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title="Black-owned business">Revision as of 07:10, 29 January 2022</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black-owned_business&action=edit&oldid=1068582202" title="Black-owned business">edit</a></span><span class="mw-diff-timestamp" data-timestamp="2022-01-29T07:10:03Z"></span></strong></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:White_girl_1981&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new mw-userlink" title="User:White girl 1981 (page does not exist)" data-mw-revid="1068582202"><bdi>White girl 1981</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:White_girl_1981" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:White girl 1981">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/White_girl_1981" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/White girl 1981">contribs</a>)</span><div class="mw-diff-usermetadata"><div class="mw-diff-userroles"></div><div class="mw-diff-usereditcount"><span>7</span> edits</div></div></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle3"> <span class="comment comment--without-parentheses"><span class="autocomment"><a href="#The_Golden_Age_(1900–1930)">→<bdi dir="ltr">The Golden Age (1900–1930)</bdi></a></span></span></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-otitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black-owned_business&diff=prev&oldid=1068582202" title="Black-owned business" id="differences-prevlink">← Previous edit</a></div></td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-ntitle diff-side-added"><div id="mw-diff-ntitle1"><strong><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black-owned_business&oldid=1068582304" title="Black-owned business">Revision as of 07:10, 29 January 2022</a> <span class="mw-diff-edit"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black-owned_business&action=edit&oldid=1068582304" title="Black-owned business">edit</a></span><span class="mw-diff-timestamp" data-timestamp="2022-01-29T07:10:52Z"></span> <span class="mw-diff-undo"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black-owned_business&action=edit&undoafter=1068582202&undo=1068582304" title=""Undo" reverts this edit and opens the edit form in preview mode. It allows adding a reason in the summary.">undo</a></span></strong></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=User:White_girl_1981&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new mw-userlink" title="User:White girl 1981 (page does not exist)" data-mw-revid="1068582304"><bdi>White girl 1981</bdi></a> <span class="mw-usertoollinks">(<a href="/wiki/User_talk:White_girl_1981" class="mw-usertoollinks-talk" title="User talk:White girl 1981">talk</a> | <a href="/wiki/Special:Contributions/White_girl_1981" class="mw-usertoollinks-contribs" title="Special:Contributions/White girl 1981">contribs</a>)</span><div class="mw-diff-usermetadata"><div class="mw-diff-userroles"></div><div class="mw-diff-usereditcount"><span>7</span> edits</div></div></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle3"> <span class="comment comment--without-parentheses"><span class="autocomment"><a href="#Black_Owned_Public_Companies">→<bdi dir="ltr">Black Owned Public Companies</bdi></a></span></span></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle5"></div><div id="mw-diff-ntitle4"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Black-owned_business&diff=next&oldid=1068582304" title="Black-owned business" id="differences-nextlink">Next edit →</a></div></td> </tr><tr> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 146:</td> <td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 146:</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>== Black Owned Public Companies ==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><div>== Black Owned Public Companies ==</div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>A lot of companies stay private to avoid the troubles and scrutiny that comes with private owned companies. In a total on 3,671 businesses that went public in April 2017, only 8 of them were Black owned businesses. There are a wide variation of Black owned public companies and the number is growing daily. These companies reach many industries such as finance, technology, broadcasting, and healthcare.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>A lot of companies stay private to avoid the troubles and scrutiny that comes with private owned companies. In a total on 3,671 businesses that went public in April 2017, only 8 of them were Black owned businesses. There are a wide variation of Black owned public companies and the number is growing daily. These companies reach many industries such as finance, technology, broadcasting, and healthcare.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cn}}</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>RLJ Lodging Trust is a real estate investing company founded in 2000. Their total revenue was $382 million (as of September 2020).</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>RLJ Lodging Trust is a real estate investing company founded in 2000. Their total revenue was $382 million (as of September 2020).<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cn}}</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Urban One]] is a radio station that was founded in 1987 and went public in 1999. Their total revenue was $262.79 million (as of September 2020).</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Urban One]] is a radio station that was founded in 1987 and went public in 1999. Their total revenue was $262.79 million (as of September 2020).<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cn}}</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Global Blood Therapeutics is a biopharmaceutical company founded in 2011.Their total revenue was $82.51 million (as of September 2020).</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Global Blood Therapeutics is a biopharmaceutical company founded in 2011.Their total revenue was $82.51 million (as of September 2020).<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cn}}</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>[[Carver Federal Savings Bank|Carver Bancorp]] is a banking company founded in 1948. Their total revenue was $9.86 million.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>[[Carver Federal Savings Bank|Carver Bancorp]] is a banking company founded in 1948. Their total revenue was $9.86 million.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cn}}</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Broadway Financial Corp., which is a holding company for [[Broadway Federal Bank]], was founded in 1946 and their total revenue as of September 2020 is $13.71 million.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Broadway Financial Corp., which is a holding company for [[Broadway Federal Bank]], was founded in 1946 and their total revenue as of September 2020 is $13.71 million.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cn}}</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td> <td class="diff-deletedline diff-side-deleted"><div>Another option people have to support Black owned businesses is to invest money into Black owned public companies by purchasing shares.</div></td> <td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td> <td class="diff-addedline diff-side-added"><div>Another option people have to support Black owned businesses is to invest money into Black owned public companies by purchasing shares.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">{{cn}}</ins></div></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><br /></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-added"><br /></td> </tr> <tr> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context diff-side-deleted"><div>== Prominent figures ==</div></td> <td class="diff-marker"></td> <td class="diff-context 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> <b>Black-owned businesses</b> (or <b>Black businesses</b>), also known as <b>African-American businesses</b>, originated in the days of slavery before 1865. Emancipation and civil rights permitted businessmen to operate inside the American legal structure starting in the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction Era</a> (1863–77) and afterwards. By the 1890s, thousands of small business operations had opened in urban areas. The most rapid growth came in the early 20th century, as the increasingly rigid <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> system of segregation moved urban Blacks into a community large enough to support a business establishment. The <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>—which <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, college president, promoted—opened over 600 chapters. It reached every city with a significant Black population.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> have operated virtually every kind of company, but some of the most prominent Black-owned businesses have been <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company" title="North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company">insurance companies</a>, banks, <a href="/wiki/Motown" title="Motown">recording labels</a>, funeral parlors, barber shops, beauty salons, restaurants, <a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">soul food</a> restaurants, record stores, and <a href="/wiki/African-American_bookstores" title="African-American bookstores">bookstores</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Early Achievers</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:261px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Forten_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/James_Forten_%28cropped%29.jpg/188px-James_Forten_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/James_Forten_%28cropped%29.jpg/282px-James_Forten_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/James_Forten_%28cropped%29.jpg/376px-James_Forten_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="713" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Watercolor of James Forten (1766-1842), the wealthiest Black man of his time in Philadelphia, and believed to have been painted during his lifetime.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:224px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lunsford_Lane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Lunsford_Lane.jpg/188px-Lunsford_Lane.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Lunsford_Lane.jpg/282px-Lunsford_Lane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Lunsford_Lane.jpg/376px-Lunsford_Lane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="1863" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A lithograph of noted abolitionist and autobiographer Lunsford Lane (1803- ca. 1863) reproduced in William George Hawkins' biography of him.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:312px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Elizabeth_Keckly_UNC.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Elizabeth_Keckly_UNC.gif/188px-Elizabeth_Keckly_UNC.gif" decoding="async" width="188" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Elizabeth_Keckly_UNC.gif/282px-Elizabeth_Keckly_UNC.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Elizabeth_Keckly_UNC.gif 2x" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="485" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Portrait of Elizabeth Keckley, abolitionist, seamstress to First Lady Lincoln and autobiographer, date unknown.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:212px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs_-_CM_Bell_Studios_1902.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs_-_CM_Bell_Studios_1902.jpg/188px-Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs_-_CM_Bell_Studios_1902.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs_-_CM_Bell_Studios_1902.jpg/282px-Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs_-_CM_Bell_Studios_1902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs_-_CM_Bell_Studios_1902.jpg/376px-Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs_-_CM_Bell_Studios_1902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1702" data-file-height="1920" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Portrait of businessman, autobiographer and politician Mifflin Wistar Gibbs in 1902.