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vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legal framework subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_framework-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>International law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-OECD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#OECD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>OECD</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-OECD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>United 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href="#Existing_international_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3.2</span> <span>Existing international organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Existing_international_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations_by_continental_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations_by_continental_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Regulations by continental organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulations_by_continental_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.1</span> <span>Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.2</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4.3</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-National_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>National law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Armenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Georgia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Georgia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.5</span> <span>Georgia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Georgia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.6</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.7</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.8</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governmental_anti-corruption_beyond_the_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governmental_anti-corruption_beyond_the_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Governmental anti-corruption beyond the law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Governmental_anti-corruption_beyond_the_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Governmental anti-corruption beyond the law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Governmental_anti-corruption_beyond_the_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prevention_of_corruption/anti-corruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention_of_corruption/anti-corruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Prevention of corruption/anti-corruption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention_of_corruption/anti-corruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Good_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Good_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Good governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Good_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sanctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Sanctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_sector_procurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_sector_procurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Public sector procurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_sector_procurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Civil society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Civil_society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Civil society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Civil_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ensuring_transparency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ensuring_transparency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Ensuring transparency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ensuring_transparency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_on_corruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_on_corruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Education on corruption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_on_corruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-state_actors_in_the_field_of_asset_recovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-state_actors_in_the_field_of_asset_recovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Non-state actors in the field of asset recovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-state_actors_in_the_field_of_asset_recovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corporate_anti-corruption_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corporate_anti-corruption_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Corporate anti-corruption approaches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Corporate_anti-corruption_approaches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Corporate anti-corruption approaches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Corporate_anti-corruption_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compliance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compliance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Compliance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compliance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Collective action</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Implementation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enep-goubrenerezh" title="Enep-goubrenerezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Enep-goubrenerezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutte_contre_la_corruption" title="Lutte contre la corruption – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Lutte contre la corruption" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-korupsi" title="Anti-korupsi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Anti-korupsi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lit_kont_koripsyon" title="Lit kont koripsyon – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Lit kont koripsyon" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticorrup%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Anticorrupção – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Anticorrupção" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Антикорупција – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Антикорупција" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Activities that oppose or inhibit corruption</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_(disambiguation)" 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">Political corruption</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccdd; style:bold; font-size:105%;"> Forms and concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">Bribery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_corruption" title="Economics of corruption">Economics of corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud" title="Electoral fraud">Electoral fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_capture" title="Elite capture">Elite capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_peddling" title="Influence peddling">Influence peddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">Kleptocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mafia_state" title="Mafia state">Mafia state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhic_defeat_theory" title="Pyrrhic defeat theory">Pyrrhic defeat theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush_fund" title="Slush fund">Slush fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simony" title="Simony">Simony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capture" title="State capture">State capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-corporate_crime" title="State-corporate crime">State-corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Throffer" title="Throffer">Throffer</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccdd; style:bold; font-size:105%;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anti-corruption</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Court" title="International Anti-Corruption Court">International Anti-Corruption Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_States_Against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of States Against Corruption">Group of States Against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Academy" title="International Anti-Corruption Academy">International Anti-Corruption Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Day" title="International Anti-Corruption Day">International Anti-Corruption Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Convention against Corruption">United Nations Convention against Corruption</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ccccdd; style:bold; font-size:105%;"> Corruption by country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Africa</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Angola" title="Corruption in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Botswana" title="Corruption in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Cameroon" title="Corruption in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Chad" title="Corruption in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Comoros" title="Corruption in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Corruption in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Egypt" title="Corruption in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Corruption in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Eritrea" title="Corruption in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ethiopia" title="Corruption in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ghana" title="Corruption in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Corruption in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Kenya" title="Corruption in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Lesotho" title="Corruption in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Liberia" title="Corruption in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Malawi" title="Corruption in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Mauritius" title="Corruption in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Morocco" title="Corruption in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Namibia" title="Corruption in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Niger" title="Corruption in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nigeria" title="Corruption in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Senegal" title="Corruption in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Corruption in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Somalia" title="Corruption in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_South_Africa" title="Corruption in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_South_Sudan" title="Corruption in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Sudan" title="Corruption in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Tanzania" title="Corruption in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Tunisia" title="Corruption in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Uganda" title="Corruption in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Zambia" title="Corruption in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Zimbabwe" title="Corruption in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Afghanistan" title="Corruption in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Armenia" title="Corruption in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Azerbaijan" title="Corruption in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Bahrain" title="Corruption in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Bangladesh" title="Corruption in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Bhutan" title="Corruption in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Brunei" title="Corruption in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Cambodia" title="Corruption in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Cyprus" title="Corruption in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_East_Timor" title="Corruption in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Georgia" title="Corruption in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_India" title="Corruption in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Indonesia" title="Corruption in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iraq" title="Corruption in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Israel" title="Corruption in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Japan" title="Corruption in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Jordan" title="Corruption in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Kuwait" title="Corruption in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Corruption in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Corruption in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Lebanon" title="Corruption in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Malaysia" title="Corruption in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Maldives" title="Corruption in Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Myanmar" title="Corruption in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nepal" title="Corruption in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_North_Korea" title="Corruption in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Pakistan" title="Corruption in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Philippines" title="Corruption in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Singapore" title="Corruption in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_South_Korea" title="Corruption in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Corruption in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Syria" title="Corruption in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Taiwan" title="Corruption in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Tajikistan" title="Corruption in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Thailand" title="Corruption in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Turkey" title="Corruption in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Turkmenistan" title="Corruption in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Uzbekistan" title="Corruption in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Vietnam" title="Corruption in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Yemen" title="Corruption in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Europe</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Albania" title="Corruption in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Andorra" title="Corruption