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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technical_features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Technical features</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_settlement_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_settlement_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Impact on settlement patterns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_settlement_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Construction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Construction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Construction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Construction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preparations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preparations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Preparations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preparations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excavation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excavation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Excavation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Excavation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maintenance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maintenance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Maintenance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maintenance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Watermills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Watermills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Watermills</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Watermills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cooling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cooling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Cooling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cooling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ice_storage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ice_storage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Ice storage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ice_storage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>By country</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_country-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle By country subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Algeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Algeria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Libya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Libya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Libya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Libya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.4</span> <span>Morocco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tunisia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tunisia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.5</span> <span>Tunisia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tunisia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Afghanistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afghanistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Afghanistan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afghanistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Armenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Azerbaijan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Azerbaijan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.3</span> <span>Azerbaijan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Azerbaijan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.4</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.5</span> <span>Iran</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.6</span> <span>Iraq</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.7</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.8</span> <span>Indonesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.9</span> <span>Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jordan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jordan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.10</span> <span>Jordan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jordan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.11</span> <span>Pakistan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.12</span> <span>Syria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oman" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oman"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.13</span> <span>Oman</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oman-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Arab_Emirates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Arab_Emirates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.14</span> <span>United Arab Emirates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Arab_Emirates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greece" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Greece</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Luxembourg" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Luxembourg"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Luxembourg</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Luxembourg-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.4</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>The Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Cultural references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Qanat</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox 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Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9_(%D8%B1%D9%8A)" title="قناة (ري) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قناة (ري)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canyo_(construcci%C3%B3n_hidraulica)" title="Canyo (construcción hidraulica) – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Canyo (construcción hidraulica)" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%99hriz" title="Kəhriz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kəhriz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Ганат – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ганат" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kan%C3%A1t" title="Kanát – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kanát" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kareze" title="Kareze – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kareze" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AC%CF%84" title="Κανάτ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κανάτ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viaje_de_agua" title="Viaje de agua – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Viaje de agua" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanato" title="Kanato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kanato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="قنات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قنات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%B4%EB%82%98%ED%8A%B8" title="카나트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="카나트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BC" title="कारेज़ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कारेज़" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanat" title="Kanat – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kanat" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%92%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%94" title="פוגארה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוגארה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%99%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B7" title="Кәріз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кәріз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Кяриз – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кяриз" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiarizas" title="Kiarizas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kiarizas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%89" title="قناة رى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="قناة رى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%8A%E3%83%BC%E3%83%88" title="カナート – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カナート" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koriz" title="Koriz – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Koriz" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A4_(%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%80)" title="ਕਨਾਤ (ਫ਼ਾਰਸੀ) – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਨਾਤ (ਫ਼ਾਰਸੀ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="کاریز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کاریز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanat" title="Kanat – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kanat" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canate" title="Canate – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Canate" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Кяриз – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кяриз" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanat" title="Kanat – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kanat" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%9A%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5)" title="Канат (наводњавање) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Канат (наводњавање)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanat" title="Kanat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kanat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Qanat" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%99%D2%BB%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Кәһриз – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Кәһриз" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95" title="กะนาต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กะนาต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kehriz" title="Kehriz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kehriz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7" title="Кяриз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кяриз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2" title="کاریز – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کاریز" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Water management system using underground channels</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Rural_Development_(Israel)#Insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Israel)">KANAT (insurance)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Qanat_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Qanat (disambiguation)">Qanat (disambiguation)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Falaj_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Falaj (disambiguation)">Falaj (disambiguation)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kariz_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kariz (disambiguation)">Kariz (disambiguation)</a>.