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:190px;max-width:190px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:248px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Reed_Church,_seated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Robert_Reed_Church%2C_seated.jpg/188px-Robert_Reed_Church%2C_seated.jpg" decoding="async" width="188" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Robert_Reed_Church%2C_seated.jpg/282px-Robert_Reed_Church%2C_seated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Robert_Reed_Church%2C_seated.jpg/376px-Robert_Reed_Church%2C_seated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="2370" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Real estate mogul <a href="/wiki/Robert_Reed_Church" title="Robert Reed Church">Robert Reed Church</a>, the South's first Black millionaire, in a photograph for the Washington D.C.-based newspaper "The Colored American," in 1903.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>By 1920, there were tens of thousands of Black businesses, the great majority of them quite small. The largest were insurance companies. The League had grown so large that it supported numerous offshoots, serving bankers, publishers, lawyers, funeral directors, retailers and insurance agents. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> of 1929-39 was a serious blow, as cash income fell in the Black community because of very high unemployment, and many smaller businesses closed down. During World War II many employees and owners switched over to high-paying jobs in munitions factories. Black businessmen generally were more conservative elements of their community, but typically did support the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil Rights Movement</a>. By the 1970s, federal programs to promote minority business activity provided new funding, although the opening world of mainstream management in large corporations attracted a great deal of talent. Black entrepreneurs originally based in music and sports diversified to build "brand" names that made for success in the advertising and media worlds.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Before_Emancipation_(until_1865)"><span id="Before_Emancipation_.28until_1865.29"></span>Before Emancipation (until 1865)</h2></div> <p>Black entrepreneurship can be traced back to when Africans were first forcibly brought to North America in the 16th century. Many African Americans who gained their freedom from <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> opened their own businesses, and even some enslaved African Americans were able to operate businesses, either as skilled tradespeople or as minor traders and peddlers. Enslaved African Americans operated businesses both with and without their owners' permission.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Free blacks facing a generally hostile environment occasionally operated small businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Profit-making businesses were created by more free and enslaved African Americans than one might realize from the usual survey of antebellum America. When the opportunity presented itself, it was taken by these men and women, sometimes timidly, sometimes whole-heartedly, and often endorsed by the masters of the enslaved. Businesses often evolved out of skills or specialties the business owner, or service provider, already knew. Examples include: </p> <ul><li><b>Tobacconist</b> — As a young enslaved man<b>,</b> <a href="/wiki/Lunsford_Lane" title="Lunsford Lane">Lunsford Lane</a> <b>r</b>ecalls selling a basket of peaches for money he could keep and very soon, he says, "plans for money-making took the principal possession of my thoughts." In six to eight years he had amassed one thousand dollars, enough to purchase his freedom, as we read from <i>The Narrative of Lunsford Lane</i> (1842).</li> <li><b>Shoemaker</b> — William J. Brown was born into a free black family in Rhode Island and as a young man faced discrimination and often unethical treatment from whites as he strove to pursue a trade and career. In his selection from his <i>Life of William J. Brown of Providence, R. I.</i> (1883) we read his frustrating experiences as a store clerk and apprentice shoemaker.</li> <li><b>Sailmaker —</b> <a href="/wiki/James_Forten" title="James Forten">James Forten</a>, Sr., a freeman and grandfather of <a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Forten_Grimk%C3%A9" title="Charlotte Forten Grimké">Charlotte Forten</a> (see #3: Free-born), learned the sail-making trade after the Revolution, bought his employer's business, and later became the wealthiest black man in Philadelphia. In this 1835 article from the white journal <i>The Anti-Slavery Record,</i> a white reporter describes a visit to Forten's sailmaking business.</li> <li><b>Barber —</b> After being emancipated by his enslaver in 1820, William Johnson became a successful black businessman in Natchez, Mississippi, operating a barber shop, loaning money and acquiring real estate.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Merchant —</b> Free-born in Philadelphia, <a href="/wiki/Mifflin_Wistar_Gibbs" title="Mifflin Wistar Gibbs">Mifflin Gibbs</a> became a businessman, lawyer, politician, and abolitionist. For several years he operated a clothing store in San Francisco, which he we learn from his autobiography <i>Shadow and Light</i> (1902).</li> <li><b>Dressmaker —</b> After purchasing her freedom in St. Louis, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Keckley" title="Elizabeth Keckley">Elizabeth Keckley</a> moved to Washington, DC, and became the dressmaker for Mary Todd Lincoln, producing elegant gowns for the capital's elite women. Her 1868 autobiography <i>Behind the Scenes</i> display her ardor and initiative in creating her business and her life.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reconstruction_(1865–1900)"><span id="Reconstruction_.281865.E2.80.931900.29"></span>Reconstruction (1865–1900)</h2></div><p> Emancipation and civil rights permitted businessmen to operate inside the American legal structure starting in the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction Era</a> (1863–77) and afterwards. By the 1890s, thousands of small business operations had opened in urban areas.</p><blockquote><p>From the late 1880s there was a remarkable development of Negro business – banks and insurance companies, undertakers and retail stores.... It occurred at a time when Negro barbers, tailors, caterers, trainmen, blacksmiths, and other artisans were losing their white customers. Depending upon the Negro market, the promoters of the new enterprises naturally upheld the spirit of racial self-help and solidarity.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Memphis Tennessee was the base for <a href="/wiki/Robert_Reed_Church" title="Robert Reed Church">Robert Reed Church</a> (1839–1912), a freedman who became the South's first black millionaire.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He made his wealth from speculation in city real estate, much of it after Memphis became depopulated after the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> epidemics. He founded the city's first black-owned bank, <a href="/wiki/Solvent_Savings_Bank_and_Trust" title="Solvent Savings Bank and Trust">Solvent Savings Bank and Trust</a>, ensuring that the black community could get loans to establish businesses. He was deeply involved in local and national Republican politics and directed patronage to the black community. His son <a href="/wiki/Robert_Church_Jr." title="Robert Church Jr.">Robert Reed Church, Jr.</a>, became a major politician in Memphis. He was a leader of black society and a benefactor in numerous causes. </p><p>Black communities were undoubtedly negatively affected by the enforcement of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> in cities and urban areas where blacks were limited in what residential areas they could occupy. Whether in the South or the North, segregation limited the social, educational, and economic progress of the varying black communities forced into this racist social practice. However, new economic, anthropological and census research conducted establishes how black communities in the North during the late 19th century fought against racial segregation by donning new attitudes towards commerce and entrepreneurship. Racial segregation in the North during the late 19th century saw a considerable rise in black <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneurship</a> and black owned small businesses within their respective communities. These small business owners were able to take advantage of constraints placed upon the <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> communities, and exploit a market of untapped black consumers that at the time were not allowed a great deal of purchasing power in white economic markets. This rise in "negro markets" as framed by <a href="/wiki/St._Clair_Drake" title="St. Clair Drake">St. Clair Drake</a><b> </b>and <a href="/wiki/Horace_R._Cayton_Jr." title="Horace R. Cayton Jr.">Horace R. Clayton</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Black_Metropolis" title="Black Metropolis">Black Metropolis</a></i> occurred in the South Side of cities like <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a> where African Americans established a region of their own where the number of black owned businesses reached 2,500 by 1937 in South Side Chicago.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Golden_Age_(1900–1930)"><span id="The_Golden_Age_.281900.E2.80.931930.29"></span>The Golden Age (1900–1930)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg/300px-NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg/450px-NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/59/NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg/600px-NationalNegroBusinessLeague-ExecutiveCommittee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4786" data-file-height="3258" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> (seated second from left) founded the <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>, in Boston in 1900 to promote African American business interests. By 1905 it had 320 chapters. By 1915, it had more than 600 chapters in 34 states. In 1966, it was renamed the <a href="/wiki/National_Business_League" class="mw-redirect" title="National Business League">National Business League</a>, and relocated to Washington, D.C., where it remains active.</figcaption></figure> <p>The nadir of race relations was reached in the early 20th century, in terms of political and legal rights. Blacks were increasingly segregated. However the more they were cut off from the larger white community, the more black entrepreneurs succeeded in establishing flourishing businesses that catered to a black clientele.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The most rapid growth came in the early 20th century as the increasingly rigid <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> system of segregation moved urban blacks into a community large enough to support a business establishment. The <a href="/wiki/National_Negro_Business_League" title="National Negro Business League">National Negro Business League</a>, promoted by college president <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, opened over 600 chapters, reaching every city with a significant black population.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By 1920, there were tens of thousands of black businesses, the great majority of them quite small. The largest were insurance companies. The League had grown so large that it supported numerous offshoots, including the National Negro Bankers Association, the National Negro Press Association, the National Association of Negro Funeral Directors, the National Negro Bar Association, the National Association of Negro Insurance Men, the National Negro Retail Merchants' Association, the National Association of Negro Real Estate Dealers, and the National Negro Finance Corporation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Great Depression of 1929-39 was a serious blow, as cash income fell in the black community because of unemployment and many smaller businesses closing down. During World War II many employees can indeed owners switched over to high-paying jobs in munitions factories. Black businessmen generally were more conservative elements of their community, but typically did support the civil rights movement. By the 1970s, federal programs to promote minority business activity provided new funding, although the opening world of mainstream management attracted a great deal of talent. </p><p>In urban areas, North and South, the size and income of the black population was growing, providing openings for a wide range of businesses, from barbershops<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to insurance companies.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Undertakers had a special niche, and often played a political role.