in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Austria" title="Corruption in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Belgium" title="Corruption in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Bulgaria" title="Corruption in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Croatia" title="Corruption in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Corruption in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Denmark" title="Corruption in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Finland" title="Corruption in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_France" title="Corruption in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Germany" title="Corruption in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Greece" title="Corruption in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Corruption in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iceland" title="Corruption in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Corruption in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Kosovo" title="Corruption in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Latvia" title="Corruption in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Liechtenstein" title="Corruption in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Lithuania" title="Corruption in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Luxembourg" title="Corruption in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Malta" title="Corruption in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Moldova" title="Corruption in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Monaco" title="Corruption in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Montenegro" title="Corruption in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_Netherlands" title="Corruption in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_North_Macedonia" title="Corruption in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Corruption in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Norway" title="Corruption in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Poland" title="Corruption in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Portugal" title="Corruption in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Romania" title="Corruption in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia" title="Corruption in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Serbia" title="Corruption in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Slovakia" title="Corruption in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Slovenia" title="Corruption in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Spain" title="Corruption in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Sweden" title="Corruption in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Switzerland" title="Corruption in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ukraine" title="Corruption in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Corruption in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> North America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Canada" title="Corruption in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Mexico" title="Corruption in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Central America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Costa_Rica" title="Corruption in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Cuba" title="Corruption in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_El_Salvador" title="Corruption in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Haiti" title="Corruption in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Honduras" title="Corruption in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nicaragua" title="Corruption in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> South America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Argentina" title="Corruption in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Bolivia" title="Corruption in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Brazil" title="Corruption in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Chile" title="Corruption in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Colombia" title="Corruption in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Ecuador" title="Corruption in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Paraguay" title="Corruption in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Peru" title="Corruption in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Uruguay" title="Corruption in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Venezuela" title="Corruption in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Oceania</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Australia" title="Corruption in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_New_Zealand" title="Corruption in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Corruption in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_corruption_sidebar" title="Template:Political corruption sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_corruption_sidebar" title="Template talk:Political corruption sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_corruption_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political corruption sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p> <b>Anti-corruption</b> (or <b>anticorruption</b>) comprises activities that oppose or inhibit <a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corruption</a>. Just as corruption takes many forms, anti-corruption efforts vary in scope and in strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A general distinction between preventive and reactive measures is sometimes drawn. In such framework, investigative authorities and their attempts to unveil corrupt practices would be considered reactive, while education on the negative impact of corruption, or firm-internal <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_compliance" title="Regulatory compliance">compliance</a> programs are classified as the former. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Code_of_Hammurabi_70.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of the code of Hammurabi stele as displayed in the Louvre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Code_of_Hammurabi_70.jpg/220px-Code_of_Hammurabi_70.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Code_of_Hammurabi_70.jpg/330px-Code_of_Hammurabi_70.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Code_of_Hammurabi_70.jpg/440px-Code_of_Hammurabi_70.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3404" data-file-height="5107" /></a><figcaption>Among the earliest documented anti-corruption efforts include the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">code of Hammurabi</a>, dated to around 1754 BC.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">code of Hammurabi</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">c.</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1754 BC</span>), the <a href="/wiki/Horemheb#Internal_reform" title="Horemheb">Great Edict of Horemheb</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1300 BC</span>), and the <a href="/wiki/Arthasastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthasastra">Arthasastra</a> (2nd century BC)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are among the earliest written proofs of anti-corruption efforts. All of those early texts are condemning bribes in order to influence the decision by civil servants, especially in the judicial sector.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the time of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, corruption was also inhibited, such as by a decree issued by emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> in 331.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In ancient times, moral principles based on religious beliefs were common, as several major <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religions</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> condemn corrupt conduct in their respective religious texts.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The described legal and moral stances were exclusively addressing <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a> but were not concerned with other aspects that are considered corruption in the 21st century. <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">Embezzlement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">cronyism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">nepotism</a>, and other strategies of gaining public assets by office holders were not yet constructed as unlawful or immoral, as positions of power were regarded a personal possession rather than an entrusted function. With the popularization of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">public interest</a> and the development of a professional <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> in the 19th century offices became perceived as trusteeships instead of property of the office holder, leading to legislation against and a negative perception of those additional forms of corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Especially in diplomacy and for international trade purposes, corruption remained a generally accepted phenomenon of the political and economic life throughout the 19th and big parts of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_contemporary_society">In contemporary society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: In contemporary society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Anti-corruption" title="Talk:Anti-corruption">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the 1990s corruption was increasingly perceived to have a negative impact on <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>, as was pointed out by <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those effects claimed by Annan could be proven by a variety of empirical studies, as reported by Juli Bacio Terracino.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increased awareness of corruption was widespread and shared across professional, political, and geographical borders. While an international effort against corruption seemed to be unrealistic during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, a new discussion on the global impact of corruption became possible, leading to an official condemnation of corruption by governments, companies, and various other stakeholders.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1990s additionally saw an increase in press freedom, the activism of civil societies, and global communication through an improved communication infrastructure, which paved the way to a more thorough understanding of the global prevalence and negative impact of corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In consequence to those developments, international <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-governmental organizations">non-governmental organizations</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Transparency_International" title="Transparency International">Transparency International</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Inter-governmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-governmental organization">inter-governmental organizations</a> and initiatives (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> Working group on bribery) were founded to overcome corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the 2000s, the discourse became broader in scope. It became more common to refer to corruption as a violation of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, which was also discussed by the responsible international bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides attempting to find a fitting description for corruption, the integration of corruption into a human rights-framework was also motivated by underlining the importance of corruption and educating people on its costs.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_framework">Legal framework</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Legal framework"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In national and in international legislation, there are laws interpreted as directed against corruption. The laws can stem from resolutions of international organizations, which are implemented by the national governments, who are ratifying those resolutions or be directly issued by the respective national <a href="/wiki/Legislative" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative">legislative</a>. </p><p>Laws against corruption are motivated by similar reasons that are generally motivating the existence of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>, as those laws are thought to, on the one hand, bring justice by holding individuals accountable for their wrongdoing, justice can be achieved by sanctioning those corrupted individuals, and potential criminals are deterred by having the consequences of their potential actions demonstrated to them.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_law">International law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: International law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Approaching the fight against corruption in an international setting is often seen as preferential over addressing it exclusively in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>. The reasons for such preference are multidimensional, ranging from the necessary international cooperation for tracing international corruption scandals,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the binding nature of international treaties, and the loss in relative competitiveness by outlawing an activity that remains legal in other countries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="OECD">OECD</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: OECD"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/OECD_Anti-Bribery_Convention" title="OECD Anti-Bribery Convention">OECD Anti-Bribery Convention</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/OECD_Anti-Bribery_Convention" title="OECD Anti-Bribery Convention">OECD Anti-Bribery Convention</a> was the first large scale convention targeting an aspect of corruption, when it came in 1999 into force. Ratifying the convention obliges governments to implement it, which is monitored by the OECD Working Group on Bribery. The convention states that it shall be illegal bribing foreign public officials. The convention is currently signed by 43 countries. The scope of the convention is very limited, as it is only concerned with active bribing. It is hence more reduced than other treaties on restricting corruption, to increase – as the working group's chairman <a href="/wiki/Mark_Pieth" title="Mark Pieth">Mark Pieth</a> explained – the influence on its specific target.