</div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg/220px-Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg/330px-Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg/440px-Ghasabe_Qanats_of_Gonabad2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="4570" /></a><figcaption>Water channel of <a href="/wiki/Qanats_of_Ghasabeh" title="Qanats of Ghasabeh">Qanats of Ghasabeh</a>, Iran</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>qanat</b> or <b>kārīz</b> is a system for transporting water from an <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> or <a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">well</a> to the surface through an underground <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">aqueduct</a>; the system originated approximately 3,000 years ago in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The function is essentially the same across the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, but the system operates under a variety of regional names: <i>qanat</i> or kārīz in Iran, <i><b>karez</b></i> in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <i><b>foggara</b></i> in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <i><b>qanat</b></i> in <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, <i><b>khettara</b></i> in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <i><b>falaj</b></i> in <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a>, and <i><b>uyūn</b></i> in <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest extant and functional qanat systems are located in Afghanistan, Algeria, Iran, <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, Pakistan, and the <a href="/wiki/Turpan_water_system" title="Turpan water system">oases of the Turfan region</a> in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_China" title="Northwestern China">Northwestern China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This is a system of <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> that allows water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without losing much of the water to <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>. The system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as floods and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years. </p><p><i>Karez</i> are constructed as a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by a gently sloping tunnel. This taps into underground water and delivers it to the surface by gravity, without need for pumping. The vertical shafts along the underground channel are for maintenance purposes, and water is typically used only once it emerges from the daylight point. </p><p>The qanats still create a reliable supply of water for human settlements and irrigation in hot, <a href="/wiki/Desert_climate" title="Desert climate">arid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid_climate" title="Semi-arid climate">semi-arid</a> climates, but the value of this system is directly related to the quality, volume, and regularity of the <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>. Much of the population of Iran and other arid countries in North Africa and <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> historically depended upon the water from qanats; many populated areas are close to the areas where qanats are possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qanat_Kashan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Qanat_Kashan.jpg/220px-Qanat_Kashan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Qanat_Kashan.jpg/330px-Qanat_Kashan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Qanat_Kashan.jpg/440px-Qanat_Kashan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="742" /></a><figcaption>Qanat in <a href="/wiki/Kashan" title="Kashan">Kashan</a> surfacing within the <a href="/wiki/Fin_(garden)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fin (garden)">Fin Garden</a>; it is thought to have served Iran's <a href="/wiki/Sialk" class="mw-redirect" title="Sialk">Sialk</a> area for thousands of years</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qanat_Niavaran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Qanat_Niavaran.jpg/220px-Qanat_Niavaran.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Qanat_Niavaran.jpg/330px-Qanat_Niavaran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Qanat_Niavaran.jpg/440px-Qanat_Niavaran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="731" /></a><figcaption>A kariz surfacing in <a href="/wiki/Niavaran" title="Niavaran">Niavaran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, currently used for watering the grounds of the <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="National Library of Iran">National Library of Iran</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common variants of <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/qanat#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:qanat">qanat</a></i> in English include <i>kanat</i>, <i>khanat</i>, <i>kunut</i>, <i>kona</i>, <i>konait</i>, <i>ghanat</i>, <i>ghundat</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ajam_Qanats_2003_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ajam_Qanats_2003-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qanāh</i></span> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">قناة</span></span>) is an <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word that means "channel".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, the words for "qanat" are <b><span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">kārīz</i></span></b> (or <b><span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">kārēz</i></span></b>; <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">كاريز</span></span>) and is derived from earlier word <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">kāhrēz</i></span> (<span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">كاهریز</span></span>). The word <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">qanāt</i></span> (<span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">قنات</span></span>) is also used in Persian. Other names for qanat include <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">kahan</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: <span lang="fa" dir="rtl">کهن</span>); <span title="Balochi-language romanization"><i lang="bal-Latn">Kahn</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Balochi_language" title="Balochi language">Balochi</a>); <span title="Azerbaijani-language romanization"><i lang="az-Latn">kahriz/kəhriz</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>); <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">khettara</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>); <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es-ES">Galerías</i></span>, <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">minas</i></span> or <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">viajes de agua</i></span> (Spain); <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">falaj</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">فلج</span>) (<a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>); <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">foggara/fughara</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Nair_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nair-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternative terms for qanats in Asia and North Africa are <i>kakuriz</i>, <i>chin-avulz</i>, and <i>mayun</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg/330px-Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg/495px-Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg/660px-Qanat_technology_diffusion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>The possible geographic diffusion of qanat technology</figcaption></figure> <p>According to most sources, qanat technology was developed in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">ancient Iran</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a> sometime in the early 1st millennium BCE and slowly spread westward and eastward from there.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_2008_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson_2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other sources suggest a <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Southeast Arabian</a> origin.<sup id="cite_ref-Tikriti2002_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tikriti2002-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analogous systems appear to have been developed independently in China and in South America (specifically, southern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A cotton species, <i><a href="/wiki/Gossypium_arboreum" title="Gossypium arboreum">Gossypium arboreum</a></i>, is indigenous to South Asia and has been cultivated on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> for a long time. Cotton appears in the <i>Inquiry into Plants</i> by <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> and is mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Laws of Manu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As transregional trade networks expanded and intensified, cotton spread from its homeland to India and into the Middle East. One theory is that the qanat was developed to irrigate cotton fields,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> first in what is now Iran, where it doubled the amount of available water for irrigation and urban use.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this, Persia enjoyed larger surpluses of agricultural products, thus increasing urbanization and social stratification.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The qanat technology subsequently spread from Persia westward and eastward.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_2008_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson_2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the arid coastal desert of Peru, a technology of water supply similar to that of the qanats, called <a href="/wiki/Puquios" title="Puquios">puquios</a>, was developed. Most archaeologists believe that the puquios are indigenous and date to about 500 CE, but a few believe they are of Spanish origin, brought to the Americas in the 16th century. Puquios were still in use in the <a href="/wiki/Nazca" title="Nazca">Nazca</a> region in the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-Lane_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lane-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technical_features">Technical features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Technical features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qanat_cross_section.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Qanat_cross_section.svg/340px-Qanat_cross_section.svg.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Qanat_cross_section.svg/510px-Qanat_cross_section.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Qanat_cross_section.svg/680px-Qanat_cross_section.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="718" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Cross-section of a qanat</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In arid and semi-arid regions, owing to high evaporation, transportation routes were in the form of qanats, which led groundwater to consumption areas along underground tunnels. In the long run, the qanat system is not only economical but also <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and agricultural purposes.… The ground water flow was known to depend on grain size of sediments, and, therefore, the tunnels in qanats are filled in with coarser material than the surrounding host geological formations. The qanats are constructed mainly along the valleys where <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> sediments are deposited.