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class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Semitic+languages" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>The Semitic languages are a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic language family</a>. They include <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> and numerous other ancient and modern languages. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">West Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[c]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[d]</a> and in large <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigrant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Expatriate" title="Expatriate">expatriate communities</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a>. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_school_of_history" title="Göttingen school of history">Göttingen school of history</a>, who derived the name from <a href="/wiki/Shem" title="Shem">Shem</a>, one of the three <a href="/wiki/Generations_of_Noah" title="Generations of Noah">sons of Noah</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>. <table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #faecc8;">Semitic</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">West Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a><ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:15px;padding-left:0"><li>Semitic</li></ul></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic</a></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East Semitic</a> †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/sem" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:sem">sem</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/semi1276">semi1276</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Semitic_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Semitic_map.svg/300px-Semitic_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Semitic_map.svg/450px-Semitic_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Semitic_map.svg/600px-Semitic_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="274"></a><div style="text-align:left;">Modern distribution of the Semitic languages</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Semitic_languages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Semitic_languages.svg/300px-Semitic_languages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="386" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Semitic_languages.svg/450px-Semitic_languages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Semitic_languages.svg/600px-Semitic_languages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="917"></a> <div style="text-align:left;">Approximate historical distribution of Semitic languages</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Sinitic languages</a>.</div> Semitic languages occur in written form from a very early historical date in <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a>, with <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East Semitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Assyrian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Assyrian language">Assyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian language">Babylonian</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a> texts (written in a script adapted from Sumerian <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>) appearing from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600 BCE in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and the northeastern <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> respectively. The only earlier attested languages are <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a> (2800 BCE to 550 BCE), both <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3000 BCE), a sister branch within the Afroasiatic family, related to the Semitic languages but not part of them. <a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a> appeared in Mesopotamia and the northern Levant <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2100 BC, followed by the mutually intelligible <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite languages</a> (including Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite, and Ammonite, and perhaps Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean), the still spoken <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> during the 2nd millennium BC. Most scripts used to write Semitic languages are <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjads</a> – a type of <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabetic</a> script that omits some or all of the vowels, which is feasible for these languages because the consonants are the primary carriers of meaning in the Semitic languages. These include the <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">ancient South Arabian</a> alphabets. The <a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez script</a>, used for writing the Semitic languages of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, is technically an <a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">abugida</a> – a modified abjad in which vowels are notated using <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a> marks added to the consonants at all times, in contrast with other Semitic languages which indicate vowels based on need or for introductory purposes. <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> is the only Semitic language written in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> and the only Semitic language to be an official language of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. The Semitic languages are notable for their <a href="/wiki/Nonconcatenative_morphology" title="Nonconcatenative morphology">nonconcatenative morphology</a>. That is, word <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">roots</a> are not themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants (usually three, making a so-called <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root#Triconsonantal_roots" title="Semitic root">triliteral root</a>). Words are composed from roots not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes, but rather by filling in the vowels between the root consonants, although prefixes and suffixes are often added as well. For example, in Arabic, the root meaning "write" has the form <a href="/wiki/K-T-B" title="K-T-B">k-t-b</a>. From this root, words are formed by filling in the vowels and sometimes adding consonants, e.g. كِتاب kitāb "book", كُتُب kutub "books", كاتِب kātib "writer", كُتّاب kuttāb "writers", كَتَب kataba "he wrote", يكتُب yaktubu "he writes", etc.. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Name_and_identification">1 Name and identification</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History">2 History</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples">2.1 Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#First_century_to_twentieth_century_CE">2.2 First century to twentieth century CE</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Present_distribution">3 Present distribution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Phonology">4 Phonology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Consonants">4.1 Consonants</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Vowels">4.2 Vowels</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Grammar">5 Grammar</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Word_order">5.1 Word order</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Cases_in_nouns_and_adjectives">5.2 Cases in nouns and adjectives</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Number_in_nouns">5.3 Number in nouns</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Verb_aspect_and_tense">5.4 Verb aspect and tense</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Morphology:_triliteral_roots">5.5 Morphology: triliteral roots</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Independent_personal_pronouns">5.6 Independent personal pronouns</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Cardinal_numerals">5.7 Cardinal numerals</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Typology">5.8 Typology</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Common_vocabulary">6 Common vocabulary</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Classification">7 Classification</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Detailed_list">7.1 Detailed list</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Semitic-speaking_peoples">8 Semitic-speaking peoples</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Central_Semitic">8.1 Central Semitic</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="#East_Semitic">8.2 East Semitic</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#South_Semitic">8.3 South Semitic</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Unknown">8.4 Unknown</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#See_also">9 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Notes">10 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#References">11 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Bibliography">12 Bibliography</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#External_links">13 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Name_and_identification">Name and identification</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name and identification" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic,_Guillaume_Postel.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png/220px-1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="355" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="804"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 355px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png/220px-1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png" data-width="220" data-height="355" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png/330px-1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png/440px-1538_comparison_of_Hebrew_and_Arabic%2C_Guillaume_Postel.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1538 comparison of Hebrew and Arabic, by <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Postel" title="Guillaume Postel">Guillaume Postel</a> – possibly the first such representation in Western European literature.</figcaption></figure> The similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages has been accepted by all scholars since medieval times. The languages were familiar to Western European scholars due to historical contact with neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near Eastern</a> countries and through <a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">Biblical studies</a>, and a comparative analysis of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic was published in Latin in 1538 by <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Postel" title="Guillaume Postel">Guillaume Postel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuntz198125-8">[4]</a> Almost two centuries later, <a href="/wiki/Hiob_Ludolf" title="Hiob Ludolf">Hiob Ludolf</a> described the similarities between these three languages and the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiopian Semitic languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuhlen1991-9">[5]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] However, neither scholar named this grouping as "Semitic".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuhlen1991-9">[5]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] The term "Semitic" was created by members of the <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_school_of_history" title="Göttingen school of history">Göttingen school of history</a>, initially by <a href="/wiki/August_Ludwig_von_Schl%C3%B6zer" title="August Ludwig von Schlözer">August Ludwig von Schlözer</a> (1781), to designate the languages closely related to Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew.<a href="#cite_note-Vermeulen_2015_p._252-10">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[7]</a> The choice of name was derived from <a href="/wiki/Shem" title="Shem">Shem</a>, one of the three sons of Noah in the genealogical accounts of the biblical <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Genesis" title="Book of Genesis">Book of Genesis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiraz200125-12">[8]</a> or more precisely from the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> rendering of the name, Σήμ (Sēm). <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Eichhorn" title="Johann Gottfried Eichhorn">Johann Gottfried Eichhorn</a> is credited with popularising the term,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaasten200368-69-13">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitto1845192-14">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiraz200125-12">[8]</a> particularly via a 1795 article "Semitische Sprachen" (Semitic languages) in which he justified the terminology against criticism that Hebrew and Canaanite were the same language despite Canaan being "<a href="/wiki/Hamitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamitic">Hamitic</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Table_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Table of Nations">Table of Nations</a>:<a href="#cite_note-15">[11]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">In the Mosaic <a href="/wiki/Table_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Table of Nations">Table of Nations</a>, those names which are listed as <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semites</a> are purely names of tribes who speak the so-called Oriental languages and live in Southwest Asia. As far as we can trace the history of these very languages back in time, they have always been written with <a href="/wiki/Syllabograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllabograms">syllabograms</a> or with <a href="/wiki/Alphabetic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabetic script">alphabetic script</a> (never with <a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pictograms" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictograms">pictograms</a>); and the legends about the invention of the syllabograms and alphabetic script go back to the Semites. In contrast, all so called <a href="/wiki/Hamitic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamitic peoples">Hamitic peoples</a> originally used hieroglyphs, until they here and there, either through contact with the Semites, or through their settlement among them, became familiar with their syllabograms or alphabetic script, and partly adopted them. Viewed from this aspect too, with respect to the alphabet used, the name "Semitic languages" is completely appropriate.<a href="#cite_note-16">[12]</a></blockquote> Previously these languages had been commonly known as the "<a href="/wiki/Orient" title="Orient">Oriental</a> languages" in European literature.<a href="#cite_note-17">[13]</a> In the 19th century, "Semitic" became the conventional name; however, an alternative name, "Syro-Arabian languages", was later introduced by <a href="/wiki/James_Cowles_Prichard" title="James Cowles Prichard">James Cowles Prichard</a> and used by some writers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitto1845192-14">[10]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="History">History</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples">Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png/220px-Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="1080"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 231px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png/220px-Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png" data-width="220" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png/330px-Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png/440px-Semitic_languages_-_Chronology.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Chronology mapping of Semitic languages</figcaption></figure> Semitic languages were spoken and written across much of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, the earliest attested being the <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="East Semitic">East Semitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Akkad_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkad (region)">Akkad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/3rd_millennium_BC" title="3rd millennium BC">third millennium BC</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language#Urheimat" title="Proto-Semitic language">origin of Semitic-speaking peoples</a> is still under discussion. Several locations were proposed as possible sites of a prehistoric <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">origin of Semitic-speaking peoples</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[15]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> region, the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>. According to a 2009 study, the Semitic languages originated in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3750 BC, and were introduced to the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> c. 800 BC from the southern Arabian Peninsula, and to <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> via <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> colonists at approximately the same time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchenEhretAssefa20092703%E2%80%9310-20">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-britannica-21">[17]</a> Others assign the arrival of Semitic speakers in the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> to a much earlier date.<a href="#cite_note-22">[18]</a> According to another hypothesis, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Semitic</a> originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa and <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> made its inhabitants to migrate in the fourth millennium BC into what is now <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, others northwest out of Africa into West Asia.<a href="#cite_note-23">[19]</a> The various extremely closely related and <a href="/wiki/Mutually_intelligible" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutually intelligible">mutually intelligible</a> <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite languages</a>, a branch of the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic languages</a> included <a href="/wiki/Edomite" class="mw-redirect" title="Edomite">Edomite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician languages">Phoenician</a> (<a href="/wiki/Punic" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic">Punic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a>), <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Hebrew language">Samaritan Hebrew</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ekron" title="Ekron">Ekronite</a>. They were spoken in what is today <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian territories">Palestinian territories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, the northern <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>, some northern and eastern parts of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, southwest fringes of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, and in the case of Phoenician, coastal regions of <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>), <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, and possibly in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> and other Mediterranean islands. <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Semitic">Northwest Semitic</a> language closely related to but distinct from the Canaanite group was spoken in the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> in north western Syria.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh,_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/220px-Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="6016" data-file-height="4016"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/220px-Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/330px-Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg/440px-Tablet_XI_or_the_Flood_Tablet_of_the_Epic_of_Gilgamesh%2C_currently_housed_in_the_British_Museum_in_London.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poem</a> from ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature, written in <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[20]</a>: 23 </figcaption></figure> A hybrid <a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian language</a> also emerged in Canaan (Israel and the Palestinian territories, Jordan, Lebanon) during the 14th century BC, incorporating elements of the Mesopotamian East Semitic Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia with the West Semitic Canaanite languages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIzre'el1987c4-25">[21]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a>, a still living ancient <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Semitic">Northwest Semitic</a> language, first attested in the 12th century BC in the northern <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, gradually replaced the East Semitic and Canaanite languages across much of the Near East, particularly after being adopted as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a> of the vast <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (911–605 BC) by <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a> during the 8th century BC, and being retained by the succeeding <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empires</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaltkeO'Connor19908-26">[22]</a> The Chaldean language (not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> or its <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical variant</a>, sometimes referred to as Chaldean) was a <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Northwest Semitic">Northwest Semitic</a> language, possibly closely related to Aramaic, but no examples of the language remain, as after settling in south eastern Mesopotamia from the Levant during the 9th century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a> appear to have rapidly adopted the Akkadian and Aramaic languages of the indigenous Mesopotamians.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Old South Arabian languages">Old South Arabian languages</a> (classified as South Semitic and therefore distinct from the Central-Semitic Arabic) were spoken in the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sheba" title="Sheba">Sheba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlantis_of_the_Sands" title="Atlantis of the Sands">Ubar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magan_(civilization)" title="Magan (civilization)">Magan</a>, which in modern terms encompassed part of the eastern coast of <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] South Semitic languages are thought to have spread to the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a> circa 8th century BC where the <a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez">Ge'ez</a> language emerged (though the direction of influence remains uncertain).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_century_to_twentieth_century_CE">First century to twentieth century <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a></h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: First century to twentieth century CE" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basmalah-1wm.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basmalah-1wm.svg/200px-Basmalah-1wm.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="263" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="672"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 263px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basmalah-1wm.svg/200px-Basmalah-1wm.svg.png" data-width="200" data-height="263" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basmalah-1wm.svg/300px-Basmalah-1wm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Basmalah-1wm.svg/400px-Basmalah-1wm.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Example of <a href="/wiki/Arabic_calligraphy" title="Arabic calligraphy">Arabic calligraphy</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a>, a 200 CE<a href="#cite_note-27">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Middle Aramaic</a> dialect,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock1998708-28">[24]</a> used as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kerala" title="Kerala">Kerala</a>, India,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrak1992209%E2%80%9314-29">[25]</a> rose to importance as a literary language of early <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the third to fifth centuries and continued into the early <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> era. The <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language, although originating in the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, first emerged in written form in the 1st to 4th centuries CE in the southern regions of The <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. With the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Arab conquests</a> of the seventh and eighth centuries, Classical Arabic eventually replaced many (but not all) of the indigenous Semitic languages and cultures of the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a>. The previously dominant Aramaic dialects maintained by the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant dialects of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> (Assyrian and Chaldean varieties), <a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a>) survive to this day among the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a> of northern and southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, northwestern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, northeastern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, with up to a million fluent speakers. Syriac is a recognized language in Iraq, furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a> is one of the most Syriac influenced dialects of Arabic, due to Syriac, the dialect of <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> specifically, having originated in Mesopotamia.<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a> Meanwhile <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Aramaic">Western Aramaic</a> is now only spoken by a few thousand Christian and Muslim <a href="/wiki/Terms_for_Syriac_Christians#Aramean_identity" title="Terms for Syriac Christians">Arameans (Syriacs)</a> in western <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic language to <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>), where it gradually replaced Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber languages</a> (although Berber is still largely extant in many areas), and for a time to the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AndalusQuran.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG/200px-AndalusQuran.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="233" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="672"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 233px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG/200px-AndalusQuran.JPG" data-width="200" data-height="233" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG/300px-AndalusQuran.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/AndalusQuran.JPG/400px-AndalusQuran.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Page from a 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> </figcaption></figure> With the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its <a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">liturgical</a> status, Arabic rapidly became one of the world's main literary languages. Its spread among the masses took much longer, however, as many (although not all) of the native populations outside the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> only gradually abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> tribes settled in conquered areas, it became the main language of not only central Arabia, but also Yemen,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENebes2005335-31">[27]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Most of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> followed, specifically in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hilal" title="Banu Hilal">Banu Hilal</a>'s incursion in the 11th century, and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>. After the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dongola" title="Dongola">Dongola</a> in the 14th century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>; soon after, the <a href="/wiki/Beni_%E1%B8%A4ass%C4%81n" title="Beni Ḥassān">Beni Ḥassān</a> brought <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>. A number of <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Modern South Arabian languages</a> distinct from Arabic still survive, such as <a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a> which are mainly spoken in <a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a>, Yemen, and Oman.