Pakistan">Constitution of Pakistan</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pakistanconstitutionlaw.com/article-31-islamic-way-of-life">Constitution of Pakistan, 1973 – Article: 31 Islamic way of life</a>, 1973, retrieved 13 June 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111024143749/http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Cyprus.htm">"Implementation of the Charter in Cyprus"</a>. 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Retrieved 26 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.almaany.com&rft.atitle=%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A9+%D9%88+%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D9%89+%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%88+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A.+%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3+%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A+%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AA+%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%AD%D8%A9+1&rft.aulast=Team&rft.aufirst=Almaany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.almaany.com%2Far%2Fdict%2Far-en%2F%25D9%2586%25D8%25AD%25D9%2588%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeaman2006" class="citation book cs1">Leaman, Oliver (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA131">The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32639-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-32639-1"><bdi>978-0-415-32639-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Qur%27an%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-32639-1&rft.aulast=Leaman&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DisDgI0-0Ip4C%26pg%3DPA131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/al-Khalil-ibn-Ahmad">"Al-Khalīl ibn Aḥmad | Arab philologist"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. 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Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. Brill Reference. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160815234348/http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 17 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Arabic+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Polygenesis+in+the+Arabic+Dialects&rft.date=2011-05-30&rft.aulast=Al-Jallad&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics%2Fpolygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030%3Fs.num%3D1%26s.f.s2_parent%3Ds.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics%26s.q%3Dneo-arabic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_National-2016-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_National-2016_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_National-2016_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_National-2016_48-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/examining-the-origins-of-arabic-ahead-of-arabic-language-day-1.199916">"Examining the origins of Arabic ahead of Arabic Language Day"</a>. The National. 15 December 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210420022852/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/examining-the-origins-of-arabic-ahead-of-arabic-language-day-1.199916">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 20 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National&rft.atitle=Examining+the+origins+of+Arabic+ahead+of+Arabic+Language+Day&rft.date=2016-12-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenationalnews.com%2Farts-culture%2Fexamining-the-origins-of-arabic-ahead-of-arabic-language-day-1.199916&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternRobinsonShemesh2019" class="citation book cs1">Stern, Josef; Robinson, James T.; Shemesh, Yonatan (15 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YR2jDwAAQBAJ">Maimonides' "Guide of the Perplexed" in Translation: A History from the Thirteenth Century to the Twentieth</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45763-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45763-5"><bdi>978-0-226-45763-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maimonides%27+%22Guide+of+the+Perplexed%22+in+Translation%3A+A+History+from+the+Thirteenth+Century+to+the+Twentieth&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2019-08-15&rft.isbn=978-0-226-45763-5&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft.au=Robinson%2C+James+T.&rft.au=Shemesh%2C+Yonatan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYR2jDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Bernards, Monique, "Ibn Jinnī", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE, Edited by: Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, Everett Rowson. Consulted online on 27 May 2021 First published online: 2021 First print edition: 9789004435964, 20210701, 2021–4 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaalbaki2014" class="citation book cs1">Baalbaki, Ramzi (28 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cme7AwAAQBAJ&q=lisan+al+arab+ibn+manzur+1290&pg=PA385">The Arabic Lexicographical Tradition: From the 2nd/8th to the 12th/18th Century</a>. 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Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08818-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-08818-4"><bdi>978-90-04-08818-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004104045/https://books.google.com/books?id=VM6M1351GWsC&pg=PA198">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2018. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-160775-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-160775-2">978-0-19-160775-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oj5jAMspUfAC&pg=PA10462">Proceedings and Debates of the</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160414102344/https://books.google.com/books?id=oj5jAMspUfAC&pg=PA10462">Archived</a> 14 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/107th_United_States_Congress" title="107th United States Congress">107th United States Congress</a> <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Record" title="Congressional Record">Congressional Record</a>, p. 10,462. 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Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/Balch_Institute_for_Ethnic_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies">Balch Institute for Ethnic Studies</a>, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-944190-05-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-944190-05-0">978-0-944190-05-0</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Newman_(academic)" title="Daniel Newman (academic)">Daniel Newman</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DEdXz4OVvqMC&pg=PA1">Arabic-English Thematic Lexicon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160413231019/https://books.google.com/books?id=DEdXz4OVvqMC&pg=PA1">Archived</a> 13 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 1. London: Routledge, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-10392-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-10392-8">978-1-134-10392-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Rebecca L. Torstrick and Elizabeth Faier, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jwp6D51NB34C&pg=PA41">Culture and Customs of the Arab Gulf States</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160414064244/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jwp6D51NB34C&pg=PA41">Archived</a> 14 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 41. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33659-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33659-1">978-0-313-33659-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Walter J. Ong</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JXC217u47tEC&pg=PA32">Interfaces of the Word: Studies in the Evolution of Consciousness and Culture</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160414064010/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXC217u47tEC&pg=PA32">Archived</a> 14 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 32. 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E. (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/543279">"Review of Al-Muʿjam al-kabīr, Murad Kāmil, Ibrāhīm al-Ibyārī"</a>. 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Retrieved 17 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.aljazeera.net&rft.atitle=%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%AC%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AD%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%8A+%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9..+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%B9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A+%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9&rft.aulast=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D8%A8%D8%B1&rft.aufirst=%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.net%2Fopinions%2F2022%2F8%2F30%2F%25d8%25a7%25d9%2584%25d9%2585%25d8%25b9%25d8%25a7%25d8%25ac%25d9%2585-%25d8%25a7%25d9%2584%25d8%25aa%25d8%25a7%25d8%25b1%25d9%258a%25d8%25ae%25d9%258a%25d8%25a9-%25d8%25a7%25d9%2584%25d9%2588%25d8%25a7%25d9%2582%25d8%25b9-%25d8%25a7%25d9%2584%25d8%25ad%25d9%2582%25d9%258a%25d9%2582%25d9%258a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> See the seminal study by Siegmund Fraenkel, Die aramäischen Fremdwörter im Arabischen, Leiden 1886 (repr. 1962) </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> See for instance Wilhelm Eilers, "Iranisches Lehngut im Arabischen", Actas IV. 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Britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080605045845/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050379/Maltese-language">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 4 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maltese+language+%E2%80%93+Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft.au=EB+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9050379%2FMaltese-language&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGregersen1977">Gregersen (1977</a>:237) </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-TS-00010-KA-00004-00001">"Cairo Genizah : Philosophy"</a>. Cambridge Digital Library. Retrieved 17 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Cairo+Genizah+%3A+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcudl.lib.cam.ac.uk%2Fview%2FMS-TS-00010-KA-00004-00001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson1959" class="citation cs2">Ferguson, Charles (1959), "The Arabic Koine", Language, 35 (4): 616–630, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F410601">10.2307/410601</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/410601">410601</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+Arabic+Koine&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=616-630&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F410601&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F410601%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ARZ-107"><a href="#cite_ref-ARZ_107-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/arz">Arabic, Egyptian Spoken</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (25th ed., 2022) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-e25apc-108"><a href="#cite_ref-e25apc_108-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/apc">Levantine Arabic</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (25th ed., 2022) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/acy">Arabic, Cypriot Spoken</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (25th ed., 2022) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borg,_Albert_J._1997-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Borg,_Albert_J._1997_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borg,_Albert_J._1997_110-1">b</a> Borg, Albert J.; Azzopardi-Alexander, Marie (1997). Maltese. Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-02243-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-02243-6">0-415-02243-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorg_and_Azzopardi-Alexander1997" class="citation book cs1">Borg and Azzopardi-Alexander (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tYf-fZ-izycC&pg=PR13">Maltese</a>. Routledge. p. xiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02243-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-02243-9"><bdi>978-0-415-02243-9</bdi></a>. <q>In fact, Maltese displays some areal traits typical of Maghrebine Arabic, although over the past 800 years of independent evolution it has drifted apart from Tunisian Arabic</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maltese&rft.pages=xiii&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-02243-9&rft.au=Borg+and+Azzopardi-Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtYf-fZ-izycC%26pg%3DPR13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrincat,_Joseph_M.2005" class="citation book cs1">Brincat, Joseph M. (February 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm">Maltese – an unusual formula</a>. MED Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208063739/http://macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/February2005/27-LI-Maltese.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2018. <q>Originally Maltese was an Arabic dialect but it was immediately exposed to Latinisation because the Normans conquered the islands in 1090, while Christianisation, which was complete by 1250, cut off the dialect from contact with Classical Arabic. Consequently Maltese developed on its own, slowly but steadily absorbing new words from Sicilian and Italian according to the needs of the developing community.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maltese+%E2%80%93+an+unusual+formula&rft.pub=MED+Magazine&rft.date=2005-02&rft.au=Brincat%2C+Joseph+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmacmillandictionaries.com%2FMED-Magazine%2FFebruary2005%2F27-LI-Maltese.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_D_Hoberman2007" class="citation book cs1">Robert D Hoberman (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257">Morphologies of Asia and Africa, Alan S. Kaye (Ed.), Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology</a>. Eisenbrown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-109-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-109-2"><bdi>978-1-57506-109-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103929/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2018. <q>Maltese is the chief exception: Classical or Standard Arabic is irrelevant in the Maltese linguistic community and there is no diglossia.