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Underground Aqueducts Handbook</i> (2016)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Qanats are constructed as a series of <a href="/wiki/Well" title="Well">well</a>-like vertical <a href="/wiki/Shaft_sinking" title="Shaft sinking">shafts</a>, connected by a gently sloping <a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">tunnel</a> which carries a water <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canal</a>. Qanats efficiently deliver large amounts of subterranean water to the surface without need for pumping. The water drains by gravity, typically from an upland <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a>, with the destination lower than the source. Qanats allow water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without much water loss to <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Angelakis_2016_Handbook_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Angelakis_2016_Handbook-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is very common for a qanat to start below the foothills of mountains, where the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> is closest to the surface. From this source, the qanat tunnel slopes gently downward, slowly converging with the steeper slope of the land surface above, and the water finally flows out above ground where the two levels meet. To connect a populated or agricultural area with an aquifer, qanats must often extend for long distances.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Qanats are sometimes split into an underground distribution network of smaller canals called kariz. Like qanats, these smaller canals are below ground to avoid contamination and evaporation. In some cases water from a qanat is stored in a reservoir, typically with night flow stored for daytime use. An <a href="/wiki/Ab_anbar" title="Ab anbar">ab anbar</a> is an example of a traditional Persian qanat-fed reservoir for drinking water. </p><p>The qanat system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as floods, and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years. From a sustainability perspective, qanats are powered only by gravity and thus have low operation and maintenance costs. Qanats transfer fresh water from the mountain plateau to the lower-lying plains with saltier soil. This helps to control <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">soil salinity</a> and prevent <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nasiri_et_Mafakheri_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nasiri_et_Mafakheri-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The qanat should not be confused with the spring-flow tunnel typical to the mountainous area around <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>. Although both are excavated tunnels designed to extract water by gravity flow, there are crucial differences. Firstly, the origin of the qanat was a well that was turned into an artificial spring. In contrast, the origin of the spring-flow tunnel was the development of a natural spring to renew or increase flow following a recession of the water table. Secondly, the shafts essential for the construction of qanats are not essential to spring-flow tunnels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_settlement_patterns">Impact on settlement patterns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Impact on settlement patterns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A typical town or city in Iran, and elsewhere where the qanat is used, has more than one qanat. Fields and gardens are located both over the qanats a short distance before they emerge from the ground and below the surface outlet. Water from the qanats define both the social regions in the city and the layout of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The water is freshest, cleanest, and coolest in the upper reaches, and more prosperous people live at the outlet or immediately upstream of the outlet. When the qanat is still below ground, the water is drawn to the surface via wells or animal driven <a href="/wiki/Persian_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian well">Persian wells</a>. Private subterranean reservoirs could supply houses and buildings for domestic use and garden irrigation as well. Air flow from the qanat is used to cool an underground summer room (<a href="/wiki/Shabestan" title="Shabestan">shabestan</a>) found in many older houses and buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Downstream of the outlet, the water runs through surface canals called jubs (<i>jūbs</i>) which run downhill, with lateral branches to carry water to the neighborhood, gardens and fields. The streets normally parallel the jubs and their lateral branches. As a result, the cities and towns are oriented consistent with the gradient of the land; this is a practical response to efficient water distribution over varying terrain.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lower reaches of the canals are less desirable for both residences and agriculture. The water grows progressively more polluted as it passes downstream. In dry years the lower reaches are the most likely to see substantial reductions in flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction">Construction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditionally qanats are built by a group of skilled laborers, <i>muqannīs</i>, with hand labor. The profession historically paid well and was typically handed down from father to son.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preparations">Preparations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Preparations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg/260px-Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg/390px-Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg/520px-Alluvial_fan_in_Iran.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1451" data-file-height="1031" /></a><figcaption>Alluvial fan in southern Iran. Image from NASA's <a href="/wiki/Terra_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra satellite">Terra satellite</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The critical, initial step in qanat construction is identification of an appropriate water source. The search begins at the point where the <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">alluvial fan</a> meets the mountains or foothills; water is more abundant in the mountains because of <a href="/wiki/Orographic_lifting" class="mw-redirect" title="Orographic lifting">orographic lifting</a>, and excavation in the alluvial fan is relatively easy. The <i>muqannīs</i> follow the track of the main water courses coming from the mountains or foothills to identify evidence of subsurface water such as deep-rooted vegetation or seasonal seeps. A trial well is then dug to determine the depth of the water table and determine whether a sufficient flow is available to justify construction. If these prerequisites are met, the route is laid out aboveground. </p><p>Equipment must be assembled. The equipment is straightforward: containers (usually leather bags), ropes, reels to raise the container to the surface at the shaft head, hatchets and shovels for excavation, lights, and <a href="/wiki/Spirit_level" title="Spirit level">spirit levels</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plumb_bob" title="Plumb bob">plumb bobs</a> and string. Depending upon the soil type, qanat liners (usually fired clay hoops) may also be required.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the construction methods are simple, the construction of a qanat requires a detailed understanding of subterranean geology and a degree of engineering sophistication. The gradient of the qanat must be carefully controlled: too shallow a gradient yields no flow and too steep a gradient will result in excessive erosion, collapsing the qanat. And misreading the soil conditions leads to collapses, which at best require extensive rework and at worst are fatal for the crew.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excavation">Excavation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Excavation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Construction of a qanat is usually performed by a crew of 3–4 <i>muqannīs</i>. For a shallow qanat, one worker typically digs the horizontal shaft, one raises the excavated earth from the shaft and one distributes the excavated earth at the top.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The crew typically begins from the destination to which the water will be delivered into the soil and works toward the source (the test well). Vertical shafts are excavated along the route, separated at a distance of 20–35 m (66–115 ft). The separation of the shafts is a balance between the amount of work required to excavate them and the amount of effort required to excavate the space between them, as well as the ultimate maintenance effort. In general, the shallower the qanat, the closer the vertical shafts. If the qanat is long, excavation may begin from both ends at once. Tributary channels are sometimes also constructed to supplement the water flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most qanats in Iran run less than 5 km (3.1 miles), while some have been measured at ≈70 km (43 miles) in length near <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kerman</a>. The vertical shafts usually range from 20 to 200 m (66 to 656 ft) in depth, although qanats in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of Khorasan">province of Khorasan</a> have been recorded with vertical shafts of up to 275 m (902 ft). The vertical shafts support construction and maintenance of the underground channel as well as air interchange. Deep shafts require intermediate platforms to facilitate the process of removing soil.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The construction speed depends on the depth and nature of the ground. If the earth is soft and easy to work, at 20 m (66 ft) depth a crew of four workers can excavate a horizontal length of 40 m (130 ft) per day. When the vertical shaft reaches 40 m (130 ft), they can excavate only 20 meters horizontally per day and at 60 m (200 ft) in depth this drops below 5 horizontal meters per day. In Algeria, a common speed is just 2 m (6.6 ft) per day at a depth of 15 m (49 ft). Deep, long qanats (which many are) require years and even decades to construct.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The excavated material is usually transported by means of leather bags up the vertical shafts. It is mounded around the vertical shaft exit, providing a barrier that prevents windblown or rain driven debris from entering the shafts. These mounds may be covered to provide further protection to the qanat. From the air, these shafts look like a string of bomb craters.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The qanat's water-carrying channel must have a sufficient downward slope that water flows easily. However the downward gradient must not be so great as to create conditions under which the water transitions between <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_flow" title="Supercritical flow">supercritical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subcritical_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Subcritical flow">subcritical flow</a>. If this occurs, the waves that result can result in severe erosion that can damage or destroy the qanat. The choice of the slope is a trade off between erosion and sedimentation. Highly sloped tunnels are subject to more erosion as water flows at a higher speed. On the other hand, less sloped tunnels need frequent maintenance due to the problem of sedimentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Nasiri_et_Mafakheri_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nasiri_et_Mafakheri-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A lower downward gradient also contributes to reducing the solid contents and contamination in water.<sup id="cite_ref-Nasiri_et_Mafakheri_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nasiri_et_Mafakheri-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In shorter qanats the downward gradient varies between 1:1000 and 1:1500, while in longer qanats it may be almost horizontal. Such precision is routinely obtained with a <a href="/wiki/Spirit_level" title="Spirit level">spirit level</a> and string.