<sup id="cite_ref-p59_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p59-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Empirical research by Nathan Jensen and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Malesky" title="Edmund Malesky">Edmund Malesky</a> suggests that companies based in countries that ratified the convention, are less likely to pay bribes abroad.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The results are not exclusively explainable by the regulatory mechanisms and potential sanctions triggered through this process but are equally influenced by less formal mechanisms, e.g. the peer reviews by officials from other signatories and the potentially resulting influences on the respective country's image.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Groups like TI, however, also questioned whether the results of the process are sufficient, especially as a significant number of countries is not actively prosecuting cases of bribery.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Nations">United Nations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: United Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Convention against Corruption">United Nations Convention against Corruption</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UNCACmap.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color-coded world map of ratifiers signatories, and others in the United Nations Convention against Corruption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/UNCACmap.svg/280px-UNCACmap.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/UNCACmap.svg/420px-UNCACmap.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/UNCACmap.svg/560px-UNCACmap.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="263" /></a><figcaption>A world map depicting international participation in the UNCAC.<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#42ac89; color:black;"> </span> Ratifiers</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cdcd42; color:black;"> </span> Signatories</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> </span> Not signed</div></li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#e1e1e1; color:black;"> </span> Others</div></li></ul></div></figcaption></figure> <p>20 years before the OECD convention was ratified, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> discussed a draft for a convention on corruption. The draft on an international agreement on illicit payments proposed in 1979<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_and_Social_Council" title="United Nations Economic and Social Council">United Nations Economic and Social Council</a> did not gain traction in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">General Assembly</a>, and was not pursued further.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the <a href="/wiki/UN_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Office on Drugs and Crime">UN Office on Drugs and Crime</a> (UNODC) presented its draft of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Convention against Corruption">United Nations Convention against Corruption</a> (UNCAC) in 2003, it proved more successful. UNCAC was ratified in 2003 and became effective in 2005. It constitutes an international treaty, currently signed by 186 partners, including 182 member states of the United Nations and four non-state signatories. UNCAC has a broader scope than the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, as it does not exclusively focus on public officials but includes inter alia corruption in the <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a> and non-bribery corruption, like e.g. <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abuse_of_power" title="Abuse of power">abuse of power</a>. UNCAC also specifies a variety of mechanisms to combat corruption, e.g. international cooperation in detecting and prosecuting corruption, the cancellation of permits, when connected to corrupt behavior, and the protection of <a href="/wiki/Whistleblower" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower">whistleblowers</a>. The implementation of UNCAC is monitored by the <a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Anti-Corruption_Authorities" title="International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities">International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities</a> (IAACA) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="International_organizations">International organizations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: International organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="International_Anti-Corruption_Court">International Anti-Corruption Court</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: International Anti-Corruption Court"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Court" title="International Anti-Corruption Court">International Anti-Corruption Court</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Mark_Lawrence_Wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Lawrence Wolf">Mark Lawrence Wolf</a> floated in 2012 the idea to launch an <a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Court" title="International Anti-Corruption Court">International Anti-Corruption Court</a>, as either a part of the already existing <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a>, or as an equivalent to it. The suggestion was widely discussed and endorsed by a variety of NGOs including <a href="/wiki/Global_Organization_of_Parliamentarians_Against_Corruption" title="Global Organization of Parliamentarians Against Corruption">Global Organization of Parliamentarians Against Corruption</a> (GOPAC), <a href="/wiki/Global_Witness" title="Global Witness">Global Witness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Integrity_Initiatives_International&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Integrity Initiatives International (page does not exist)">Integrity Initiatives International</a> (III), and TI.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An implementation of the concept is currently not scheduled by any organizations with the authority of conducting such step. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Existing_international_organizations">Existing international organizations</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Existing international organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2011, the <a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Academy" title="International Anti-Corruption Academy">International Anti-Corruption Academy</a> was created as an <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organization">intergovernmental organization</a> by <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaty</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to teach on anti-corruption topics.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many other intergovernmental organizations are working on the reduction of corruption without issuing conventions binding for its members after ratification. Organizations that are active in this field include, but are not limited to, the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> (such as through its <a href="/wiki/Independent_Evaluation_Group" title="Independent Evaluation Group">Independent Evaluation Group</a>), the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF),<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and regional organizations like the <a href="/wiki/Andean_Community" title="Andean Community">Andean Community</a> (within the framework of the <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Plan Andino de Lucha contra la Corrupción</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regulations_by_continental_organizations">Regulations by continental organizations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Regulations by continental organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Americas">Americas</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Convention_Against_Corruption" title="Inter-American Convention Against Corruption">Inter-American Convention Against Corruption</a></div> <p>The first convention adopted against corruption by a regional organization was the <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States</a>' (OAS) <a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Convention_Against_Corruption" title="Inter-American Convention Against Corruption">Inter-American Convention Against Corruption</a> (IACAC). The convention, which targeted both active and passive bribing, came into force in 1997. It is currently ratified by all 34 active OAS-Member States.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Europe">Europe</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1997 the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) adopted the EU Convention against corruption involving officials, which makes it illegal to engage in corrupt activities with officials from the European Union's administrative staff, or with officials from any member state of the EU. It forces the signatories to outlaw both active and passive bribing which involves any aforementioned official. Liability for unlawful actions is extend to the heads of those entities, whose agents were bribing officials.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/European_states" class="mw-redirect" title="European states">European states</a> also ratified the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a>'s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Law_Convention_on_Corruption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (page does not exist)">Criminal</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Civil_Law_Convention_on_Corruption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Civil Law Convention on Corruption (page does not exist)">Civil Law Convention on Corruption</a>, which were adopted in 1999. The former was an addition extended by passing the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Additional_Protocol_to_the_Criminal_Law_Convention_on_Corruption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Additional Protocol to the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption (page does not exist)">Additional Protocol to the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption</a>. The two conventions on criminal law were signed by <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a> and all Council of Europe members, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, which abstains from the Additional Protocol.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Criminal Law Convention is currently by 48 States, while the Additional Protocol is signed by 44 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Criminal_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Criminal-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Protocol_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Protocol-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both conventions are aiming at the protection of judicial authorities against the negative impact of corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The convention on Civil Law is currently ratified by 35 countries, all of which are, with the exception of Belarus, members of the Council of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the name implies, it requires the States Parties to provide remedies for individuals materially harmed by corruption. The individual who was negatively impacted by an act of corruption is entitled to rely on laws to receive compensation from the culprit or the entity represented by the culprit, explicitly including the possibility of compensation from the state, if the corrupt deed was perpetrated by an official.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The anti-corruption efforts by the Council of Europe are supervised and supported by the <a href="/wiki/Group_of_States_Against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of States Against Corruption">Group of States Against Corruption</a> (GRECO) as its main monitoring organization. Membership to GRECO is open to all countries worldwide and is not conditional on membership at CoE. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Africa">Africa</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/African_Union_Convention_on_Preventing_and_Combating_Corruption" title="African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption">African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption</a></div> <p>Since its launch in 2003, the <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/African_Union_Convention_on_Preventing_and_Combating_Corruption" title="African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption">Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption</a> was ratified by 38 States Parties.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It represents the consensus of the signatories on minimal standards for combating corruption. The resolution was criticized in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_African_Law" title="Journal of African Law">Journal of African Law</a> for disregarding other aspects of the rule of law, like e.g. <a href="/wiki/Data_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Data protection">data protection</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">presumption of innocence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_law">National law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: National law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While bribing domestic officials was criminalized in most countries even before the ratification of international conventions and treaties,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many national law systems did not recognize bribing foreign officials, or more sophisticated methods of corruption, as illegal. Only after ratifying and implementing above mentioned conventions the illegal character of those offenses was fully recognized.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where legislation existed prior to the ratification of the OECD convention, the implementation resulted in an increased compliance with the legal framework.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Corruption is often addressed by specialized investigative or prosecution authorities, often labelled as <a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-corruption_agencies" title="List of anti-corruption agencies">anti-corruption agencies</a> (ACA), that are tasked with varying duties and subject to varying degrees of independence from the respective government, regulations, and powers, depending on their role in the architecture of the respective national law enforcement system. One of the earliest precursors of such agencies is the anti-corruption commission of <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, which was established in 1873.