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40%; ; font-size: 110%; color: #202122;background-color: #aebbcf;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>The number of Black-owned businesses doubled from 20,000 in 1900 to 40,000 in 1914. There were 450 undertakers in 1900, but by 1914 they had doubled to 1000. The number of drugstores rose from 250 to 695. The number of retail merchants – most of them quite small – jumped from 10,000 to 25,000. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">— The National Negro Business League</cite></p> </div> <p>Historian Juliet Walker calls 1900–1930 the "Golden age of black business."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the National Negro Business League, the number black-owned businesses doubled from 20,000 1900 and 40,000 in 1914. There were 450 undertakers in 1900 and, rising to 1000. Drugstores rose from 250 to 695. Local retail merchants – most of them quite small – jumped from 10,000 to 25,000.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the leading centers of black business was Atlanta. According to August Meier and David Lewis, 1900 was the turning point as white businessmen reduced their contacts with black customers, black entrepreneurs rush to fill the vacuum by starting banks, insurance companies, and numerous local retailers and service providers. Furthermore, the number of black doctors and lawyers increased sharply. All this of course was in addition to the traditional businesses, such as undertakers and barbershops that had always depended on a black clientele.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina" title="Durham, North Carolina">Durham, North Carolina</a>, a new industrial city based on tobacco manufacturing and cotton mills, was noted for the growth of its black businesses. Durham lacked traditionalism based on plantation-era slavery, and practiced a laissez-faire that allowed black entrepreneurs to flourish.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>College president <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a> (1856–1915), who ran the National Negro Business League, was the most prominent promoter of black business. He moved from city to city to sign up local entrepreneurs into his national network the National Negro Business League.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1915, <a href="/wiki/C.R._Patterson_and_Sons" title="C.R. Patterson and Sons">C.R. Patterson and Sons</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Patterson" title="Frederick Patterson">Frederick Patterson</a>, founded the first African American car manufacturing company of the Greenfield-Patterson car which remained active until 1939.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> By the 1920s, the federal government had set up a small unit to distribute information to black entrepreneurs, but no financial aid was forthcoming.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Durham_downtown_North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company_Building.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Durham_downtown_North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company_Building.jpg/300px-Durham_downtown_North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company_Building.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Durham_downtown_North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company_Building.jpg/450px-Durham_downtown_North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company_Building.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Durham_downtown_North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company_Building.jpg/600px-Durham_downtown_North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company_Building.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company headquarters in Durham N.C.</figcaption></figure> <p>By far the most prominent black entrepreneur of the century of was <a href="/wiki/Charles_Clinton_Spaulding" title="Charles Clinton Spaulding">Charles Clinton Spaulding</a> (1874 – 1952), president of <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company" title="North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company">North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company</a> in Durham, North Carolina.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the nation's largest black-owned business. It operated a system of industrial insurance, whereby its salesmen collected small premiums of about 10 cents every week from its clients. That provided them insurance for the following week; if the client died the salesman immediately arranged payment of the death benefit of about $100. That paid for suitable funeral, which was a high prestige event to the black community. Black undertakers also benefited and themselves became prominent business men. By 1970, they grossed more than $120 million for 150,000 race funerals each year.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>African-Americans were tourist entrepreneurs in certain resort areas, such as <a href="/wiki/Oak_Bluffs,_Massachusetts" title="Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts">Oak Bluffs, Massachusetts</a>, and developed on a greater scale, <a href="/wiki/Idlewild,_Michigan" title="Idlewild, Michigan">Idlewild, Michigan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Newspapers_and_magazines">Newspapers and magazines</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ROBERT_LEE_VANN_-_LAWYER,_EDITOR,_CRUSADER_-_NARA_-_535681.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/ROBERT_LEE_VANN_-_LAWYER%2C_EDITOR%2C_CRUSADER_-_NARA_-_535681.jpg/300px-ROBERT_LEE_VANN_-_LAWYER%2C_EDITOR%2C_CRUSADER_-_NARA_-_535681.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/ROBERT_LEE_VANN_-_LAWYER%2C_EDITOR%2C_CRUSADER_-_NARA_-_535681.jpg/450px-ROBERT_LEE_VANN_-_LAWYER%2C_EDITOR%2C_CRUSADER_-_NARA_-_535681.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/ROBERT_LEE_VANN_-_LAWYER%2C_EDITOR%2C_CRUSADER_-_NARA_-_535681.jpg/600px-ROBERT_LEE_VANN_-_LAWYER%2C_EDITOR%2C_CRUSADER_-_NARA_-_535681.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2975" /></a><figcaption>Poster from the U.S. Office of War Information, 1943</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">African-American newspapers</a></div> <p>African-American newspapers flourished in the major cities, with publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs. Representative leaders included <a href="/wiki/Robert_Sengstacke_Abbott" title="Robert Sengstacke Abbott">Robert Sengstacke Abbott</a> (1870–1940), publisher of the <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chicago_Defender" title="The Chicago Defender">Chicago Defender</a></i>; <a href="/wiki/John_Mitchell_Jr." title="John Mitchell Jr.">John Mitchell, Jr.</a> (1863–1929), editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Richmond_Planet" title="Richmond Planet">Richmond Planet</a></i> and president of the National Afro-American Press Association; <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Overton" title="Anthony Overton">Anthony Overton</a> (1865–1946), publisher of the <i><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Bee" title="Chicago Bee">Chicago Bee</a></i>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Lee_Vann" title="Robert Lee Vann">Robert Lee Vann</a> (1879–1940), the publisher and editor of the <i><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_Courier" title="Pittsburgh Courier">Pittsburgh Courier</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Leon_H._Washington_Jr." title="Leon H. Washington Jr.">Leon H. Washington Jr.</a> founded the <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sentinel" title="Los Angeles Sentinel">Los Angeles Sentinel</a></i> in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_H._Johnson" title="John H. Johnson">John H. Johnson</a> (1918–2005) was the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Publishing_Company" title="Johnson Publishing Company">Johnson Publishing Company</a> in 1942. He rose from poverty to millionaire by the time he was thirty-one. In 1982, he became the first African American to appear on the Forbes 400. Johnson's <i>Ebony</i> and <i>Jet</i> magazines were among the most influential African-American media by 1950.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beauty_entrepreneurs">Beauty entrepreneurs</h2></div> <p>Most of the African-Americans in business were men, however, women played a major role especially in the area of beauty. Standards of beauty were different for whites and blacks, and the black community developed its own standards, with an emphasis on hair care. Beauticians could work out of their own homes and did not need storefronts. As a result, black beauticians were numerous in the rural South, despite the absence of cities and towns. They pioneered the use of cosmetics, at a time when rural white women in the South avoided them. As Blain Roberts has shown, beauticians offered their clients a space to feel pampered and beautiful in the context of their own community because, "Inside black beauty shops, rituals of beautification converged with rituals of socialization." Beauty contests emerged in the 1920s, and in the white community, they were linked to agricultural county fairs. By contrast in the black community, beauty contests were developed out of the homecoming ceremonies at their high schools and colleges.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Madame_CJ_Walker.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Madame_CJ_Walker.gif/200px-Madame_CJ_Walker.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Madame_CJ_Walker.gif/300px-Madame_CJ_Walker.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Madame_CJ_Walker.gif 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="573" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Madam C.J. Walker, the first self-made woman millionaire in the U.S, photographed between 1905 and 1914.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Madam_CJ_Walker_Manufacturing_Company,_Indianapolis,_Indiana_(1911).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Madam_CJ_Walker_Manufacturing_Company%2C_Indianapolis%2C_Indiana_%281911%29.jpg/200px-Madam_CJ_Walker_Manufacturing_Company%2C_Indianapolis%2C_Indiana_%281911%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Madam_CJ_Walker_Manufacturing_Company%2C_Indianapolis%2C_Indiana_%281911%29.jpg/300px-Madam_CJ_Walker_Manufacturing_Company%2C_Indianapolis%2C_Indiana_%281911%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Madam_CJ_Walker_Manufacturing_Company%2C_Indianapolis%2C_Indiana_%281911%29.jpg/400px-Madam_CJ_Walker_Manufacturing_Company%2C_Indianapolis%2C_Indiana_%281911%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="385" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A photo of Walker's manufacturing plant in Indianapolis, Indiana, 1911.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>The most famous entrepreneur was <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker" title="Madam C. J. Walker">Madame C.J. Walker</a> (1867–1919); she built a national franchise business called <a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker_Manufacturing_Company" title="Madam C. J. Walker Manufacturing Company">Madame C.J. Walker Manufacturing Company</a> based on her invention of the first successful hair straightening process.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Joyner" title="Marjorie Joyner">Marjorie Joyner</a> (1896–1994) was the first black graduate of a beauty school in Chicago, where she got to know Madame Walker and became her agent. By 1919 Joyner was the national supervisor over Walker's 200 beauty schools. A major role was sending their hairstylists door-to-door, dressed in black skirts and white blouses with black satchels containing a range of beauty products that were applied in the customer's house. Joyner taught some 15,000 stylists over her fifty-year career. She was also a leader in developing new products, such as her permanent wave machine. She helped write the first cosmetology laws for the state of Illinois and founded both a sorority and a national association for black beauticians. Joyner was friends with Eleanor Roosevelt, and helped found the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a>. She was an advisor to the Democratic National Committee in the 1940s and advised several New Deal agencies trying to reach out to black women. Joyner was highly visible in the Chicago black community, as head of the <i>Chicago Defender</i> Charity network, and fundraiser for various schools. In 1987 the Smithsonian Institution in Washington opened an exhibit featuring Joyner's permanent wave machine and a replica of her original salon.