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In cases where the gradient is steeper, underground waterfalls may be constructed with appropriate design features (usually linings) to absorb the energy with minimal erosion. In some cases the water power has been harnessed to drive underground <a href="/wiki/Water_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mill">mills</a>. If it is not possible to bring the outlet of the qanat out near the settlement, it is necessary to run a <i>jub</i> or canal overground. This is avoided when possible to limit pollution, warming and water loss due to evaporation.<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maintenance">Maintenance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Maintenance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The vertical shafts may be covered to minimize blown-in sand. The channels of qanats must be periodically inspected for erosion or cave-ins, cleaned of sand and mud and otherwise repaired. For safety, air flow must be assured before entry. </p><p>Some damaged qanats have been restored. To be sustainable, restoration needs to take into account many nontechnical factors beginning with the process of selecting the qanat to be restored. In Syria, three sites were chosen based on a national inventory conducted in 2001. One of them, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Drasiah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Drasiah (page does not exist)">Drasiah</a> qanat of <a href="/wiki/Al-Dumayr" title="Al-Dumayr">Dmeir</a>, was completed in 2002. Selection criteria included the availability of a steady groundwater flow, social cohesion and willingness to contribute of the community using the qanat, and the existence of a functioning water-rights system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary applications of qanats are for irrigation, providing cattle with water, and drinking water supply. Other applications include watermills, cooling and ice storage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Watermills">Watermills</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Watermills"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Watermills within a qanat system had to be carefully situated, to make best use of the slow flow of water. In Iran, there were subterranean mills at <a href="/wiki/Yazd" title="Yazd">Yazd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boshruyeh" title="Boshruyeh">Boshruyeh</a>; at <a href="/wiki/Taft,_Iran" title="Taft, Iran">Taft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ardestan" title="Ardestan">Ardestan</a> mills were placed at the outflow from the qanat, before irrigation of the fields.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cooling">Cooling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cooling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qanat_wind_tower.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Qanat_wind_tower.svg/260px-Qanat_wind_tower.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Qanat_wind_tower.svg/390px-Qanat_wind_tower.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Qanat_wind_tower.svg/520px-Qanat_wind_tower.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="741" /></a><figcaption>Wind tower and qanat used for cooling</figcaption></figure> <p>Qanats used in conjunction with a <a href="/wiki/Wind_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind tower">wind tower</a> can provide cooling as well as a water supply. A wind tower is a chimney-like structure positioned above the house; of its four openings, the one opposite the wind direction is opened to move air out of the house. Incoming air is pulled from a qanat below the house. The air flow across the vertical shaft opening creates a lower pressure (see <a href="/wiki/Bernoulli%27s_principle" title="Bernoulli's principle">Bernoulli effect</a>) and draws cool air up from the qanat tunnel, mixing with it.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The air from the qanat is drawn into the tunnel at some distance away and is cooled both by contact with the cool tunnel walls/water and by the transfer of <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">latent heat</a> of evaporation as water evaporates into the air stream. In dry desert climates this can result in a greater than 15 °C reduction in the air temperature coming from the qanat; the mixed air still feels dry, so the basement is cool and only comfortably moist (not damp). Wind tower and qanat cooling have been used in desert climates for over 1,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AbAnbarNain2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AbAnbarNain2.jpg/220px-AbAnbarNain2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AbAnbarNain2.jpg/330px-AbAnbarNain2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/AbAnbarNain2.jpg/440px-AbAnbarNain2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>A Persian <a href="/wiki/Ab_anbar" title="Ab anbar">ab anbar</a> with wind towers connected to a qanat</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ice_storage">Ice storage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ice storage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Yakhch%C4%81l" title="Yakhchāl">Yakhchāl</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpg/170px-Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpg/255px-Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpg/340px-Yakhchal_of_Yazd_province.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Yakhch%C4%81l" title="Yakhchāl">Yakhchāl</a> of Kheshti, in <a href="/wiki/Yazd_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazd Province">Yazd Province</a>, Iran</figcaption></figure> <p>By 400 BCE, Persian engineers had mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert.<sup id="cite_ref-Rael_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rael-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ice could be brought in during the winters from nearby mountains, but in a more usual and sophisticated method they built a wall in the east–west direction near a <a href="/wiki/Yakhchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakhchal">yakhchal</a> (ice pit). In winter, the qanat water would be channeled to the north side of the wall, whose shade made the water freeze more quickly, increasing the ice formed per winter day. Then the ice was stored in yakhchals—specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators.<sup id="cite_ref-Rael_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rael-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large underground space with thick insulated walls was connected to a qanat, and a system of <a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">windcatchers</a> or wind towers was used to draw cool subterranean air up from the qanat to maintain temperatures inside the space at low levels, even during hot summer days. As a result, the ice melted slowly and was available year-round.<sup id="cite_ref-Rael_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rael-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: By country"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Algeria">Algeria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Algeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foggara_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Foggara_02.jpg/220px-Foggara_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Foggara_02.jpg/330px-Foggara_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Foggara_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>Water "metering" through a distribution <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weir</a> on a <i>foggara</i> in Algeria</figcaption></figure> <p>Qanats (designated foggaras in <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>) are the source of water for irrigation in large <a href="/wiki/Oases" class="mw-redirect" title="Oases">oases</a> like <a href="/wiki/Gourara" class="mw-redirect" title="Gourara">Gourara</a>. The foggaras are also found at <a href="/wiki/Touat" title="Touat">Touat</a> (an area of Adrar 200 km from Gourara). The length of the foggaras in this region is estimated to be thousands of kilometers. Although sources suggest that the foggaras may have been in use as early as 200 CE, they were clearly in use by the 11th century after the Arabs took possession of the oases in the 10th century and the residents embraced Islam. The water is metered to the various users through the use of distribution <a href="/wiki/Weir" title="Weir">weirs</a> that meter flow to the various canals, each for a separate user. </p><p>The humidity of the oases is also used to supplement the water supply to the foggara. The temperature gradient in the vertical shafts causes air to rise by natural convection, causing a draft to enter the foggara. The moist air of the agricultural area is drawn into the foggara in the opposite direction to the water run-off. In the foggara it condenses on the tunnel walls and the air passes out of the vertical shafts. This condensed moisture is available for reuse.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt">Egypt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qanat irrigation technology was introduced to Egypt by the Achaemenid king <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> during his reign of 522 BCE-486 BCE, which is supported by the historian <a href="/wiki/Albert_T._Olmstead" title="Albert T. Olmstead">Albert T. Olmstead</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are four main oases in the Egyptian desert. The <a href="/wiki/Kharga_Oasis" title="Kharga Oasis">Kharga Oasis</a> is one that has been extensively studied. There is evidence that as early as the second half of the 5th century BCE water brought in qanats was being used. The qanats were excavated through water-bearing sandstone rock, which seeps into the channel, with water collected in a basin behind a small dam at the end. The width is approximately 60 cm (24 in), but the height ranges from 5 to 9 meters; it is likely that the qanat was deepened to enhance seepage when the water table dropped (as is also seen in Iran). From there the water was used to irrigate fields.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_22-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wuttman_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wuttman-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is another instructive structure located at the Kharga Oasis. A well that apparently dried up was improved by driving a side shaft through the easily penetrated sandstone (presumably in the direction of greatest water seepage) into the hill of Ayn-Manâwîr (also written <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ayn-Manawir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ayn-Manawir (page does not exist)">Ayn-Manawir</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn-Manawir" class="extiw" title="fr:Ayn-Manawir">fr</a>]</span> to allow collection of additional water. After this side shaft had been extended, another vertical shaft was driven to intersect the side shaft. Side chambers were built, and holes bored into the rock—presumably at points where water seeped from the rocks—are evident.