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Meanwhile, the Semitic languages that had arrived from southern Arabia in the 8th century BC were diversifying in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, where, under heavy <a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a> influence, they split into a number of languages, including <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>. With the expansion of Ethiopia under the <a href="/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty" title="Solomonic dynasty">Solomonic dynasty</a>, Amharic, previously a minor local language, spread throughout much of the country, replacing both Semitic (such as <a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a>) and non-Semitic (such as <a href="/wiki/Weyto_language" title="Weyto language">Weyto</a>) languages, and replacing Ge'ez as the principal literary language (though Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> in the region); this spread continues to this day, with <a href="/wiki/Qimant_language" title="Qimant language">Qimant</a> set to disappear in another generation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Present_distribution">Present distribution</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Present distribution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Semitic_1st_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Semitic_1st_AD.svg/220px-Semitic_1st_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="653"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 226px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Semitic_1st_AD.svg/220px-Semitic_1st_AD.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="226" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Semitic_1st_AD.svg/330px-Semitic_1st_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Semitic_1st_AD.svg/440px-Semitic_1st_AD.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Approximate distribution of the Semitic languages around the 1st century AD</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> is currently the native language of majorities from <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, and from <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> to <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> is the language of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>. It is also studied widely in the non-Arabic-speaking <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese language</a> is a descendant of the extinct <a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a>, a variety of <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> formerly spoken in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>. The modern <a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a> is based on the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> with the addition of some letters with <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritic</a> marks and <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> is the only Semitic official language within the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. Successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic languages today are the base of the sacred literature of some of the world's major religions, including Islam (Arabic), <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> (Hebrew and Aramaic (<a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a>)), churches of <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac Christianity</a> (Classical Syriac) and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ethiopia" title="Christianity in Ethiopia">Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity</a> (Ge'ez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an archaic version of their modern tongues): many <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> learn to read and recite the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> speak and study <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>, the language of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a>, and other Jewish scriptures. The followers of the <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian Church of the East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Catholic_Church" title="Chaldean Catholic Church">Chaldean Catholic Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient Church of the East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Pentecostal_Church" title="Assyrian Pentecostal Church">Assyrian Pentecostal Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Evangelical_Church" title="Assyrian Evangelical Church">Assyrian Evangelical Church</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Orthodox_Church" title="Syriac Orthodox Church">Syriac Orthodox Church</a> speak <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic languages</a> and use <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a> as their <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a>. Classical Syriac is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic-speaking followers of the <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Church" title="Maronite Church">Maronite Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Catholic_Church" title="Syriac Catholic Church">Syriac Catholic Church</a>, and was originally the liturgical language of the <a href="/wiki/Melkite" title="Melkite">Melkites</a> in <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, and ancient <a href="/wiki/Syria_Prima" title="Syria Prima">Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> and Classical Arabic are the main liturgical languages of <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox Christians</a> in the Middle East, who compose the patriarchates of <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria">Alexandria</a>. Mandaic is both spoken and used as a liturgical language by the <a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a>. Although the majority of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today are descended from Eastern varieties, <a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a> is still spoken in two villages in Syria. Despite the ascendancy of Arabic in the Middle East, other Semitic languages still exist. Biblical Hebrew, long extinct as a colloquial language and in use only in Jewish literary, intellectual, and liturgical activity, <a href="/wiki/Revival_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Revival of the Hebrew language">was revived in spoken form</a> at the end of the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> is the main language of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, with Biblical Hebrew remaining as the <a href="/wiki/Study_of_the_Hebrew_language" title="Study of the Hebrew language">language of liturgy and religious scholarship</a> of Jews worldwide. In Arab-dominated <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and Oman, on the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula, a few tribes continue to speak <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Modern South Arabian languages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mahri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a>. These languages differ greatly from both the surrounding Arabic dialects and from the languages of the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian</a> inscriptions. Historically linked to the peninsular homeland of Old South Arabian, of which only one language, <a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a>, remains, Ethiopia and Eritrea contain a substantial number of Semitic languages; the most widely spoken are <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> in Ethiopia, <a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a> in <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a> in both. Amharic is the official language of Ethiopia. Tigrinya is a working language in Eritrea. Tigre is spoken by over one million people in the northern and central Eritrean lowlands and parts of eastern Sudan. A number of <a href="/wiki/Gurage_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurage languages">Gurage languages</a> are spoken by populations in the semi-mountainous region of central Ethiopia, while <a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a> is restricted to the city of <a href="/wiki/Harar" title="Harar">Harar</a>. Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for certain groups of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Ethiopia" title="Christianity in Ethiopia">Christians in Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Eritrea" title="Christianity in Eritrea">in Eritrea</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> The phonologies of the attested Semitic languages are presented here from a <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative</a> point of view (see <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language#Phonology" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic language#Phonology</a> for details on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article). The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based primarily on <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, whose phonology and morphology (particularly in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a>) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28 out of the evident 29 consonantal phonemes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh199713-37">[33]</a> with <a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">*s</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] and <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*š</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] merging into Arabic /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ ⟨<a href="/wiki/S%C4%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Sīn">س</a>⟩ and <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*ś</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>] becoming Arabic /<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/ ⟨<a href="/wiki/%C5%A0%C4%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Šīn">ش</a>⟩. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Proto-Semitic consonant phonemes<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKogan201154-38">[34]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">Manner</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voicing</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Interdental_consonant" title="Interdental consonant">Interdental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>/<a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">Pharyngeal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Obstruent" title="Obstruent">Obstruent</a> </th> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <th style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">*p</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>]</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">*t</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">*k</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>]</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Bilabial_ejective_stop" title="Bilabial ejective stop">pʼ</a>)<a href="#cite_note-39">[e]</a></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">*ṭ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">*q</a>/<a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">ḳ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a>]</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">*ʼ</a>,<a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">ˀ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">*b</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>]</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">*d</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">*g</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless consonant">voiceless</a> </th> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">*ṯ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">*s</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*š</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*ś</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">*ḫ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">*ḥ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">*h</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Emphatic_consonant" title="Emphatic consonant">emphatic</a> </th> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">*ṱ</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[f]</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">θ̣</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">ẓ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_fricative" title="Dental ejective fricative">θʼ</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">*ṣ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar ejective fricative">sʼ</a>]</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">*ṣ́</a>/<a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">ḏ̣</a> [<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar lateral ejective fricative">ɬʼ</a>]</td> <td>(<a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_fricative" title="Velar ejective fricative">xʼ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Uvular_ejective_fricative" title="Uvular ejective fricative">χʼ</a>)<a href="#cite_note-41">[g]</a></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> </th> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">*ḏ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">*z</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">*ġ</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">ǵ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>~<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">*ʻ</a>,<a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">ˤ</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>]</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">Resonant</a> </th> <th colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">*r</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">*w</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">*y</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">*l</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="font-size: 80%;"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">*m</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>]</td> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">*n</a> [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>]</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="11"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> is one of the world's largest languages, spoken natively in West Asia and Africa by about 300 million speakers, and as a <a href="/wiki/Second_language" title="Second language">second language</a> by perhaps another 60 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwens20132-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> has perhaps fifteen million speakers, in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> probably fewer than only Arabic, Swahili, Hausa, and Oromo, and is the second most populous Semitic language, after just Arabic. It is the lingua franca and constitutionally recognized national language of Ethiopia, and the national language of instruction of Ethiopian public education in the primary grades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudsonKogan1997457-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a>, not to be confused with the related but distinct language Tigre, is, like Amharic, a northern Ethiopian Semitic language, is spoken as a native language by the overwhelming majority of the population in the Tigre province of Ethiopia and in the highland part of Eritrea (the provinces of Akkele Guzay, Serae and Hamasien, where the capital of the state, Asmara, is situated). Outside of this area Tigrinya is also spoken in the Tambien and Wolqayt historical districts (Ethiopia) and in the administrative districts of Massara and Keren (Eritrea), these being respectively the southern and northern limits of its expansion. The number of speakers of Tigrinya has been estimated at 4 million in 1995; 1.3 million of them live in Eritrea (around 50 percent of the population of the country), in 2008 by an estimated 5 million.<a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> speaking about ~5 million native/<a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">L1</a> speakers,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Gurage_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurage languages">Gurage</a> has around 1.5 million speakers,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a> has c. ~1.05 million speakers,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> is spoken by around 575,000 to 1 million largely <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian</a> speakers).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> has around 483,000 speakers,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Woodard (2008, p. 219) suggests the presence of an emphatic p in some disparate Semitic languages may indicate that such an emphatic was present in Proto-Semitic. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> The emphatic interdental fricative is usually spelled *ṯ̣ but is replaced here by *ṱ for better readability. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Huehnergard (2003, p.49) presents a minority opinion that an ejective velar fricative existed in Proto-Semitic. </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/), as discussed in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language#Fricatives" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic language § Fricatives</a>. This comparative approach is natural for the <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a>, as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Consonants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that Latin letter values (italicized) for extinct languages are a question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded. Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has added a fifteenth from *p > f). In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often later phonemicized as a result of the loss of gemination. In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a <a href="/wiki/Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">uvular</a> stop [q]. <table class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"> <caption>Regular correspondences of the Proto-Semitic consonants<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKogan201254%E2%80%93151-42">[35]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="3">Proto Semitic </th> <th rowspan="3">IPA </th> <th rowspan="32"> </th> <th colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> </th> <th rowspan="32"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> </th> <th rowspan="32"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> </th> <th rowspan="32"> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> </th> <th rowspan="32"> </th> <th colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> </th> <th rowspan="32"> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> </th> <th rowspan="32"> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Written</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic"><abbr title="Transliteration">Translit.</abbr></a> </th> <th colspan="2"><abbr title="Pronunciation">Pronun.</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Written</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language#Phonology" title="Maltese language"><abbr title="Pronunciation">Pronun.</abbr></a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><abbr title="Transliteration">Translit.</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="2">Written </th> <th rowspan="2"><abbr title="Pronunciation">Pronun.</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="2">Written </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language#Phonology" title="Phoenician language"><abbr title="Pronunciation">Pronun.</abbr></a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><abbr title="Transliteration">Translit.</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Written</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew"><abbr title="Transliteration">Translit.</abbr></a> </th> <th colspan="2"><abbr title="Pronunciation">Pronun.</abbr> </th> <th colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Imperial</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><abbr title="Transliteration">Translit.</abbr> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Written</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez#Phonology" title="Geʽez">Pronounced</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><abbr title="Transliteration">Translit.</abbr> </th></tr> <tr> <th style="font-size:85%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson200213-43">[36]</a> </th> <th style="font-size:85%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Classical</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a> </th> <th style="font-size:85%"><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Written</a> </th> <th><abbr title="Transliteration">Translit.</abbr> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew#Phonology" title="Samaritan Hebrew"><abbr title="Pronunciation">Pronun.</abbr></a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">*b</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>] </th> <td><big>ب</big> </td> <td>b </td> <td colspan="2">/b/ </td> <td>b </td> <td>/b/ </td> <td>b </td> <td>𐎁</td> <td>b </td> <td>𐤁 </td> <td>/b/</td> <td>b </td> <td><big>ב</big> </td> <td>b, ḇ5 </td> <td>/b/, /β/5 </td> <td>/b/, /v/ </td> <td>ࠁ </td> <td>b </td> <td>/b/ </td> <td>𐡁 </td> <td>ܒ</td> <td>ḇ, b5 </td> <td>በ</td> <td>/b/ </td> <td>b </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">*g</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] </th> <td><big>ج</big> </td> <td>ǧ </td> <td>/ɟ ~ d͡ʒ/9 </td> <td>/d͡ʒ/11 </td> <td>ġ </td> <td>/d͡ʒ/ </td> <td>g </td> <td>𐎂</td> <td>g </td> <td>𐤂 </td> <td>/ɡ/</td> <td>g</td> <td><big>ג</big> </td> <td>g, ḡ5 </td> <td>/ɡ/, /ɣ/5 </td> <td>/ɡ/ </td> <td>ࠂ </td> <td>g </td> <td>/ɡ/ </td> <td>𐡂 </td> <td>ܓ</td> <td>ḡ, g5 </td> <td>ገ</td> <td>/ɡ/ </td> <td>g </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">*p</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>] </th> <td><big>ف</big> </td> <td>f </td> <td colspan="2">/f/ </td> <td>f </td> <td>/f/ </td> <td>p </td> <td>𐎔</td> <td>p </td> <td>𐤐 </td> <td>/p/</td> <td>p</td> <td><big>פ</big> </td> <td>p, p̄5 </td> <td>/pʰ/, /ɸ/5 </td> <td>/p/, /f/ </td> <td>ࠐ </td> <td>f </td> <td>/f/ </td> <td>𐡐 </td> <td>ܦ</td> <td>p̄, p5 </td> <td>ፈ</td> <td>/f/ </td> <td>f </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">*k</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>] </th> <td><big>ك</big> </td> <td>k </td> <td colspan="2">/k/ </td> <td>k </td> <td>/k/ </td> <td>k </td> <td>𐎋</td> <td>k </td> <td>𐤊 </td> <td>/k/</td> <td>k</td> <td><big>כ</big> </td> <td>k, ḵ5 </td> <td>/kʰ/, /x/5 </td> <td>/k/, /x/ </td> <td>ࠊ </td> <td>k </td> <td>/k/ </td> <td>𐡊 </td> <td>ܟ</td> <td>ḵ, k5 </td> <td>ከ</td> <td>/k/ </td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">*ḳ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Velar_ejective_stop" title="Velar ejective stop">kʼ</a>] </th> <td><big>ق</big> </td> <td>q </td> <td>/ɡ ~ q/9 </td> <td>/q/12 </td> <td>q </td> <td>/ʔ ~ q/ </td> <td>q </td> <td>𐎖</td> <td>ḳ </td> <td>𐤒 </td> <td>/kʼ/</td> <td>ḳ</td> <td><big>ק</big> </td> <td>ḳ </td> <td>/kˤ/ ~ /q/ </td> <td>/k/ </td> <td>ࠒ </td> <td>q </td> <td>/q/ </td> <td>𐡒 </td> <td>ܩ</td> <td>q </td> <td>ቀ</td> <td>/kʼ/ </td> <td>ḳ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">*d</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>] </th> <td><big>د</big> </td> <td>d </td> <td colspan="2">/d/ </td> <td rowspan="2">d </td> <td rowspan="2">/d/ </td> <td>d </td> <td>𐎄 </td> <td>d </td> <td>𐤃 </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td>d </td> <td><big>ד</big> </td> <td>d, ḏ5 </td> <td>/d/, /ð/5 </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td>ࠃ </td> <td>d </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td>𐡃 </td> <td>ܕ </td> <td>ḏ, d5 </td> <td>ደ </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td>d </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">*ḏ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>] </th> <td><big>ذ</big> </td> <td>ḏ </td> <td colspan="2">/ð/ </td> <td rowspan="2">z </td> <td>𐎏</td> <td>ḏ > d </td> <td rowspan="2">𐤆 </td> <td rowspan="2">/d͡z/</td> <td rowspan="2">z</td> <td rowspan="2"><big>ז</big> </td> <td rowspan="2">z </td> <td rowspan="2">/z/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/z/ </td> <td rowspan="2">ࠆ </td> <td rowspan="2">z </td> <td rowspan="2">/z/ </td> <td>𐡆3, 𐡃 </td> <td>ܖ3, ܕ</td> <td>ḏ3, d </td> <td rowspan="2">ዘ</td> <td rowspan="2">/z/ </td> <td rowspan="2">z </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">*z</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>] </th> <td><big>ز</big> </td> <td>z </td> <td colspan="2">/z/ </td> <td>ż </td> <td>/z/ </td> <td>𐎇</td> <td>z </td> <td>𐡆 </td> <td>ܖ</td> <td>z </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">*s</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>] </th> <td rowspan="2"><big>س</big> </td> <td rowspan="2">s </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">/s/ </td> <td rowspan="2">s </td> <td rowspan="2">/s/ </td> <td>s </td> <td>𐎒</td> <td>s </td> <td>𐤎 </td> <td>/t͡s/</td> <td>s</td> <td><big>ס</big> </td> <td>s </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>ࠎ </td> <td>s </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>𐡎 </td> <td>ܤ</td> <td>s </td> <td rowspan="2">ሰ</td> <td rowspan="2">/s/ </td> <td rowspan="2">s </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*š</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] </th> <td rowspan="3">š </td> <td rowspan="2">𐎌</td> <td rowspan="2">š </td> <td rowspan="3">𐤔 </td> <td rowspan="3">/ʃ/</td> <td rowspan="3">š</td> <td><big>שׁ</big> </td> <td>š </td> <td>/ʃ/ </td> <td>/ʃ/ </td> <td rowspan="3">ࠔ </td> <td rowspan="3">š </td> <td rowspan="3">/ʃ/ </td> <td>𐡔 </td> <td>ܫ</td> <td>š </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*ś</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>] </th> <td><big>ش</big> </td> <td>š </td> <td colspan="2">/ʃ/ </td> <td>x </td> <td>/ʃ/</td> <td><big>שׂ</big>1 </td> <td>ś1 </td> <td>/ɬ/ </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>𐡔3, 𐡎 </td> <td>ܫ3, ܤ</td> <td>ś3, s </td> <td>ሠ</td> <td>/ɬ/ </td> <td>ś </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">*ṯ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a>] </th> <td><big>ث</big> </td> <td>ṯ </td> <td colspan="2">/θ/ </td> <td rowspan="3">t </td> <td rowspan="3">/t/ </td> <td>𐎘 </td> <td>ṯ </td> <td><big>שׁ</big> </td> <td>š </td> <td>/ʃ/ </td> <td>/ʃ/ </td> <td>𐡔3, 𐡕 </td> <td>ܫ3, ܬ </td> <td>ṯ3, t </td> <td>ሰ </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td>s </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">*t</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>] </th> <td><big>ت</big> </td> <td>t </td> <td colspan="2">/t/ </td> <td>t </td> <td>𐎚 </td> <td>t </td> <td>𐤕 </td> <td>t </td> <td>t </td> <td><big>ת</big> </td> <td>t, ṯ5 </td> <td>/tʰ/, /θ/5 </td> <td>/t/ </td> <td>ࠕ </td> <td>t </td> <td>/t/ </td> <td>𐡕 </td> <td>ܬ </td> <td>ṯ, t5 </td> <td>ተ </td> <td>/t/ </td> <td>t </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">*ṭ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar ejective stop">tʼ</a>] </th> <td><big>ط</big> </td> <td>ṭ </td> <td colspan="2">/tˤ/ </td> <td>ṭ </td> <td>𐎉 </td> <td>ṭ </td> <td>𐤈 </td> <td>/tʼ/ </td> <td>ṭ </td> <td><big>ט</big> </td> <td>ṭ </td> <td>/tˤ/ </td> <td>/t/ </td> <td>ࠈ </td> <td>ṭ </td> <td>/tˤ/ </td> <td>𐡈 </td> <td>ܛ </td> <td>ṭ </td> <td>ጠ </td> <td>/tʼ/ </td> <td>ṭ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">*ṱ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Dental_ejective_fricative" title="Dental ejective fricative">θʼ</a>] </th> <td><big>ظ</big> </td> <td>ẓ </td> <td colspan="2">/ðˤ/ </td> <td>d </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td rowspan="3">ṣ </td> <td>𐎑</td> <td>ẓ13 > ġ </td> <td rowspan="3">𐤑 </td> <td rowspan="3">/t͡sʼ/ </td> <td rowspan="3">ṣ </td> <td rowspan="3"><big>צ</big> </td> <td rowspan="3">ṣ </td> <td rowspan="3">/sˤ/ </td> <td rowspan="3">/t͡s/ </td> <td rowspan="3">ࠑ </td> <td rowspan="3">ṣ </td> <td rowspan="3">/sˤ/ </td> <td>𐡑3, 𐡈 </td> <td>ܨ3, ܛ</td> <td>ṯʼ3, ṭ </td> <td rowspan="2">ጸ</td> <td rowspan="2">/t͡sʼ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">ṣ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">*ṣ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar ejective fricative">sʼ</a>] </th> <td><big>ص</big> </td> <td>ṣ </td> <td colspan="2">/sˤ/ </td> <td>s </td> <td>/s/ </td> <td rowspan="2">𐎕</td> <td rowspan="2">ṣ </td> <td>𐡑 </td> <td>ܨ</td> <td>ṣ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">*ṣ́</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Alveolar_lateral_ejective_fricative" title="Alveolar lateral ejective fricative">ɬʼ</a>] </th> <td><big>ض</big> </td> <td>ḍ </td> <td>/ɮˤ ~ dˤ/ </td> <td>/dˤ/ </td> <td>d </td> <td>/d/ </td> <td>𐡒3, 𐡏 </td> <td>ܩ3, ܥ</td> <td>*ġʼ3, [ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>ፀ</td> <td>/t͡ɬʼ/ </td> <td>ḍ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">*ġ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>]~[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_fricative" title="Voiced uvular fricative">ʁ</a>] </th> <td><big>غ</big> </td> <td>ḡ </td> <td colspan="2">/ɣ ~ ʁ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">għ </td> <td rowspan="2">/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ˤ</a><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a>/ </td> <td>ḫ </td> <td>𐎙</td> <td>ġ,[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td rowspan="2">𐤏 </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʕ/</td> <td rowspan="2">[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</td> <td rowspan="2"><big>ע</big>2 </td> <td rowspan="2">[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)2 </td> <td>/ʁ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʕ/ ~ /ʔ/ ~ ∅15 </td> <td rowspan="2">ࠏ </td> <td rowspan="2">[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʕ/, /ʔ/ ~ ∅ </td> <td>𐡏3 </td> <td>ܥ3</td> <td>ġ3, [ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td rowspan="2">ዐ</td> <td rowspan="2">/ʕ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">*ʻ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>] </th> <td><big>ع</big> </td> <td>[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td colspan="2">/ʕ/ </td> <td>–4 </td> <td>𐎓</td> <td>[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>/ʕ/ </td> <td>𐡏 </td> <td>ܥ</td> <td>[ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">*ʼ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] </th> <td><big>ء</big> </td> <td>[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td colspan="2">/ʔ/ </td> <td>– </td> <td>– </td> <td>–, ʾ </td> <td>𐎀, 𐎛, 𐎜</td> <td>ʼa, ʼi, ʼu10 </td> <td>𐤀 </td> <td>/ʔ/</td> <td>[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>)</td> <td><big>א</big> </td> <td>[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>/ʔ/ </td> <td>/ʔ/ ~ ∅ </td> <td>ࠀ </td> <td>[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>/ʔ/ ~ ∅ </td> <td>𐡀 </td> <td>ܐ</td> <td>[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>አ</td> <td>/ʔ/ </td> <td>[ʼ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">*ḫ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>]~[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_fricative" title="Voiceless uvular fricative">χ</a>] </th> <td><big>خ</big> </td> <td>ẖ </td> <td colspan="2">/x ~ χ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">ħ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ħ/ </td> <td>ḫ </td> <td>𐎃</td> <td>ḫ </td> <td rowspan="2">𐤇 </td> <td rowspan="2">/ħ/</td> <td rowspan="2">ḥ</td> <td rowspan="2"><big>ח</big>2 </td> <td rowspan="2">ḥ2 </td> <td>/χ/ </td> <td rowspan="2">/χ/ ~ /ħ/15 </td> <td rowspan="2">ࠇ </td> <td rowspan="2">ḥ </td> <td rowspan="2">/ʕ/, /ʔ/ ~ ∅ </td> <td>𐡇3 </td> <td>ܟ3</td> <td>ḫ3, ḥ </td> <td>ኀ</td> <td>/χ/ </td> <td>ḫ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">*ḥ</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>] </th> <td><big>ح</big> </td> <td>ḥ </td> <td colspan="2">/ħ/ </td> <td>–4 </td> <td>𐎈</td> <td>ḥ </td> <td>/ħ/ </td> <td>𐡇 </td> <td>ܟ </td> <td>ḥ </td> <td>ሐ </td> <td>/ħ/ </td> <td>ḥ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">*h</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>] </th> <td><big>ه</big> </td> <td>h </td> <td colspan="2">/h/ </td> <td>h </td> <td>/<a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a>/ </td> <td>– </td> <td>𐎅</td> <td>h </td> <td>𐤄 </td> <td>/h/</td> <td>h</td> <td><big>ה</big> </td> <td>h </td> <td>/h/ </td> <td>/h/ ~ ∅ </td> <td>ࠄ </td> <td>h </td> <td>/ʔ/ ~ ∅ </td> <td>𐡄 </td> <td>ܗ</td> <td>h </td> <td>ሀ</td> <td>/h/ </td> <td>h </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">*m</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>] </th> <td><big>م</big> </td> <td>m </td> <td colspan="2">/m/ </td> <td>m </td> <td>/m/ </td> <td>m </td> <td>𐎎</td> <td>m </td> <td>𐤌 </td> <td>/m/</td> <td>m</td> <td><big>מ</big> </td> <td>m </td> <td>/m/ </td> <td>/m/ </td> <td>ࠌ </td> <td>m </td> <td>/m/ </td> <td>𐡌 </td> <td>ܡ</td> <td>m </td> <td>መ</td> <td>/m/ </td> <td>m </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">*n</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>] </th> <td><big>ن</big> </td> <td>n </td> <td colspan="2">/n/ </td> <td>n </td> <td>/n/ </td> <td>n </td> <td>𐎐</td> <td>n </td> <td>𐤍 </td> <td>/n/</td> <td>n</td> <td><big>נ</big> </td> <td>n </td> <td>/n/ </td> <td>/n/ </td> <td>ࠍ </td> <td>n </td> <td>/n/ </td> <td>𐡍 </td> <td>ܢ</td> <td>n </td> <td>ነ</td> <td>/n/ </td> <td>n </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">*r</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>] </th> <td><big>ر</big> </td> <td>r </td> <td colspan="2">/r/ </td> <td>r </td> <td>/r/ </td> <td>r </td> <td>𐎗</td> <td>r </td> <td>𐤓 </td> <td>/r/</td> <td>r</td> <td><big>ר</big> </td> <td>r </td> <td>/r/ </td> <td>/ʁ/ </td> <td>ࠓ </td> <td>r </td> <td>/ʁ/ </td> <td>𐡓 </td> <td>ܪ</td> <td>r </td> <td>ረ</td> <td>/r/ </td> <td>r </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">*l</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>] </th> <td><big>ل</big> </td> <td>l </td> <td colspan="2">/l/ </td> <td>l </td> <td>/l/ </td> <td>l </td> <td>𐎍</td> <td>l </td> <td>𐤋 </td> <td>/l/</td> <td>l</td> <td><big>ל</big> </td> <td>l </td> <td>/l/ </td> <td>/l/ </td> <td>ࠋ </td> <td>l </td> <td>/l/ </td> <td>𐡋 </td> <td>ܠ</td> <td>l </td> <td>ለ</td> <td>/l/ </td> <td>l </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">*y</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>] </th> <td><big>ي</big> </td> <td>y </td> <td colspan="2">/j/ </td> <td>j </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>y </td> <td>𐎊</td> <td>y </td> <td>𐤉 </td> <td>/j/</td> <td>y</td> <td><big>י</big> </td> <td>y </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>ࠉ </td> <td>y </td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>𐡉 </td> <td>ܝ</td> <td>y </td> <td>የ</td> <td>/j/ </td> <td>y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">*w</a> </th> <th>[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>] </th> <td><big>و</big> </td> <td>w </td> <td colspan="2">/w/ </td> <td>w </td> <td>/w/ </td> <td>w </td> <td>𐎆</td> <td>w </td> <td>𐤅 </td> <td>/w/</td> <td>w</td> <td><big>ו</big> </td> <td>w </td> <td>/ʋ/ </td> <td>/v/ ~ /w/ </td> <td>ࠅ </td> <td>w </td> <td>/b/ </td> <td>𐡅 </td> <td>ܘ</td> <td>w </td> <td>ወ</td> <td>/w/ </td> <td>w </td></tr></tbody></table> <blockquote>Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, and *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡s/, /d͡z/, /t͡sʼ/, /t͡ɬ/, /t͡ɬʼ/, and /t͡θʼ/).</blockquote> Notes: <ol><li>Proto-Semitic *ś was still pronounced as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_lateral_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative">ɬ</a>] in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Early Linear Script</a>, so the letter ש did double duty, representing both /ʃ/ and /ɬ/. Later on, however, /ɬ/ merged with /s/, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of ש were distinguished graphically in <a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian Hebrew</a> as שׁ /ʃ/ vs. שׂ /s/ < /ɬ/.</li> <li>Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes ġ /ʁ/ and ḫ /χ/ from [ʻ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) /ʕ/ and ḥ /ħ/, respectively, based on transcriptions in the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>. As in the case of /ɬ/, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: ח /χ/ /ħ/ and ע /ʁ/ /ʕ/. In both of these cases, however, the two sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions.</li> <li>Although early Aramaic (pre-7th century BCE) had only 22 consonants in its alphabet, it apparently distinguished all of the original 29 Proto-Semitic phonemes, including *ḏ, *ṯ, *ṱ, *ś, *ṣ́, *ġ, and *ḫ – although by <a href="/wiki/Middle_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a> times, these had all merged with other sounds. This conclusion is mainly based on the shifting representation of words etymologically containing these sounds; in early Aramaic writing, the first five are merged with z, š, ṣ, š, and q respectively, but later with d, t, ṭ, s, and [ʿ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>).<a href="#cite_note-bekins-44">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-harrison-45">[38]</a> (Also note that due to <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">begadkefat</a> spirantization, which occurred after this merger, OAm. t > ṯ and d > ḏ in some positions, so that PS *t,ṯ and *d, ḏ may be realized as either of t, ṯ and d, ḏ respectively.) The sounds *ġ and *ḫ were always represented using the pharyngeal letters [ʿ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) and ḥ, but they are distinguished from the pharyngeals in the Demotic-script <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_Amherst_63" title="Papyrus Amherst 63">papyrus Amherst 63</a>, written about 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-46">[39]</a> This suggests that these sounds, too, were distinguished in Old Aramaic language, but written using the same letters as they later merged with.</li> <li>The earlier pharyngeals can be distinguished in Akkadian from the zero reflexes of *ḥ, *ʕ by e-coloring adjacent *a, e.g. pS *ˈbaʕal-um 'owner, lord' > Akk. bēlu(m).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199935-47">[40]</a></li> <li>Hebrew and Aramaic underwent <a href="/wiki/Begadkefat" title="Begadkefat">begadkefat</a> spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds /b ɡ d k p t/ were <a href="/wiki/Lenition" title="Lenition">softened</a> to the corresponding fricatives [v ɣ ð x f θ] (written ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ) when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after the original Old Aramaic phonemes /θ, ð/ disappeared in the 7th century BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199972-48">[41]</a> and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew /χ, ʁ/ <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-50">[note 1]</a> It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199973-51">[43]</a> After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in word-medial and final position (though bearing low <a href="/wiki/Functional_load" title="Functional load">functional load</a>), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.<a href="#cite_note-bbgd-52">[44]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>, the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives /v χ f/ are still preserved (the fricative /x/ is pronounced /χ/ in modern Hebrew). <a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a> hasn't undergone this process at all.</li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic languages</a>, */w/ became */j/ at the beginning of a word, e.g. Hebrew yeled "boy" < *wald (cf. Arabic walad).</li> <li>There is evidence of a rule of assimilation of /j/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] shared by Hebrew, Phoenician, and Aramaic.<a href="#cite_note-53">[45]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Assyrian Neo-Aramaic</a>, [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>] is nonexistent. In general cases, the language would lack <a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant" title="Pharyngeal consonant">pharyngeal</a> fricative [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>] (as heard in <a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">Ayin</a>). However, /ʕ/ is retained in educational speech, especially among Assyrian priests.<a href="#cite_note-54">[46]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(sound_change)" title="Palatalization (sound change)">palatalization</a> of Proto-Semitic <a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">gīm</a> /g/ to Arabic /d͡ʒ/ jīm, is most probably connected to the pronunciation of <a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">qāf</a> /q/ as a /g/ gāf (this sound change also occurred in <a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite Hebrew</a>), hence in most of the <a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Arabian peninsula</a> (which is the homeland of the Arabic language) <a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a> is jīm /d͡ʒ/ and <a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a> is gāf /g/, except in western and southern <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemen</a> and parts of <a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Oman</a> where <a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a> is gīm /g/ and <a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a> is qāf /q/.</li> <li>Ugaritic orthography indicated the vowel after the <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>.</li> <li>The Arabic letter jīm (<a href="/wiki/%D8%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="ج">ج</a>) has three main pronunciations in Modern Standard Arabic. [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiced postalveolar affricate">d͡ʒ</a>] in north Algeria, Iraq, also in most of the Arabian peninsula and as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>] occurs in most of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and most North Africa; and [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] is used in northern Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. In addition to other minor allophones.</li> <li>The Arabic letter qāf (<a href="/wiki/%D9%82" class="mw-redirect" title="ق">ق</a>) has three main pronunciations in spoken <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">varieties</a>. [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>] in most of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/San%27ani_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="San'ani Arabic">Northern</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Eastern</a> Yemen and parts of Oman, Southern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, some parts of the Levant, and to lesser extent in some parts (mostly rural) of <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>. [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a>] in most of Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, <a href="/wiki/Ta%27izzi-Adeni_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ta'izzi-Adeni Arabic">Southern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Western</a> Yemen, and parts of Oman, Northern Iraq, parts of the Levant, especially <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> dialects. [<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>] in most of the Levant and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a>, as well as some North African towns such as <a href="/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fez,_Morocco" title="Fez, Morocco">Fez</a>. In addition to other minor allophones.</li> <li>ṱ can be written ẓ, and always is in the <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic#Phonology" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet#Table_of_basic_letters" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a> contexts. In Ugaritic, sometimes assimilates to ġ, as in ġmʔ 'thirsty' (Arabic ẓmʔ, Hebrew ṣmʔ, but Ugaritic mẓmủ 'thirsty', root ẓmʔ, is also attested).</li> <li>Early <a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a> might have had a different phonology.</li> <li>The pronunciations /ʕ/ and /ħ/ for ʿAyin and Ḥet, respectively, still occur among some older Mizrahi speakers, but for most modern Israelis, ʿAyin and Ḥet are realized as /ʔ, -/ and /χ ~ x/, respectively.</li></ol> The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Maltese through cognate words: <table class="wikitable" style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Proto-Semitic </th> <th rowspan="2">Arabic </th> <th rowspan="2">Maltese </th> <th rowspan="2">Aramaic </th> <th rowspan="2">Hebrew </th> <th colspan="5">Examples </th></tr> <tr> <th>Arabic </th> <th>Maltese </th> <th>Aramaic </th> <th>Hebrew </th> <th>meaning </th></tr> <tr> <th>*/ð/ <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">*ḏ</a> </th> <td>*/ð/ ذ </td> <td>*/d/ d </td> <td>*/d/ ד </td> <td rowspan="2">*/z/ ז </td> <td>ذهب ذَكَر </td> <td>deheb – </td> <td>דהב דכרא </td> <td>זהב זָכָר </td> <td>'gold' 'male' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/z/1 <a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">*z</a> </th> <td>*/z/ ز </td> <td>*/z/ ż </td> <td>*/z/ ז </td> <td>موازين زمن </td> <td>miżien żmien </td> <td>מאזנין זמן </td> <td>מאזנים זמן </td> <td>'scale' 'time' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/s/ <a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">*s</a> </th> <td>*/s/ س */ʃ/ ش </td> <td>*/s/ s */ʃ/ x </td> <td>*/s/ ס </td> <td>*/s/ ס </td> <td>سكين شهر </td> <td>sikkina xahar </td> <td>סכין סהר </td> <td>סכין סהר </td> <td>'knife' 'moon/month' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ɬ/ <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*ś</a> </th> <td>*/ʃ/ ش </td> <td>*/ʃ/ x </td> <td>*/s/ שׂ </td> <td>*/s/ שׂ </td> <td>عشر </td> <td>għaxra </td> <td>עשׂר </td> <td>עשׂר </td> <td>'ten' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʃ/ <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">*š</a> </th> <td>*/s/ س </td> <td>*/s/ s </td> <td>*/ʃ/ שׁ </td> <td rowspan="2">*/ʃ/ שׁ </td> <td>سنة سلام </td> <td>sena sliem </td> <td>שׁנה שלם </td> <td>שׁנה שלום </td> <td>'year' 'peace' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/θ/ <a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">*ṯ</a> </th> <td>*/θ/ ث </td> <td>*/t/ t </td> <td>*/t/ ת </td> <td>ثلاثة اثنان </td> <td>tlieta tnejn </td> <td>תלת תרין </td> <td>שלוש שתים </td> <td>'three' 'two' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/θʼ/1 <a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">*ṱ</a> </th> <td>*/ðˤ/ ظ </td> <td>*/d/ d </td> <td>*/tʼ/ ט </td> <td rowspan="3">*/sˤ~ts/1 צ </td> <td>ظل ظهر </td> <td>dell – </td> <td>טלה טהרא </td> <td>צל צהרים </td> <td>'shadow' 'noon' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ɬʼ/1 <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">*ṣ́</a> </th> <td>*/dˤ/ ض </td> <td>*/t/ t */d/ d </td> <td>*/ʕ/ ע </td> <td>أرض ضحك </td> <td>art daħaq </td> <td>ארע עחק </td> <td>ארץ צחק </td> <td>'land' 'laughed' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/sʼ/1 <a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">*ṣ</a> </th> <td>*/sˤ/ ص </td> <td> </td> <td>*/sʼ/ צ </td> <td>صرخ صبر </td> <td> </td> <td>צרח צבר </td> <td>צרח צבר </td> <td>'shout' 'watermelon-like plant' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/χ/ <a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">*ḫ</a> </th> <td>*/x~χ/ خ </td> <td>*/ħ/ ħ </td> <td rowspan="2">*/ħ/ ח </td> <td rowspan="2">*/ħ~χ/ ח </td> <td>خمسة صرخ </td> <td>ħamsa – </td> <td>חַמְשָׁה צרח </td> <td>חֲמִשָּׁה צרח </td> <td>'five' 'shout' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ħ/ <a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">*ḥ</a> </th> <td>*/ħ/ ح </td> <td>*/ħ/ ħ </td> <td>ملح حلم </td> <td>melħ ħolm </td> <td>מלח חלם </td> <td>מלח חלום </td> <td>'salt' 'dream' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʁ/ <a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">*ġ</a> </th> <td>*/ɣ~ʁ/ غ </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ˤ</a><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a>/ għ </td> <td rowspan="2">*/ʕ/ ע </td> <td rowspan="2">*/ʕ~ʔ/ ע </td> <td>غراب غرب </td> <td>għorab għarb </td> <td>ערב מערב </td> <td>עורב מערב </td> <td>'raven' 'west' </td></tr> <tr> <th>*/ʕ/ <a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">*ʻ</a> </th> <td>*/ʕ/ ع </td> <td>*/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ˤ</a><a href="/wiki/Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a>/ għ </td> <td>عبد سبعة </td> <td>għabid sebgħa </td> <td>עבד שבע </td> <td>עבד שבע </td> <td>'slave' 'seven' </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>possibly affricated (/dz/ /tɬʼ/ /ʦʼ/ /tθʼ/ /tɬ/)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vowels" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#Consonant_correspondences" title="Proto-Afroasiatic language">Proto-Afroasiatic language § Consonant correspondences</a></div> Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to the <a href="/wiki/Nonconcatenative_morphology" title="Nonconcatenative morphology">nonconcatenative morphology</a> of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in the languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given: <table class="wikitable Unicode"> <caption>Vowel correspondences in Semitic languages (in proto-Semitic stressed syllables)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199985%E2%80%9386-55">[47]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">pS </th> <th colspan="2">Arabic </th> <th colspan="2">Aramaic </th> <th colspan="3">Hebrew </th> <th rowspan="2">Ge'ez </th> <th rowspan="2">Akkadian </th></tr> <tr> <th>Classical </th> <th>Modern </th> <th>usually4 </th> <th>/_C.ˈV </th> <th>/ˈ_.1 </th> <th>/ˈ_Cː2 </th> <th>/ˈ_C.C3 </th></tr> <tr> <th>*a </th> <td>a </td> <td>a </td> <td>a </td> <td>ə </td> <td>ā </td> <td>a </td> <td>ɛ </td> <td>a, later ä </td> <td>a, e, ē5 </td></tr> <tr> <th>*i </th> <td>i </td> <td>i </td> <td>e, i, <a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="West Syriac dialects">WSyr.</a> ɛ </td> <td>ə </td> <td>ē </td> <td>e </td> <td>ɛ, e </td> <td>ə </td> <td>i </td></tr> <tr> <th>*u </th> <td>u </td> <td>u </td> <td>u, o </td> <td>ə </td> <td>ō </td> <td>o </td> <td>o </td> <td>ə, ʷə6 </td> <td>u </td></tr> <tr> <th>*ā </th> <td>ā </td> <td>ā </td> <td>ā </td> <td> </td> <td>ō<a href="#cite_note-56">[note 2]</a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ā, later a </td> <td>ā, ē </td></tr> <tr> <th>*ī </th> <td>ī </td> <td>ī </td> <td>ī </td> <td> </td> <td>ī </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>i </td> <td>ī </td></tr> <tr> <th>*ū </th> <td>ū </td> <td>ū </td> <td>ū </td> <td> </td> <td>ū </td> <td>ū </td> <td> </td> <td>u </td> <td>ū </td></tr> <tr> <th>*ay </th> <td>ay </td> <td>ē, ay </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">BA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">JA</a> ay(i), ē, <a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="West Syriac dialects">WSyr.</a> ay/ī & ay/ē </td> <td> </td> <td>ayi, ay </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>e </td> <td>ī </td></tr> <tr> <th>*aw </th> <td>aw </td> <td>ō, aw </td> <td>ō, <a href="/wiki/West_Syriac_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="West Syriac dialects">WSyr.</a> aw/ū </td> <td> </td> <td>ō, <a href="/wiki/Pausa" title="Pausa">pausal</a> ˈāwɛ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>o </td> <td>ū </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li>in a stressed open syllable</li> <li>in a stressed closed syllable before a geminate</li> <li>in a stressed closed syllable before a consonant cluster</li> <li>when the proto-Semitic stressed vowel remained stressed</li> <li>pS *a,*ā > Akk. e,ē in the neighborhood of pS *ʕ,*ħ and before r</li> <li>i.e. pS *g,*k,*ḳ,*χ > Ge'ez gʷ, kʷ,ḳʷ,χʷ / _u</li></ol> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Grammar" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages themselves — has naturally occurred over time. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order">Word order</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Word order" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic is <a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">verb–subject–object</a> (VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was still the case in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a>, e.g. Classical Arabic رأى محمد فريدا ra'ā muħammadun farīdan. (literally "saw Muhammad Farid", Muhammad saw Farid). In the modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic vernaculars</a>, however, as well as sometimes in <a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a> (the modern literary language based on Classical Arabic) and <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>, the classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Ge'ez, was VSO, possessed–possessor, and noun–adjective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg1999157-57">[48]</a> Akkadian was also predominantly SOV. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cases_in_nouns_and_adjectives">Cases in nouns and adjectives</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cases in nouns and adjectives" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The proto-Semitic three-case system (<a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic (see <a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab">ʾIʿrab</a>), Akkadian and <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugaritic language">Ugaritic</a>, has disappeared everywhere in the many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic maintains such case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending -n is preserved in Ethiopian Semitic.<a href="#cite_note-59">[note 3]</a> In the northwest, the scarcely attested <a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a> reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative -ū and oblique -ī (compare the same distinction in Classical Arabic).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron1997123-60">[50]</a> Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had a category of state, the indefinite state being expressed by <a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">nunation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number_in_nouns">Number in nouns</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Number in nouns" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Semitic languages originally had three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical numbers</a>: singular, <a href="/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)" title="Dual (grammatical number)">dual</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a>. Classical Arabic still has a mandatory dual (i.e. it must be used in all circumstances when referring to two entities), marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. Many contemporary dialects of Arabic still have a dual, as in the name for the nation of Bahrain (baħr "sea" + -ayn "two"), although it is marked only on nouns. It also occurs in Hebrew in a few nouns (šana means "one year", šnatayim means "two years", and šanim means "years"), but for those it is obligatory. The curious phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Broken_plural" title="Broken plural">broken plurals</a> – e.g. in Arabic, sadd "one dam" vs. sudūd "dams" – found most profusely in the languages of Arabia and Ethiopia, may be partly of proto-Semitic origin, and partly elaborated from simpler origins. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_aspect_and_tense">Verb aspect and tense</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Verb aspect and tense" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin: 1em;"> <caption>Paradigm of a regular Classical Arabic verb: Form I kataba (yaktubu) "to write" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center">Past </th> <th colspan="2" style="text-align:center">Present <a href="/wiki/Indicative" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative">Indicative</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Singular </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st </th> <td>katab-tu </td> <td>كَتَبْتُ </td> <td>ʼa-ktub-u </td> <td>أَكْتُبُ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd </th> <th>masculine </th> <td>katab-ta </td> <td>كَتَبْتَ </td> <td>ta-ktub-u </td> <td>تَكْتُبُ </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>katab-ti </td> <td>كَتَبْتِ </td> <td>ta-ktub-īna </td> <td>تَكْتُبِينَ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd </th> <th>masculine </th> <td>katab-a </td> <td>كَتَبَ </td> <td>ya-ktub-u </td> <td>يَكْتُبُ </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>katab-at </td> <td>كَتَبَتْ </td> <td>ta-ktub-u </td> <td>تَكْتُبُ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Dual </th></tr> <tr> <th>2nd </th> <th>masculine & feminine </th> <td>katab-tumā </td> <td>كَتَبْتُمَا </td> <td>ta-ktub-āni </td> <td>تَكْتُبَانِ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd </th> <th>masculine </th> <td>katab-ā </td> <td>كَتَبَا </td> <td>ya-ktub-āni </td> <td>يَكْتُبَانِ </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>katab-atā </td> <td>كَتَبَتَا </td> <td>ta-ktub-āni </td> <td>تَكْتُبَانِ </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">1st </th> <td>katab-nā </td> <td>كَتَبْنَا </td> <td>na-ktub-u </td> <td>نَكْتُبُ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">2nd </th> <th>masculine </th> <td>katab-tum </td> <td>كَتَبْتُمْ </td> <td>ta-ktub-ūna </td> <td>تَكْتُبُونَ </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>katab-tunna </td> <td>كَتَبْتُنَّ </td> <td>ta-ktub-na </td> <td>تَكْتُبْنَ </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2">3rd </th> <th>masculine </th> <td>katab-ū </td> <td>كَتَبُوا </td> <td>ya-ktub-ūna </td> <td>يَكْتُبُونَ </td></tr> <tr> <th>feminine </th> <td>katab-na </td> <td>كَتَبْنَ </td> <td>ya-ktub-na </td> <td>يَكْتُبْنَ </td></tr> </tbody></table> All Semitic languages show two quite distinct styles of morphology used for conjugating verbs. Suffix conjugations take suffixes indicating the person, number and gender of the subject, which bear some resemblance to the pronominal suffixes used to indicate direct objects on verbs ("I saw him") and possession on nouns ("his dog"). So-called prefix conjugations actually takes both prefixes and suffixes, with the prefixes primarily indicating person (and sometimes number or gender), while the suffixes (which are completely different from those used in the suffix conjugation) indicate number and gender whenever the prefix does not mark this. The prefix conjugation is noted for a particular pattern of ʔ- t- y- n- prefixes where (1) a t- prefix is used in the singular to mark the second person and third-person feminine, while a y- prefix marks the third-person masculine; and (2) identical words are used for second-person masculine and third-person feminine singular. The prefix conjugation is extremely old, with clear analogues in nearly all the families of <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic languages</a> (i.e. at least 10,000 years old). The table on the right shows examples of the prefix and suffix conjugations in Classical Arabic, which has forms that are close to Proto-Semitic. In Proto-Semitic, as still largely reflected in East Semitic, prefix conjugations are used both for the past and the non-past, with different vocalizations. Cf. Akkadian niprus "we decided" (preterite), niptaras "we have decided" (perfect), niparras "we decide" (non-past or imperfect), vs. suffix-conjugated parsānu "we are/were/will be deciding" (stative). Some of these features, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">gemination</a> indicating the non-past/imperfect, are generally attributed to Afroasiatic. Proto-Semitic had an additional form, the <a href="/wiki/Jussive" class="mw-redirect" title="Jussive">jussive</a>, which was distinguished from the preterite only by the position of stress: the jussive had final stress while the preterite had non-final (retracted) stress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzronKayeZuckermann2018568-62">[52]</a> The West Semitic languages significantly reshaped the system. The most substantial changes occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic languages</a> (the ancestors of modern Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic). Essentially, the old prefix-conjugated jussive or preterite became a new non-past (or imperfect), while the stative became a new past (or perfect), and the old prefix-conjugated non-past (or imperfect) with gemination was discarded. New suffixes were used to mark different moods in the non-past, e.g. Classical Arabic -u (indicative), -a (subjunctive), vs no suffix (jussive). It is not generally agreed whether the systems of the various Semitic languages are better interpreted in terms of tense, i.e. past vs. non-past, or aspect, i.e. perfect vs. imperfect. A special feature in classical Hebrew is the <a href="/wiki/Waw-consecutive" class="mw-redirect" title="Waw-consecutive">waw-consecutive</a>, prefixing a verb form with the letter <a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">waw</a> in order to change its <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lexical_aspect" title="Lexical aspect">aspect</a>. The <a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic languages</a> show a system somewhere between the East and Central Semitic languages. Later languages show further developments. In the modern <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">varieties of Arabic</a>, for example, the old mood suffixes were dropped, and new mood prefixes developed (e.g. bi- for indicative vs. no prefix for subjunctive in many varieties). In the extreme case of Neo-Aramaic, the verb conjugations have been entirely reworked under Iranian influence. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morphology:_triliteral_roots">Morphology: triliteral roots</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Morphology: triliteral roots" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic root</a></div> All Semitic languages exhibit a unique pattern of stems called <a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Semitic roots</a> consisting typically of triliteral, or three-consonant consonantal roots (two- and four-consonant roots also exist), from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways (e.g., by inserting vowels, doubling consonants, lengthening vowels or by adding prefixes, suffixes, or <a href="/wiki/Infix" title="Infix">infixes</a>). For instance, the root <a href="/wiki/K-T-B" title="K-T-B">k-t-b</a> (dealing with "writing" generally) yields in Arabic: <dl><dd>katabtu كَتَبْتُ or كتبت "I wrote" (f and m)</dd> <dd>yuktab(u) يُكْتَب or يكتب "being written" (masculine)</dd> <dd>tuktab(u) تُكتَب or تكتب "being written" (feminine)</dd> <dd>yatakātabūn(a) يَتَكَاتَبُونَ or يتكاتبون "they write to each other" (masculine)</dd> <dd>istiktāb اِستِكتاب or استكتاب "causing to write"</dd> <dd>kitāb كِتَاب or كتاب "book" (the hyphen shows end of stem before various case endings)</dd> <dd>kutayyib كُتَيِّب or كتيب "booklet" (diminutive)</dd> <dd>kitābat كِتَابَة or كتابة "writing"</dd> <dd>kuttāb كُتاب or كتاب "writers" (broken plural)</dd> <dd>katabat كَتَبَة or كتبة "clerks" (broken plural)</dd> <dd>maktab مَكتَب or مكتب "desk" or "office"</dd> <dd>maktabat مَكتَبة or مكتبة "library" or "bookshop"</dd> <dd>maktūb مَكتوب or مكتوب "written" (participle) or "postal letter" (noun)</dd> <dd>katībat كَتيبة or كتيبة "squadron" or "document"</dd> <dd>iktitāb اِكتِتاب or اكتتاب "registration" or "contribution of funds"</dd> <dd>muktatib مُكتَتِب or مكتتب "subscription"</dd></dl> and the same root in Hebrew: <dl><dd>kāṯaḇti כתבתי or כָּתַבְתִּי "I wrote"</dd> <dd>kattāḇ כתב or כַּתָּב "reporter" (m)</dd> <dd>katteḇeṯ כתבת or כַּתָּבֶת "reporter" (f)</dd> <dd>kattāḇā כתבה or כַּתָּבָה "article" (plural kattāḇōṯ כתבות)</dd> <dd>miḵtāḇ מכתב or מִכְתָּב "postal letter" (plural miḵtāḇīm מכתבים)</dd> <dd>miḵtāḇā מכתבה "writing desk" (plural miḵtāḇōṯ מכתבות)</dd> <dd>kəṯōḇeṯ כתובת "address" (plural kəṯōḇōṯ כתובות)</dd> <dd>kəṯāḇ כתב "handwriting"</dd> <dd>kāṯūḇ כתוב "written" (f kəṯūḇā כתובה)</dd> <dd>hiḵtīḇ הכתיב "he dictated" (f hiḵtīḇā הכתיבה)</dd> <dd>hiṯkattēḇ התכתב "he corresponded (f hiṯkattəḇā התכתבה)</dd> <dd>niḵtaḇ נכתב "it was written" (m)</dd> <dd>niḵtəḇā נכתבה "it was written" (f)</dd> <dd>kəṯīḇ כתיב "spelling" (m)</dd> <dd>taḵtīḇ תכתיב "prescript" (m)</dd> <dd>m'ə'ḵuttāḇ מכותב "addressee" (meḵutteḇeṯ מכותבת f)</dd> <dd>kəṯubbā כתובה "ketubah (a Jewish marriage contract)" (f)</dd></dl> (Underlined consonants ⟨ḵ⟩, ⟨ṯ⟩, ⟨ḇ⟩ represent the <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a> /x/, /θ/, /v/ respectively.) In Tigrinya and Amharic, this root was used widely but is now seen as an archaic form. Ethiopic-derived languages use different roots for things that have to do with writing (and in some cases counting). The primitive root ṣ-f and the trilateral root stems m-ṣ-f, ṣ-h-f, and ṣ-f-r are used. This root also exists in other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew: sep̄er "book", <a href="/wiki/Sofer" title="Sofer">sōp̄er</a> "scribe", mispār "number", and sippūr "story". This root also exists in Arabic and is used to form words with a close meaning to "writing", such as ṣaḥāfa "journalism", and ṣaḥīfa "newspaper" or "parchment". Verbs in other non-Semitic Afroasiatic languages show similar radical patterns, but more usually with biconsonantal roots; e.g. <a href="/wiki/Kabyle_language" title="Kabyle language">Kabyle</a> afeg means "fly!", while affug means "flight", and yufeg means "he flew" (compare with Hebrew, where hap̄lēḡ means "set sail!", hap̄lāḡā means "a sailing trip", and hip̄līḡ means "he sailed", while the unrelated ʕūp̄, təʕūp̄ā, and ʕāp̄ pertain to flight). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_personal_pronouns">Independent personal pronouns</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Independent personal pronouns" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">English </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Semitic">Proto-Semitic</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">standard</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">common vernaculars</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>I </td> <td>*ʔanāku,<a href="#cite_note-64">[note 4]</a> *ʔaniya </td> <td>anāku </td> <td>أنا ʔanā </td> <td>ʔanā, anā, ana, āni, āna, ānig </td> <td>[አነ ʔana] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>אנכי, אני ʔānōḵī, ʔănī </td> <td>אנא ʔanā </td> <td>ānā </td> <td>jiena, jien </td></tr> <tr> <td>You (sg., masc.) </td> <td>*ʔanka > *ʔanta </td> <td>atta </td> <td>أنت ʔanta </td> <td>ʔant, ant, inta, inte, inti, int, (i)nta </td> <td>[አንተ ʔánta] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>אתה ʔattā </td> <td>אנת ʔantā </td> <td>āt, āty, āten </td> <td>int, inti </td></tr> <tr> <td>You (sg., fem.) </td> <td>*ʔanti </td> <td>atti </td> <td>أنت ʔanti </td> <td>ʔanti, anti, inti, init (i)nti, intch </td> <td>[አንቲ ʔánti] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>את ʔatt </td> <td>אנת ʔanti </td> <td>āt, āty, āten </td> <td>int, inti </td></tr> <tr> <td>He </td> <td>*suʔa </td> <td>šū </td> <td>هو huwa, hū </td> <td>huwwa, huwwe, hū </td> <td>[ውእቱ wəʔətu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>הוא hū </td> <td>הוא hu </td> <td>owā </td> <td>hu, huwa </td></tr> <tr> <td>She </td> <td>*siʔa </td> <td>šī </td> <td>هي hiya, hī </td> <td>hiyya, hiyye, hī </td> <td>[ይእቲ yəʔəti] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>היא hī </td> <td>היא hi </td> <td>ayā </td> <td>hi, hija </td></tr> <tr> <td>We </td> <td>*niyaħnū, *niyaħnā </td> <td>nīnu </td> <td>نحن naħnu </td> <td>niħna, iħna, ħinna </td> <td>[ንሕነ ʔnəħnā] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>אנו, אנחנו ʔānū, ʔănaħnū </td> <td>נחנא náħnā </td> <td>axnan </td> <td>aħna </td></tr> <tr> <td>You (dual) </td> <td>*ʔantunā </td> <td> </td> <td>أنتما ʔantumā </td> <td>Plural form is used </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>They (dual) </td> <td>*sunā<a href="#cite_note-65">[note 5]</a> </td> <td>*sunī(ti) </td> <td>هما humā </td> <td>Plural form is used </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>You (pl., masc.) </td> <td>*ʔantunū </td> <td>attunu </td> <td>أنتم ʔantum, ʔantumu </td> <td>ʔantum, antum, antu, intu, intum, (i)ntūma </td> <td>[አንትሙ ʔantəmu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>אתם ʔattem </td> <td>אנתן ʔantun </td> <td>axtōxūn </td> <td>intom </td></tr> <tr> <td>You (pl., fem.) </td> <td>*ʔantinā </td> <td>attina </td> <td>أنتنّ ʔantunna </td> <td>ʔantin, antin, ʔantum, antu, intu, intum, (i)ntūma </td> <td>[አንትን ʔantən] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>אתן ʔatten </td> <td>אנתן ʔanten </td> <td>axtōxūn </td> <td>intom </td></tr> <tr> <td>They (masc.) </td> <td>*sunū </td> <td>šunu </td> <td>هم hum, humu </td> <td>hum, humma, hūma, hom, hinne(n) </td> <td>[እሙንቱ ʔəmuntu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>הם, המה hēm, hēmmā </td> <td>הנן hinnun </td> <td>eni </td> <td>huma </td></tr> <tr> <td>They (fem.) </td> <td>*sinā </td> <td>šina </td> <td>هنّ hunna </td> <td>hin, hinne(n), hum, humma, hūma </td> <td>[እማንቱ ʔəmāntu] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (<a href="/wiki/Category:Transliteration_template_errors" title="Category:Transliteration template errors">help</a>) </td> <td>הן, הנה hēn, hēnnā </td> <td>הנן hinnin </td> <td>eni </td> <td>huma </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardinal_numerals">Cardinal numerals</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cardinal numerals" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>English </th> <th>Proto-Semitic<a href="#cite_note-66">[54]</a> </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Arabic </th> <th>Hebrew </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sabaean_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabaean language">Sabaean</a> </th> <th>Assyrian Neo-Aramaic </th> <th>Maltese </th> <th>Ge'ez </th></tr> <tr> <td>One </td> <td>*ʼaḥad-, *ʻišt- </td> <td>ʔaħad, ʔiʃt </td> <td>واحد، أحد waːħid-, ʔaħad- </td> <td>אחד ʼeḥáḏ, ʔeˈχad </td> <td>ʔḥd </td> <td>xā </td> <td>wieħed </td> <td>አሐዱ ʾäḥädu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Two </td> <td>*ṯin-ān (nom.), *ṯin-ayn (obl.), *kilʼ- </td> <td>θinaːn, θinajn, kilʔ </td> <td>اثنان iθn-āni (nom.), اثنين iθn-ajni (obj.), اثنتان fem. iθnat-āni, اثنتين iθnat-ajni </td> <td>שנים šənáyim ˈʃn-ajim, fem. שתים šətáyim ˈʃt-ajim </td> <td>*ṯny </td> <td>treh </td> <td>tnejn </td> <td>ክልኤቱ kəlʾetu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Three </td> <td>*śalāṯ- > *ṯalāṯ-<a href="#cite_note-69">[note 6]</a> </td> <td>ɬalaːθ > θalaːθ </td> <td>ثلاث θalaːθ- </td> <td>fem. שלוש šālṓš ʃaˈloʃ </td> <td>*ślṯ </td> <td>ṭlā </td> <td>tlieta </td> <td>ሠለስቱ śälästu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Four </td> <td>*ʼarbaʻ- </td> <td>ʔarbaʕ </td> <td>أربع ʔarbaʕ- </td> <td>fem. ארבע ʼárbaʻ ˈʔaʁba </td> <td>*ʼrbʻ </td> <td>arpā </td> <td>erbgħa </td> <td>አርባዕቱ ʾärbaʿtu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Five </td> <td>*ḫamš- </td> <td>χamʃ </td> <td>خمس χams- </td> <td>fem. חמש ḥā́mēš ˈχameʃ </td> <td>*ḫmš </td> <td>xamšā </td> <td>ħamsa </td> <td>ኀምስቱ ḫämsətu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Six </td> <td>*šidṯ-<a href="#cite_note-70">[note 7]</a> </td> <td>ʃidθ </td> <td>ستّ sitt- (ordinal سادس saːdis-) </td> <td>fem. שש šēš ʃeʃ </td> <td>*šdṯ/šṯ </td> <td>ëštā </td> <td>sitta </td> <td>ስድስቱ sədsətu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Seven </td> <td>*šabʻ- </td> <td>ʃabʕ </td> <td>سبع sabʕ- </td> <td>fem. שבע šéḇaʻ ˈʃeva </td> <td>*šbʻ </td> <td>šowā </td> <td>sebgħa </td> <td>ሰብዐቱ säbʿätu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Eight </td> <td>*ṯamāniy- </td> <td>θamaːnij- </td> <td>ثماني θamaːn-ij- </td> <td>fem. שמונה šəmṓneh ʃˈmone </td> <td>*ṯmny/ṯmn </td> <td>*tmanyā </td> <td>tmienja </td> <td>ሰማንቱ sämantu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nine </td> <td>*tišʻ- </td> <td>tiʃʕ </td> <td>تسع tisʕ- </td> <td>fem. תשע tḗšaʻ ˈtejʃa </td> <td>*tšʻ </td> <td>*učā </td> <td>disgħa </td> <td>ተስዐቱ täsʿätu </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ten </td> <td>*ʻaśr- </td> <td>ʕaɬr </td> <td>عشر ʕaʃ(a)r- </td> <td>fem. עשר ʻéśer ˈʔeseʁ </td> <td>*ʻśr </td> <td>*uṣrā </td> <td>għaxra </td> <td>ዐሠርቱ ʿäśärtu </td></tr> </tbody></table> These are the basic numeral stems without feminine suffixes. In most older Semitic languages, the forms of the numerals from 3 to 10 exhibit <a href="/wiki/Polarity_of_gender" title="Polarity of gender">polarity of gender</a> (also called "chiastic concord" or "reverse agreement"), i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Typology">Typology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Typology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Some early Semitic languages are speculated to have had weak <a href="/wiki/Ergative-absolutive_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ergative-absolutive language">ergative</a> features.<a href="#cite_note-71">[57]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Common_vocabulary">Common vocabulary</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Common vocabulary" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> Due to the Semitic languages' common origin, they share some words and roots. Others differ. For example: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> </th> <th>Proto-Semitic </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Suret</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez language">Ge'ez</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>father </td> <td>*ʼab- </td> <td>ab- </td> <td>ʼab- </td> <td>ʼaḇ-āʼ </td> <td>bābā </td> <td>ʼāḇ </td> <td>ʼab </td> <td>ḥa-yb </td> <td>bu (missier) </td></tr> <tr> <td>heart </td> <td>*lib(a)b- </td> <td>libb- </td> <td>lubb- (qalb-) </td> <td>lebb-āʼ </td> <td>lëbā </td> <td>lëḇ, lëḇāḇ </td> <td>ləbb </td> <td>ḥa-wbēb </td> <td>ilbieba (qalb) </td></tr> <tr> <td>house </td> <td>*bayt- </td> <td>bītu, bētu </td> <td>bayt- (dār-) </td> <td>bayt-āʼ </td> <td>bētā </td> <td>báyiṯ </td> <td>bet </td> <td>beyt, bêt </td> <td>bejt (dar) </td></tr> <tr> <td>peace </td> <td>*šalām- </td> <td>šalām- </td> <td>salām- </td> <td>šlām-āʼ </td> <td>šlāmā </td> <td>šālôm </td> <td>salām </td> <td>səlōm </td> <td>sliem </td></tr> <tr> <td>tongue </td> <td>*lišān-/*lašān- </td> <td>lišān- </td> <td>lisān- </td> <td>leššān-āʼ </td> <td>lišānā </td> <td>lāšôn </td> <td>ləssān </td> <td>əwšēn </td> <td>ilsien </td></tr> <tr> <td>water </td> <td>*may-/*māy- </td> <td>mû (root *mā-/*māy-) </td> <td>māʼ-/māy </td> <td>mayy-āʼ </td> <td>mēyā </td> <td>máyim </td> <td>māy </td> <td>ḥə-mō </td> <td>ilma </td></tr></tbody></table> Terms given in brackets are not derived from the respective Proto-Semitic roots, though they may also derive from Proto-Semitic (as does e.g. Arabic dār, cf. Biblical Hebrew dōr "dwelling"). Sometimes, certain roots differ in meaning from one Semitic language to another. For example, the root b-y-ḍ in Arabic has the meaning of "white" as well as "egg", whereas in Hebrew it only means "egg". The root l-b-n means "milk" in Arabic, but the color "white" in Hebrew. The root l-ḥ-m means "meat" in Arabic, but "bread" in Hebrew and "cow" in Ethiopian Semitic; the original meaning was most probably "food". The word medina (root: d-y-n/d-w-n) has the meaning of "metropolis" in Amharic, "city" in Arabic and Ancient Hebrew, and "State" in Modern Hebrew. Of course, there is sometimes no relation between the roots. For example, "knowledge" is represented in Hebrew by the root y-d-ʿ, but in Arabic by the roots ʿ-r-f and ʿ-l-m and in Ethiosemitic by the roots ʿ-w-q and f-l-ṭ. For more comparative vocabulary lists, see the Wiktionary appendix <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:List_of_Proto-Semitic_stems" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:List of Proto-Semitic stems">List of Proto-Semitic stems</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Classification" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> There are six fairly uncontroversial nodes within the Semitic languages: <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East Semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Arabic_languages" title="Classification of Arabic languages">North Arabian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian</a> (also known as Sayhadic), <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Modern South Arabian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiopian Semitic</a>. These are generally grouped further, but there is ongoing debate as to which belong together. The classification based on shared innovations given below, established by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hetzron" title="Robert Hetzron">Robert Hetzron</a> in 1976 and with later emendations by John Huehnergard and Rodgers as summarized in Hetzron 1997, is the most widely accepted today. In particular, several Semiticists still argue for the traditional (partially nonlinguistic) view of Arabic as part of South Semitic, and a few (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Militarev" title="Alexander Militarev">Alexander Militarev</a> or the German-Egyptian professor Arafa Hussein Mustafa[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]) see Modern South Arabian as a third branch of Semitic alongside East and West Semitic, rather than as a subgroup of South Semitic. However, a new classification groups Old South Arabian as Central Semitic instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackett2006929%E2%80%9335-72">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> notes that the <a href="/wiki/Gurage_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurage languages">Gurage languages</a> are highly divergent and wonders whether they might not be a primary branch, reflecting an origin of Afroasiatic in or near Ethiopia.<a href="#cite_note-73">[59]</a> At a lower level, there is still no general agreement on where to draw the line between "languages" and "dialects" – an issue particularly relevant in Arabic, Aramaic and Gurage – and the strong mutual influences between Arabic dialects render a genetic subclassification of them particularly difficult. A <a href="/wiki/Computational_phylogenetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational phylogenetic">computational phylogenetic</a> analysis by Kitchen et al. (2009) considers the Semitic languages to have originated in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3750 BCE during the Early <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, with early Ethiosemitic originating from southern Arabia <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 800 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchenEhretAssefa20092703%E2%80%9310-20">[16]</a> Evidence for gene movements consistent with this were found in Almarri et al. (2021).<a href="#cite_note-74">[60]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean languages</a> appear to have been Semitic, but are unclassified due to insufficient data. <dl><dt>Summary classification</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic languages">Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic</a> <ul><li>Western: <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiopian Semitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian</a></li> <li>Eastern: <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Modern South Arabian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detailed_list">Detailed list</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Detailed list" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>Semitic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Semitic_languages" title="East Semitic languages">East Semitic</a> (All extinct) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <ul><li>Old Akkadian</li> <li>Babylonian</li> <li>Assyrian</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaano-Akkadian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kishite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Aramaic" title="Old Aramaic">Old Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samalian_language" title="Samalian language">Samalian</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Aramaic" title="Imperial Aramaic">Imperial Aramaic</a> (extinct) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Middle Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Aramaic_languages" title="Eastern Aramaic languages">Eastern Aramaic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Eastern_Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Eastern Middle Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Classical Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_Aramaic" title="Hatran Aramaic">Hatran Aramaic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Neo-Aramaic" title="Central Neo-Aramaic">Central Neo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turoyo_language" title="Turoyo language">Turoyo (Surayt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mla%E1%B8%A5s%C3%B4_language" title="Mlaḥsô language">Mlaḥsô</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Neo-Aramaic" title="Northeastern Neo-Aramaic">Northeastern Neo-Aramaic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suret_language" title="Suret language">Sureth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Assyrian Neo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Christian Urmi Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Bohtan" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan">Bohtan Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Senaya" title="Christian Neo-Aramaic dialect of Senaya">Senaya Neo-Aramaic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldean_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaldean Neo-Aramaic">Chaldean Neo-Aramaic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Christian_Neo-Aramaic" title="Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Hertevin" title="Neo-Aramaic dialect of Hertevin">Hertevin Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qaraqosh_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Qaraqosh Neo-Aramaic">Qaraqosh Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages#Modern_dialects" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Jewish Assyrian Neo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koy_Sanjaq_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Koy Sanjaq Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Koy Sanjaq Jewish Neo-Aramaic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Southeastern Aramaic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_language" title="Mandaic language">Mandaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Mandaic" title="Neo-Mandaic">Neo-Mandaic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Jewish Babylonian Aramaic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic#Western_Middle_Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Western Middle Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Aramaic" title="Nabataean Aramaic">Nabataean Aramaic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Aramaic" title="Palmyrene Aramaic">Palmyrene Aramaic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Western Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li>Palestinian Aramaic (All extinct) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Samaritan Aramaic language">Samaritan Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Christian Palestinian Aramaic">Christian Palestinian Aramaic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Aramaic" title="Lebanese Aramaic">Lebanese Aramaic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armazic_language" title="Armazic language">Armazic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a> <ul><li>North Canaanite <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> (extinct) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>South Canaanite <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammonite_language" title="Ammonite language">Ammonite</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moabite_language" title="Moabite language">Moabite</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edomite_language" title="Edomite language">Edomite</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> (<a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a>) (revived)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan Hebrew</a> (extinct (apart from modern liturgical uses))</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taymanitic" title="Taymanitic">Taymanitic</a> ? (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Arabic_languages" title="Classification of Arabic languages">North Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashriqi_Arabic" title="Mashriqi Arabic">Mashriqi Arabic</a> (Eastern Arabic) (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini Gulf Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic</a> <ul><li>Taʽizzi Arabic</li> <li>Adeni Arabic</li> <li>Djibouti Arabic</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihamiyya Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic#Zabidi_dialect" title="Yemeni Arabic">Zabidi dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic#Yafi'i_Arabic_dialect" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yafi'i Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Northwest Arabian Arabic</a> (Levantine Bedawi Arabic, Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li>Egypto-Sudanic Arabic (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Cairene Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sudanese-Chadian Arabic (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North Levantine Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%87ukurova_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Çukurova Arabic">Cilician Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judeo-Syrian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South Levantine Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian Arabic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi Arabic">Iraqi Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a> Dialects (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">Qeltu</a> Dialects (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North Mesopotamian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Jewish Baghdadi Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian Arabic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li>Bakhtiari Arabic</li> <li>Bukharian Arabic</li> <li>Kashkadarian Arabic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani Arabic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> (Western Arabic) (<a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi dialect</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel Arabic</a></li> <li>Maghrebi <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Siculo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Maltese Language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_Dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottonera Dialect">Cottonera Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Maltralian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corfiot_Maltese" title="Corfiot Maltese">Corfiot Maltese</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi Arabic</a> (extinct)</li> <li>Eastern pre-Hilali Dialects <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li>Western pre-Hilali dialects</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian dialects</a> <ul><li>Sulaym dialects <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilali dialects</li> <li>Central Hilali dialects <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan Arabic</a></li></ul></li> <li>Western Hilali dialects</li> <li>Maqil dialects <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Koines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic#%CB%80Azd_dialect" title="Pre-classical Arabic">ˀAzd dialect</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic#Hu%E1%B8%8Fayl_dialect" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Huḏayl dialect</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic#%E1%B9%ACayyi%CB%80_dialect" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Ṭayyiˀ dialect</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safaitic#Language" title="Safaitic">Safaitic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hismaic" title="Hismaic">Hismaic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasaitic" title="Hasaitic">Hasaitic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dadanitic" title="Dadanitic">Dadanitic</a> ? (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamudic" title="Thamudic">Thamudic</a> ? (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Semitic_languages" title="South Semitic languages">South Semitic</a> <ul><li>Western South Semitic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiopic</a> <ul><li>North Ethiopic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (Classical Ethiopic) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_language" title="Tigre language">Tigre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrinya_language" title="Tigrinya language">Tigrinya</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Ethiopic <ul><li>Transversal South Ethiopic <ul><li>Amharic–Argobba <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argobba_language" title="Argobba language">Argobba</a></li></ul></li> <li>Harari–East Gurage <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harari_language" title="Harari language">Harari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_languages#Eastern" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurage languages">East Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silt%CA%BCe_language" title="Siltʼe language">Silt'e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_language" title="Zay language">Zway</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Outer South Ethiopic <ul><li>n-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gafat_language" title="Gafat language">Gafat</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soddo_language" title="Soddo language">Soddo</a></li></ul></li> <li>tt-group <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesmes_language" title="Mesmes language">Mesmes</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muher_language" title="Muher language">Muher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_languages#Western" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurage languages">West Gurage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesqan_language" title="Mesqan language">Mesqan</a></li> <li>Sebat Bet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sebat_Bet_Gurage_language" title="Sebat Bet Gurage language">Sebat Bet Gurage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inor_language" title="Inor language">Inor</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian (Ṣayhadic)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sabaic" title="Sabaic">Sabaic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaean_language" title="Minaean language">Minaean</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatabanian_language" title="Qatabanian language">Qatabanian</a> (extinct) <ul><li>Awsānian (extinct)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramautic</a> (extinct)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyaritic_language" title="Himyaritic language">Himyaritic</a> ? (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian_languages" title="Modern South Arabian languages">Modern South Arabian (Eastern South Semitic)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B8%A5ari_language" title="Baṭḥari language">Baṭḥari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%A4arsusi_language" title="Ḥarsusi language">Ḥarsusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoby%C3%B3t_language" title="Hobyót language">Hobyót</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_language" title="Mehri language">Mehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_language" title="Soqotri language">Soqotri</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Unclassified <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a> (extinct)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Semitic-speaking_peoples">Semitic-speaking peoples</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Semitic-speaking peoples" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> The following is a list of some modern and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</a> and nations: <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg/350px-Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1750" data-file-height="1100"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 350px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg/350px-Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg.png" data-width="350" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg/525px-Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg/700px-Detailed_Afroasiatic_map.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Distribution of the Semitic-speaking peoples</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Semitic">Central Semitic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Central Semitic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">bedouins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Itureans">Itureans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayy" title="Tayy">Tayy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamud" title="Thamud">Thamud</a> – 2nd to 5th centuries AD</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> – an ancient Northwest Semitic people. They had various kingdoms and city-states and were historically organized in tribal structures. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahlamu" title="Ahlamu">Ahlamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terms_for_Syriac_Christians#Aramean_identity" title="Terms for Syriac Christians">Arameans (Syriacs)</a> – a minority ethnic group in the <a href="/wiki/Qalamoun_Mountains" title="Qalamoun Mountains">Qalamoun mountains</a> who still speak <a href="/wiki/Western_Aramaic_languages" title="Western Aramaic languages">Western Aramaic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[70]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhallami" title="Mhallami">Mhallami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite-speaking</a> nations of the early Iron Age: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edomites</a> – appeared in Transjordan between 11th to 2nd centuries BCE. Eventually assimilated into Jewish population during Hasmonean conquest.<a href="#cite_note-:1-85">[71]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrews</a>/<a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a> – founded the nation of <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel</a> which later split into the Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a>. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moabites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> – founded Mediterranean colonies including <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">ancient Carthage</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punics" class="mw-redirect" title="Punics">Punics</a>. The remnants of these people became the modern inhabitants of Lebanon.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a> – appeared in southern Mesopotamia <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000 BC and eventually disappeared into the general Babylonian population.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_people" title="Maltese people">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samalian" class="mw-redirect" title="Samalian">Samalians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarites</a> – 14th to 12th centuries BC</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Semitic">East Semitic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: East Semitic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadians</a> – ancient East Semitic speakers who moved from the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian Desert</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[72]</a> into Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium BC and settled among the indigenous peoples of <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[74]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> <ul><li>Modern <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrian people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblaites</a> – 23rd century BC</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Semitic">South Semitic</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: South Semitic" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Abyssinian</a>-speaking peoples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Axum</a> – 4th century BC to 7th century AD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_people" title="Amhara people">Amhara people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argobba_people" title="Argobba people">Argobba people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahalik_language" title="Dahalik language">Dahalik people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurage_people" title="Gurage people">Gurage people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harari_people" title="Harari people">Harari people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Muras</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeberti_people" title="Jeberti people">Jeberti people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt%27e_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Silt'e people">Silt'e people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrigni" class="mw-redirect" title="Tigrigni">Tigrigna People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrayans" title="Tigrayans">Tigray people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigre_people" title="Tigre people">Tigre people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolane_people" title="Wolane people">Wolane people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zay_people" title="Zay people">Zay people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_South_Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern South Arabian">Modern South Arabian</a>-speaking peoples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathari language">Bathari people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faifi_language" title="Faifi language">Faifi people</a></li> <li>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Hadramautic_language" title="Hadramautic language">Hadramitic</a>-speakers. Eventually evolved into the modern day <a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadhrami people">Hadhrami people</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himyarites" class="mw-redirect" title="Himyarites">Himyarites</a> from 110 BCE until 578 CE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harasis" title="Harasis">Harsusi people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobyot_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobyot language">Hobyot people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehri_people" title="Mehri people">Mehri people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minaeans" title="Minaeans">Minaeans</a> – 8th century BCE to 2nd centuries BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatabanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Qatabanians">Qatabanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shehri_language" title="Shehri language">Shehri people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Razihi_language" title="Razihi language">Razihi people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabaeans" title="Sabaeans">Sabaeans</a> of Yemen – 8th to 1st centuries BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soqotri_people" title="Soqotri people">Soqotri people</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unknown">Unknown</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Unknown" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a> – 14th century BC</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Semitic_language" title="Proto-Semitic language">Proto-Semitic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age_alphabets" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Bronze Age alphabets">Middle Bronze Age alphabets</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of /χ, ʁ/ and /ħ, ʕ/, or else [x, χ] and [ɣ, ʁ] would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited /k/ and /χ/ could coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian Syriac).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlau201056-49">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> see <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shift" title="Canaanite shift">Canaanite shift</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> "In the historically attested Semitic languages, the endings of the singular noun-flexions survive, as is well known, only partially: in Akkadian and Arabic and Ugaritic and, limited to the accusative, in Ethiopic."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoscati1958142%E2%80%9343-58">[49]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> While some believe that *ʔanāku was an innovation in some branches of Semitic utilizing an "intensifying" *-ku, comparison to other Afro-Asiatic 1ps pronouns (e.g. 3nk, Coptic anak, anok, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Berber_language" title="Proto-Berber language">proto-Berber</a> *ənakkʷ) suggests that this goes further back.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199910%E2%80%9311-63">[53]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> The Akkadian form is from Sargonic Akkadian. Among the Semitic languages, there are languages with /i/ as the final vowel (this is the form in Mehri). For a recent discussion concerning the reconstruction of the forms of the dual pronouns, see Bar-Asher, Elitzur. 2009. "Dual Pronouns in Semitics and an Evaluation of the Evidence for their Existence in Biblical Hebrew," Ancient Near Eastern Studies 46: 32–49 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> This root underwent regressive assimilation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipi%C5%84ski2001-67">[55]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] This parallels the non-adjacent assimilation of *ś... > *š...š in proto-Canaanite or proto-North-West-Semitic in the roots *śam?š > *šamš 'sun' and *śur?š > *šurš 'root'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199961%E2%80%9362-68">[56]</a> The form *ṯalāṯ- appears in most languages (e.g. Aramaic, Arabic, Ugaritic), but the original form ślṯ appears in the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Arabian" title="Old South Arabian">Old South Arabian</a> languages, and a form with s < *ś (rather than š < *ṯ) appears in <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> This root was also assimilated in various ways. For example, Hebrew reflects *šišš-, with total assimilation; Arabic reflects *šitt- in cardinal numerals, but less assimilated *šādiš- in ordinal numerals. <a href="/wiki/Epigraphic_South_Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Epigraphic South Arabian">Epigraphic South Arabian</a> reflects original *šdṯ; Ugaritic has a form ṯṯ, in which the ṯ has been assimilated throughout the root.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELipi%C5%84ski2001-67">[55]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOwens20132-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOwens20132_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOwens2013">Owens 2013</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudsonKogan1997457-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHudsonKogan1997457_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHudsonKogan1997">Hudson & Kogan 1997</a>, p. 457. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHudsonKogan1997">Hudson & Kogan 1997</a>, p. 424; <a href="#CITEREFAustin2008">Austin 2008</a>, p. 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuntz198125-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuntz198125_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKuntz1981">Kuntz 1981</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERuhlen1991-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuhlen1991_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERuhlen1991_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRuhlen1991">Ruhlen 1991</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vermeulen_2015_p._252-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Vermeulen_2015_p._252_10-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVermeulen2015" class="citation book cs1">Vermeulen, H.F. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B1nxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT252">Before Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment</a>. Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series. University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7738-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-7738-0"><bdi>978-0-8032-7738-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221007163627/https://books.google.com/books?id=B1nxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT252">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2022. <q>Schlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+Boas%3A+The+Genesis+of+Ethnography+and+Ethnology+in+the+German+Enlightenment&rft.series=Critical+Studies+in+the+History+of+Anthropology+Series&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-7738-0&rft.aulast=Vermeulen&rft.aufirst=H.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB1nxCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKiraz2001">Kiraz 2001</a>, p. 25; <a href="#CITEREFBaasten2003">Baasten 2003</a>, p. 67 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKiraz200125-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiraz200125_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiraz200125_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKiraz2001">Kiraz 2001</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaasten200368-69-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaasten200368-69_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBaasten2003">Baasten 2003</a>, p. 68-69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitto1845192-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitto1845192_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitto1845192_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKitto1845">Kitto 1845</a>, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEichhorn1794">Eichhorn 1794</a>, pp. 773–6; <a href="#CITEREFBaasten2003">Baasten 2003</a>, p. 69 </li> <li id="cite_note-16">'<a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Eichhorn" title="Johann Gottfried Eichhorn">Johann Gottfried Eichhorn</a>, Semitische Sprachen, 1795 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKiraz2001">Kiraz 2001</a>, p. 25; <a href="#CITEREFKitto1845">Kitto 1845</a>, p. 192 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3139/1/PAGE_31%2D71.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731204154/https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/3139/1/PAGE_31-71.pdf">Archived</a> 2020-07-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Andrew George, "Babylonian and Assyrian: A History of Akkadian", In: Postgate, J. N., (ed.), Languages of Iraq, Ancient and Modern. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurtonen1967" class="citation web cs1">Murtonen, A. (1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cJc3AAAAIAAJ&q=ethiopia">"Early Semitic. A diachronical inquiry into the relationship of Ethiopic to the other so-called South-East Semitic languages"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230513053900/https://books.google.com/books?id=cJc3AAAAIAAJ&q=ethiopia">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 28 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+Semitic.+A+diachronical+inquiry+into+the+relationship+of+Ethiopic+to+the+other+so-called+South-East+Semitic+languages&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Murtonen&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcJc3AAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dethiopia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitchenEhretAssefa20092703–10-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchenEhretAssefa20092703%E2%80%9310_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKitchenEhretAssefa20092703%E2%80%9310_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKitchenEhretAssefa2009">Kitchen, Ehret & Assefa 2009</a>, pp. 2703–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-21"><a href="#cite_ref-britannica_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534157/Semite">"Semite"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150507131357/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/534157/Semite">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semite&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F534157%2FSemite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson2012" class="citation book cs1">Phillipson, David (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A">Foundations of an African Civilization, Aksum and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300</a>. Boydell & Brewer. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846158735" title="Special:BookSources/9781846158735"><bdi>9781846158735</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210506095009/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021. <q>The former belief that this arrival of South-Semitic-speakers took place in about the second quarter of the first millennium BC can no longer be accepted in view of linguistic indications that these languages were spoken in the northern Horn at a much earlier date.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+an+African+Civilization%2C+Aksum+and+the+Northern+Horn+1000+BC-AD+1300&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781846158735&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Ffoundations-of-an-african-civilisation%2F085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzman2019" class="citation book cs1">Weitzman, Steven (2 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c3SYDwAAQBAJ">The Origin of the Jews: The Quest for Roots in a Rootless Age By Steven Weitzman page 69</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-19165-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-19165-2"><bdi>978-0-691-19165-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230716002838/https://books.google.com/books?id=c3SYDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+the+Jews%3A+The+Quest+for+Roots+in+a+Rootless+Age+By+Steven+Weitzman+page+69&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019-04-02&rft.isbn=978-0-691-19165-2&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dc3SYDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandão2019" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Brandão, Jacyntho Lins (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://seer.ufu.br/index.php/artcultura/article/view/50156/26715">"A "Epopeia Gilgamesh" é uma epopeia?"</a>. ArtCultura (in Brazilian Portuguese). 21 (38). <a href="/wiki/Uberl%C3%A2ndia" title="Uberlândia">Uberlândia</a>: 9–24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14393%2Fartc-v21-n38-2019-50156">10.14393/artc-v21-n38-2019-50156</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202426524">202426524</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ArtCultura&rft.atitle=A+%22Epopeia+Gilgamesh%22+%C3%A9+uma+epopeia%3F&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=38&rft.pages=9-24&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14393%2Fartc-v21-n38-2019-50156&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202426524%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brand%C3%A3o&rft.aufirst=Jacyntho+Lins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fseer.ufu.br%2Findex.php%2Fartcultura%2Farticle%2Fview%2F50156%2F26715&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIzre'el1987c4-25"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIzre'el1987c4_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFIzre'el1987c">Izre'el 1987c</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaltkeO'Connor19908-26"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaltkeO'Connor19908_26-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor 1990</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> "…Syriac, the Classical dialect of Aramaic first attested in Edessa, about 200 CE, but which spread through the Christian communities of Mesopotamia and the Levant in the following centuries.", Revival and Awakening American Evangelical Missionaries in Iran and the Origins of Assyrian Nationalism, p.49 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrock1998708-28"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrock1998708_28-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrock1998">Brock 1998</a>, p. 708. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrak1992209–14-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrak1992209%E2%80%9314_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarrak1992">Harrak 1992</a>, pp. 209–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAfsaruddinZahniser1997">Afsaruddin & Zahniser 1997</a>, p. 464; <a href="#CITEREFSmart2013">Smart 2013</a>, p. 253; <a href="#CITEREFS%C3%A1nchez2013">Sánchez 2013</a>, p. 129 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENebes2005335-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENebes2005335_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNebes2005">Nebes 2005</a>, p. 335. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">CLASSICAL SYRIAC. Gorgias Handbooks. p. 14. <q>In contrast to "Nestorians" and "Jacobites", a small group of Syriacs accepted the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. Non-Chalcedonian Syriacs called them "Melkites" (from Aramaic malka "king"), thereby connecting them to the Byzantine Emperor's denomination. Melkite Syriacs were mostly concentrated around Antioch and adjacent regions of northern Syria and used Syriac as their literary and liturgical language. The Melkite community also included the Aramaic-speaking Jewish converts to Christianity in Palestine and the Orthodox Christians of Transjordan. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary work (mainly translation) in Palestinian Christian Aramaic, a Western Aramaic dialect, using a script closely resembling the Estrangela cursive of Osrhoene.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CLASSICAL+SYRIAC&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Gorgias+Handbooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> "JACOB BARcLAY, Melkite Orthodox Syro-Byzantine Manuscripts in Syriac and Palestinian Aramaic" quote from the German book Internationale Zeitschriftenschau für Bibelwissenschaft und Grenzgebiete, p. 291 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> "However, in contrast to what went on in northern Syria and Mesopotamia, where Syriac competed well with Greek to remain a great cultural language, Syropalestinian was in a weak position with regard to Greek and, later, to Arabic." quote from the book The Fourth International Conference on the History of Bilād Al-Shām During the Umayyad Period: English section, p.31 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> "Some Chalcedonians of Palestine and the Transjordan chose to write in Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CPA) rather than Syriac." quote from the book A Companion to Byzantine Epistolography, p.68 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArman_Akopian2017" class="citation book cs1">Arman Akopian (11 December 2017). "Other branches of Syriac Christianity: Melkites and Maronites". Introduction to Aramean and Syriac Studies. Gorgias Press. p. 573. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781463238933" title="Special:BookSources/9781463238933"><bdi>9781463238933</bdi></a>. <q>The main center of Aramaic-speaking Melkites was Palestine. During the 5th-6th centuries, they were engaged in literary, mainly translation work in the local Western Aramaic dialect, known as "Palestinian Christian Aramaic", using a script closely resembling the cursive Estrangela of Osrhoene. Palestinian Melkites were mostly Jewish converts to Christianity, who had a long tradition of using Palestinian Aramaic dialects as literary languages. Closely associated with the Palestinian Melkites were the Melkites of Transjordan, who also used Palestinian Christian Aramaic. Another community of Aramaic-speaking Melkites existed in the vicinity of Antioch and parts of Syria. These Melkites used Classical Syriac as a written language, the common literary language of the overwhelming majority of Christian Arameans.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Other+branches+of+Syriac+Christianity%3A+Melkites+and+Maronites&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Aramean+and+Syriac+Studies&rft.pages=573&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press&rft.date=2017-12-11&rft.isbn=9781463238933&rft.au=Arman+Akopian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVersteegh199713-37"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVersteegh199713_37-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFVersteegh1997">Versteegh 1997</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKogan201154-38"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKogan201154_38-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKogan2011">Kogan (2011)</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKogan201254–151-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKogan201254%E2%80%93151_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKogan2012">Kogan 2012</a>, pp. 54–151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson200213-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson200213_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatson2002">Watson 2002</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-bekins-44"><a href="#cite_ref-bekins_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBekins2008" class="citation web cs1">Bekins, Peter (12 September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://balshanut.wordpress.com/essays/a-short-introduction-to-aramaic/old-aramaic-c-850-to-c-612-bce/">"Old Aramaic (c. 850 to c. 612 BCE)"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111018225506/http://balshanut.wordpress.com/essays/a-short-introduction-to-aramaic/old-aramaic-c-850-to-c-612-bce/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Old+Aramaic+%28c.+850+to+c.+612+BCE%29&rft.date=2008-09-12&rft.aulast=Bekins&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbalshanut.wordpress.com%2Fessays%2Fa-short-introduction-to-aramaic%2Fold-aramaic-c-850-to-c-612-bce%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison-45"><a href="#cite_ref-harrison_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison" class="citation web cs1">Harrison, Shelly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060821205928/http://www.linguistics.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/71159/Consonants.pdf">"LIN325: Introduction to Semitic Languages. Common Consonant Changes"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linguistics.uwa.edu.au/__data/page/71159/Consonants.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 21 August 2006. Retrieved 25 June 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LIN325%3A+Introduction+to+Semitic+Languages.+Common+Consonant+Changes&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Shelly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.linguistics.uwa.edu.au%2F__data%2Fpage%2F71159%2FConsonants.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaufman1997" class="citation cs2">Kaufman, Stephen (1997), "Aramaic", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), The Semitic Languages, Routledge, pp. 117–119</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aramaic&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages&rft.pages=117-119&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199935-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199935_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky 1999</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199972-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199972_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky 1999</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlau201056-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlau201056_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau 2010</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199973-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199973_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky 1999</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-bbgd-52"><a href="#cite_ref-bbgd_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBlau2010">Blau (2010</a>:78–81) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarnierJacques2012" class="citation journal cs1">Garnier, Romain; Jacques, Guillaume (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1468535">"A neglected phonetic law: The assimilation of pretonic yod to a following coronal in North-West Semitic"</a>. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 75 (1): 135–145. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.395.1033">10.1.1.395.1033</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x11001261">10.1017/s0041977x11001261</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16649580">16649580</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230412083911/https://www.academia.edu/1468535">Archived</a> from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 29 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+School+of+Oriental+and+African+Studies&rft.atitle=A+neglected+phonetic+law%3A+The+assimilation+of+pretonic+yod+to+a+following+coronal+in+North-West+Semitic&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=135-145&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.395.1033%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A16649580%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0041977x11001261&rft.aulast=Garnier&rft.aufirst=Romain&rft.au=Jacques%2C+Guillaume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1468535&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Brock" title="Sebastian Brock">Brock, Sebastian</a> (2006). An Introduction to Syriac Studies. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59333-349-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-59333-349-8">1-59333-349-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199985–86-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199985%E2%80%9386_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky 1999</a>, pp. 85–86. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenberg1999157-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenberg1999157_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenberg1999">Greenberg 1999</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoscati1958142–43-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoscati1958142%E2%80%9343_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoscati1958">Moscati 1958</a>, pp. 142–43. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzron1997123-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHetzron1997123_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHetzron1997">Hetzron 1997</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages">"Semitic languages | Definition, Map, Tree, Distribution, & Facts"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200425075122/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Semitic-languages">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2020. Retrieved 23 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Semitic+languages+%7C+Definition%2C+Map%2C+Tree%2C+Distribution%2C+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSemitic-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHetzronKayeZuckermann2018568-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHetzronKayeZuckermann2018568_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHetzronKayeZuckermann2018">Hetzron, Kaye & Zuckermann 2018</a>, p. 568. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199910–11-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199910%E2%80%9311_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky 1999</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeninger2011" class="citation book cs1">Weninger, Stefan (2011). "Reconstructive Morphology". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). Semitic languages: an international handbook. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110251586.151">10.1515/9783110251586.151</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018613-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018613-0"><bdi>978-3-11-018613-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reconstructive+Morphology&rft.btitle=Semitic+languages%3A+an+international+handbook&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110251586.151&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018613-0&rft.aulast=Weninger&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELipiński2001-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipi%C5%84ski2001_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipi%C5%84ski2001_67-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLipi%C5%84ski2001">Lipiński 2001</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199961–62-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDolgopolsky199961%E2%80%9362_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDolgopolsky1999">Dolgopolsky 1999</a>, pp. 61–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFM%C3%BCller1995">Müller 1995</a>, pp. 261–71; <a href="#CITEREFCoghill2016">Coghill 2016</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHackett2006929–35-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHackett2006929%E2%80%9335_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHackett2006">Hackett 2006</a>, pp. 929–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench2006" class="citation book cs1">Blench, Roger (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C&dq=%22blench%22+%22gurage%22&pg=PA157">Archaeology, Language, and the African Past</a>. Lanham, Maryland: <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Altamira Press</a>. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0466-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0466-2"><bdi>978-0-7591-0466-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080929/https://books.google.com/books?id=esFy3Po57A8C&dq=%22blench%22+%22gurage%22&pg=PA157#v=onepage&q=%22blench%22%20%22gurage%22&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 3 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology%2C+Language%2C+and+the+African+Past&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Altamira+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0466-2&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DesFy3Po57A8C%26dq%3D%2522blench%2522%2B%2522gurage%2522%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmarriHaberLootahHallast2020" class="citation journal cs1">Almarri, Mohamed A.; Haber, Marc; Lootah, Reem A.; Hallast, Pille; Turki, Saeed Al; Martin, Hilary C.; Xue, Yali; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.18.342816v2.full">"The Genomic History of the Middle East"</a>. Cell. 184 (18): 4612–4625.e14. <a href="/wiki/BioRxiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="BioRxiv (identifier)">bioRxiv</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1101%2F2020.10.18.342816">10.1101/2020.10.18.342816</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2021.07.013">10.1016/j.cell.2021.07.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8445022">8445022</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34352227">34352227</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220225030711/https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.10.18.342816v2.full">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 24 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=The+Genomic+History+of+the+Middle+East&rft.volume=184&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=4612-4625.e14&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8445022%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34352227&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2021.07.013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1101%2F2020.10.18.342816%23id-name%3DbioRxiv&rft.aulast=Almarri&rft.aufirst=Mohamed+A.&rft.au=Haber%2C+Marc&rft.au=Lootah%2C+Reem+A.&rft.au=Hallast%2C+Pille&rft.au=Turki%2C+Saeed+Al&rft.au=Martin%2C+Hilary+C.&rft.au=Xue%2C+Yali&rft.au=Tyler-Smith%2C+Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biorxiv.org%2Fcontent%2F10.1101%2F2020.10.18.342816v2.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbū_al-Faraj_ʻIshsh" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abū al-Faraj ʻIshsh. اثرنا في الايقليم السوري (in Arabic). Al-Maṭbaʻah al-Jadīdah. p. 56. <q>السريان في معلولا وجبعدين ولا يزال الأهلون فيها يتكلمون</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A7+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Al-Ma%E1%B9%ADba%CA%BBah+al-Jad%C4%ABdah&rft.au=Ab%C5%AB+al-Faraj+%CA%BBIshsh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFiنصر_الله،_إلياس_أنطون" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">iنصر الله، إلياس أنطون. إلياس أنطون نصر الله في معلولا (in Arabic). لينين. p. 45. <q>... معلولا السريان منذ القديم ، والذين ثبتت سريانيتهم بأدلة كثيرة هم وعين التينة وبخعا وجبعدين فحافظوا على لغتهم وكتبهم أكثر من غيرهم . وكان للقوم في تلك الأيام لهجتان ، لهجة عاميّة وهي الباقية الآن في معلولا وجوارها ( جبعدين وبخعا ) ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3+%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86+%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86&rft.au=i%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87%D8%8C+%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3+%D8%A3%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRafik_Schami2011" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rafik Schami (25 July 2011). Märchen aus Malula (in German). Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Company KG. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783446239005" title="Special:BookSources/9783446239005"><bdi>9783446239005</bdi></a>. <q>Ich kenne das Dorf nicht, doch gehört habe ich davon. Was ist mit Malula?‹ fragte der festgehaltene Derwisch. >Das letzte Dorf der Aramäer< lachte einer der…</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=M%C3%A4rchen+aus+Malula&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Carl+Hanser+Verlag+GmbH+%26+Company+KG&rft.date=2011-07-25&rft.isbn=9783446239005&rft.au=Rafik+Schami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYaron_MatrasJeanette_Sakel2007" class="citation book cs1">Yaron Matras; Jeanette Sakel (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110199192/html">Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective</a>. De Gruyter. p. 185. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110199192">10.1515/9783110199192</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110199192" title="Special:BookSources/9783110199192"><bdi>9783110199192</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080929/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110199192/html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024. <q>The fact that nearly all Arabic loans in Ma'lula originate from the period before the change from the rural dialect to the city dialect of Damascus shows that the contact between the Aramaeans and the Arabs was intimate…</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatical+Borrowing+in+Cross-Linguistic+Perspective&rft.pages=185&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110199192&rft.isbn=9783110199192&rft.au=Yaron+Matras&rft.au=Jeanette+Sakel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110199192%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDr._Emna_Labidi2022" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dr. Emna Labidi (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-15261-9">Untersuchungen zum Spracherwerb zweisprachiger Kinder im Aramäerdorf Dschubbadin (Syrien)</a> (in German). LIT. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783643152619" title="Special:BookSources/9783643152619"><bdi>9783643152619</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080935/https://lit-verlag.de/isbn/978-3-643-15261-9/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024. <q>Aramäer von Ǧubbˁadīn</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Untersuchungen+zum+Spracherwerb+zweisprachiger+Kinder+im+Aram%C3%A4erdorf+Dschubbadin+%28Syrien%29&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=LIT&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9783643152619&rft.au=Dr.+Emna+Labidi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lit-verlag.de%2Fisbn%2F978-3-643-15261-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProf._Dr._Werner_ArnoldP._Behnstedt1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993). Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien) (in German). Harassowitz. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447033268" title="Special:BookSources/9783447033268"><bdi>9783447033268</bdi></a>. <q>Die arabischen Dialekte der Aramäer</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabisch-aram%C3%A4ische+Sprachbeziehungen+im+Qalam%C5%ABn+%28Syrien%29&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Harassowitz&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9783447033268&rft.au=Prof.+Dr.+Werner+Arnold&rft.au=P.+Behnstedt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProf._Dr._Werner_ArnoldP._Behnstedt1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold; P. Behnstedt (1993). Arabisch-aramäische Sprachbeziehungen im Qalamūn (Syrien) (in German). Harassowitz. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447033268" title="Special:BookSources/9783447033268"><bdi>9783447033268</bdi></a>. <q>Die Kontakte zwischen den drei Aramäer-dörfern sind nicht besonders stark.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arabisch-aram%C3%A4ische+Sprachbeziehungen+im+Qalam%C5%ABn+%28Syrien%29&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Harassowitz&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9783447033268&rft.au=Prof.+Dr.+Werner+Arnold&rft.au=P.+Behnstedt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProf._Dr._Werner_Arnold2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/isbn_978-3-447-05313-6.ahtml">Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen</a> (in German). Harrassowitz. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447053136" title="Special:BookSources/9783447053136"><bdi>9783447053136</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080933/https://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de/isbn_978-3-447-05313-6.ahtml">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024. <q>Aramäern in Ma'lūla</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lehrbuch+des+Neuwestaram%C3%A4ischen&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783447053136&rft.au=Prof.+Dr.+Werner+Arnold&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.harrassowitz-verlag.de%2Fisbn_978-3-447-05313-6.ahtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProf._Dr._Werner_Arnold2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Prof. Dr. Werner Arnold (2006). Lehrbuch des Neuwestaramäischen (in German). Harrassowitz. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783447053136" title="Special:BookSources/9783447053136"><bdi>9783447053136</bdi></a>. <q>Viele Aramäer arbeiten heute in Damaskus, Beirut oder in den Golfstaaten und verbringen nur die Sommermonate im Dorf.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lehrbuch+des+Neuwestaram%C3%A4ischen&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9783447053136&rft.au=Prof.+Dr.+Werner+Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://friendsofmaaloula.de/en/">"Hilfe für das Aramäerdorf Maaloula e.V. | an aid project in Syria"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240116150614/https://friendsofmaaloula.de/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2024. Retrieved 1 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hilfe+f%C3%BCr+das+Aram%C3%A4erdorf+Maaloula+e.V.+%26%23124%3B+an+aid+project+in+Syria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffriendsofmaaloula.de%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-85"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Weitzman, Steven (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155">"Forced Circumcision and the Shifting Role of Gentiles in Hasmonean Ideology"</a>. The Harvard Theological Review. 92 (1): 37–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000017843">10.1017/S0017816000017843</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0017-8160">0017-8160</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155">1510155</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162887617">162887617</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080933/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1510155">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 28 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Harvard+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=Forced+Circumcision+and+the+Shifting+Role+of+Gentiles+in+Hasmonean+Ideology&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-59&rft.date=1999&rft.issn=0017-8160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162887617%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1510155%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017816000017843&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1510155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaide1994" class="citation book cs1">Zaide, Gregorio F. (16 December 1994). World History. Rex Bookstore. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789712314728" title="Special:BookSources/9789712314728"><bdi>9789712314728</bdi></a>. <q>About 3000 B.C. the nomadic Akkadians, a Semitic people from the Arabian Desert, migrated to Mesopotamia and founded the city-state of Akkad in a region north of Sumer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Rex+Bookstore&rft.date=1994-12-16&rft.isbn=9789712314728&rft.aulast=Zaide&rft.aufirst=Gregorio+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110693/Mesopotamian-religion">"Mesopotamian religion – Britannica Online Encyclopedia"</a>. Britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190330151146/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mesopotamian-religion">Archived</a> from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mesopotamian+religion+%E2%80%93+Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9110693%2FMesopotamian-religion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005290/Akkadian-language#62711.hook">"Akkadian language – Britannica Online Encyclopedia"</a>. Britannica.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080726034545/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9005290/Akkadian-language#62711.hook">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2008. Retrieved 27 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Akkadian+language+%E2%80%93+Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft.btitle=Britannica.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9005290%2FAkkadian-language%2362711.hook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bibliography" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAfsaruddinZahniser1997" class="citation book cs1">Afsaruddin, Asma; Zahniser, A. H. Mathias (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1w36pkt">Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff</a>. Winona Lake, Ind.: Penn State University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5325%2Fj.ctv1w36pkt">10.5325/j.ctv1w36pkt</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-020-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-020-0"><bdi>978-1-57506-020-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1w36pkt">10.5325/j.ctv1w36pkt</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220327111329/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/j.ctv1w36pkt">Archived</a> from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 27 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Humanism%2C+Culture%2C+and+Language+in+the+Near+East%3A+Studies+in+Honor+of+Georg+Krotkoff&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Ind.&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1w36pkt%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1w36pkt&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-020-0&rft.aulast=Afsaruddin&rft.aufirst=Asma&rft.au=Zahniser%2C+A.+H.+Mathias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5325%2Fj.ctv1w36pkt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin2008" class="citation book cs1">Austin, Peter K., ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3tAqIU0dPsC">One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25560-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-25560-9"><bdi>978-0-520-25560-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080934/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3tAqIU0dPsC">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 19 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Thousand+Languages%3A+Living%2C+Endangered%2C+and+Lost&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-520-25560-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQ3tAqIU0dPsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaasten2003" class="citation book cs1">Baasten, Martin F. J. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oIIvqaVaLacC&pg=PA58">"A Note on the History of 'Semitic'"</a>. In Baasten, M. F. J.; Van Peursen, W. Th. (eds.). Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Peeters. pp. 57–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-429-1215-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-429-1215-4"><bdi>90-429-1215-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Note+on+the+History+of+%27Semitic%27&rft.btitle=Hamlet+on+a+Hill%3A+Semitic+and+Greek+Studies+Presented+to+Professor+T.+Muraoka+on+the+Occasion+of+His+Sixty-fifth+Birthday&rft.pages=57-73&rft.pub=Peeters&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=90-429-1215-4&rft.aulast=Baasten&rft.aufirst=Martin+F.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoIIvqaVaLacC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1998" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Patrick R. (1998). Comparative Semitic Linguistics: A Manual. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57506-021-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-57506-021-3"><bdi>1-57506-021-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Semitic+Linguistics%3A+A+Manual&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-57506-021-3&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Patrick+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlau2010" class="citation book cs1">Blau, Joshua (2010). Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-129-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57506-129-0"><bdi>978-1-57506-129-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonology+and+Morphology+of+Biblical+Hebrew&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-57506-129-0&rft.aulast=Blau&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoghill2016" class="citation book cs1">Coghill, Eleanor (2016). The Rise and Fall of Ergativity in Aramaic: Cycles of Alignment Change. 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Pt I. On the Nature and Development of Semitic Roots"</a>. Transactions of the Philological Society (10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220225183158/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3924120;view=1up;seq=181">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=On+the+Semitic+Languages%2C+and+their+relations+with+the+Indo-European+Class.+Pt+I.+On+the+Nature+and+Development+of+Semitic+Roots&rft.issue=10&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.b3924120%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1854" class="citation journal cs1">Davies, John (1854). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3924120;view=1up;seq=250">"On the Semitic Languages, and their relations with the Indo-European Class. Pt II. On the Connection of Semitic Roots with corresponding forms in the Indo-European Class of Languages"</a>. Transactions of the Philological Society (13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220225183043/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3924120;view=1up;seq=250">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=On+the+Semitic+Languages%2C+and+their+relations+with+the+Indo-European+Class.+Pt+II.+On+the+Connection+of+Semitic+Roots+with+corresponding+forms+in+the+Indo-European+Class+of+Languages&rft.issue=13&rft.date=1854&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.b3924120%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDolgopolsky1999" class="citation book cs1">Dolgopolsky, Aron (1999). From Proto-Semitic to Hebrew. 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Vol. 6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526080937/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Nk7AAAAcAAJ&pg=RA1-PA773#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Allgemeine+Bibliothek+der+biblischen+Literatur&rft.date=1794&rft.aulast=Eichhorn&rft.aufirst=Johann+Gottfried&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8Nk7AAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA773&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrock1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Brock, Sebastian (1998). "Syriac Culture, 337–425". In <a href="/wiki/Averil_Cameron" title="Averil Cameron">Cameron, Averil</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Garnsey" title="Peter Garnsey">Garnsey, Peter</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zSTcZAyKJNAC">The Cambridge Ancient History</a>. Vol. 13: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 708–719. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85073-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85073-8"><bdi>0-521-85073-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081438/https://books.google.com/books?id=zSTcZAyKJNAC">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. 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Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 145–166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-823866-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-823866-5"><bdi>0-19-823866-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081439/https://books.google.com/books?id=n2F3KfTWX_AC&dq=geez+%22word+order%22+verb&pg=PA157#v=onepage&q=geez%20%22word%20order%22%20verb&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. 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Le lingue semitiche: studi di storia linguistica [Semitic languages: studies of linguistic history] (in Italian). Naples: Istituto Orientale.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+lingue+semitiche%3A+studi+di+storia+linguistica&rft.place=Naples&rft.pub=Istituto+Orientale&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Garbini&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarbiniDurand1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Garbini, Giovanni; Durand, Olivier (1994). Introduzione alle lingue semitiche [Introduction to Semitic languages] (in Italian). Brescia: Paideia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduzione+alle+lingue+semitiche&rft.place=Brescia&rft.pub=Paideia&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Garbini&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rft.au=Durand%2C+Olivier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldenberg2013" class="citation book cs1">Goldenberg, Gideon (2013). Semitic Languages: Features, Structures, Relations, Processes. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964491-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964491-9"><bdi>978-0-19-964491-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semitic+Languages%3A+Features%2C+Structures%2C+Relations%2C+Processes&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-964491-9&rft.aulast=Goldenberg&rft.aufirst=Gideon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHackett2006" class="citation book cs1">Hackett, Jo Ann (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA931">"Semitic Languages"</a>. In Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (eds.). Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World. Elsevier. pp. 929–935. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080877754" title="Special:BookSources/9780080877754"><bdi>9780080877754</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081439/https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA931#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2020 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semitic+Languages&rft.btitle=Concise+Encyclopedia+of+Languages+of+the+World&rft.pages=929-935&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780080877754&rft.aulast=Hackett&rft.aufirst=Jo+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF2SRqDzB50wC%26pg%3DPA931&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrak1992" class="citation journal cs1">Harrak, Amir (1992). "The ancient name of Edessa". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (3): 209–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F373553">10.1086/373553</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/545546">545546</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162190342">162190342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+ancient+name+of+Edessa&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=209-214&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162190342%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F545546%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F373553&rft.aulast=Harrak&rft.aufirst=Amir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHetzron1997" class="citation book cs1">Hetzron, Robert (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nbUOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA123">The Semitic Languages</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05767-7"><bdi>978-0-415-05767-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-415-05767-7&rft.aulast=Hetzron&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnbUOAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHetzronKayeZuckermann2018" class="citation book cs1">Hetzron, Robert; Kaye, Alan S.; Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2018). "Semitic Languages". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315644936/world-major-languages-bernard-comrie">The World's Major Languages</a> (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 568–576. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781315644936">10.4324/9781315644936</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-64493-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-64493-6"><bdi>978-1-315-64493-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211219021153/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315644936/world-major-languages-bernard-comrie">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Semitic+Languages&rft.btitle=The+World%27s+Major+Languages&rft.place=London&rft.pages=568-576&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781315644936&rft.isbn=978-1-315-64493-6&rft.aulast=Hetzron&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Kaye%2C+Alan+S.&rft.au=Zuckermann%2C+Ghil%27ad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Fedit%2F10.4324%2F9781315644936%2Fworld-major-languages-bernard-comrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudsonKogan1997" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Grover; Kogan, Leonid E. (1997). "Amharic and Argobba". In Hetzron, Robert (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RWhvl4hD7S4C">The Semitic Languages</a>. New York: Routledge. pp. 457–485. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-05767-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-05767-1"><bdi>0-415-05767-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081440/https://books.google.com/books?id=RWhvl4hD7S4C">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Amharic+and+Argobba&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=457-485&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-05767-1&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Grover&rft.au=Kogan%2C+Leonid+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRWhvl4hD7S4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIzre'el1987c" class="citation cs2">Izre'el, Shlomo (1987c), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tau.ac.il/~izreel/publications/CanAkkMethRequisites_2007.pdf">Canaano-Akkadian</a> (PDF), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021074302/https://www.tau.ac.il/~izreel/publications/CanAkkMethRequisites_2007.pdf">archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 October 2020, retrieved 10 August 2020</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canaano-Akkadian&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Izre%27el&rft.aufirst=Shlomo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tau.ac.il%2F~izreel%2Fpublications%2FCanAkkMethRequisites_2007.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiraz2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Kiraz" title="George Kiraz">Kiraz, George Anton</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dpl3dHMjVZcC">Computational Nonlinear Morphology: With Emphasis on Semitic Languages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521631969" title="Special:BookSources/9780521631969"><bdi>9780521631969</bdi></a>. <q>The term "Semitic" is borrowed from the Bible (Gene. x.21 and xi.10–26). It was first used by the Orientalist A. L. Schlözer in 1781 to designate the languages spoken by the Aramæans, Hebrews, Arabs, and other peoples of the Near East (Moscati et al., 1969, Sect. 1.2). Before Schlözer, these languages and dialects were known as Oriental languages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computational+Nonlinear+Morphology%3A+With+Emphasis+on+Semitic+Languages&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780521631969&rft.aulast=Kiraz&rft.aufirst=George+Anton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDpl3dHMjVZcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitchenEhretAssefa2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kitchen, A.; Ehret, C.; Assefa, S. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839953">"Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of Semitic languages identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of Semitic in the Near East"</a>. Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 276 (1668): 2703–10. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2009.0408">10.1098/rspb.2009.0408</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839953">2839953</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19403539">19403539</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings.+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Bayesian+phylogenetic+analysis+of+Semitic+languages+identifies+an+Early+Bronze+Age+origin+of+Semitic+in+the+Near+East&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1668&rft.pages=2703-10&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2839953%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19403539&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2009.0408&rft.aulast=Kitchen&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Ehret%2C+C.&rft.au=Assefa%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2839953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitto1845" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Kitto" title="John Kitto">Kitto, John</a> (1845). A Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature. London: <a href="/wiki/William_Clowes_Ltd." title="William Clowes Ltd.">W. Clowes and Sons</a>. <q>That important family of languages, of which the Arabic is the most cultivated and most widely-extended branch, has long wanted an appropriate common name. The term Oriental languages, which was exclusively applied to it from the time of <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> down to the end of the last century, and which is even now not entirely abandoned, must always have been an unscientific one, inasmuch as the countries in which these languages prevailed are only the east in respect to Europe; and when <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, and other idioms of the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">remoter East</a> were brought within the reach of our research, it became palpably incorrect. Under a sense of this impropriety, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Eichhorn" title="Johann Gottfried Eichhorn">Eichhorn</a> was the first, as he says himself (Allg. Bibl. Biblioth. vi. 772), to introduce the name Semitic languages, which was soon generally adopted, and which is the most usual one at the present day. [...] In modern times, however, the very appropriate designation Syro-Arabian languages has been proposed by Dr. <a href="/wiki/James_Cowles_Prichard" title="James Cowles Prichard">Prichard</a>, in his Physical History of Man. This term, [...] has the advantage of forming an exact counterpart to the name by which the only other great family of languages with which we are likely to bring the Syro-Arabian into relations of contrast or accordance, is now universally known—the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-Germanic</a>. Like it, by taking up only the two extreme members of a whole sisterhood according to their geographical position when in their native seats, it embraces all the intermediate branches under a common band; and, like it, it constitutes a name which is not only at once intelligible, but one which in itself conveys a notion of that affinity between the sister dialects, which it is one of the objects of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative philology</a> to demonstrate and to apply.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cyclop%C3%A6dia+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.place=London&rft.pub=W.+Clowes+and+Sons&rft.date=1845&rft.aulast=Kitto&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKogan2012" class="citation book cs1">Kogan, Leonid (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC&pg=PA54">"Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics"</a>. In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025158-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025158-6"><bdi>978-3-11-025158-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Proto-Semitic+Phonology+and+Phonetics&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-11-025158-6&rft.aulast=Kogan&rft.aufirst=Leonid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuntz1981" class="citation book cs1">Kuntz, Marion Leathers (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=030L3fsNSPIC">Guillaume Postel: Prophet of the Restitution of All Things His Life and Thought</a>. The Hague: Nijhoff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-247-2523-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-247-2523-2"><bdi>90-247-2523-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081452/https://books.google.com/books?id=030L3fsNSPIC">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guillaume+Postel%3A+Prophet+of+the+Restitution+of+All+Things+His+Life+and+Thought&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pub=Nijhoff&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=90-247-2523-2&rft.aulast=Kuntz&rft.aufirst=Marion+Leathers&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D030L3fsNSPIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKogan2011" class="citation book cs1">Kogan, Leonid (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">"Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics"</a>. In Weninger, Stefan (ed.). The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025158-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025158-6"><bdi>978-3-11-025158-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231018170312/https://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Proto-Semitic+Phonology+and+Phonetics&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages%3A+An+International+Handbook&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-025158-6&rft.aulast=Kogan&rft.aufirst=Leonid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSMzgBLT87MkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevine2000" class="citation book cs1">Levine, Donald N. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC">Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society</a> (2. ed.). University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-22967-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-22967-6"><bdi>978-0-226-22967-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081440/https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greater+Ethiopia%3A+The+Evolution+of+a+Multiethnic+Society&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-226-22967-6&rft.aulast=Levine&rft.aufirst=Donald+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTtmFQejWaaYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipiński2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Lipi%C5%84ski_(orientalist)" title="Edward Lipiński (orientalist)">Lipiński, Edward</a> (2001). Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar (2nd ed.). Leuven: Peeters. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-429-0815-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-429-0815-7"><bdi>90-429-0815-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Semitic+Languages%3A+Outline+of+a+Comparative+Grammar&rft.place=Leuven&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Peeters&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=90-429-0815-7&rft.aulast=Lipi%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mustafa, Arafa Hussein. 1974. Analytical study of phrases and sentences in epic texts of Ugarit. (German title: Untersuchungen zu Satztypen in den epischen Texten von Ugarit). Dissertation. Halle-Wittenberg: Martin-Luther-University.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoscati1969" class="citation book cs1">Moscati, Sabatino (1969). An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages: Phonology and Morphology. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Comparative+Grammar+of+the+Semitic+Languages%3A+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Moscati&rft.aufirst=Sabatino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoscati1958" class="citation journal cs1">Moscati, Sabatino (1958). "On Semitic Case-Endings". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 17 (2): 142–144. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F371454">10.1086/371454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161828505">161828505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=On+Semitic+Case-Endings&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=142-144&rft.date=1958&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F371454&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161828505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Moscati&rft.aufirst=Sabatino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMüller1995" class="citation journal cs1">Müller, Hans-Peter (1995). "Ergative Constructions In Early Semitic Languages". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 54 (4): 261–271. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F373769">10.1086/373769</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/545846">545846</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161626451">161626451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Ergative+Constructions+In+Early+Semitic+Languages&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=261-271&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161626451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F545846%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F373769&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCller&rft.aufirst=Hans-Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNebes2005" class="citation book cs1">Nebes, Norbert (2005). "Epigraphic South Arabian". In Uhlig, Siegbert (ed.). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05238-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05238-2"><bdi>978-3-447-05238-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epigraphic+South+Arabian&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Aethiopica&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05238-2&rft.aulast=Nebes&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUllendorff1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ullendorff" title="Edward Ullendorff">Ullendorff, Edward</a> (1955). The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia: A Comparative Phonology. London: Taylor's (Foreign) Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages+of+Ethiopia%3A+A+Comparative+Phonology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Taylor%27s+%28Foreign%29+Press&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Ullendorff&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwens2013" class="citation book cs1">Owens, Jonathan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1IJoAgAAQBAJ">The Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199344093" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199344093"><bdi>978-0199344093</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081441/https://books.google.com/books?id=1IJoAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Arabic+Linguistics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0199344093&rft.aulast=Owens&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1IJoAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillipson2012" class="citation book cs1">Phillipson, David (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A">Foundations of an African Civilization, Aksum and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300</a>. Boydell & Brewer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781846158735" title="Special:BookSources/9781846158735"><bdi>9781846158735</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526081945/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2021. <q>The former belief that this arrival of South-Semitic-speakers took place in about the second quarter of the first millennium BC can no longer be accepted in view of linguistic indications that these languages were spoken in the northern Horn at a much earlier date.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+an+African+Civilization%2C+Aksum+and+the+Northern+Horn+1000+BC-AD+1300&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781846158735&rft.aulast=Phillipson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Ffoundations-of-an-african-civilisation%2F085D477B9A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuhlen1991" class="citation book cs1">Ruhlen, Merritt (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wUC">A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification</a>. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1894-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1894-6"><bdi>0-8047-1894-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526082005/https://books.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wUC">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 26 August 2020. <q>The other linguistic group to be recognized in the eighteenth century was the Semitic family. The German scholar Ludwig von Schlozer is often credited with having recognized, and named, the Semitic family in 1781. But the affinity of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic had been recognized for centuries by Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars, and this knowledge was published in Western Europe as early as 1538 (see Postel 1538). Around 1700 Hiob Ludolf, who had written grammars of Geez and Amharic (both Ethiopic Semitic languages) in the seventeenth century, recognized the extension of the Semitic family into East Africa. Thus when von Schlozer named the family in 1781 he was merely recognizing genetic relationships that had been known for centuries. Three Semitic languages (Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew) were long familiar to Europeans both because of their geographic proximity and because the Bible was written in Hebrew and Aramaic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+World%27s+Languages%3A+Classification&rft.place=Stanford%2C+California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-8047-1894-6&rft.aulast=Ruhlen&rft.aufirst=Merritt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmYwmDE3f6wUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSánchez2013" class="citation book cs1">Sánchez, Francisco del Río (2013). Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro; Watson, Wilfred G. E. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3782152">Archaism and Innovation in the Semitic Languages. Selected Papers</a>. Córdoba: Oriens Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-695-7829-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-695-7829-2"><bdi>978-84-695-7829-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210911023114/https://www.academia.edu/3782152">Archived</a> from the original on 11 September 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaism+and+Innovation+in+the+Semitic+Languages.+Selected+Papers.&rft.place=C%C3%B3rdoba&rft.pub=Oriens+Academic&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-84-695-7829-2&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1nchez&rft.aufirst=Francisco+del+R%C3%ADo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3782152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmart2013" class="citation book cs1">Smart, J. R. (2013). Tradition and modernity in Arabic language and literature. Smart, J. R., Shaban Memorial Conference (2nd : 1994 : University of Exeter). Richmond, Surrey, U.K.: Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-13678-812-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-13678-812-3"><bdi>978-1-13678-812-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tradition+and+modernity+in+Arabic+language+and+literature&rft.place=Richmond%2C+Surrey%2C+U.K.&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-13678-812-3&rft.aulast=Smart&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVersteegh1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kees_Versteegh" title="Kees Versteegh">Versteegh, Kees</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C">The Arabic Language</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11152-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-11152-2"><bdi>978-0-231-11152-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526082009/https://books.google.com/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 21 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Language&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-231-11152-2&rft.aulast=Versteegh&rft.aufirst=Kees&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2tghviSsrF8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990" class="citation book cs1">Waltke, Bruce K.; O'Connor, Michael Patrick (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jZlwYGilLW0C">An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax</a>. Vol. 3. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-931464-31-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-931464-31-5"><bdi>0-931464-31-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240526082948/https://books.google.com/books?id=jZlwYGilLW0C">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 17 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Biblical+Hebrew+Syntax&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-931464-31-5&rft.aulast=Waltke&rft.aufirst=Bruce+K.