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphologies+of+Asia+and+Africa%2C+Alan+S.+Kaye+%28Ed.%29%2C+Chapter+13%3A+Maltese+Morphology&rft.pub=Eisenbrown&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-109-2&rft.au=Robert+D+Hoberman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgaktTQ8vq28C%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_D_Hoberman2007" class="citation book cs1">Robert D Hoberman (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257">Morphologies of Asia and Africa, Alan S. Kaye (Ed.), Chapter 13: Maltese Morphology</a>. Eisenbrown. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-109-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-109-2"><bdi>978-1-57506-109-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181004103929/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gaktTQ8vq28C&pg=PA257">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2018. <q>yet it is in its morphology that Maltese also shows the most elaborate and deeply embedded influence from the Romance languages, Sicilian and Italian, with which it has long been in intimate contact....As a result Maltese is unique and different from Arabic and other Semitic languages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Morphologies+of+Asia+and+Africa%2C+Alan+S.+Kaye+%28Ed.%29%2C+Chapter+13%3A+Maltese+Morphology&rft.pub=Eisenbrown&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-109-2&rft.au=Robert+D+Hoberman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgaktTQ8vq28C%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1">"Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study"</a>. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017. <q>To summarise our findings, we might observe that when it comes to the most basic everyday language, as reflected in our data sets, speakers of Maltese are able to understand less than a third of what is being said to them in either Tunisian or Benghazi Libyan Arabic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mutual+Intelligibility+of+Spoken+Maltese%2C+Libyan+Arabic+and+Tunisian+Arabic+Functionally+Tested%3A+A+Pilot+Study&rft.pages=1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.google.com%2Fviewer%3Furl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fling.auf.net%252Flingbuzz%252F002930%252Fcurrent.pdf%26embedded%3Dtrue%26chrome%3Dfalse%26dov%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1">"Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study"</a>. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017. <q>Speakers of Tunisian and Libyan Arabic are able to understand about 40% of what is said to them in Maltese.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mutual+Intelligibility+of+Spoken+Maltese%2C+Libyan+Arabic+and+Tunisian+Arabic+Functionally+Tested%3A+A+Pilot+Study&rft.pages=1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.google.com%2Fviewer%3Furl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fling.auf.net%252Flingbuzz%252F002930%252Fcurrent.pdf%26embedded%3Dtrue%26chrome%3Dfalse%26dov%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1">"Mutual Intelligibility of Spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic Functionally Tested: A Pilot Study"</a>. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171011132849/https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fling.auf.net%2Flingbuzz%2F002930%2Fcurrent.pdf&embedded=true&chrome=false&dov=1">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2017. <q>In comparison, speakers of Libyan Arabic and speakers of Tunisian Arabic understand about two-thirds of what is being said to them.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mutual+Intelligibility+of+Spoken+Maltese%2C+Libyan+Arabic+and+Tunisian+Arabic+Functionally+Tested%3A+A+Pilot+Study&rft.pages=1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.google.com%2Fviewer%3Furl%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fling.auf.net%252Flingbuzz%252F002930%252Fcurrent.pdf%26embedded%3Dtrue%26chrome%3Dfalse%26dov%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-isser-118"><a href="#cite_ref-isser_118-0">^</a> Isserlin (1986). Studies in Islamic History and Civilization, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/965-264-014-X" title="Special:BookSources/965-264-014-X">965-264-014-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/ayp">Arabic, North Mesopotamian Spoken</a> at <a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a> (25th ed., 2022) <a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller-Kessler2003" class="citation journal cs1">Müller-Kessler, Christa (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3217756">"Aramaic ?k?, lyk? and Iraqi Arabic ?aku, maku: The Mesopotamian Particles of Existence"</a>. 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(2006), ""Arabic"", Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd ed.)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Arabic%22&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Proch%C3%A1zka&rft.aufirst=S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRydingWilmsen2021" class="citation book cs1">Ryding, Karin Christina; Wilmsen, David, eds. (2021). The Cambridge Handbook of Arabic Linguistics. New York: Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-41730-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-41730-3"><bdi>978-1-108-41730-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Handbook+of+Arabic+Linguistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-108-41730-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteingass1993" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Joseph_Steingass" title="Francis Joseph Steingass">Steingass, Francis Joseph</a> (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JXQh09i2JwC">Arabic–English Dictionary</a>, Asian Educational Services, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0855-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0855-9"><bdi>978-81-206-0855-9</bdi></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130403155331/http://books.google.com/books?id=3JXQh09i2JwC">archived</a> from the original on 3 April 2013, retrieved 21 September 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabic%E2%80%93English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0855-9&rft.aulast=Steingass&rft.aufirst=Francis+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3JXQh09i2JwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Suileman, Yasir. Arabic, Self and Identity: A Study in Conflict and Displacement. Oxford University Press, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-974701-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-974701-6">0-19-974701-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974701-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974701-6">978-0-19-974701-6</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThelwall2003" class="citation book cs1">Thelwall, Robin (2003). "Arabic". Handbook of the International Phonetic Association a guide to the use of the international phonetic alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63751-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63751-0"><bdi>978-0-521-63751-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+International+Phonetic+Association+a+guide+to+the+use+of+the+international+phonetic+alphabet&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63751-0&rft.aulast=Thelwall&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTraini1961" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Traini, R. (1961), Vocabolario di arabo [Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic] (in Italian), Rome: I.P.O. – via Harassowitz</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vocabolario+di+arabo&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=I.P.O.