<sup id="cite_ref-Wuttman_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wuttman-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Libya">Libya</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Libya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foggara_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Foggara_01.jpg/220px-Foggara_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Foggara_01.jpg/330px-Foggara_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Foggara_01.jpg/440px-Foggara_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Exit of a <i>foggara</i> in Libya</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/David_Mattingly_(author)" class="mw-redirect" title="David Mattingly (author)">David Mattingly</a> reports foggara extending for hundreds of miles in the <a href="/wiki/Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantes</a> area near <a href="/wiki/Germa" title="Germa">Germa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>: "The channels were generally very narrow – less than 2 feet wide and 5 high – but some were several miles long, and in total some 600 foggara extended for hundreds of miles underground. The channels were dug out and maintained using a series of regularly spaced vertical shafts, one every 30 feet or so, 100,000 in total, averaging 30 feet in depth, but sometimes reaching 130."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morocco">Morocco</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Morocco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BASA-3K-7-350-39-Water.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/BASA-3K-7-350-39-Water.jpg/220px-BASA-3K-7-350-39-Water.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/BASA-3K-7-350-39-Water.jpg/330px-BASA-3K-7-350-39-Water.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/BASA-3K-7-350-39-Water.jpg/440px-BASA-3K-7-350-39-Water.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3865" data-file-height="4292" /></a><figcaption>Irrigation cisterns (<i>sharij</i>) at Figuig date palm oasis in Morocco (1913)</figcaption></figure> <p>In southern Morocco, the qanat (locally <i>khettara</i>) is also used. On the margins of the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara Desert</a>, the isolated oases of the <a href="/wiki/Draa_River" title="Draa River">Draa River</a> valley and <a href="/wiki/Tafilalt" title="Tafilalt">Tafilalt</a> have relied on qanat water for irrigation since the late 14th century. In <a href="/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakech</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Al_Haouz_Province" title="Al Haouz Province">Haouz</a> plain, the qanats have been abandoned since the early 1970s, having dried up. In the Tafilaft area, half of the 400 khettaras are still in use. The 1971 <a href="/wiki/Hassan_I_Dam" title="Hassan I Dam">Hassan Adahkil Dam</a>'s build in the main course of the <a href="/wiki/Ziz_River" title="Ziz River">Ziz River</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and its subsequent impact on local water tables is said to be one of the many reasons for the loss of half of the khettara.<sup id="cite_ref-water_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-water-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The black berbers (<i><a href="/wiki/Haratin" title="Haratin">haratin</a></i>) of the south were the hereditary class of qanat diggers in Morocco who build and repair these systems. Their work was hazardous.<sup id="cite_ref-Nair_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nair-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tunisia">Tunisia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Tunisia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:At_Sfax,_showing_how_the_rainwater_was_gathered.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/At_Sfax%2C_showing_how_the_rainwater_was_gathered.jpg/220px-At_Sfax%2C_showing_how_the_rainwater_was_gathered.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/At_Sfax%2C_showing_how_the_rainwater_was_gathered.jpg/330px-At_Sfax%2C_showing_how_the_rainwater_was_gathered.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/At_Sfax%2C_showing_how_the_rainwater_was_gathered.jpg/440px-At_Sfax%2C_showing_how_the_rainwater_was_gathered.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2237" data-file-height="1777" /></a><figcaption>At Sfax, showing how the rainwater was gathered (1918)</figcaption></figure> <p>The foggara water management system in Tunisia, used to create oases, is similar to that of the Iranian qanat. The foggara is dug into the foothills of a fairly steep mountain range such as the eastern ranges of the <a href="/wiki/Atlas_Mountains" title="Atlas Mountains">Atlas Mountains</a>. Rainfall in the mountains enters the aquifer and moves toward the Saharan region to the south. The foggara, 1 to 3 km (0.62 to 1.9 mi) in length, penetrates the aquifer and collects water. Families maintain the foggara and own the land it irrigates over a ten-meter width, with length reckoned by the size of plot that the available water will irrigate.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Afghanistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The qanats are called kariz in <a href="/wiki/Dari_(Persian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dari (Persian)">Dari (Persian)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pashto_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashto language">Pashto</a> and have been in use since the pre-Islamic period. It is estimated that more than 9,370 karizes were in use in the 20th century. The oldest <i>functional</i> kariz which is more than 300 years old and 8 kilometers long is located in <a href="/wiki/Wardak_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Wardak province">Wardak province</a> and is still providing water to nearly 3,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of these ancient structures were destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Aghan War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maintenance has not always been possible. The cost of labour has become very high, and maintaining the kariz structures is no longer possible.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (April 2009)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Qanat#Dubious" title="Talk:Qanat">discuss</a></i>]</sup> Lack of skilled artisans who have the traditional knowledge also poses difficulties. A number of the large farmers are abandoning their kariz which has been in their families sometimes for centuries, and moving to <a href="/wiki/Tube_well" title="Tube well">tube</a> and dug wells backed by diesel pumps.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> However, the government of Afghanistan was aware of the importance of these structures and all efforts were made to repair, reconstruct and maintain (through the community) the kariz.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Rural_Rehabilitation_and_Development" title="Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development">Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development</a> along with national and international NGOs made the effort. There were still functional qanat systems in 2009. American forces were reported to have unintentionally destroyed some of the channels during expansion of a military base, creating tensions between them and the local community.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these tunnels were used to store supplies, and to move men and equipment underground.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Armenia">Armenia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Armenia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qanats have been preserved in <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> in the community of <a href="/wiki/Shvanidzor" title="Shvanidzor">Shvanidzor</a>, in the southern province of <a href="/wiki/Syunik_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Syunik Region">Syunik</a>, bordering with Iran. Qanats are named <i>kahrezes</i> in Armenian. There are 5 kahrezes in Shvanidzor. Four of them were constructed before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005. Potable water runs through three of them, and two are in poor condition. In the summer, especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Azerbaijan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The territory of <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a> was home to numerous kahrizes many centuries ago. Archaeological findings suggest that long before the 9th century CE, kahrizes by which the inhabitants brought potable and irrigation water to their settlements were in use in Azerbaijan. Traditionally, kahrizes were built and maintained by a group of masons called 'Kankans' with manual labour. The profession was handed down from father to son. </p><p>It is estimated that until the 20th century, nearly 1,500 kahrizes, of which as many as 400 were in the <a href="/wiki/Nakhichevan_Autonomous_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic">Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic</a>, existed in Azerbaijan. However, following the introduction of electric and fuel-pumped wells during Soviet times, kahrizes were neglected. Today, it is estimated that 800 are still functioning in Azerbaijan. These operational kahrizes are key to the life of many communities. </p><p>In 1999, upon the request of the communities in <a href="/wiki/Nakhichivan_Autonomous_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakhichivan Autonomous Republic">Nakhichevan</a>, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) began implementing a pilot programme to rehabilitate the kahrizes. By 2018 IOM rehabilitated more than 163 kahrizes with funds from the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_International_Development_Agency" title="Canadian International Development Agency">Canadian International Development Agency</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Agency_for_Development_and_Cooperation" title="Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation">Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Population,_Refugees,_and_Migration" title="Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration">Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration, US State Department</a>, and the self-contribution of the local communities. </p><p>In 2010, IOM began a kahriz rehabilitation project with funds from the <a href="/wiki/Korea_International_Cooperation_Agency" title="Korea International Cooperation Agency">Korea International Cooperation Agency</a>. During the First Phase of the action which lasted until January 2013, a total of 20 kahrizes in the mainland of Azerbaijan have been renovated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpg/220px-Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpg/330px-Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpg/440px-Turpan-karez-museo-d02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Turfan_water_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan water system">Karez</a> gallery near <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, China</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Turpan_water_system" title="Turpan water system">Turpan water system</a></div> <p>The oasis of <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a>, in the deserts of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> in northwestern China, uses water provided by qanat (locally called <i>karez</i>). There are nearly 1,000 karez systems in the area, and the total length of the canals is about 5,000 kilometers.