<sup id="cite_ref-Graycar4_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graycar4-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A surge in the numbers of national ACAs can be noted in the last decade of the 20th and the first decade of the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armenia">Armenia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Armenia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2019 Armenian Government approved Anti-Corruption Strategy and its implementation plan between 2019 and 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under this strategy the three main directions will be the prevention of corruption, the corruption crimes investigation, anticorruption education and awareness of the corruption and anticorruption strategy. Even before adoption of Anti-Corruption Strategy and implementation plan, after 2018 Velvet Revolution, number of criminal investigation cases of corruption almost doubled in Armenia. As Prosecutor General's Office issued report says, the number of corruption investigations started by law enforcement agencies in the country during the first half of 2018 is more than double compared with the number of the criminal cases against corruption cases started during the first half of 2017. Out of the 786 cases initiated in the beginning of 2018 - 579 resulted in criminal cases. Starting from the first months of the anticorruption plan implementation, Armenia carried out actions in the fight against corruption - which was mainly directed to improve the investment environment of Armenia, and as a result economic indexes were improved.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brazil">Brazil</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Anti-Corruption_Act" title="Brazilian Anti-Corruption Act">Brazilian Anti-Corruption Act</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2020</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Brazil's <a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Anti-Corruption_Act" title="Brazilian Anti-Corruption Act">Anti-Corruption Act</a> (officially "Law No. 12,846" and commonly known as the Clean Company Act") was enacted in 2014 to target corrupt practices among business entities doing business in Brazil. It defines civil and administrative penalties, and provides the possibility of reductions in penalties for cooperation with law enforcement under a written leniency agreement signed and agreed to between the business and the government. This had major implications in <a href="/wiki/Operation_Car_Wash" title="Operation Car Wash">Operation Car Wash</a>, and resulted in major agreements such as the <a href="/wiki/Odebrecht%E2%80%93Car_Wash_plea_bargain_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Odebrecht–Car Wash plea bargain agreements">Odebrecht–Car Wash plea bargain agreements</a> and the recovery of billions of dollars in fines.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> remained one of the last signatories of the OECD-convention on bribery that did not implement its national laws against bribes for foreign officials.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the <a href="/wiki/Corruption_of_Foreign_Public_Officials_Act" title="Corruption of Foreign Public Officials Act">Corruption of Foreign Public Officials Act</a> (CFPOA) was passed in 1999, it was often not used to prosecute foreign bribery by Canadian companies, as the bill had a provision that the act of bribery had to have a "real and substantial link" with Canada. Such provision was canceled in 2013 by the Bill S-14 (also called Fighting Foreign Corruption Act). Additionally, Bill S-14 banned facilitation payments and increased the possible punishment for violating the CFPOA.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An increase in the maximum prison sentence for bribery to 14 years was one of the increases in sanctioning.<sup id="cite_ref-Aiolfi_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aiolfi-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to TI's report from 2014, Canada is moderately enforcing the OECD Convention against bribery.<sup id="cite_ref-Vogl_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogl-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the wake of <a href="/wiki/Economic_liberalization" title="Economic liberalization">economic liberalization</a>, corruption increased in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> because anti-corruption laws were insufficiently applied.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_campaign_under_Xi_Jinping" title="Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping">anti-corruption campaign that started in 2012</a>, however, changed the relation towards corruption. This campaign led to increased press coverage of the topic and a sharp increase in court cases dedicated to the offense. The campaign was primarily led by the <a href="/wiki/Central_Commission_for_Discipline_Inspection" title="Central Commission for Discipline Inspection">Central Commission for Discipline Inspection</a> (CCDI), an internal body of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of China">Communist Party</a> and secondarily by the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Procuratorate" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Procuratorate">People's Procuratorate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CCDI cooperated with investigative authorities in several ways, such as passing incriminating material detected by its internal investigation, to prosecutors. </p><p>The underlying legal regulations for the campaign is rooted in provisions of the Anti-Unfair Competition Law and the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China#Criminal_Law" title="Law of the People's Republic of China">criminal law</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Georgia">Georgia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Georgia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 2003 to 2012, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> moved from one of the ten most-corrupt countries based on <a href="/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index" title="Corruption Perceptions Index">Corruption Perceptions Index</a> rankings to among the top third for clean government. Anti-corruption reforms implemented by president <a href="/wiki/Mikheil_Saakashvili" title="Mikheil Saakashvili">Mikheil Saakashvili</a> resulted in the firing of all 16,000 traffic police officers in a single day, simplification of government bureaucracy, and university entrance based on standardized exams rather than interviews.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Laws in Georgia that deal with corruption include Articles 332–342 of its Criminal Code, the Law of Georgia on the Conflict of Interests and Corruption in Public Service, Money Laundering Law, and Law of Georgia on the Conflict of Interests and Corruption in Public Service (Art. 20).<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trajectory of Georgia from highly corrupt to much cleaner governance supports the notion that piecemeal anti-corruption reforms are less effective than anti-corruption initiatives with broad scope.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After signing the OECD-Convention on Combating Bribery of Foreign Public Officials,<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> implemented the Unfair Competition Prevention Act (UCPA) to comply with the convention. The law states that it is illegal to bribe foreign public officials. The individual who was offering the bribes and the company on whose behalf the bribes were offered may face negative consequences. The Company Act also enables the punishment of senior management if the payment was made possible by their <a href="/wiki/Negligence" title="Negligence">negligence</a>. Transparency International criticized Japan in 2014 for not enforcing the law, hence only complying to the convention on paper and providing no consequences to offenders.<sup id="cite_ref-Vogl_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogl-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, a study conducted by Jensen and Malesky in 2017 provides empirical evidence that Japanese companies are less involved in bribery than companies based in other Asian countries that did not sign the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Jensen_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jensen-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> was a founding member of the OECD working group on bribery and ratified the Anti-Bribery Convention, but faced significant problems in complying to its findings and the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was severely affected by the <a href="/wiki/Al-Yamamah_arms_deal" title="Al-Yamamah arms deal">Al-Yamamah arms deal</a>, in which the British company <a href="/wiki/BAE_Systems" title="BAE Systems">BAE Systems</a> faced allegations of having bribed members of the <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi</a> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Saud" title="House of Saud">royal family</a> to facilitate an arms deal. British prosecution of BAE Systems was stopped after an intervention by then Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Tony_Blair" title="Tony Blair">Tony Blair</a>, which caused the OECD working group to criticize the British anti-corruption laws and investigations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/UK_Bribery_Act_of_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="UK Bribery Act of 2010">UK Bribery Act of 2010</a> came into force on July 1, 2011, and replaced all former bribery-related laws in the United Kingdom. It is targeting bribery and receiving bribes, both towards national and foreign public officials. Furthermore, it is assigning responsibility to organizations whose employees are engaging in bribing and hence obliges companies to enforce <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_compliance" title="Regulatory compliance">compliance</a>-mechanisms to avoid bribing on their behalf. The Bribery Act goes in many points beyond the US-American FCPA, as it also criminalizes <a href="/wiki/Facilitation_payment" class="mw-redirect" title="Facilitation payment">facilitation payments</a> and private sector corruption inter alia.<sup id="cite_ref-Compliance17_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compliance17-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Heimann and Pieth are arguing that British policy makers supported the Bribery Act to overcome the damage in reputation caused by the Al-Yamamah deal.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sappho Xenakis and Kalin Ivanov on the other hand claim that the negative impact on the UK's reputation was very limited.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Transparency International stated in 2014 that the United Kingdom fully complied to the OECD Convention against Bribery.<sup id="cite_ref-Vogl_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogl-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Already at the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> discussions on the possibility of preventing corruption were held, leading to increased awareness for corruption's threads. <a href="/wiki/Title_of_Nobility_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Title of Nobility Clause">Article 1, Section 9</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">Constitution</a> can be seen as an early anti-corruption law, as it outlawed the acceptance of gifts and other favors from foreign governments and their representatives. <a href="/wiki/Zephyr_Teachout" title="Zephyr Teachout">Zephyr Teachout</a> argued that giving and receiving presents held an important role in <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a> but were often seen as potentially dangerous to a politician's integrity.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other early attempts to oppose corruption by law were enacted after the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bribery_and_Conflict_of_Interest_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bribery and Conflict of Interest Act (page does not exist)">Bribery and Conflict of Interest Act</a> of 1962 for example regulates the sanctions for bribing national officials, respectively the acceptance of bribes by national officials, and the abuse of power for their personal interest. The <a href="/wiki/Hobbs_Act" title="Hobbs Act">Hobbs Act</a> of 1946 is another law frequently applied by US-American prosecutors in anti-corruption cases. Prosecutors are using the act by arguing that the acceptance of benefits for official acts qualifies as an offence against the act. Less frequently laws to prosecute corruption through auxiliary criminal activities include the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mail_Fraud_Statute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mail Fraud Statute (page does not exist)">Mail Fraud Statute</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=False_Statements_Accountability_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="False Statements Accountability Act (page does not exist)">False Statements Accountability Act</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1977, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Corrupt_Practices_Act" title="Foreign Corrupt Practices Act">Foreign Corrupt Practices Act</a> (FCPA), which criminalized corrupt interactions with foreign officials. Since its implementation, the law served to prosecute domestic and foreign companies, who bribed officials outside of the United States. As no other country implemented a similar law up to the 1990s, US-American companies faced disadvantages for their global operations. In addition to the legal status of corruption abroad, many countries also treated bribes as <a href="/wiki/Tax-deductible" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax-deductible">tax-deductible</a>. Through applying the law to companies with ties to the United States and by working on global conventions against foreign bribery, the government of the US tried to reduce the negative impact of FCPA on US-American companies.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alongside the FCPA, additional laws were implement that are directly influencing anti-corruption activities. Section 922 of the <a href="/wiki/Dodd%E2%80%93Frank_Wall_Street_Reform_and_Consumer_Protection_Act" title="Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act">Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act</a> for instance extents the <a href="/wiki/Securities_Exchange_Act_of_1934" title="Securities Exchange Act of 1934">Securities Exchange Act of 1934</a> by a new Section 21F that protects whistleblowers from retaliation and grants them financial awards them when collaborating with the <a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a> (SEC). Conway-Hatcher et al. (2013) attributed an increase the number of whistleblowers, who are reporting to SEC, inter alia on corruption incidents to the provision.