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The leading beauty salon for black women in Washington was operated by the sisters Elizabeth Cardozo Parker (1900–1981) and Margaret Cardozo Holmes (1898–1991) from 1929 to 1971. The Cardozo Sisters Hair Stylists expanded to five storefronts stretching an entire city block near the campus of Howard University, with 25 employees assisting up to 200 clients a day. They had a voice in the national beauticians community, and demanded an end to discriminatory practices.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rose_Meta_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Rose Meta Morgan">Rose Meta Morgan</a> (1912–2008) founded the House of Beauty salon to promote African-American standards of beauty, in opposition to those "white" standards that sought silky straight hair and light skin. Born in rural Mississippi, she moved to Chicago as a child and showed entrepreneurial skills as a teenager. She relocated to New York City in 1938, where her small beauty shop became the world's largest African-American beauty parlor. She staged fashion shows in Harlem, and sold her brand of cosmetics designed "to glorify a woman of color". She was briefly married to the famous heavyweight boxing champion <a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a> from 1955 to 1958. In 1965 she founded New York City's only black commercial bank, Freedom National Bank; in 1972 she set up a franchise operation for beauticians.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vera Moore (b 1950) marketed her unique brands of Vera Moore Cosmetics, including some products developed by her husband. She opened stores and upscale malls and had superstars as clients.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Small_business">Small business</h2></div> <p>In addition to the more prominent businesses listed above, African Americans have strong traditions of owning and operating small businesses such as restaurants, drug stores, newsstands, corner stores, candy shops, liquor stores, groceries, bars, and gas stations. </p><p>African Americans also have a length history of ownership in music-related businesses, including record stores, nightclubs, and record labels.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/African-American_bookstores" title="African-American bookstores">African-American bookstores</a> were closely tied to radical political movements, including <a href="/wiki/Black_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Power">Black Power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">black nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">pan-Africanism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>. <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African-American</a> owned <a href="/wiki/Funeral_home" title="Funeral home">funeral homes</a> also served an important role during the civil rights movement. These spaces allowed for the violence committed by white citizens to be made more public through photography and television.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=""Double_duty_dollars""><span id=".22Double_duty_dollars.22"></span>"Double duty dollars"</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Double-duty_dollar" title="Double-duty dollar">Double-duty dollar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcus_Garvey_1924-08-05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Marcus_Garvey_1924-08-05.jpg/220px-Marcus_Garvey_1924-08-05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Marcus_Garvey_1924-08-05.jpg/330px-Marcus_Garvey_1924-08-05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Marcus_Garvey_1924-08-05.jpg/440px-Marcus_Garvey_1924-08-05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3170" data-file-height="4857" /></a><figcaption>A portrait of political activist <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a> in 1924 who urged African Americans to redirect their dollars to those with inclusive business practices</figcaption></figure> <p>The term '"double duty dollar"' was used in the US from the early 1900s through the early 1960s, to express the notion that dollars spent with businesses hiring blacks simultaneously purchased a commodity and advanced the race. Where that concept applied, retailers who excluded African Americans as employees effectively excluded them as patrons too.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Mark_Silverman_1999_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Mark_Silverman_1999-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leon_Sullivan.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Leon_Sullivan.jpeg/220px-Leon_Sullivan.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="563" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Leon_Sullivan.jpeg/330px-Leon_Sullivan.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Leon_Sullivan.jpeg/440px-Leon_Sullivan.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="861" data-file-height="2204" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a> minister, <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a> leader, <a href="/wiki/Social_activist" class="mw-redirect" title="Social activist">social activist</a> and presidential Medal of Freedom recipient Leon Sullivan, photographed in 1968, urged African Americans to practice "selective patronage." </figcaption></figure> <p>Religious leaders and social activists such as Booker T. Washington and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a> urged their communities to redirect their dollars from suppliers who excluded African Americans to suppliers with more inclusive practices.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1940s and 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Sullivan" title="Leon Sullivan">Leon Sullivan</a> applied the broader phrase <a href="/wiki/Leon_Sullivan#Selective_Patronage_Movement" title="Leon Sullivan"><i>selective patronage</i></a> to note consumers' choice of suppliers as a tool a) to influence suppliers toward fairer, more just interactions with African Americans, and b) to build demand for African American suppliers.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_Mark_Silverman_1999_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_Mark_Silverman_1999-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In retrospect, the movement had little impact.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_national_agenda">The national agenda</h2></div> <p>Minority entrepreneurship entered the national agenda in 1927 when Secretary of Commerce <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> set up a Division of Negro Affairs to provide advice, and disseminate information to both white and black businessman on how to reach the black consumer. Entrepreneurship was not on the New Deal agenda after 1933. However, when Washington turned to war preparation in 1940, the Division of Negro Affairs tried to help black business secure defense contracts. Black businesses were not oriented toward manufacturing in the first place, and generally were too small to secure any major contracts. President Eisenhower disbanded the agency in 1953. With the civil rights movement at full blast, Lyndon Johnson coupled black entrepreneurship with his war on poverty, setting up special program in the Small Business Administration, the Office of Economic Opportunity, and other agencies.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This time there was money for loans designed to boost minority business ownership. Richard Nixon greatly expanded the program, setting up the Office of Minority Business Enterprise (OMBE) in the expectation that black entrepreneurs would help defuse racial tensions and possibly support his reelection .<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_national_market">The national market</h2></div><p> Most national corporations before the 1960s ignored the black market, and paid little attention to working with black merchants or hiring blacks for responsible positions. <a href="/wiki/Pepsi" title="Pepsi">Pepsi-Cola</a> was a major exception, as the number two brand fought for parity with Coca-Cola. The upstart soda brand hired <a href="/wiki/Edward_F._Boyd" title="Edward F. Boyd">Edward F. Boyd</a> (1914–2007), a pioneer black advertiser. Boyd hired local black promoters who penetrated into black markets across the South and the urban North. Journalist Stephanie Capparell interviewed six men who were on the team in the late 1940s: </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New-York_tribune.,_November_07,_1909,_Page_20,_Image_44_Aunt_Jemima.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/New-York_tribune.%2C_November_07%2C_1909%2C_Page_20%2C_Image_44_Aunt_Jemima.jpg/220px-New-York_tribune.%2C_November_07%2C_1909%2C_Page_20%2C_Image_44_Aunt_Jemima.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/New-York_tribune.%2C_November_07%2C_1909%2C_Page_20%2C_Image_44_Aunt_Jemima.jpg/330px-New-York_tribune.%2C_November_07%2C_1909%2C_Page_20%2C_Image_44_Aunt_Jemima.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/New-York_tribune.%2C_November_07%2C_1909%2C_Page_20%2C_Image_44_Aunt_Jemima.jpg/440px-New-York_tribune.%2C_November_07%2C_1909%2C_Page_20%2C_Image_44_Aunt_Jemima.jpg 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="1299" /></a><figcaption>Quaker Oats 1909 newspaper ad directed at white consumers</figcaption></figure><blockquote><p>The team members had a grueling schedule, working seven days a week, morning and night, for weeks on end. They visited bottlers, churches, "ladies groups," schools, college campuses, YMCAs, community centers, insurance conventions, teacher and doctor conferences, and various civic organizations. They got famous jazzmen such as Duke Ellington and Lionel Hampton to give shout-outs for Pepsi from the stage. No group was too small or too large to target for a promotion.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>Pepsi advertisements avoided the stereotypical images common in the major media that depicted one-dimensional <a href="/wiki/Aunt_Jemima" title="Aunt Jemima">Aunt Jemimas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uncle_Ben%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncle Ben's">Uncle Bens</a> whose role was to draw a smile from white customers. Instead it portrayed black customers as self-confident middle-class citizens who showed very good taste in their soft drinks. They were economical too, as Pepsi bottles were twice the size.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1968, the first black-owned McDonald's franchise opened in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_21st_century">The 21st century</h2></div> <p>In 2002, African American-owned businesses accounted for 1.2 million of the United States' 23 million businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2011<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black-owned_business&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> African American-owned businesses account for approximately 2 million <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">US businesses</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tozzi_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tozzi-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black-owned businesses experienced the largest growth in number of businesses among minorities from 2002 to 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-Tozzi_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tozzi-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Dodd%E2%80%93Frank_Wall_Street_Reform_and_Consumer_Protection_Act" title="Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act">Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act</a> of 2010 had as one goal to assist Black-owned businesses land more federal contracts. It required federal agencies to open an Office of Minority and Women Inclusion (OMWI) to track their diversity efforts in workforce hiring and procurement.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Additionally African American businessmen became more visible including billionaire <a href="/wiki/BET" title="BET">BET</a> founder <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Johnson" title="Robert L. Johnson">Robert L. Johnson</a> and private equity manager <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Smith_(investor)" title="Robert F. Smith (investor)">Robert F. Smith</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"></p><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40%; ; font-size: 110%; color: #202122;background-color: #aebbcf;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>There were 2.6 million black or African American-owned firms nationally in 2012, up from 1.9 million or 34.5 percent from 2007. Many apps and online directories, such as The Nile List or Official Black Wallstreet, have emerged offering a database of African American owned businesses that consumers can support. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">— The U.S. Census</cite></p> </div><p>In 2015 The US Census Reported that there were 2.6 million black or African American-owned firms nationally in 2012, up from 1.9 million or 34.5 percent from 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many apps and online directories, such as <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenilelist.com/">The Nile List</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://officialblackwallstreet.com/">Official Black Wallstreet</a>, have emerged offering a database of African American owned businesses that consumers can support. </p><p>Black entrepreneurs originally based in music and sports diversified to build "brand" names that made for success in the advertising and media worlds. The most prominent examples include media mogul <a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a> who became involved in numerous enterprises such as a book club that changed the way America reads.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basketball superstar <a href="/wiki/Magic_Johnson" title="Magic Johnson">Magic Johnson</a> was named by <i><a href="/wiki/Ebony_(magazine)" title="Ebony (magazine)">Ebony</a></i> magazine as one of America's most influential Black businessmen in 2009, Johnson has numerous business interests, and was a part-owner of the Lakers for several years. Johnson also is part of a group of investors that purchased the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Dodgers" title="Los Angeles Dodgers">Los Angeles Dodgers</a> in 2012 and the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Sparks" title="Los Angeles Sparks">Los Angeles Sparks</a> in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 21st Century there have been multiple mediums for African American owned businesses to gain the public eye. <a href="/wiki/Shark_Tank" title="Shark Tank">Shark Tank</a>, has provided a medium for many Black owned businesses to acquire investors, promote their business, and share their story with the world. One of the largest Black owned companies on Shark Tank was a company called U-Lace. U-Lace was a no-tie shoe lace owned by Tim Talley out of Rochester, New York. Mark Cuban acquired a 35% equity in the company for an investment of 200k. This investment increased revenue to over $3 million. Another successful company to come out of Shark Tank was a company called Simply Panache Products. This company makes mango preserves and did not receive any investment from the Sharks. This did not discourage or inhibit their future because they have now developed hotels, spas, and restaurants over the mango theme, showing that not only did they not need the help of an investment, but proving their resilience and dedication to their business.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">pandemic</a> has been a factor in Black-owned businesses and how they are performing during this time period. A research study conducted by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a> has found that Black-owned businesses have been hit harder in the pandemic than others because of their geography, limited reach to key federal aid programs, and weaker ties to banks. They found that counties with high concentrations of Black-owned businesses had a high amount of Covid-19 cases, meanwhile counties with higher shares of white-owned businesses had a lower incidence of Covid-19 cases. The result of this is the direct (longer forced closure, <a href="/wiki/Symptoms_of_COVID-19" title="Symptoms of COVID-19">Covid-19 symptoms</a>) and indirect (<a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">social distancing</a>, fewer customers) changes on the Black-owned businesses. The <a href="/wiki/Paycheck_Protection_Program" title="Paycheck Protection Program">Paycheck Protection Program</a>, which has $670 billion in loans to help small businesses, saw less volume of their loans go through the program to high concentrated areas of Black-owned businesses. The Federal Reserve found in their study that in "30 U.S. counties that contain 40% of receipts from Black-owned businesses, about 15%-20% of firms received Paycheck Protection Program loans",<sup id="cite_ref-:0_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a rate in line with the national average. However, they found that there is a significant variation across the 30 countries with lower volumes in areas such as the Bronx, New York, Wayne County, Michigan, and Detroit, Michigan. They concluded that a massive reason for this is their geography and the current situation that each of those areas faced at the time with the pandemic. Another part of the study found that the Paycheck Protection Program may have given less loans to Black-owned businesses because of their weak ties to <a href="/wiki/Financial_institution" title="Financial institution">financial institutions</a>. At the beginning of the pandemic, many large banks prioritized customers whom with they had existing relationships in an effort to manage the overwhelming demand for loans and support. The last part of the study found that Black-owned businesses are less likely to have a recent borrowing relationship with a bank. The Federal Reserve concluded their study with the statement of, "To have the greatest impact, the next round of Covid-19 relief should be more targeted geographically to focus on the hardest hit areas and communities that lack critical infrastructure (hospitals, banks) to ameliorate the gaps".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_United_States_racial_unrest" class="mw-redirect" title="2020–21 United States racial unrest">2020–21 United States racial unrest</a>, spurred by messages on social media, American consumers sought out Black-owned businesses to support. June saw record high Google searches for "Black-owned businesses near me" and smartphone restaurant discovery apps added features for discovering Black-owned restaurants. Businesses on social media lists saw significantly increased sales. Black-owned bookstores in particular had difficulty meeting demand.<sup id="cite_ref-AP_businesses_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP_businesses-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black-owned <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_(bank)" title="Greenwood (bank)">Greenwood</a> digital bank opened in 2020 to provide financial services specifically for Americans of color and encourage competition from larger banks.<sup id="cite_ref-AJC_plans_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AJC_plans-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is now a large selection of public resources that are available which allow for Black-owned businesses to receive help. These resources aid the businesses furthermore since Black-owned companies have been hit hard during the COVID-19 disruptions.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uschamber.com/co/start/strategy/resources-for-black-owned-businesses">Resources</a> that allow for these businesses to get ahead and give guidance. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bbala.org/">The Black Business Association</a>, based out of Los Angeles, is a non-profit that goes to aid in networking and offers training. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blackfounders.com/">Black founders</a> are a group that specializes in technology entrepreneurship. While <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blackownedeverything.co/">Black Owned Everything</a> has the approach of allowing black businesses to spread their advertisements in the form of pictures. This company uses the popular social media app Instagram to spread its information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Black_Owned_Public_Companies">Black Owned Public Companies</h2></div> <p>A lot of companies stay private to avoid the troubles and scrutiny that comes with private owned companies. In a total on 3,671 businesses that went public in April 2017, only 8 of them were Black owned businesses. There are a wide variation of Black owned public companies and the number is growing daily. These companies reach many industries such as finance, technology, broadcasting, and healthcare.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>RLJ Lodging Trust is a real estate investing company founded in 2000. Their total revenue was $382 million (as of September 2020).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Urban_One" title="Urban One">Urban One</a> is a radio station that was founded in 1987 and went public in 1999. Their total revenue was $262.79 million (as of September 2020).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Global Blood Therapeutics is a biopharmaceutical company founded in 2011.Their total revenue was $82.51 million (as of September 2020).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Carver_Federal_Savings_Bank" title="Carver Federal Savings Bank">Carver Bancorp</a> is a banking company founded in 1948. Their total revenue was $9.86 million.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Broadway Financial Corp., which is a holding company for <a href="/wiki/Broadway_Federal_Bank" title="Broadway Federal Bank">Broadway Federal Bank</a>, was founded in 1946 and their total revenue as of September 2020 is $13.71 million.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another option people have to support Black owned businesses is to invest money into Black owned public companies by purchasing shares.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources.">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prominent_figures">Prominent figures</h2></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Date </th> <th>Name </th> <th>Distinction </th> <th>Field </th></tr> <tr> <td>1858–1927 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Herndon" title="Alonzo Herndon">Alonzo Herndon</a> </td> <td>Founder of <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Life" title="Atlanta Life">Atlanta Life</a> and Atlanta's first black millionaire </td> <td>Insurance </td></tr> <tr> <td>1867-1919 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Madam_C._J._Walker" title="Madam C. J. Walker">Madam C.J. Walker</a> </td> <td>The first Black female millionaire and "grassroots saleswoman"<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Beauty </td></tr> <tr> <td>1874–1952 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charles_Clinton_Spaulding" title="Charles Clinton Spaulding">Charles Clinton Spaulding</a> </td> <td>President of <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Mutual_Life_Insurance_Company" title="North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company">North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company</a>, America's largest Black-owned business </td> <td>Insurance </td></tr> <tr> <td>1906–2005 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mary_T._Washington" title="Mary T. Washington">Mary T. Washington</a> </td> <td>First African-American woman to become a certified public accountant </td> <td>Finance </td></tr> <tr> <td>1918-2005 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_H._Johnson" title="John H. Johnson">John H. Johnson</a> </td> <td>Founder of the <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Publishing_Company" title="Johnson Publishing Company">Johnson Publishing Company</a>, one of America's most influential Black-owned businesses </td> <td>Publishing </td></tr> <tr> <td>1929- </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Berry_Gordy" title="Berry Gordy">Berry Gordy</a> </td> <td>Founder and first owner of <a href="/wiki/Motown_Records" class="mw-redirect" title="Motown Records">Motown Records</a>, America's highest-earning Black-owned business for decades </td> <td>Music </td></tr> <tr> <td>1935-2021 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a> </td> <td>Former executive director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a>, Clinton administration advisor and top-tier corporate and political power broker </td> <td>Civil Rights, Business, Law </td></tr> <tr> <td>1942–1993 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Lewis" title="Reginald Lewis">Reginald Lewis</a> </td> <td>The first Black man to build a billion-dollar company, TLC Beatrice International Holdings Inc. The richest Black man in the 1980s, and listed among the 400 richest Americans in 1993 </td> <td>Finance </td></tr> <tr> <td>1954- </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chris_Gardner" title="Chris Gardner">Chris Gardner</a> </td> <td>Founder of the stock brokerage firm <a href="/wiki/Chris_Gardner" title="Chris Gardner">Gardner Rich & Co</a> and Christopher Gardner International Holdings </td> <td>Finance </td></tr> <tr> <td>1954- </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a> </td> <td>The first Black woman billionaire in media and entertainment and a powerhouse influencer </td> <td>Media and Entertainment </td></tr> <tr> <td>1957- </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raymond_McGuire" title="Raymond McGuire">Raymond McGuire</a> </td> <td>Considered an African American banking pioneer, he is also notable as pioneering Black art collector, one of the top African and African American art collectors in the world </td> <td>Finance </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_business_history" title="American business history">American business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Black conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_19th-century_African-American_civil_rights_activists" title="List of 19th-century African-American civil rights activists">List of 19th-century African-American civil rights activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">African-American newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double-duty_dollar" title="Double-duty dollar">Double-duty dollar</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juliet E.K. Walker, "Racism, slavery, and free enterprise: Black entrepreneurship in the United States before the Civil War." <i>Business History Review</i> 60#3 (1986): 343-382. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/slavery/Antebellum-Black-Entrepreneurship.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160408200133/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/slavery/Antebellum-Black-Entrepreneurship.pdf">Archived</a> April 8, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edwin Adams Davis, and William Ransom Hogan, <i>Barber of Natchez</i> (LSU Press, 1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steve Criniti, "Thirty years a slave, and four years a fairy Godmother: dressmaking as self-making in Elizabeth Keckley's autobiography." <i>American Transcendental Quarterly</i> 22.1 (2008): 309+.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAugust_Meier1963" class="citation book cs1">August Meier (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=masKS7ZroY0C&pg=PA139"><i>Negro Thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T. Washington</i></a>. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472061181" title="Special:BookSources/978-0472061181"><bdi>978-0472061181</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Thought+in+America%2C+1880-1915%3A+Racial+Ideologies+in+the+Age+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.pages=139&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0472061181&rft.au=August+Meier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmasKS7ZroY0C%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">for detailed national report on the numbers of black businessmen and their finances in 1890, see Andrew F. Hilyer, "The Colored American in Business," pp 13-22 in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Negro_Business_League_(U.S.)1901" class="citation book cs1">National Negro Business League (U.S.) (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oeBtAAAAMAAJ"><i>Proceedings of the National Negro Business League: Its First Meeting Held in Boston, Massachusetts, August 23 and 24, 1900</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Negro+Business+League%3A+Its+First+Meeting+Held+in+Boston%2C+Massachusetts%2C+August+23+and+24%2C+1900&rft.date=1901&rft.au=National+Negro+Business+League+%28U.S.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoeBtAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRachel_Kranz2004" class="citation book cs1">Rachel Kranz (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCHX6P8ETI0C&pg=PA49"><i>African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs</i></a>. pp. 49–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438107790" title="Special:BookSources/9781438107790"><bdi>9781438107790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African-American+Business+Leaders+and+Entrepreneurs&rft.pages=49-51&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781438107790&rft.au=Rachel+Kranz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNCHX6P8ETI0C%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd2010" class="citation journal cs1">Boyd, Robert L. (Fall 2010). "Black Retail Enterprise and Racial Segregation in Northern Cities before the "Ghetto"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Sociological Perspectives</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 397–417. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fsop.2010.53.3.397">10.1525/sop.2010.53.3.397</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147259259">147259259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Perspectives&rft.atitle=Black+Retail+Enterprise+and+Racial+Segregation+in+Northern+Cities+before+the+%22Ghetto%22&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=397-417&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fsop.2010.53.3.397&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147259259%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlakeney" class="citation web cs1">Blakeney, Barney. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.charlestoncitypaper.com/charleston/how-integration-led-to-the-decline-of-black-owned-businesses/Content?oid=1113614">"How integration led to the decline of black-owned businesses"</a>. <i>Charleston City Paper</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170124213328/http://www.charlestoncitypaper.com/charleston/how-integration-led-to-the-decline-of-black-owned-businesses/Content?oid=1113614">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Charleston+City+Paper&rft.atitle=How+integration+led+to+the+decline+of+black-owned+businesses&rft.aulast=Blakeney&rft.aufirst=Barney&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.charlestoncitypaper.com%2Fcharleston%2Fhow-integration-led-to-the-decline-of-black-owned-businesses%2FContent%3Foid%3D1113614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unbiasedtalk.com/uncategorized/black-wall-street-segregation-was-better-for-blacks/">"Hit on the Head – "Black Wall Street" – Segregation was better for blacks"</a>. <i>www.unbiasedtalk.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170924004744/http://www.unbiasedtalk.com/uncategorized/black-wall-street-segregation-was-better-for-blacks/">Archived</a> from the original on September 24, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.unbiasedtalk.com&rft.atitle=Hit+on+the+Head+%E2%80%93+%22Black+Wall+Street%22+%E2%80%93+Segregation+was+better+for+blacks&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unbiasedtalk.com%2Funcategorized%2Fblack-wall-street-segregation-was-better-for-blacks%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth Hamilton, ed., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lexisnexis.com/documents/academic/upa_cis/1559_NatNegroBusLeaguePt1.pdf"><i>A Guide to the Records of the National Negro Business League.</i></a> Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America, 1995.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quincy T. Mills, <i>Cutting along the Color Line: Black Barbers and Barber Shops in America</i> (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120086708/cutting-along-the-color-line-black-barbers-and-barber">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170922145220/https://www.questia.com/library/120086708/cutting-along-the-color-line-black-barbers-and-barber">Archived</a> September 22, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter B. Weare, <i>Black Business in the New South: A Social History of the North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company</i> (1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert E. Weems, Jr., <i>Black Business in the Black Metropolis: The Chicago Metropolitan Assurance Company, 1925-1985</i> (1996)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBOYD1998" class="citation journal cs1">BOYD, ROBERT L. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20831994">"Black Undertakers in Northern Cities During the Great Migration: The Rise of an Entrepreneurial Occupation"</a>. <i>Sociological Focus</i>. <b>31</b> (3): 249–263. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00380237.1998.10571105">10.1080/00380237.1998.10571105</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-0237">0038-0237</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20831994">20831994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Focus&rft.atitle=Black+Undertakers+in+Northern+Cities+During+the+Great+Migration%3A+The+Rise+of+an+Entrepreneurial+Occupation&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=249-263&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=0038-0237&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20831994%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00380237.1998.10571105&rft.aulast=BOYD&rft.aufirst=ROBERT+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20831994&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juliet E.K. Walker, <i>The history of black business in America: Capitalism, race, entrepreneurship</i> (2009) p 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeier1962" class="citation journal cs1">Meier, August (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/273804">"Negro Class Structure and Ideology in the Age of Booker T. Washington"</a>. <i>Phylon (1960-)</i>. <b>23</b> (3): 258–266. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F273804">10.2307/273804</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-8906">0031-8906</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/273804">273804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Phylon+%281960-%29&rft.atitle=Negro+Class+Structure+and+Ideology+in+the+Age+of+Booker+T.+Washington&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=258-266&rft.date=1962&rft.issn=0031-8906&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F273804%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F273804&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=August&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F273804&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">August Meier, <i>Negro thought in America, 1880-1915: Racial ideologies in the age of Booker T. Washington</i> (1966) p 140.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W.E.B. Du Bois, <i>The Negro in business: report of a social study made under the direction of Atlanta University</i> (1899) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scua.library.umass.edu/digital/dubois/dubois4.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180413050242/http://scua.library.umass.edu/digital/dubois/dubois4.pdf">Archived</a> April 13, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeierLewis1959" class="citation journal cs1">Meier, August; Lewis, David (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293711">"History of the Negro Upper Class in Atlanta, Georgia, 1890-1958"</a>. <i>The Journal of Negro Education</i>. <b>28</b> (2): 128–139. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2293711">10.2307/2293711</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2984">0022-2984</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293711">2293711</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+Education&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Negro+Upper+Class+in+Atlanta%2C+Georgia%2C+1890-1958&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=128-139&rft.date=1959&rft.issn=0022-2984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2293711%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2293711&rft.aulast=Meier&rft.aufirst=August&rft.au=Lewis%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2293711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter B. Weare, "Charles Clinton Spaulding: Middle-Class Leadership in the Age of Segregation," in John Hope Franklin and August Meier, eds., <i>Black leaders of the twentieth century</i> (1982), 166-90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael B. Boston, <i>The Business Strategy of Booker T. Washington: Its Development and Implementation</i> (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120088955/the-business-strategy-of-booker-t-washington-its">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180914022305/https://www.questia.com/library/120088955/the-business-strategy-of-booker-t-washington-its">Archived</a> September 14, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlan1988" class="citation book cs1">Harlan, Louis R. (1988). Smock, Raymond W. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2tvj64"><i>Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan</i></a>. University Press of Mississippi. pp. 98–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-928-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57806-928-6"><bdi>978-1-57806-928-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2tvj64">j.ctt2tvj64</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Booker+T.+Washington+in+Perspective%3A+Essays+of+Louis+R.+Harlan&rft.pages=98-109&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt2tvj64%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-57806-928-6&rft.aulast=Harlan&rft.aufirst=Louis+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt2tvj64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/only-african-american-automobile-company">"The Only African American Automobile Company"</a>. <i>National Museum of African American History and Culture</i>. Smithsonian. October 11, 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201209160439/https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/only-african-american-automobile-company">Archived</a> from the original on December 9, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 12,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Museum+of+African+American+History+and+Culture&rft.atitle=The+Only+African+American+Automobile+Company&rft.date=2017-10-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Fblog-post%2Fonly-african-american-automobile-company&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert E. Weems, "'The Right Man': James A. Jackson and the Origins of U.S. Government Interest in Black Business," <i>Enterprise & Society</i> (2005) 6#2 pp 254-277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter B. Weare, <i>Black Business in the New South: A Social History of the NC Mutual Life Insurance Company</i> (1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Weare, "Charles Clinton Spaulding: Middle-Class Leadership in the Age of Segregation," in John Hope Franklin and August Meier, eds., <i>Black leaders of the twentieth century</i> (1982), 166-90</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Morris J. McDonald, "The management of grief: a study of black funeral practices." <i>OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying</i> 4.2 (1973): 139-148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicole Taylor, 'New York Times,' August 22, 2017, "Martha’s Vineyard Has a Nourishing Magic for Black Americans" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/22/dining/marthas-vineyard-african-american-community.html">https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/22/dining/marthas-vineyard-african-american-community.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201008214500/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/22/dining/marthas-vineyard-african-american-community.html">Archived</a> October 8, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald J. Stephens, 'The Black Eden of Michigan,' University of Nebraska <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7385-1890-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7385-1890-5">0-7385-1890-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick S. Washburn, <i>The African American Newspaper: Voice of Freedom</i> (2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blackpast.org/aaw/vignette_aahw/washington-jr-leon-h-1907-1974/">"Leon H. Washington Jr. (1907-1974) • BlackPast"</a>. <i>BlackPast</i>. December 18, 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190209124428/https://www.blackpast.org/aaw/vignette_aahw/washington-jr-leon-h-1907-1974/">Archived</a> from the original on February 9, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BlackPast&rft.atitle=Leon+H.+Washington+Jr.+%281907-1974%29+%E2%80%A2+BlackPast&rft.date=2011-12-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackpast.org%2Faaw%2Fvignette_aahw%2Fwashington-jr-leon-h-1907-1974%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newspapers.com/image/376979617/?terms=%22Leon+H.+Washington%22">"20 Jun 1974, 13 - The Baltimore Sun at Newspapers.com"</a>. <i>Newspapers.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725005402/http://www.newspapers.com/image/376979617/?terms=%22Leon+H.+Washington%22">Archived</a> from the original on July 25, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Newspapers.com&rft.atitle=20+Jun+1974%2C+13+-+The+Baltimore+Sun+at+Newspapers.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fimage%2F376979617%2F%3Fterms%3D%2522Leon%2BH.%2BWashington%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John H. Johnson, <i>Succeeding Against The Odds</i> (1993).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blain Roberts, <i>Pageants, Parlors, and Pretty Women: Race and Beauty in the Twentieth-Century South</i> (2014), quote p 96. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/3119/reviews/57654/brown-roberts-pageants-parlors-and-pretty-women-race-and-beauty">online review</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160601053804/https://networks.h-net.org/node/3119/reviews/57654/brown-roberts-pageants-parlors-and-pretty-women-race-and-beauty">Archived</a> June 1, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Pageants-Parlors-Pretty-Women-Twentieth-Century-ebook/dp/B00IZCGAAO/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101004520/https://networks.h-net.org/node/3119/reviews/57654/brown-roberts-pageants-parlors-and-pretty-women-race-and-beauty">Archived</a> November 1, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Susannah Walker, <i>Style and Status: Selling Beauty to African American Women, 1920-1975</i> (2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Style-Status-Selling-American-1920-1975/dp/0813124336/">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725051218/https://www.amazon.com/Style-Status-Selling-American-1920-1975/dp/0813124336/">Archived</a> July 25, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A'Lelia Bundles, <i>On Her Own Ground: The Life and Times of Madam C.J. Walker</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/On-Her-Own-Ground-Paperback/dp/0743431723">excerpt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160415070907/http://www.amazon.com/On-Her-Own-Ground-Paperback/dp/0743431723">Archived</a> April 15, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jessie Carney Smith, ed., <i>Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture</i> (2010) pp 435-38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smith, ed., <i>Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture</i> (2010) pp 134-39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRachel_Kranz2004" class="citation book cs1">Rachel Kranz (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCHX6P8ETI0C&pg=PA200"><i>African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. pp. 199–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438107790" title="Special:BookSources/9781438107790"><bdi>9781438107790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African-American+Business+Leaders+and+Entrepreneurs&rft.pages=199-201&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781438107790&rft.au=Rachel+Kranz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNCHX6P8ETI0C%26pg%3DPA200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKranz2004" class="citation book cs1">Kranz (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCHX6P8ETI0C&pg=PA198"><i>African-American Business Leaders and Entrepreneurs</i></a>. pp. 196–98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438107790" title="Special:BookSources/9781438107790"><bdi>9781438107790</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African-American+Business+Leaders+and+Entrepreneurs&rft.pages=196-98&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781438107790&rft.au=Kranz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNCHX6P8ETI0C%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Joshua Clark Davis, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/10691538/For_the_Records_How_African_American_Consumers_and_Music_Retailers_Created_Commercial_Public_Space_in_the_1960s_and_1970s_South">"For the Records: How African American Consumers and Music Retailers Created Commercial Public Space in the 1960s and 1970s South,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190322130222/https://www.academia.edu/10691538/For_the_Records_How_African_American_Consumers_and_Music_Retailers_Created_Commercial_Public_Space_in_the_1960s_and_1970s_South">Archived</a> March 22, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Southern Cultures</i>, Winter 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanders2014" class="citation journal cs1">Sanders, Crystal (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mississippihistory.org/sites/default/files/fall_winter_2014_clarie_collins_harvey_article.pdf">"Dignity in Life and Death: Undertaker Clarie Collins Harvey and Black Women's Entrepreneurial Activism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Journal of Mississippi History</i>. <b>76</b> – via The Mississippi Historical Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Mississippi+History&rft.atitle=Dignity+in+Life+and+Death%3A+Undertaker+Clarie+Collins+Harvey+and+Black+Women%27s+Entrepreneurial+Activism&rft.volume=76&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Sanders&rft.aufirst=Crystal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mississippihistory.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffall_winter_2014_clarie_collins_harvey_article.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGavins1974" class="citation journal cs1">Gavins, Raymond (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716763">"Gordon Blaine Hancock: A Black Profile From the New South"</a>. <i>The Journal of Negro History</i>. <b>59</b> (3): 207–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2716763">10.2307/2716763</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2992">0022-2992</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2716763">2716763</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149505373">149505373</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Gordon+Blaine+Hancock%3A+A+Black+Profile+From+the+New+South&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=207-227&rft.date=1974&rft.issn=0022-2992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149505373%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2716763%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2716763&rft.aulast=Gavins&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2716763&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Robert_Mark_Silverman_1999-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_Mark_Silverman_1999_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_Mark_Silverman_1999_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Mark Silverman, "Ethnic solidarity and black business." <i>American Journal of Economics and Sociology</i> 58.4 (1999): 829-841.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22selective+patronage%22&btnG=&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5">"Selective Patronage"</a>. <i>scholar.google.com</i>.</cite><span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 10,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forbes&rft.atitle=The+Black+Billionaires+2019&rft.aulast=Nsehe&rft.aufirst=Mfonobong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fmfonobongnsehe%2F2019%2F03%2F05%2Fthe-black-billionaires-2019%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2015/cb15-209.html">Number of Minority- and Women-Owned Firms Each Increase by More Than 2 Million Nationally</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171228163905/https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2015/cb15-209.html">Archived</a> December 28, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> U.S. Census Press Release</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cecilia Konchar Farr, <i>Reading Oprah: How Oprah's book club changed the way America reads</i> (SUNY Press, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 30,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Top+10+Black-Owned+Companies+That+Were+Featured+on+%22Shark+Tank%22+--+And+What+Happened%21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackbusiness.com%2F2017%2F08%2Ftop-10-black-owned-companies-entrepreneurs-featured-on-shark-tank.