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Turpan has long been the center of a fertile oasis and an important trade center along the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Silk_Road" title="Northern Silk Road">Northern Silk Road</a>, at which time it was adjacent to the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Korla" title="Korla">Korla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karashahr" class="mw-redirect" title="Karashahr">Karashahr</a> to the southwest. The historical record of the karez extends back to the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>. The Turfan Water Museum is a <a href="/wiki/Protected_Areas_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected Areas of the People's Republic of China">Protected Area of the People's Republic of China</a> because of the importance of the Turpan karez water system to the history of the area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran">Iran</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Iran"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Traditional_water_sources_of_Persian_antiquity" title="Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity">Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity</a></div> <p>In the middle of the 20th century, an estimated 50,000 <i>qanats</i> were in use in Iran,<sup id="cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> each commissioned and maintained by local users. Of these, only 37,000 remain in use as of 2015. One of the oldest and largest known qanats is in the Iranian city of <a href="/wiki/Gonabad" title="Gonabad">Gonabad</a>, and after 2,700 years still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people. Its main well depth is more than 360 meters and its length is 45 kilometers. <a href="/wiki/Yazd" title="Yazd">Yazd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_(Province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Khorasan (Province)">Khorasan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kerman</a> are zones known for their dependence on an extensive system of <i>qanats</i>. </p><p>In 2016, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> inscribed the Persian Qanat as a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites" class="mw-redirect" title="World Heritage Sites">World Heritage Site</a>, listing the following eleven qanats: <a href="/wiki/Qanats_of_Gonabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Qanats of Gonabad">Qasebeh Qanat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qanats_of_Baladeh_Ferdows" title="Qanats of Baladeh Ferdows">Qanat of Baladeh</a>, Qanat of Zarch, Hasan Abad-e Moshir Qanat, Ebrāhim Ābād Qanat in Markazi Province, Qanat of Vazvān in Esfahan Province, Mozd Ābād Qanat in Esfahan Province, Qanat of the Moon in Esfahan Province, Qanat of Gowhar-riz in Kerman Province, Jupār – Ghāsem Ābād Qanat in Kerman Province, and Akbar Ābād Qanat in Kerman Province.<sup id="cite_ref-ICOMOS_2016_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICOMOS_2016-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO_ICHHT_2015_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO_ICHHT_2015-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2002, UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme Intergovernmental Council began investigating the possibility of an international qanat research center to be located in Yazd, Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Qanats_of_Gonabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Qanats of Gonabad">Qanats of Gonabad</a>, also called kariz <a href="/wiki/Kai_Khosrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Kai Khosrow">Kai Khosrow</a>, is one of the oldest and largest qanats in the world built between 700 BCE to 500 BCE. It is located at <a href="/wiki/Gonabad" title="Gonabad">Gonabad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Razavi_Khorasan_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Razavi Khorasan Province">Razavi Khorasan Province</a>. This property contains 427 water wells with total length of 33,113 m (20.575 miles).<sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO_list_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO_list-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UNESCO_Persian_Qanat_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNESCO_Persian_Qanat-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG/220px-Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG/330px-Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG/440px-Ancient_water_clock_used_in_qanat_of_gonabad_2500_years_ago.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>An ancient Persian <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clock</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_clock_zibad.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Water_clock_zibad.JPG/220px-Water_clock_zibad.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Water_clock_zibad.JPG/330px-Water_clock_zibad.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Water_clock_zibad.JPG/440px-Water_clock_zibad.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>An ancient Persian clock in the <a href="/wiki/Qanats_of_Gonabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Qanats of Gonabad">Qanats of Gonabad</a>, Zibad</figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes" title="Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a>, the Persians were using <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clocks</a> in 328 BCE to ensure a just and exact distribution of water from qanats to their shareholders for agricultural irrigation. The use of water clocks in Iran, especially in Qanats of Gonabad and kariz <a href="/wiki/Zibad" title="Zibad">Zibad</a>, dates back to 500 BCE. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a></i>, <i>Chelah</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Yald%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaldā">Yaldā</a></i> – the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years.<sup id="cite_ref-Qanat_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qanat-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water clock, or <i>Fenjaan</i>, was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from the Qanats of Gonabad until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks.<sup id="cite_ref-amordadnews.com_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-amordadnews.com-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the Iranian qanats bear some characteristics which allow us to call them feat of engineering, considering the intricate techniques used in their construction. The eastern and central regions of Iran hold the most qanats due to low precipitation and lack of permanent surface streams, whereas a small number of qanats can be found in the northern and western parts which receive more rainfall and enjoy some permanent rivers. Respectively the provinces <a href="/wiki/Razavi_Khorasan" class="mw-redirect" title="Razavi Khorasan">Khorasan Razavi</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Khorasan_province" title="South Khorasan province">Southern Khorasan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_province" title="Isfahan province">Isfahan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yazd_province" title="Yazd province">Yazd</a> accommodate the most qanats, but from the viewpoint of water discharge the provinces Isfahan, Khorasan Razavi, <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kerman_province" title="Kerman province">Kerman</a> are ranked first to fourth. </p><p>Henri Golbot explored the genesis of the qanat in his 1979 publication, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Les Qanats. Une technique d'acquisition de l'eau</i></span> (The Qanats. A Technique for Obtaining Water),<sup id="cite_ref-Golbot_1979_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golbot_1979-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argues that the ancient Iranians made use of the water that the miners wished to get rid of it, and founded a basic system named qanat or kariz to supply the required water to their farm lands. According to Golbot, this innovation took place in the northwest of the present Iran somewhere bordering Turkey and later was introduced to the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a>. </p><p>According to an inscription left by Sargon II, the king of Assyria, in 714 BCE he invaded the city of Uhlu lying in the northwest of Uroomiye lake that lay in the territory of Urartu empire, and then he noticed that the occupied area enjoyed a very rich vegetation even though there was no river running across it. So he managed to discover the reason why the area could stay green and realized that there were some qanats behind the matter. In fact it was Ursa, the king of the region, who had rescued the people from thirst and turned Uhlu into a prosperous and green land. Golbot believes that the influence of the Medeans and Achaemenids made the technology of qanat spread from Urartu, in the western north of Iran and near the present border between Iran and Turkey, to all over the Iranian plateau. </p><p>It was an Achaemenid ruling that in case someone succeeded in constructing a qanat and bringing groundwater to the surface in order to cultivate land, or in renovating an abandoned qanat, the tax he was supposed to pay the government would be waived not only for him but also for his successors for up to 5 generations. During this period, the technology of qanat was in its heyday and it even spread to other countries. For example, following Darius's order, Silaks the naval commander of the Persian army and Khenombiz the royal architect managed to construct a qanat in the oasis of Kharagha in Egypt. </p><p>Beadnell believes that qanat construction dates back to two distinct periods: they were first constructed by the Persians, and later the Romans dug some other qanats during their reign in Egypt from 30 BCE to 395 CE. The magnificent temple built in this area during Darius's reign shows that there was a considerable population depending on the water of qanats. Ragerz has estimated this population to be 10,000 people. The most reliable document confirming the existence of qanats at this time was written by <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> who states that: "the streams are running down from everywhere at the base of Alborz mountain, and people have transferred too much water from a long distance through some subterranean canals by spending much cost and labor." </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a> era, which began after the occupation of Iran by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, it seems that the qanats were abandoned. In terms of the situation of qanats during this era, some historical records have been found. In a study by Russian orientalist scholars it has been mentioned that: the Persians used the side branches of rivers, mountain springs, wells and qanats to supply water. The subterranean galleries excavated to obtain groundwater were named as qanat. These galleries were linked to the surface through some vertical shafts which were sunk in order to get access to the gallery to repair it if necessary. </p><p>According to the historical records, the Parthian kings did not care about the qanats the way the Achaemenid kings and even Sassanid kings did. As an instance, Arsac III, one of the Parthian kings, destroyed some qanats in order to make it difficult for Seleucid Antiochus to advance further while fighting him. The historical records from this time indicate a perfect regulation on both water distribution and farmlands. All the water rights were recorded in a special document which was referred to in case of any transaction. The lists of farmlands – whether private or governmental – were kept at the tax department. During this period there were some official rulings on qanats, streams, construction of dam, operation and maintenance of qanats, etc. </p><p>The government proceeded to repair or dredge the qanats that were abandoned or destroyed, and to construct the new qanats if necessary. A document written in the Pahlavi language points out the important role of qanats in developing the cities at that time. In Iran, the advent of Islam, which coincided with the overthrow of the Sassanid dynasty, brought about a profound change in religious, political, social and cultural structures. But the qanats stayed intact because the economic infrastructure including qanats was of great importance to the Arabs. As an instance, M. Lombard reports that the Moslem clerics who lived during Abbasid period, such as Abooyoosef Ya'qoob (died 798 CE) stipulated that whoever can bring water to the idle lands in order to cultivate, his tax would be waived and he would be entitled to the lands cultivated. Therefore, this policy did not differ from that of the Achaemenids in not getting any tax from the people who revived abandoned lands. </p><p>The Arabs' supportive policy on qanats was so successful that even <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> gained a qanat. The Persian historian Hamdollah Mostowfi writes: "Zobeyde Khatoon (Haroon al-Rashid's wife) constructed a qanat in Mecca. After the time of Haroon al-Rashid, during the caliph Moghtader's reign this qanat fell into decay, but he rehabilitated it, and the qanat was rehabilitated again after it collapsed during the reign of two other caliphs named Ghaem and Naser. After the era of the caliphs this qanat completely fell into ruin because the desert sand filled it up, but later Amir Choopan repaired the qanat and made it flow again in Mecca."