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The TI's last report on enforcement of the OECD Convention against bribery published in 2014 concluded that the United States are complying with the convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Vogl_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogl-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011 the <a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Corruption_Act" title="American Anti-Corruption Act">American Anti-Corruption Act</a> was drafted, written in part by former <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Commission" title="Federal Election Commission">Federal Election Commission</a> chairman <a href="/wiki/Trevor_Potter" title="Trevor Potter">Trevor Potter</a>, with input from dozens of strategists, reformers and constitutional attorneys from across the ideological divide, as a type of <a href="/wiki/Model_legislation" class="mw-redirect" title="Model legislation">model legislation</a> to limit or outlaw practices which contribute to political corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-twsWaPo14569_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsWaPo14569-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea was to craft a blueprint law that could be adapted by numerous jurisdictions at the state and local levels that was consistent with the current constitutional structure and that would make it easier to identify and limit political corruption. It is supported by nonprofit nonpartisan reform organizations such as <a href="/wiki/RepresentUs" title="RepresentUs">RepresentUs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-twsMJ2143_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-twsMJ2143-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Governmental_anti-corruption_beyond_the_law">Governmental anti-corruption beyond the law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Governmental anti-corruption beyond the law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prevention_of_corruption/anti-corruption"><span id="Prevention_of_corruption.2Fanti-corruption"></span>Prevention of corruption/anti-corruption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Prevention of corruption/anti-corruption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">Values education</a> is believed to be a possible tool to teach about the negative effects of corruption and to create resilience against acting in a corrupt manner, when the possibility of doing so arises.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another stream of thought on corruption prevention is connected to the economist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Klitgaard" title="Robert Klitgaard">Robert Klitgaard</a>, who developed an economic theory of corruption that explains the occurrence of corrupt behavior by producing higher gains than the assumed punishment it might provoke. Klitgaard accordingly argues for approaching this rational by increasing the costs of corruption for those involved by making fines more likely and more severe. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Good_governance">Good governance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Good governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As corruption incidences often happen in the interaction between representatives of private sector companies and public officials, a meaningful step against corruption can be taken inside of public administrations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of <a href="/wiki/Good_governance" title="Good governance">good governance</a> can accordingly be applied to increase the <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a> of administrations, decreasing hence the likelihood that officials will agree on engaging in corrupt behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-GG_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GG-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">Transparency</a> is one aspect of good governance.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transparency initiatives can help to detect corruption and hold corrupt officials and politicians accountable.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another aspect of good governance as a tool to combat corruption lies in the creation of trust toward state institutions. Gong Ting and Xiao Hanyu for instance argue that citizens, who have a positive perception of state institutions are more likely to report corruption-related incidents than those, who express lower levels of trust.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanctions">Sanctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sanctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Even though <a href="/wiki/Sanctions_(law)" title="Sanctions (law)">sanctions</a> seem to be underwritten by a legal framework, their application often lies outside of a state-sponsored legal system since they are frequently applied by <a href="/wiki/International_financial_institutions#Multilateral_Development_Banks" title="International financial institutions">multilateral development banks</a> (MDBs), state agencies, and other organizations, which implement those sanctions not through applying laws, but by relying on their internal bylaws. <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, even though reluctant in the 20th century to use sanctions,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> turned into a major source of this specific kind of applying anti-corruption measures.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the involved MDBs are typically applying an administrative process that includes judicial elements, when a suspicion about corruption in regard to the granted projects surfaces. In case of identifying a sanctionable behavior, the respective authority can issue a <a href="/wiki/Debarment" title="Debarment">debarment</a> or milder forms, e.g. mandatory monitoring of the business conduct or the payment of fines.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_sector_procurement">Public sector procurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Public sector procurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Excluding companies with a track record of corruption from <a href="/wiki/Bidding" title="Bidding">bidding</a> for contracts, is another form of sanctioning that can be applied by procurement agencies to ensure compliance to external and internal anti-corruption rules.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This aspect is of specific importance, as public procurement is both in volume and frequency especially vulnerable for corruption. In addition to setting incentives for companies to comply with anti-corruption standards by threatening their exclusion from future contracts, the internal compliance to anti-corruption rules by the procurement agency has central importance. Such step should according to anti-corruption scholars Adam Graycar and Tim Prenzler include precisely and unambiguously worded rules, a functional protection and support of whistleblowers, and a system that notifies supervisors early about the potential dangers of conflicts of interest or corruption-related incidents.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_society">Civil society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Civil society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Michael Johnston, among others, argued that <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> (NGOs), <a href="/wiki/Civil_Society_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Society Organization">Civil Society Organizations</a> (CSOs), and the <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">media</a> can have an efficient influence on the level of corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More over, Bertot et al. (2010) extended the list of potentially involved agents of civil society by introducing the notion of decentralized, non-formally organized anti-corruption activism through <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a> channels.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Taking into consideration that precise and comprehensive definitions of corrupt actions are lacking, the legal perspective is structurally incapable of efficiently ruling out corruption. Combined with a significant variety in national laws, frequently changing regulations, and ambiguously worded laws, it is argued that non-state actors are needed to complement the fight against corruption and structure it in a more holistic way.<sup id="cite_ref-Graycar4_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Graycar4-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ensuring_transparency">Ensuring transparency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Ensuring transparency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An example for a more inclusive approach to combating corruption that goes beyond the framework set by lawmakers and the foremost role taken by representatives of the civil society is the monitoring of governments, politicians, public officials, and others to increase <a href="/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)" title="Transparency (behavior)">transparency</a>. Other means to this end might include pressure campaigns against certain organizations, institutions, or companies.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Investigative_journalism" title="Investigative journalism">Investigative journalism</a> is another way of identifying potentially corrupt dealings by officials. Such monitoring is often combined with reporting about it, in order to create <a href="/wiki/Publicity" title="Publicity">publicity</a> for the observed misbehavior. Those mechanisms are hence increasing the price of corrupt acts, by making them public and negatively impacting the image of the involved official. One example for such strategy of combating corruption by exposing corrupt individuals is the <a href="/wiki/Albania" title="Albania">Albanian</a> television show <i><a href="/wiki/Fiks_Fare" title="Fiks Fare">Fiks Fare</a></i> that repeatedly reported on corruption by airing segments filmed with hidden cameras, in which officials are accepting bribes.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_on_corruption">Education on corruption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Education on corruption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another sphere for engagement of civil society is the prevention by educating about the negative consequences of corruption and a strengthening of ethical values opposing corruption. Framing corruption as a moral issue used to be the predominant way of fighting it but lost importance in the 20th century as other approaches became more influential.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biggest organization in the field of civil societal opposition towards corruption is the globally active NGO <a href="/wiki/Transparency_International" title="Transparency International">Transparency International</a> (TI).<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NGOs are also providing material to educate practitioners on anti-corruption. Examples for such publications are the rules and suggestions provided by the <a href="/wiki/International_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="International Chamber of Commerce">International Chamber of Commerce</a> (ICC), the <a href="/wiki/World_Economic_Forum" title="World Economic Forum">World Economic Forum</a> (WEF), and TI.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Persistent work by civil societal organizations can also go beyond establishing a knowledge about the negative impact of corruption and serve as way to build up political will to prosecute corruption and engage in counter-corruption measures.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-state_actors_in_the_field_of_asset_recovery">Non-state actors in the field of asset recovery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Non-state actors in the field of asset recovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_asset_recovery" title="International asset recovery">International asset recovery</a></div> <p>One prominent field of activism for non-state actors (NSAs) is the area of <a href="/wiki/International_asset_recovery" title="International asset recovery">international asset recovery</a>, which describes the activity of returning property to its legitimate owners after it was illegally acquired through corrupt actions. The process describes the whole procedure from gathering information on the criminal offence that initiated the transfer of assets, over their confiscation to their return. While recovery is mandated by UNCAC, it is not an activity singularity conducted by governments but attracts actors with different backgrounds, including <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>, the media, CSOs, and other non state actors. In this field of anti-corruption activism, representatives of the civil society are often taking a different stance than in other areas, as they are regularly consulted for assisting administrations with their respective expertise and are hence enabling state actions. Such strong role of NSAs was also recognized by UNCAC's States Parties.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corporate_anti-corruption_approaches">Corporate anti-corruption approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Corporate anti-corruption approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compliance">Compliance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Compliance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_compliance" title="Regulatory compliance">Regulatory compliance</a></div> <p>Instead of relying purely on deterrence, as suggested by Robert Klitgaard (see <a href="#Prevention_of_corruption/anti-corruption">section on prevention</a>), <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economists</a> are pursuing the implementation of <a href="/wiki/Incentive" title="Incentive">incentive</a> structures that reward <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_compliance" title="Regulatory compliance">compliance</a> and punish the non-fulfillment of compliance rules. By aligning the self-interest of the agent with the societal interest of avoiding corruption, a reduction in corruption can thus be achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The field of compliance can generally be perceived as an internalization of external laws in order to avoid their fines. The adoption of laws like the FCPA and the UK Bribery Act of 2010<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> strengthened the importance of concepts like compliance, as fines for corrupt behavior became more likely and there was a financial increase on these fines. When a company is sued because its employers engaged in corruption, a well-established compliance system can serve as proof that the organization attempted to avoid those acts of corruption. Accordingly, fines can be reduced, which incentivizes the implementation of an efficient compliance system.