&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Traini&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaglieri" class="citation cs2">Vaglieri, Laura Veccia, Grammatica teorico-pratica della lingua araba, Rome: I.P.O.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatica+teorico-pratica+della+lingua+araba&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=I.P.O.&rft.aulast=Vaglieri&rft.aufirst=Laura+Veccia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVersteegh2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kees_Versteegh" title="Kees Versteegh">Versteegh, C. H. M.</a> (2014). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4528-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-4528-2"><bdi>978-0-7486-4528-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/872980196">872980196</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Language&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F872980196&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-4528-2&rft.aulast=Versteegh&rft.aufirst=C.+H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2002" class="citation cs2">Watson, Janet (2002), The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic, New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824137-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-824137-9"><bdi>978-0-19-824137-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phonology+and+Morphology+of+Arabic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-824137-9&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWehr1952" class="citation cs2">Wehr, Hans (1952), <a href="/wiki/Arabisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch_f%C3%BCr_die_Schriftsprache_der_Gegenwart" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart">Arabisches Wörterbuch für die Schriftsprache der Gegenwart: Arabisch-Deutsch</a> (1985 reprint (English) ed.), Harassowitz, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01998-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-01998-9"><bdi>978-3-447-01998-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch+f%C3%BCr+die+Schriftsprache+der+Gegenwart%3A+Arabisch-Deutsch&rft.edition=1985+reprint+%28English%29&rft.pub=Harassowitz&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=978-3-447-01998-9&rft.aulast=Wehr&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2001" class="citation cs2">Wright, John W. (2001), The New York Times Almanac 2002, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-348-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57958-348-4"><bdi>978-1-57958-348-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+York+Times+Almanac+2002&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-57958-348-4&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArabic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="ar:"> Standard Arabic edition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="arz:"> Egyptian Arabic edition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/40px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/60px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/80/Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg/80px-Wikipedia-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="103" data-file-height="94" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="ary:"> Moroccan Arabic edition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a>, the free encyclopedia</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/arq" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/arq">Algerian Arabic test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/mey" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/mey">Hassaniya Arabic test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/apc" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/apc">Levantine Arabic test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/aeb" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/aeb">Tunisian Arabic test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Arabic, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Arabic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Arabic">Arabic category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Arabic" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Arabic">Arabic</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Arabic" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Arabic">Arabic</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Arabic_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Arabic language">Arabic language</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Arabic" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Arabic">Arabic</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/40px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/60px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/80px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for <a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Arabic_phrasebook#Q13955" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Arabic phrasebook">Arabic</a>.</div></div> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph">ʾAlif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)">Bāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw">Tāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel">Ǧīm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth">Ḥāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet">Dāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh">Rāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zāy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)">Sīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)">Šīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade">Ṣād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth">Ṭāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin">ʿAyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">Ġayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Fāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph">Qāf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph">Kāf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh">Lām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem">Mīm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)">Nūn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)">Hāʾ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)">Wāw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh">Yāʾ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab">ʾIʿrāb (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_language" title="Category:Arabic language">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language_books" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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href="/wiki/Al-Ajurrumiyya" title="Al-Ajurrumiyya">Al-Ajurrumiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Alfiyya_of_Ibn_Malik" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Alfiyya of Ibn Malik">Al-Alfiyya of Ibn Malik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahj_al-Balagha" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahj al-Balagha">Nahj al-Balagha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poem_of_Sidi_Boushaki" title="Poem of Sidi Boushaki">Poem of Sidi Boushaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatr_al-Nada_(Book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qatr al-Nada (Book)">Qatr al-Nada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitab_al-%27Ayn" title="Kitab al-'Ayn">Kitab al-'Ayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisan_al-Arab" title="Lisan al-Arab">Lisan al-Arab</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Arabic grammar</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Histories_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_histories" title="Template:Language histories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_histories" title="Template talk:Language histories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_histories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language histories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Histories_of_the_world&#039;s_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Histories</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_languages" title="Lists of languages">world's languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indo-European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Germanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afrikaans" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Dutch_language" title="History of the Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_English" title="History of English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_German" title="History of German">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic" title="History of Icelandic">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Norwegian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Norwegian language">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Scots_language" title="History of the Scots language">Scots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Swedish" title="History of Swedish">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_language#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Yiddish language">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Irish_language" title="History of the Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Welsh_language" title="History of the Welsh language">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Catalan" title="History of Catalan">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_French" title="History of French">French</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Quebec_French" title="History of Quebec French">Quebec</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Galician_language" title="History of the Galician language">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Italian">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Portuguese" title="History of Portuguese">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Romanian_language" title="History of the Romanian language">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Spanish_language" title="History of the Spanish language">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Baltic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latvian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Latvian language">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lithuanian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Slavic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language#History" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bosnian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Bosnian language">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bulgarian_language" title="History of the Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_language" title="History of the Czech language">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Macedonian_language" title="History of the Macedonian language">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Polish_language" title="History of Polish language">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_language" title="History of the Russian language">Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_language_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Russian language in Ukraine">in Ukraine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Slovak_language" title="History of the Slovak language">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_language#History" title="Slovene language">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_language#History" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indo-Iranian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hindustani" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hindustani">Hindustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Nepali_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Nepali language">Nepali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Persian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Persian language">Persian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Albanian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Albanian language">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek" title="History of Greek">Greek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uralic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Estonian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Estonian language">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Finnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Finnish language">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Hungarian_language" title="History of the Hungarian language">Hungarian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other European</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Basque_language" title="History of the Basque language">Basque</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Afroasiatic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Arabic language">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Aramaic language">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Hebrew">Hebrew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dravidian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kannada" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kannada">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam#History" title="Malayalam">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Tamil">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Telugu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Telugu