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>There are also other historical texts proving that the Abbasids were concerned about qanats. For example, according to the "Incidents of Abdollah bin Tahir's Time" written by Gardizi, in 830 CE a terrible earthquake struck the town of Forghaneh and reduced many homes to rubble. The inhabitants of Neyshaboor used to come to Abdollah bin Tahir in order to request him to intervene, for they fought over their qanats and found the relevant instruction or law on qanat as a solution neither in the prophet's quotations nor in the clerics' writings. So Abdollah bin Tahir managed to bring together all the clergymen from throughout Khorasan and Iraq to compile a book entitled <i>Alghani</i> (The Book of Qanat). This book collected all the rulings on qanats which could be of use to whoever wanted to judge a dispute over this issue. Gardizi added that this book was still applicable to his time, and everyone made references to this book. One can deduce from these facts that during the above-mentioned period the number of qanats was so considerable that the authorities were prompted to put together some legal instructions concerning them. Also it shows that from the 9th to 11th centuries the qanats that were the hub of the agricultural systems were also of interest to the government. </p><p>Apart from "The Book of Alghani", which is considered as a law booklet focusing on qanat-related rulings based on Islamic principles, there is another book about groundwater written by Karaji in 1010. This book, entitled <i>Extraction of Hidden Waters</i>, examines just the technical issues associated with the qanat and tries to answer the common questions such as how to construct and repair a qanat, how to find a groundwater supply, how to do leveling, etc.. Some of the innovations described in this book were introduced for the first time in the history of hydrogeology, and some of its technical methods are still valid and can be applied in qanat construction. The content of the book implies that its writer (Karaji) did not have any idea that there was another book on qanats compiled by the clergymen. </p><p>There are some records dating back to that time, signifying their concern about the legal vicinity of qanats. For example, Mohammad bin Hasan quotes Aboo-Hanifeh that in case someone constructs a qanat in abandoned land, someone else can dig another qanat in the same land on the condition that the second qanat is 500 zera' (375 meters) away from the first one. </p><p>Ms. Lambton quotes Moeen al-din Esfarzi who wrote the book <i>Rowzat al-Jannat</i> (the garden of paradise) that Abdollah bin Tahir (from the Taherian dynasty) and Ismaeel Ahmed Samani (from the Samani dynasty) had several qanats constructed in Neyshaboor. Later, in the 11th century, a writer named Nasir Khosrow acknowledged all those qanats with the following words: "Neyshaboor is located in a vast plain at a distance of 40 Farsang (≈240 km) from Serakhs and 70 Farsang (≈420 km) from Mary (Marv) ... all the qanats of this city run underground, and it is said that an Arab who was offended by the people of Neyshaboor has complained that; what a beautiful city Neyshaboor could have become if its qanats would have flowed on the ground surface and instead its people would have been underground." These documents all certify the importance of qanats during the Islamic history within the cultural territories of Iran. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF.jpg/220px-%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF.jpg/330px-%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF.jpg/440px-%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AF%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Kariz Gonabad Iran</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 13th century, the invasion of Iran by Mongolian tribes reduced many qanats and irrigation systems to ruin, and many qanats were deserted and dried up. Later, in the era of the Ilkhanid dynasty especially at the time of Ghazan Khan and his Persian minister Rashid al-Din Fazl-Allah, some measures were taken to revive the qanats and irrigation systems. There is a 14th-century book entitled <i>Al-Vaghfiya Al-Rashidiya</i> (Rashid's Deeds of Endowment) that names all the properties located in Yazd, Shiraz, Maraghe, Tabriz, Isfahan and Mowsel that Rashid Fazl-Allah donated to the public or religious places. This book mentions many qanats running at that time and irrigating a considerable area of farmland.<sup id="cite_ref-Qanat_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qanat-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, another book, entitled <i>Jame' al-Kheyrat</i>, was written by Seyyed Rokn al-Din on the same subject as Rashid's book. In this book, Seyyed Rokn al-Din names the properties he donated in the region of Yazd. These deeds of endowment indicate that much attention was given to the qanats during the reign of Ilkhanids, but it is attributable to their Persian ministers, who influenced them.<sup id="cite_ref-Qanat_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Qanat-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1984–1985 the ministry of energy took a census of 28,038 qanats whose total discharge was 9 billion cubic meters. In the years 1992–1993 the census of 28,054 qanats showed a total discharge of 10 billion cubic meters. 10 years later in 2002–2003 the number of the qanats was reported as 33,691 with a total discharge of 8 billion cubic meters. </p><p>In the restricted regions there are 317,225 wells, qanats and springs that discharge 36,719 million cubic meters water per year, out of which 3,409 million cubic meters is surplus to the aquifer capacity. in 2005, in the country as a whole, there were 130,008 deep wells with a discharge of 31,403 million cubic meters, 33,8041 semi deep wells with a discharge of 13,491 million cubic meters, 34,355 qanats with a discharge of 8,212 million cubic meters, and 55,912 natural springs with a discharge of 21,240 million cubic meters.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, a British trained architect Margot Krasojević designed a luxury eco hotel based on principles of qanat and windcatchers in a desert in Iran, called <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.greenprophet.com/2022/05/qanat-eco-hotel-iran-desert/">Qanat</a>. The project has not yet been built but offers ideas for applying ancient technology to modern-day cooling problems in the desert. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iraq">Iraq</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Iraq"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A survey of qanat systems in the <a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a> region of Iraq conducted by the Department of Geography at <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_State_University" title="Oklahoma State University">Oklahoma State University</a> (US) on behalf of <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> in 2009 found that out of 683 karez systems, some 380 were still active in 2004, but only 116 were active by 2009. Reasons for the decline of qanats include "abandonment and neglect" prior to 2004, "excessive pumping from wells" and, since 2005, drought. Water shortages are said to have forced, since 2005, over 100,000 people who depended for their livelihoods on karez systems to leave their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Hindu_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study says that a single karez has the potential to provide enough household water for nearly 9,000 individuals and irrigate over 200 hectares of farmland. UNESCO and the government of Iraq plan to rehabilitate the karez through a Karez Initiative for Community Revitalization launched in 2010. Most of the karez are in <a href="/wiki/Sulaymaniyah_Governorate" title="Sulaymaniyah Governorate">Sulaymaniyah Governorate</a> (84%). A large number are also found in <a href="/wiki/Erbil_Governorate" title="Erbil Governorate">Erbil Governorate</a> (13%), especially on the broad plain around and in Erbil city.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In India, there are karez systems are located at Bidar, Bijapur, Burhanpur "(Kundi Bhandara)", and Aurgangabad. The Bidar karez systems were probably the first dug in India. It dates to the Bahmani period. Bidar has three karez systems as per <a href="/wiki/Ghulam_Yazdani" title="Ghulam Yazdani">Ghulam Yazdani</a>'s documentation.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other than Naubad there are two more karez systems in Bidar, "Shukla Theerth" and "Jamna Mori". The Shukla theerth is the longest karez system in Bidar. The mother well of this karez has been discovered by near Gornalli Kere, a historic embankment. The third system called Jamna mori is more of a distribution system within the old city area with many channels crisscrossing the city lanes.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Restoration efforts commenced in 2014, with the desilting and excavation of the Naubad Karez in 2015, uncovering 27 vertical shafts linked to the Karez. The rejuvenation of the system has had a significant impact on the water-deficit city of Bidar. A seventh line of the system was discovered in 2016 during a sewage line excavation.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Hindu_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Hindu-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Valliyil Govindankutty, assistant professor in geography at <a href="/wiki/Government_College,_Chittur" title="Government College, Chittur">Government College, Chittur</a>, was responsible for rediscovery and mapping of the Naubad Karez System in 2012-2013. Later in 2014-2016 team YUVAA joined Govindankutty to help uncover Other two Karez Systems in Bidar.