<sup id="cite_ref-Compliance17_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compliance17-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2012, the US-authorities decided not to prosecute <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Stanley" title="Morgan Stanley">Morgan Stanley</a> in a case of bribery in China under FCPA-provisions due to its compliance program.<sup id="cite_ref-Aiolfi_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aiolfi-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This case demonstrates the relevance of the compliance approach. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collective_action">Collective action</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Collective action"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anti-corruption collective action is a form of <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> with the aim of combatting corruption and bribery risks in <a href="/wiki/Government_procurement" title="Government procurement">public procurement</a>. It is a collaborative anti-corruption activity that brings together representatives of the private sector, public sector and civil society. The idea stems from the academic analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">prisoner's dilemma</a> in <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a> and focuses on establishing rule-abiding practices that benefit every stakeholder, even if unilaterally each stakeholder might have an incentive to circumvent the specific anti-corruption rules. Transparency International first floated a predecessor to modern collective action initiatives in the 1990s with its concept of the <i>Island of Integrity</i>, now known as an <a href="/wiki/Integrity_pact" title="Integrity pact">integrity pact</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Transparency International, "collective action is necessary where a problem cannot be solved by individual actors" and therefore requires stakeholders to build trust and share information and resources.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The World Bank Institute states that collective action "increases the impact and credibility of individual action, brings vulnerable individual players into an alliance of like-minded organizations and levels the playing field between competitors.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Anti-corruption collective action initiatives are varied in type, purpose and stakeholders but are usually targeted at the supply side of bribery.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They often take the form of collectively agreed anti-corruption declarations or standard-setting initiatives such as an industry <a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">code of conduct</a>. A prominent example is the <a href="/wiki/Wolfsberg_Group" title="Wolfsberg Group">Wolfsberg Group</a> and in particular its <i>Anti-Money Laundering Principles for Private Banking and Anti-Corruption Guidance</i>, requiring the member banks to adhere to several principles directed against money laundering and corruption. The mechanism is designed to protect individual banks from any negative consequences of complying with the strict rules by collectively enforcing those regulations. The Wolfsberg Group in addition serves as a back-channel for communication between the compliance officers of the participating banks.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The World Economic Forum's initiatives against corruption can also be seen in this framework.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other initiatives in the field of collective action include the <a href="/wiki/Extractive_Industries_Transparency_Initiative" title="Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative">Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative</a> (EITI), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Construction_Sector_Transparency_Initiative&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Construction Sector Transparency Initiative (page does not exist)">Construction Sector Transparency Initiative</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Infrastructure_Transparency_Initiative&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infrastructure Transparency Initiative (page does not exist)">Infrastructure Transparency Initiative</a> (CoST) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Forum_on_Business_Ethical_Conduct&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Forum on Business Ethical Conduct (page does not exist)">International Forum on Business Ethical Conduct</a> (IFBEC).<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Collective action is included in the national anti-corruption statements of the UK,<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> France,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Ghana,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> delivered at the <a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Conference" title="International Anti-Corruption Conference">International Anti-Corruption Conference</a> 2018. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/List_of_G20_summits#B20_summits" title="List of G20 summits">B20</a> policy interventions are another form of engaging in the anti-corruption discourse, as B20 members are attempting to support the <a href="/wiki/G20" title="G20">G20</a> by offering their insights as business leaders, including in regard to strengthening anti-corruption policies, e.g. transparency in government <a href="/wiki/Procurement" title="Procurement">procurement</a> or more comprehensive anti-corruption laws.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013, the B20 mandated the <a href="/wiki/Basel_Institute_on_Governance" title="Basel Institute on Governance">Basel Institute on Governance</a> to develop and maintain the B20 Collective Action Hub, an online platform for anti-corruption collective action tools and resources including a database of collective action initiatives around the world. The B20 Collective Action Hub is managed by the Basel Institute's International Centre for Collective Action (ICCA) in partnership with the <a href="/wiki/UN_Global_Compact" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Global Compact">UN Global Compact</a>. </p><p>Another tangible outcome of the B20 meetings was the discussion (and implementation as a test case in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>) of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=High_Level_Reporting_Mechanism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="High Level Reporting Mechanism (page does not exist)">High Level Reporting Mechanism</a> (HLRM), which aims to implement a form of <a href="/wiki/Ombudsman" title="Ombudsman">ombudsman</a> office in a high-level government position for companies to report possible bribery or corruption issues in public procurement tenders.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well as Colombia, the HLRM concept has been implemented in different ways in Argentina, Ukraine and Panama.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Implementation">Implementation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sylvie Bleker-van Eyk from <a href="/wiki/VU_University_Amsterdam" class="mw-redirect" title="VU University Amsterdam">VU University Amsterdam</a> sees value in the implementation of strong compliance departments in the respective company.<sup id="cite_ref-Compliance17_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Compliance17-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fritz Heimann and Mark Pieth are described the environment where those departments are working, as being in a best cased monitored from outside experts.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another measure that – according to Heimann and Pieth – supports the work of compliance officers is when the company is joining collective action initiatives.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_Collective_Action_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC_Collective_Action-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instruments like <a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">ethical codes</a> can serve as underlying documents to promote support for anti-corrupt corporate policies. Seumas Miller et al. (2005) also stress the process of reaching the aspired result, which should include an open discussion among the employees of a company, in order to implement steps that are approved by consent inside of the company.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such shift in culture can be implemented through and accompanied by exemplary behavior by top management, regularly conducted training programs on anti-corruption and a constant monitoring of the development in those sections.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_culture">In culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: In culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Day" title="International Anti-Corruption Day">International Anti-Corruption Day</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Day" title="International Anti-Corruption Day">International Anti-Corruption Day</a> has been annually observed on <a href="/wiki/December_9" title="December 9">December 9</a> since the United Nations established it in 2003 to underline the importance of anti-corruption and provide visible sign for anti-corruption campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO_37001" title="ISO 37001">ISO 37001 Anti-bribery management systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_States_Against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of States Against Corruption">Group of States Against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Academy" title="International Anti-Corruption Academy">International Anti-Corruption Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Day" title="International Anti-Corruption Day">International Anti-Corruption Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Convention against Corruption">United Nations Convention against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD_Anti-Bribery_Convention" title="OECD Anti-Bribery Convention">OECD Anti-Bribery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsidy#Preventing_fraud" title="Subsidy">Preventing fraud in subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RepresentUs" title="RepresentUs">RepresentUs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cuba was suspended from the OAS from 1962 to 2009. After the ban on Cuba's participation was lifted in 2009, the country elected not to participate. See: <a href="/wiki/Cuban_relations_with_the_Organization_of_American_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban relations with the Organization of American States">Cuban relations with the Organization of American States</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a> signed the Protocol but did so far not ratify it.<sup id="cite_ref-Criminal_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Criminal-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Protocol_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Protocol-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLehtinenLocatelliSainatiArtto2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lehtinen, Jere; Locatelli, Giorgio; Sainati, Tristano; Artto, Karlos; Evans, Barbara (May 1, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0263786322000576">"The grand challenge: Effective anti-corruption measures in projects"</a>. <i>International Journal of Project Management</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 347–361. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijproman.2022.04.003">10.1016/j.ijproman.2022.04.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0263-7863">0263-7863</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248470690">248470690</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Project+Management&rft.atitle=The+grand+challenge%3A+Effective+anti-corruption+measures+in+projects&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=347-361&rft.date=2022-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248470690%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0263-7863&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijproman.2022.04.003&rft.aulast=Lehtinen&rft.aufirst=Jere&rft.au=Locatelli%2C+Giorgio&rft.au=Sainati%2C+Tristano&rft.au=Artto%2C+Karlos&rft.au=Evans%2C+Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0263786322000576&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivelle2013" class="citation book cs1">Olivelle, Patrick (2013). <i>King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India: Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra</i>. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 30–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989182-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-989182-5"><bdi>978-0-19-989182-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=King%2C+Governance%2C+and+Law+in+Ancient+India%3A+Kau%E1%B9%ADilya%27s+Artha%C5%9B%C4%81stra&rft.place=Oxford+UK&rft.pages=30-31&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-989182-5&rft.aulast=Olivelle&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bacio Terracino (2012), p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoonan1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Noonan_Jr." title="John T. Noonan Jr.">Noonan, John T.</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bribes00noon/page/90"><i>Bribes</i></a></span>. New York: Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bribes00noon/page/90">90</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-922880-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-922880-8"><bdi>0-02-922880-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bribes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-02-922880-8&rft.aulast=Noonan&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbribes00noon%2Fpage%2F90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bacio Terracino (2012), p. 29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bacio Terracino (2012), p. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i>, p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Peters" title="Anne Peters">Peters, Anne</a> (2011). "Preface". In Thelesklaf, Daniel; Gomes Pereira, Pedro (eds.). <i>Non-State Actors in Asset Recovery</i>. Peter Lang. pp. vii–ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-0343-1073-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-0343-1073-4"><bdi>978-3-0343-1073-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=Non-State+Actors+in+Asset+Recovery&rft.pages=vii-ix&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-0343-1073-4&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bacio Terracino (2012), pp.31-34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i>, pp. 12 et seq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMccoyHeckel2001" class="citation journal cs1">Mccoy, Jennifer L.; Heckel, Heather (2001). "The Emergence of a Global Anti-corruption Norm". <i>International Politics</i>. <b>38</b> (1): 65–90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.ip.8892613">10.1057/palgrave.ip.8892613</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145174166">145174166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Politics&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+a+Global+Anti-corruption+Norm&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-90&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fpalgrave.ip.8892613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145174166%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mccoy&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+L.&rft.au=Heckel%2C+Heather&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i>, pp. 13-14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoersma2012" class="citation book cs1">Boersma, Martine (2012). <i>Corruption: A Violation of Human Rights and a Crime Under International Law?</i>. Intersentia. p. 358. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78068-105-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78068-105-4"><bdi>978-1-78068-105-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corruption%3A+A+Violation+of+Human+Rights+and+a+Crime+Under+International+Law%3F&rft.pages=358&rft.pub=Intersentia&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-78068-105-4&rft.aulast=Boersma&rft.aufirst=Martine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSepúlveda_CarmonaBacio-Terracino2010" class="citation book cs1">Sepúlveda Carmona, Magdalenda; Bacio-Terracino, Julio (2010). "Chapter III. Corruption and Human Rights: Making the Connection". In Boersma, Martine; Nelen, Hans (eds.). <i>Corruption & Human Rights: Interdisciplinary Perspectives</i>. Intersentia. pp. 25–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400000858" title="Special:BookSources/9789400000858"><bdi>9789400000858</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+III.+Corruption+and+Human+Rights%3A+Making+the+Connection&rft.btitle=Corruption+%26+Human+Rights%3A+Interdisciplinary+Perspectives&rft.pages=25-50&rft.pub=Intersentia&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789400000858&rft.aulast=Sep%C3%BAlveda+Carmona&rft.aufirst=Magdalenda&rft.au=Bacio-Terracino%2C+Julio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerRoberstSpence2005" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Seumas; Roberst, Peter; Spence, Edward (2005). <i>Corruption and Anti-Corruption: An Applied Philosophical Approach</i>. 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Transparency International. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Collective+Action+on+Business+Integrity&rft.pub=Transparency+International&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.transparency.org%2Fwhatwedo%2Fpublication%2Fcollective_action_on_business_integrity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.globalcompact.de/wAssets/docs/Korruptionspraevention/Publikationen/fighting_corruption_through_collective_action.pdf"><i>World Bank Institute: Fighting Corruption Through Collective Action</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191229090341/https://www.collective-action.com/resources/collective_action">"B20 Collective Action Hub"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collective-action.com/resources/collective_action">the original</a> on December 29, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=B20+Collective+Action+Hub&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.collective-action.com%2Fresources%2Fcollective_action&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i>, pp. 225 et seq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osce.org/secretariat/232761"><i>OSCE Handbook on Combating Corruption</i></a>. OSCE. 2016. p. 155.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OSCE+Handbook+on+Combating+Corruption&rft.pages=155&rft.pub=OSCE&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osce.org%2Fsecretariat%2F232761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i> pp.226-227</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iaccseries.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/United_Kingdom_National_Statement_2018.pdf">"United Kingdom National Statement, International Anti-Corruption Conference"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. October 22, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221006034257/https://iaccseries.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/United_Kingdom_National_Statement_2018.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=United+Kingdom+National+Statement%2C+International+Anti-Corruption+Conference&rft.date=2018-10-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiaccseries.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F10%2FUnited_Kingdom_National_Statement_2018.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iaccseries.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/France_National_Statement_2018-2.pdf">"National Anti-Corruption Statement: France"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221002161007/https://iaccseries.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/France_National_Statement_2018-2.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 2, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=National+Anti-Corruption+Statement%3A+France&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiaccseries.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F10%2FFrance_National_Statement_2018-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iaccseries.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Ghana_National_Statement_2018.pdf">"Statement from the Delegation from Ghana at the high level Anti-Corruption Conference in Copenhagan"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221006034257/https://iaccseries.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Ghana_National_Statement_2018.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 6, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Statement+from+the+Delegation+from+Ghana+at+the+high+level+Anti-Corruption+Conference+in+Copenhagan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiaccseries.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F10%2FGhana_National_Statement_2018.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStukalo2016" class="citation book cs1">Stukalo, Alexey (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osce.org/secretariat/232761"><i>OSCE Handbook on Combating Corruption</i></a>. OSCE. pp. 155 et seq.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OSCE+Handbook+on+Combating+Corruption&rft.pages=155+et+seq&rft.pub=OSCE&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Stukalo&rft.aufirst=Alexey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osce.org%2Fsecretariat%2F232761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i>, pp. 238-239</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://b20-dev.baselgovernance.org/explore/hlrm">"Collective Action - B20 hub"</a>. <i>b20-dev.baselgovernance.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=b20-dev.baselgovernance.org&rft.atitle=Collective+Action+-+B20+hub&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fb20-dev.baselgovernance.org%2Fexplore%2Fhlrm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i> p. 233</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CC_Collective_Action-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CC_Collective_Action_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i>, pp. 235 et seq.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerRoberstSpence2005" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Seumas; Roberst, Peter; Spence, Edward (2005). <i>Corruption and Anti-Corruption: An Applied Philosophical Approach</i>. Pearson/Prentice Hall. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-061795-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-061795-8"><bdi>978-0-13-061795-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004002505">2004002505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corruption+and+Anti-Corruption%3A+An+Applied+Philosophical+Approach&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Pearson%2FPrentice+Hall&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004002505&rft.isbn=978-0-13-061795-8&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Seumas&rft.au=Roberst%2C+Peter&rft.au=Spence%2C+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Confronting Corruption</i> p. 232</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anticorruptionday.org/actagainstcorruption/index.html">"Main page of the campaign for an International Anti-Corruption Academy"</a>. UNODC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 14,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Main+page+of+the+campaign+for+an+International+Anti-Corruption+Academy&rft.pub=UNODC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anticorruptionday.org%2Factagainstcorruption%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-corruption&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacio_Terracino2012" class="citation book cs1">Bacio Terracino, Julio (2012). <i>The international legal framework against corruption : states' obligations to prevent and repress corruption</i>. Intersentia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78068-092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78068-092-7"><bdi>978-1-78068-092-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/810879652">810879652</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+international+legal+framework+against+corruption+%3A+states%27+obligations+to+prevent+and+repress+corruption&rft.pub=Intersentia&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F810879652&rft.isbn=978-1-78068-092-7&rft.aulast=Bacio+Terracino&rft.aufirst=Julio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRose2015" class="citation book cs1">Rose, Cecily (2015). <i>International Anti-Corruption Norms</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873721-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873721-6"><bdi>978-0-19-873721-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/908334497">908334497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Anti-Corruption+Norms&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F908334497&rft.isbn=978-0-19-873721-6&rft.aulast=Rose&rft.aufirst=Cecily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStukalo2016" class="citation book cs1">Stukalo, Alexey, ed. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osce.org/secretariat/232761"><i>OSCE Handbook on Combating Corruption</i></a>. Vienna: <a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9234-192-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-9234-192-3"><bdi>978-92-9234-192-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/964654700">964654700</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=OSCE+Handbook+on+Combating+Corruption&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pub=Organization+for+Security+and+Co-operation+in+Europe&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F964654700&rft.isbn=978-92-9234-192-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osce.org%2Fsecretariat%2F232761&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeimannPieth2018" class="citation book cs1">Heimann, Fritz; Pieth, Mark (2018) [2017]. <i>Confronting Corruption</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-045833-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-045833-1"><bdi>978-0-19-045833-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/965154105">965154105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confronting+Corruption&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F965154105&rft.isbn=978-0-19-045833-1&rft.aulast=Heimann&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rft.au=Pieth%2C+Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiwanHaidar2021" class="citation journal cs1">Diwan, Ishac; Haidar, Jamal Ibrahim (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00220388.2020.1849622">"Political Connections Reduce Job Creation: Firm-level Evidence from Lebanon"</a>. <i>Journal of Development Studies</i>. <b>57</b> (8): 1373–1396. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00220388.2020.1849622">10.1080/00220388.2020.1849622</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:229717871">229717871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Development+Studies&rft.atitle=Political+Connections+Reduce+Job+Creation%3A+Firm-level+Evidence+from+Lebanon&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1373-1396&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00220388.2020.1849622&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A229717871%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Diwan&rft.aufirst=Ishac&rft.au=Haidar%2C+Jamal+Ibrahim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F00220388.2020.1849622&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAnti-corruption" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Corruption" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Corruption" title="Template:Corruption"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Corruption" title="Template talk:Corruption"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Corruption" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Corruption"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Corruption" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">Corruption</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Corruption in different fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_local_government" title="Corruption in local government">Corruption in local government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lobbying" title="Lobbying">Interest group corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_corruption" title="Police corruption">Police corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_corruption" title="Political corruption">Political corruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measures of corruption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index" title="Corruption Perceptions Index">Corruption Perceptions Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_corruption" title="Economics of corruption">Economics of corruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms or aspects<br />of corruption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baksheesh" title="Baksheesh">Baksheesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_market" title="Black market">Black market</a> / <a href="/wiki/Grey_market" title="Grey market">Grey