&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+Michael+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjZlwYGilLW0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Janet_Watson_(linguist)" title="Janet Watson (linguist)">Watson, Janet C. E.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160301132237/http://www.kamal-osman.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Phonolgy-and-Morphology-of-Arabic-watson.pdf">The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic</a> (PDF). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824137-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824137-2"><bdi>0-19-824137-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kamal-osman.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Phonolgy-and-Morphology-of-Arabic-watson.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 1 March 2016 – via <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phonology+and+Morphology+of+Arabic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-824137-2&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Janet+C.+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kamal-osman.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2FThe-Phonolgy-and-Morphology-of-Arabic-watson.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodard2008" class="citation book cs1">Woodard, Roger D., ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://e-learning.tsu.ge/pluginfile.php/5868/mod_resource/content/0/dzveli_armosavluri_enebi_-ugarituli_punikuri_arameuli_ebrauli_arabuli.pdf">The Ancient Languages of Syrio-Palestine and Arabia</a> (PDF). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201111190458/https://e-learning.tsu.ge/pluginfile.php/5868/mod_resource/content/0/dzveli_armosavluri_enebi_-ugarituli_punikuri_arameuli_ebrauli_arabuli.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Syrio-Palestine+and+Arabia&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fe-learning.tsu.ge%2Fpluginfile.php%2F5868%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F0%2Fdzveli_armosavluri_enebi_-ugarituli_punikuri_arameuli_ebrauli_arabuli.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrightSmith1890" class="citation book cs1">Wright, William; Smith, William Robertson (1890). Lectures on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Comparative+Grammar+of+the+Semitic+Languages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Smith%2C+William+Robertson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASemitic+languages" class="Z3988"> [2002 edition: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931956-12-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-931956-12-X">1-931956-12-X</a>]</li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right mw-collapsible sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow" style="clear: both"> Semitic languages at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex mw-collapsible-content"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Semitic_Languages" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Semitic Languages">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 20px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="20" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Semitic_Languages" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Semitic Languages">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 23px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="23" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Semitic_languages" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Semitic languages">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 26px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="26" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Semitic_languages" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Semitic languages">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 27px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="27" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Subject:Semitic_Languages" class="extiw" title="b:Subject:Semitic Languages">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 27px;height: 22px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="27" data-height="22" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Topic:Semitic_Languages" class="extiw" title="v:Topic:Semitic Languages">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090104234232/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html">Semitic genealogical tree</a> (as well as the Afroasiatic one), presented by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Militarev" title="Alexander Militarev">Alexander Militarev</a> at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" (at the conference on the 70th anniversary of <a href="/wiki/Vladislav_Illich-Svitych" title="Vladislav Illich-Svitych">Vladislav Illich-Svitych</a>, Moscow, 2004; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100818025156/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html">short annotations of the talks given there</a> (in Russian)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00831338">Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/discoveries/2007-01-23-snake-spell_x.htm">Ancient snake spell in Egyptian pyramid may be oldest Semitic inscription</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02113751"> Alexis Neme and Sébastien Paumier (2019), Restoring Arabic vowels through omission-tolerant dictionary lookup, Lang Resources & Evaluation, Vol 53, 1–65 pages</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Afroasiatic_Swadesh_lists" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Afroasiatic Swadesh lists">Swadesh vocabulary lists of Semitic languages</a> (from Wiktionary's <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists" class="extiw" title="wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists">Swadesh-list appendix</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=mobile" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&oldid=1259782435">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&oldid=1259782435</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Semitic_languages&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 27 November 2024, at 00:52 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitiese_taalfamilie" title="Semitiese taalfamilie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Semitiese taalfamilie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitische_Sprachen" title="Semitische Sprachen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Semitische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B4%E1%88%9B%E1%8B%8A_%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B%E1%8B%8E%E1%89%BD" title="ሴማዊ ቋንቋዎች – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሴማዊ ቋንቋዎች" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%B7%D1%88%D3%99%D0%B0%D2%9B%D3%99%D0%B0" title="Асемит бызшәақәа – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Асемит бызшәақәа" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Аԥсшәа</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغات سامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات سامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengas_semiticas" title="Luengas semiticas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Luengas semiticas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%AB%DC%9D%DC%A1%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܫܝܡܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܫܝܡܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_sem%C3%ADtiques" title="Llingües semítiques – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües semítiques" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_dill%C9%99ri" title="Sami dilləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sami dilləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="سامی دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سامی دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="সেমিটীয় ভাষাসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সেমিটীয় ভাষাসমূহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Семит телдәре – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Семит телдәре" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%86%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Семіцкія мовы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Семіцкія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%86%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B" title="Сэміцкія мовы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Сэміцкія мовы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Семитски езици – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Семитски езици" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitische_Sprochn" title="Semitische Sprochn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Semitische Sprochn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitski_jezici" title="Semitski jezici – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Semitski jezici" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_semitek" title="Yezhoù semitek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù semitek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_sem%C3%ADtiques" title="Llengües semítiques – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües semítiques" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%87%C4%95%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Семит чĕлхисем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Семит чĕлхисем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Semitské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Semitské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithoedd_Semitaidd" title="Ieithoedd Semitaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ieithoedd Semitaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitiske_sprog" title="Semitiske sprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Semitiske sprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitische_Sprachen" title="Semitische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Semitische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitiske_r%C4%9Bcy" title="Semitiske rěcy – Lower Sorbian" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Semitiske rěcy" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="Lower Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dolnoserbski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi_keeled" title="Semi keeled – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Semi keeled" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Σημιτικές γλώσσες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σημιτικές γλώσσες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_sem%C3%ADticas" title="Lenguas semíticas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas semíticas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Cemida_lingvaro" title="Ŝemida lingvaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ŝemida lingvaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntza_semitikoak" title="Hizkuntza semitikoak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hizkuntza semitikoak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های سامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های سامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_bhasa" title="Semitic bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Semitic bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitisk_m%C3%A1l" title="Semitisk mál – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Semitisk mál" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_s%C3%A9mitiques" title="Langues sémitiques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues sémitiques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semityske_talen" title="Semityske talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Semityske talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teangacha_Seim%C3%ADteacha" title="Teangacha Seimíteacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Teangacha Seimíteacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_sem%C3%ADticas" title="Linguas semíticas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas semíticas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%85%88%EC%96%B4%ED%8C%8C" title="셈어파 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="셈어파" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Սեմական լեզուներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեմական լեզուներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%81" title="सामी भाषाएँ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सामी भाषाएँ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitiske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Semitiske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Semitiske rěče" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitski_jezici" title="Semitski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Semitski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semida_lingui" title="Semida lingui – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Semida lingui" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Semit" title="Rumpun bahasa Semit – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Semit" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_semitic" title="Linguas semitic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Linguas semitic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sem%C3%ADsk_tungum%C3%A1l" title="Semísk tungumál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Semísk tungumál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_semitiche" title="Lingue semitiche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue semitiche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפות שמיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפות שמיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="სემიტური ენები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სემიტური ენები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96" title="Семит тілдері – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Семит тілдері" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yethow_Semitek" title="Yethow Semitek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Yethow Semitek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_za_Kisemiti" title="Lugha za Kisemiti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha za Kisemiti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziman%C3%AAn_sam%C3%AE" title="Zimanên samî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zimanên samî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Семит тилдери – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Семит тилдери" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_semetikas" title="Linguas semetikas – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Linguas semetikas" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Semiticae" title="Linguae Semiticae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguae Semiticae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sem%C4%ABtu_valodas" title="Semītu valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Semītu valodas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semit%C5%B3_kalbos" title="Semitų kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Semitų kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_semitiche" title="Lengue semitiche – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengue semitiche" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitische_taole" title="Semitische taole – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Semitische taole" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_semitica" title="Linguas semitica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas semitica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9mi_nyelvek" title="Sémi nyelvek – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sémi nyelvek" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Семитски јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Семитски јазици" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_semitika" title="Fiteny semitika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny semitika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwi_Semiti%C4%8Bi" title="Lingwi Semitiċi – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Lingwi Semitiċi" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9" title="सामी भाषासमूह – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सामी भाषासमूह" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="სემიტური ნინეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სემიტური ნინეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%87" title="لغات ساميه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغات ساميه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa-bahasa_Samiah" title="Bahasa-bahasa Samiah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa-bahasa Samiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82_%D1%85%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B4" title="Семит хэлнүүд – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Семит хэлнүүд" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitische_talen" title="Semitische talen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Semitische talen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BB%E3%83%A0%E8%AA%9E%E6%B4%BE" title="セム語派 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="セム語派" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiitisk_spriaken" title="Semiitisk spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Semiitisk spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semittiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Semittiske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Semittiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semittiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Semittiske språk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Semittiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_semiticas" title="Lengas semiticas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas semiticas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Som_tillari" title="Som tillari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Som tillari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82" title="ਸਾਮੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਾਮੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="سامی زباناں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سامی زباناں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%DA%98%D8%A8%DB%90" title="سامي ژبې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سامي ژبې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_sem%C3%ACtiche" title="Lenghe semìtiche – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghe semìtiche" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitsche_Spraken" title="Semitsche Spraken – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Semitsche Spraken" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_semickie" title="Języki semickie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki semickie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_sem%C3%ADticas" title="Línguas semíticas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas semíticas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbi_semitice" title="Limbi semitice – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limbi semitice" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Семитские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Семитские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="سامی زباناں – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="سامی زباناں" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target">سرائیکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbas_sem%C3%ACticas" title="Limbas semìticas – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Limbas semìticas" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitiske_Sproaken" title="Semitiske Sproaken – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Semitiske Sproaken" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuh%C3%ABt_semitike" title="Gjuhët semitike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuhët semitike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Semitic languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A_%D9%BB%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86" title="سامي ٻوليون – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سامي ٻوليون" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Semitské jazyky – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Semitské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitski_jeziki" title="Semitski jeziki – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Semitski jeziki" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luqadaha_Semitiga" title="Luqadaha Semitiga – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Luqadaha Semitiga" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زمانە سامییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زمانە سامییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Семитски језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Семитски језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitski_jezici" title="Semitski jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Semitski jezici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seemil%C3%A4iset_kielet" title="Seemiläiset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Seemiläiset kielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitiska_spr%C3%A5k" title="Semitiska språk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Semitiska språk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="செமித்திய மொழிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="செமித்திய மொழிகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayin_tisamiyin" title="Tutlayin tisamiyin – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tutlayin tisamiyin" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taclḥit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutlayin_tisamiyin" title="Tutlayin tisamiyin – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tutlayin tisamiyin" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81" title="กลุ่มภาษาเซมิติก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กลุ่มภาษาเซมิติก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_dilleri" title="Sami dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sami dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_dilleri" title="Sami dilleri – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Sami dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Семітські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Семітські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="سامی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سامی زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D9%89%D9%84_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="سامىي تىل ئائىلىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="سامىي تىل ئائىلىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_t%E1%BB%99c_Semit" title="Ngữ tộc Semit – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ tộc Semit" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%97%AA%E7%B1%B3%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="闪米特语族 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="闪米特语族" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9B%D7%9F" title="סעמיטישע שפראכן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="סעמיטישע שפראכן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BA%B9%CC%80m%C3%ADt%C3%AD%C3%ACk%C3%AC" title="Sẹ̀mítíìkì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Sẹ̀mítíìkì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%83%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="閃語族 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="閃語族" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C4%B1wan%C3%AA_Semitki" title="Zıwanê Semitki – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zıwanê Semitki" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%97%AA%E7%B1%B3%E7%89%B9%E8%AF%AD%E6%97%8F" title="闪米特语族 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="闪米特语族" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_Bahasa_Semitik" title="Rumpun Bahasa Semitik – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Rumpun Bahasa Semitik" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kumoring</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8F_%E2%B5%9C%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%99%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%8F" title="ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴰⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target">ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 27 November 2024, at 00:52 (UTC).</li> <li 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<script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-d9lx2","wgBackendResponseTime":292,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.685","walltime":"3.014","ppvisitednodes":{"value":24470,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":499983,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":29194,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":21,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":274503,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2491.229 1 -total"," 24.83% 618.450 536 Template:Transliteration"," 13.82% 344.312 4 Template:Reflist"," 13.09% 326.196 55 Template:Cite_book"," 8.84% 220.229 289 Template:IPA"," 6.95% 173.084 18 Template:Fix"," 6.56% 163.315 34 Template:Sfn"," 6.39% 159.178 7 Template:Efn"," 5.09% 126.824 13 Template:Citation_needed"," 3.76% 93.568 1 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[\"CITEREFGreenberg1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHackett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrak1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHetzron1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHetzronKayeZuckermann2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudsonKogan1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIzre\u0026#039;el1987c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaufman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiraz2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitchenEhretAssefa2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitto1845\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKogan2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKogan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuntz1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevine2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipiński2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoscati1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoscati1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurtonen1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMüller1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebes2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwens2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillipson2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFProf._Dr._Werner_Arnold2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFProf._Dr._Werner_ArnoldP._Behnstedt1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRafik_Schami2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuhlen1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmart2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSánchez2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllendorff1955\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVermeulen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVersteegh1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaltkeO\u0026#039;Connor1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitzman1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitzman2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeninger2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodard2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrightSmith1890\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYaron_MatrasJeanette_Sakel2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZaide1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFiنصر_الله،_إلياس_أنطون\"] = 1,\n [\"Davies\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Abbr\"] = 13,\n [\"Afro-Asiatic languages\"] = 1,\n [\"Angbr\"] = 5,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bdo\"] = 17,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 8,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 13,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 55,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 5,\n [\"Clarify\"] = 1,\n [\"Distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 7,\n [\"Harvcoltxt\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 13,\n 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