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmeokwe2020" class="citation web cs1">Omeokwe, Amara (August 4, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/black-owned-businesses-hit-especially-hard-by-coronavirus-pandemic-study-finds-11596558754">"Black-Owned Businesses Hit Especially Hard by Coronavirus Pandemic, Study Finds"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224195209/https://www.wsj.com/articles/black-owned-businesses-hit-especially-hard-by-coronavirus-pandemic-study-finds-11596558754">Archived</a> from the original on February 24, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 6,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Marketplace&rft.atitle=Black-owned+businesses+seeing+an+increase+in+sales+during+protests&rft.date=2020-06-16&rft.aulast=Fields&rft.aufirst=Samantha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marketplace.org%2F2020%2F06%2F16%2Fblack-owned-businesses-seeing-an-increase-in-sales-during-protests%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynn2020" class="citation web cs1">Lynn, Samara (June 25, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/Business/search-black-owned-businesses-1700-people-craving-fondue/story?id=71450431">"Search for Black-owned businesses up over 1,700% and people are craving fondue: Yelp"</a>. <i>ABC News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210805140324/https://abcnews.go.com/Business/search-black-owned-businesses-1700-people-craving-fondue/story?id=71450431">Archived</a> from the original on August 5, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 6,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Search+for+Black-owned+businesses+up+over+1%2C700%25+and+people+are+craving+fondue%3A+Yelp&rft.date=2020-06-25&rft.aulast=Lynn&rft.aufirst=Samara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FBusiness%2Fsearch-black-owned-businesses-1700-people-craving-fondue%2Fstory%3Fid%3D71450431&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuetzWuDrane2020" class="citation web cs1">Schuetz, R. A.; Wu, Gwendolyn; Drane, Amanda (July 3, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.houstonchronicle.com/business/article/As-support-for-Black-owned-business-grows-some-15383524.php">"As support for Black-owned business grows, some are left behind"</a>. <i>Houston Chronicle</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211017161705/https://www.houstonchronicle.com/business/article/As-support-for-Black-owned-business-grows-some-15383524.php">Archived</a> from the original on October 17, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlanta+Journal-Constitution&rft.atitle=Killer+Mike+plans+bank+for+Black%2C+Latino+consumers&rft.date=2020-10-08&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ajc.com%2Fnews%2Fkiller-mike-plans-bank-for-black-latino-consumers%2FK4MIQVOSLJEELDFZG2VT4T3FNY%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudwig2020" class="citation web cs1">Ludwig, Sean (July 28, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uschamber.com/co/start/strategy/resources-for-black-owned-businesses">"Resources for Black-Owned Businesses"</a>. <i>www.uschamber.com/co</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210415170147/https://www.uschamber.com/co/start/strategy/resources-for-black-owned-businesses">Archived</a> from the original on April 15, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 15,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.uschamber.com%2Fco&rft.atitle=Resources+for+Black-Owned+Businesses&rft.date=2020-07-28&rft.aulast=Ludwig&rft.aufirst=Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.uschamber.com%2Fco%2Fstart%2Fstrategy%2Fresources-for-black-owned-businesses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/theymadeamerica/whomade/walker_hi.html">"Who Made America? | Innovators | Sarah Breedlove Walker"</a>. <i>www.pbs.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171116141212/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/theymadeamerica/whomade/walker_hi.html">Archived</a> from the original on November 16, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 17,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pbs.org&rft.atitle=Who+Made+America%3F+%7C+Innovators+%7C+Sarah+Breedlove+Walker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Ftheymadeamerica%2Fwhomade%2Fwalker_hi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Ahiarah, Sol. "Black Americans’ business ownership factors: A theoretical perspective." <i>The Review of Black Political Economy</i> 22.2 (1993): 15-39. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02689942#page-1">abstract</a></li> <li>Conrad Cecilia A. and John Whitehead, eds. <i>African Americans in the U.S. Economy</i> (2005) ch 25-30, 42.</li> <li>Davis, Joshua Clark, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cup.columbia.edu/book/from-head-shops-to-whole-foods/9780231171588">From Head Shops to Whole Foods: The Rise and Fall of Activist Businesses</a></i> (Columbia University Press, 2017).</li> <li>Davis, Joshua Clark, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/10691538/For_the_Records_How_African_American_Consumers_and_Music_Retailers_Created_Commercial_Public_Space_in_the_1960s_and_1970s_South">"For the Records: How African American Consumers and Music Retailers Created Commercial Public Space in the 1960s and 1970s South,"</a> <i>Southern Cultures</i>, Winter 2011</li> <li>Davis, Joshua Clark, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaihs.org/black-owned-bookstores-anchors-of-the-black-power-movement/">"Black-Owned Bookstores: Anchors of the Black Power Movement,"</a> <i>Black Perspectives</i>, January 28, 2017.</li> <li>Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt. <i>The Negro in business: report of a social study made under the direction of Atlanta University</i> (1899); detailed sociological report by Du Bois and others on the conditions in the 1890s.</li> <li>Hammond, Theresa A. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uncpress.org/book/9780807874943/a-white-collar-profession/">A white-collar profession: African American certified public accountants since 1921</a></i> (U of North Carolina Press, 2003).</li> <li>Harlan, Louis R. "Booker T. Washington and the National Negro Business League" in Raymond W. Smock, ed. <i>Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan</i> (1988) pp. 98–109. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2tvj64">online</a></li> <li>Green, Shelley, and Paul L. Pryde. <i>Black entrepreneurship in America</i> (1989).</li> <li>Kijakazi, Kilolo. <i>African American Economic Development and Small Business Ownership</i> (1997).</li> <li>Rogers, W. Sherman. <i>The African American Entrepreneur: Then and Now</i> (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/120085720/the-african-american-entrepreneur-then-and-now">online</a></li> <li>Sharp, Kelly K. "Current trends in African American business history of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries: Recent historiography and applications of the field" <i>History Compass</i> vol 18, Issue 1 (January 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/hic3.12604?campaign=woletoc">online</a></li> <li>Sluby, Patricia Carter. <i>The Entrepreneurial Spirit of African American Inventors</i> (2011).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Jessie_Carney2006" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jessie Carney, ed. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-VYN_LWZwf4C&pg=PA594"><i>Encyclopedia of African American Business</i></a>. Greenwood. pp. 593–94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313331107" title="Special:BookSources/9780313331107"><bdi>9780313331107</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+American+Business&rft.pages=593-94&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780313331107&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-VYN_LWZwf4C%26pg%3DPA594&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Walker, Juliet E. K. <i>The History of Black Business in America: Capitalism, Race, Entrepreneurship: Volume 1, To 1865</i> (2009), vol. 2 not yet published.</li> <li>Walker, Juliet E. K. <i>Encyclopedia of African American Business History</i> (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/101376678/encyclopedia-of-african-american-business-history">online</a>; 755pp</li> <li>Walker, Juliet E.K. "Black Entrepreneurship: An Historical Inquiry." <i>Business and Economic History</i> (1983): 37–55. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.392.4505&rep=rep1&type=pdf">online</a></li> <li>Walker, Susannah. <i>Style and Status: Selling Beauty to African American Women, 1920–1975</i> (U of Kentucky Press, 2007), 250 pp. illustrations.</li> <li>Weems, Robert E. "A crumbling legacy: The decline of African American insurance companies in contemporary America." <i>Review of Black Political Economy</i> 23#2 (1994): 25–37. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02692733#page-1">online</a></li> <li>Weems, Robert E. <i>Desegregating the dollar: African American consumerism in the twentieth century</i> (NYU Press, 1998).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entrepreneurs_and_businesses">Entrepreneurs and businesses</h3></div> <ul><li>Beito, David T. and Beito, Linda Royster, <i> Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power,</i> (U of Illinois Press, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dS4eA77qau0C">excerpt</a></li> <li>Boyd, Robert L. "Ethnic competition for an occupational niche: The case of Black and Italian barbers in northern US cities during the late nineteenth century." <i>Sociological Focus</i> 35#3 (2002): 247–265.</li> <li>Boyd, Robert L. "Black Retail Enterprise and Racial Segregation in Northern Cities before the “Ghetto”." <i>Sociological Perspectives</i> 53#3 (2010): 397-417.</li> <li>Boyd, Robert L. "Transformation of the Black Business Elite*." <i>Social science quarterly</i> 87.3 (2006): 602–617.</li> <li>Gatewood, Willard B. "Aristocrats of Color: South and North The Black Elite, 1880-1920." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> 54#1 (1988): 3-20. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2208518">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Harris, Abram Lincoln. <i>The negro as capitalist: A study of banking and business among American negroes</i> (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=41OcpwiVMJQC&pg=PR7">online</a></li> <li>Henderson, Alexa Benson. <i>Atlanta Life Insurance Company: Guardian of Black Economic Dignity</i> 1990).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngham,_John_N.Lynne_B._Feldman1994" class="citation book cs1">Ingham, John N.; Lynne B. Feldman, eds. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TTha3NavN-sC&pg=PR3"><i>African-American Business Leaders: A Biographical Dictionary</i></a>. Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313272530" title="Special:BookSources/9780313272530"><bdi>9780313272530</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African-American+Business+Leaders%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780313272530&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTTha3NavN-sC%26pg%3DPR3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABlack-owned+business" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Weems, Robert E. "The Chicago Metropolitan Mutual Assurance Company: A Profile of a Black-Owned Enterprise." <i>Illinois Historical Journal</i> 86#1 (1993): 15–26. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40192684">in JSTOR</a> <ul><li>Weems, Robert E. <i>Black Business in the Black Metropolis: The Chicago Metropolitan Assurance Company, 1925-1985</i> (2000)</li></ul></li> <li>Weare, Walter B. <i>Black Business in the New South: A Social History of the NC Mutual Life Insurance Company</i> (1993)</li> <li>Weare, Walter B. "Charles Clinton Spaulding: Middle-Class Leadership in the Age of Segregation," in John Hope Franklin and August Meier, eds., <i>Black leaders of the twentieth century</i> (U of Illinois Press, 1982), 166–90. Spaulding was head of NC Mutual Life Insurance Company, 1900–1952.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li>Du Bois, W. E. B. ed. <i>The Negro in Business: Report of a Social Study Made Under the Direction of Atlanta University, Together with the Proceedings of the Fourth Conference ... Held at Atlanta University, May 30–31, 1899</i> (1899) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/negroinbusiness00boisgoog/page/n7/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>National Negro Business League, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/proceedingsofnat00nati_0"><i>Proceedings of the National Negro Business League: Its First Meeting, Held in Boston, Massachusetts, August 23 and 24, 1900.</i></a> Boston: J.E. Hamm, Publisher, 1901.</li> <li>Washington, Booker T. <i>The Negro in Business</i> (1907) <a href="//archive.org/details/negroinbusiness00washgoog/page/n7/mode/2up" class="extiw" title="iarchive:negroinbusiness00washgoog/page/n7/mode/2up">online free</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a 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