market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">Bribery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collusion" title="Collusion">Collusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_bribery" title="Commercial bribery">Commercial bribery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">Conflict of interest</a></li> <li>Corporation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_corporation" title="Dummy corporation">Dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_corporation" title="Shell corporation">Shell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scam" title="Scam">Confidence trick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">Embezzlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extortion" title="Extortion">Extortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">Fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graft_(politics)" title="Graft (politics)">Graft (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honest_services_fraud" title="Honest services fraud">Honest services fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">Insider trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kickback_(bribery)" title="Kickback (bribery)">Kickback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Match_fixing" title="Match fixing">Match fixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">Money laundering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptocurrency_and_crime" title="Cryptocurrency and crime">Cryptocurrency and crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawala_and_crime" title="Hawala and crime">Hawala and crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_cause_corruption" title="Noble cause corruption">Noble cause corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_courtesy" title="Professional courtesy">Professional courtesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandal" title="Scandal">Scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slush_fund" title="Slush fund">Slush fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_evasion" title="Tax evasion">Tax evasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_haven" title="Tax haven">Tax haven</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_investment" title="Offshore investment">Offshore investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_financial_centre" title="Offshore financial centre">Offshore financial centre</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clientelism" title="Clientelism">Clientelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronelism" title="Coronelism">Coronelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crony_capitalism" title="Crony capitalism">Crony capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronyism" title="Cronyism">Cronyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_capture" title="Elite capture">Elite capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">Failed state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_soldiers" title="Ghost soldiers">Ghost soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptocracy" title="Kleptocracy">Kleptocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mafia_state" title="Mafia state">Mafia state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_scandal" title="Political scandal">Political scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">Regulatory capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">Rent-seeking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rent-setting" title="Rent-setting">Rent-setting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_capture" title="State capture">State capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_crime" title="State crime">State crime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballot_stuffing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballot stuffing">Ballot stuffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_fraud" title="Electoral fraud">Electoral fraud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_security" title="Election security">Election security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_pairing" title="Vote pairing">Vote pairing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vote_suppression" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote suppression">Vote suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions dealing<br /> with corruption</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_W._Baker" title="Raymond W. Baker">Global Financial Integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Witness" title="Global Witness">Global Witness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_of_States_Against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Group of States Against Corruption">Group of States Against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Anti-Corruption_Academy" title="International Anti-Corruption Academy">International Anti-Corruption Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_Ibrahim_Foundation" title="Mo Ibrahim Foundation">Mo Ibrahim Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transparency_International" title="Transparency International">Transparency International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption#UNCAC_Coalition_of_Civil_Society_Organisations" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Convention against Corruption">UNCAC Coalition of Civil Society Organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oficina_Anticorrupci%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Oficina Anticorrupción">Oficina Anticorrupción</a> (Argentina)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Criminal_Intelligence_Commission" title="Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission">Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Corruption_Commission_(Bangladesh)" title="Anti-Corruption Commission (Bangladesh)">Anti-Corruption Commission (Bangladesh)</a> (Bangladesh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption_and_Economic_Malpractice_Observatory" title="Anti-corruption and Economic Malpractice Observatory">Anti-corruption and Economic Malpractice Observatory</a> (Burundi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Anti-Corruption_Observatory" title="National Anti-Corruption Observatory">National Anti-Corruption Observatory</a> (Cameroon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Supervisory_Commission" title="National Supervisory Commission">National Supervisory Commission</a> (China) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption_(Hong_Kong)" title="Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)">Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_Against_Corruption_(Macau)" class="mw-redirect" title="Commission Against Corruption (Macau)">Commission Against Corruption (Macau)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USKOK" class="mw-redirect" title="USKOK">USKOK</a> (Croatia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Anti-Fraud_Office" title="European Anti-Fraud Office">European Anti-Fraud Office</a> (European Union)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiji_Independent_Commission_Against_Corruption" title="Fiji Independent Commission Against Corruption">Fiji Independent Commission Against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Vigilance_Commission" title="Central Vigilance Commission">Central Vigilance Commission</a> (India)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_Eradication_Commission" title="Corruption Eradication Commission">KPK</a> (Indonesia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Anti-Corruption_Authority_(Italy)" title="National Anti-Corruption Authority (Italy)">National Anti-Corruption Authority</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_Prevention_and_Combating_Bureau" title="Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau">Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau</a> (Latvia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governance_and_Economic_Management_Assistance_Program" title="Governance and Economic Management Assistance Program">Governance and Economic Management Assistance Program</a> (Liberia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Investigation_Service" title="Special Investigation Service">Special Investigation Service of the Republic of Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BIANCO" title="BIANCO">BIANCO</a> (Madagascar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Anti-Corruption_Commission" title="Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission">Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Corruption_Commission_of_Myanmar" title="Anti-Corruption Commission of Myanmar">Anti-Corruption Commission of Myanmar</a> (Myanmar)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Corrupt_Practices_Commission" title="Independent Corrupt Practices Commission">Independent Corrupt Practices Commission</a> (Nigeria)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Accountability_Bureau" title="National Accountability Bureau">National Accountability Bureau</a> (Pakistan)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigation_Task_Force_Sweep" title="Investigation Task Force Sweep">Investigation Task Force Sweep</a> (Papua New Guinea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Anticorruption_Bureau" title="Central Anticorruption Bureau">Central Anticorruption Bureau</a> (Poland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Corruption_General_Directorate" title="Anti-Corruption General Directorate">Anti-Corruption General Directorate</a> (Romania)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Anticorruption_Directorate" title="National Anticorruption Directorate">National Anticorruption Directorate</a> (Romania)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigative_Committee_of_Russia" title="Investigative Committee of Russia">Investigative Committee of Russia</a> (Russia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Anti-corruption_Commission" title="Sierra Leone Anti-corruption Commission">Sierra Leone Anti-corruption Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrupt_Practices_Investigation_Bureau" title="Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau">Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau</a> (Singapore)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_for_the_Prevention_of_Corruption_of_the_Republic_of_Slovenia" title="Commission for the Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Slovenia">Commission for the Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Corruption_and_Civil_Rights_Commission" title="Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission">Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission</a> (South Korea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customs_Surveillance_Service" title="Customs Surveillance Service">Servicio de Vigilancia Aduanera</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Anti-Corruption_Bureau_of_Ukraine" title="National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine">National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine</a> (Ukraine)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warioba_Commission" title="Warioba Commission">Warioba Commission</a> (Tanzania)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Steering_Committee_on_Anti-corruption" title="Central Steering Committee on Anti-corruption">Central Steering Committee for Anti-Corruption</a> (Vietnam)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Anti-corruption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laws and<br />enforcement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen%27s_Charter_and_Grievance_Redressal_Bill_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen's Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill 2011">Citizen's Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill 2011</a> (pending)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Corrupt_Practices_Act" title="Foreign Corrupt Practices Act">Foreign Corrupt Practices Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Extortion_Prevention_Act" title="Foreign Extortion Prevention Act">Foreign Extortion Prevention Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_information_laws_by_country" title="Freedom of information laws by country">Freedom of information laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Lokpal_and_Lokayuktas_Act,_2013" title="The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013">The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bribery_Act_2010" title="Bribery Act 2010">UK Bribery Act of 2010</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistleblower#Legal_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower">Whistleblower protection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International<br />instruments<br />and efforts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Convention_Against_Corruption" title="Inter-American Convention Against Corruption">Inter-American Convention Against Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_asset_recovery" title="International asset recovery">International asset recovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Anti-Corruption_Authorities" title="International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities">International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD_Anti-Bribery_Convention" title="OECD Anti-Bribery Convention">OECD Anti-Bribery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_against_Corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Convention against Corruption">United Nations Convention against Corruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protest<br />movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Azerbaijani_protests" title="2011 Azerbaijani protests">2011 Azerbaijani protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Indian_anti-corruption_movement" title="2011 Indian anti-corruption movement">2011 Indian anti-corruption movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Indian_anti-corruption_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 Indian anti-corruption movement">2012 Indian anti-corruption movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-austerity_movement_in_Spain" title="Anti-austerity movement in Spain">Anti-austerity movement in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_Peace_with_Justice_and_Dignity" title="Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity">Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_anti-corruption_campaign" title="Russian anti-corruption campaign">Russian anti-corruption campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yo_Soy_132" title="Yo Soy 132">Yo Soy 132</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932019_Romanian_protests" title="2017–2019 Romanian protests">2017–2019 Romanian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_Russian_protests" title="2017–2018 Russian protests">2017–2018 Russian protests</a></li></ul> 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