language">Telugu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austroasiatic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Vietnamese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Austronesian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tagalog_language#History" title="Tagalog language">Tagalog</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_language#History" title="Filipino language">Filipino</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Malay_language" title="History of the Malay language">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sundanese_language" title="History of Sundanese language">Sundanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Cebuano" title="Classical Cebuano">Cebuano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sino–Tibetan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chinese_language" title="History of the Chinese language">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gan_Chinese" title="History of Gan Chinese">Gan Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Standard_Chinese" title="History of Standard Chinese">Standard Chinese</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Japonic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Japanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Japanese language">Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Koreanic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean" title="History of Korean">Korean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iroquoian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cherokee_language" title="History of the Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turkic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Azerbaijani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Azerbaijani language">Azeri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Turkish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Turkish language">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">constructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Esperanto" title="History of Esperanto">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Interlingua" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Interlingua">Interlingua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Interlingue" title="History of Interlingue">Interlingue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ido#History" title="Ido">Ido</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Semitic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Semitic_languages" title="Template talk:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Semitic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Semitic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilmun#People,_language_and_religion" title="Dilmun">Dilmunite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kishite_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kishite language">Kishite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian#Dumaitic" title="Ancient North Arabian">Dumaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safaitic#Language" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Dialect groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialect groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Ashurian and Hatran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Aramaic" title="Lebanese Aramaic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean</a></li> <li>Palestinian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_languages" title="Neo-Aramaic languages">Neo- Aramaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern</a> <ul><li>Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barwar" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barwar">Barwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hértevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Qaraqosh" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Qaraqosh">Qaraqosh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> <ul><li>Assyrian</li> <li>Chaldean</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Inter-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Koy_Sanjaq" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Koy Sanjaq">Koy Sanjaq Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanandaj_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Sanandaj Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Sanandaj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Trans-Zab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Urmia Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Zakho</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israelian_Hebrew" title="Israelian Hebrew">northern dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_Alla_inscription#Language" title="Deir Alla inscription">South Gileadite</a> (Deir Alla)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast Semitic">Southeast</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B8%A5ari_language" title="Baṭḥari language">Baṭḥari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4arsusi_language" title="Ḥarsusi language">Ḥarsusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoby%C3%B3t_language" title="Hobyót language">Hobyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southwest</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abyssinian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssinian languages">Abyssinian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trans- versal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a>–<a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">East Gurage</a> <ul><li>East Gurage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Siltʼe</a> <ul><li>Inneqor</li> <li>Ulbare</li> <li>Wolane</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zay</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Outer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>N-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tt-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesmes_language" title="Mesmes language">Mesmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">West Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a> <ul><li>Endegen</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chaha_language" title="Chaha language">Chaha</a></li> <li>Ezha</li> <li>Gumer</li> <li>Gura</li> <li>Gyeto</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Yemenite languages">Yemenite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramautic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaean_language" title="Minaean language">Minaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatabanian_language" title="Qatabanian language">Qatabanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rijal_Alma_(speech_variety)" title="Rijal Alma (speech variety)">Rijal Alma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">extinct</a> or historical languages.</li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13955#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13955#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q13955#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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