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Detailed documentation of the Naubad karez system was done in August 2013 and a report was submitted to District Administration of Bidar that found several new facts. The research has led to the initiation of cleaning the debris and collapsed sections paving the way to its rejuvenation. The cleaning of karez has led to bringing water to higher areas of the plateau, and it has in turn recharged the wells in the vicinity. </p><p>The Bijapur karez system is much more complicated. A reveals that it has surface water and groundwater connections. The Bijapur karez is a network of shallow masonry aqueducts, terracotta/ceramic pipes, embankments and reservoirs, tanks etc. All weave together a network to ensure water reaches the old city. The system starts at Torwi and extends as shallow aqueducts and further as pipes; further it becomes deeper from the Sainik school area onward which exists as a tunnel dug through the geology. The system can be clearly traced up to Ibrahim Roja. </p><p>In Aurangabad the karez systems are called nahars. These are shallow aqueducts running through the city. There are 14 aqueducts in Aurangabad. The Nahar-i-Ambari is the oldest and longest. Its again a combination of shallow aqueducts, open channels, pipes, cisterns, etc. The source of water is a surface water body. The karez has been constructed right below the bed of lake. The lake water seeps through the soil into the Karez Gallery. </p><p>In Burhanpur the karez is called "Kundi-Bhandara", sometimes wrongly referred to as"Khuni Bhandara". The system is approx 6 km long starts from the alluvial fans of Satpura hills in the north of the town. Unlike Bidar, Bijapur and Aurgangabad the System airvents are round in shape. Inside the Karez one could see lime depositions on the walls. The Systems ends to carry water further to palaces and public fountains through pipe line. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Indonesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been suggested that underground temples at Gua Made in <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> reached by shafts, in which masks of a green metal were found, originated as a qanat.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Japan there are several dozen qanat-like structures, locally known as 'mambo' or 'manbo', most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Mie_Prefecture" title="Mie Prefecture">Mie</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gifu_Prefecture" title="Gifu Prefecture">Gifu Prefectures</a>. Whereas some link their origin clearly to the Chinese karez, and therefore to the Iranian source,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Japanese conference in 2008 found insufficient scientific studies to evaluate the origins of the mambo.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jordan">Jordan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Jordan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the qanats built in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the 94 km (58 miles) long <a href="/wiki/Gadara_Aqueduct" title="Gadara Aqueduct">Gadara Aqueduct</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> was possibly the longest continuous qanat ever built.<sup id="cite_ref-Querschnitt_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Querschnitt-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Partly following the course of an older <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> aqueduct, excavation work arguably started after a visit by emperor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> in 129–130 CE. The Gadara Aqueduct was never totally finished and was put in service only in sections. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Pakistan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Pakistan qanat irrigation system is endemic only in <a href="/wiki/Balochistan,_Pakistan" title="Balochistan, Pakistan">Balochistan</a>. The major concentration is in the north and northwest along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border and oasis of Makoran division. The karez system of the Balochistan desert is on the tentative list for future world heritage sites in Pakistan.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The acute shortage of water resources give water a decisive role in the regional conflicts arose in the course of history of Balochistan. Therefore, in Balochistan, the possession of water resources is more important than ownership of land. Hence afterward a complex system for the collection, channeling and distribution of water was developed in Balochistan. Similarly, the distribution and unbiased flow of water to different stockholders also necessitate the importance of different societal classes in Balochistan in general and particularly in Makoran. </p><p>For instance, sarrishta, literally, head of the chain, is responsible for administration of channel. He normally owns the largest water quota. Under sarrishta, there are several heads of owners issadar who also possessed larger water quotas. The social hierarchy within Baloch society of Makoran depends upon the possession of largest quotas of water. The role of sarrishta in some cases hierarchical and passing from generations within the family and he must have the knowledge of the criteria of unbiased distribution of water among different issadar. </p><p>The sharing of water is based on a complex indigenous system of measurement depends upon time and space particularly to the phases of moon; the hangams. Based on seasonal variations and share of water the hangams are apportioned among various owners over period of seven or fourteen days. However, in some places, instead of hangam, anna used which is based on twelve-hour period for each quota. Therefore, if a person own 16 quotas it means that he is entitled for water for eight days in high seasons and 16 days in winter when water level went down as well as expectation of winter rain (Baharga) in Makran region. The twelve-hour water quota again subdivided into several sub-fractions of local measuring scales such as tas or pad (Dr Gul Hasan Pro VC LUAWMS, 2 day National conference on Kech). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Chagai_District" title="Chagai District">Chagai district</a> is in the north west corner of <a href="/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balochistan (Pakistan)">Balochistan</a>, Pakistan, bordering with <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and Iran. Qanats, locally known as <a href="/wiki/Kahn" title="Kahn">Kahn</a>, are found more broadly in this region. They are spread from Chaghai district all the way up to <a href="/wiki/Zhob" title="Zhob">Zhob</a> district. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syria">Syria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Syria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qanats were found over much of Syria. The widespread installation of groundwater pumps has lowered the water table and qanat system. Qanats have gone dry and been abandoned across the country.<sup id="cite_ref-water_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-water-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oman">Oman</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Oman"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Oman from the Iron Age period (found in Salut, Bat and other sites) a system of underground aqueducts called '<a href="/wiki/Aflaj_Irrigation_Systems_of_Oman" title="Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman">Falaj</a>' were constructed, a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping horizontal tunnels. There are three types of Falaj: Daudi (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">داوودية</span>) with underground aqueducts, Ghaili (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الغيلية</span>) requiring a dam to collect the water, and Aini (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">العينية</span>) whose source is a water spring. These enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dryland environment. According to UNESCO, some 3,000 <i>aflaj</i> (plural) or <i>falaj</i> (singular), are still in use in Oman today. <a href="/wiki/Nizwa" title="Nizwa">Nizwa</a>, the former <a href="/wiki/Capital_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital (political)">capital</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>, was built around a <i>falaj</i> which is in use to this day. These systems date to before the Iron Age in Oman. In July 2006, five representative examples of this irrigation system were inscribed as a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Arab_Emirates">United Arab Emirates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: United Arab Emirates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg/170px-Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg/255px-Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg/340px-Falaj_at_al_ain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>The falaj irrigation system at <a href="/wiki/Al_Ain_Oasis" title="Al Ain Oasis">Al Ain Oasis</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The oases of the city of Al Ain (particularly <a href="/wiki/Al_Ain_Oasis" title="Al Ain Oasis">Al-Ain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qattara_Oasis" title="Qattara Oasis">Al-Qattarah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Mutaredh_Oasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mutaredh Oasis">Al-Mu'taredh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Jimi_Oasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jimi Oasis">Al-Jimi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Muwaiji_Oasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muwaiji Oasis">Al-Muwaiji</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hili_Oasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hili Oasis">Hili</a>), adjacent to <a href="/wiki/Al_Buraimi_Governorate" title="Al Buraimi Governorate">Al-Buraimi</a> in Oman, continue traditional <i>falaj</i> (qanat) irrigations for the palm groves and gardens, and form part of the city's ancient heritage.<sup id="cite_ref-Tikriti2002_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tikriti2002-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OBG2010_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OBG2010-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple <i>aflaj</i> have been found from the early Iron Age, as early as 1100 BC, and some sources claim these to be the earliest examples of the qanat irrigation system.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The falaj system continued to be in use into the early <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">Pre Islamic</a> (300 BC - 300 AD) and were reintroduced after the early Islamic conquests in the souqs of <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Ras_Al_Khaimah" title="Emirate of Ras Al Khaimah">Julfar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dibba" title="Dibba">Dibba</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tawam_(region)" title="Tawam (region)">Tawwam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Islamic geographer <a href="/wiki/Al-Muqaddasi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Muqaddasi">Al Muqqadasi</a> stated<i>: "Hafit {Tuwwam} abounds in <a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">palm</a> trees"</i> in the 10th century, indicating extensive use of the falaj system. The falaj system is still operating in the city of Al Ain, as well as in multiple mountainous settlements, including the villages of <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Shis" title="Wadi Shis">Wadi Shees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Masafi" title="Masafi">Masafi</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Greece">Greece</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Greece"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tunnel_of_Eupalinos" title="Tunnel of Eupalinos">Tunnel of Eupalinos</a> on <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a> runs for 1 kilometre through a hill to supply water to <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreio" title="Pythagoreio">Pythagorion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was built on the order of <a href="/wiki/Polycrates" title="Polycrates">Polycrates</a> around 550 BCE. At either end of the tunnel proper, shallow <i>qanat</i>-like tunnels carried the water from the spring and to the town. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palacio_del_marqu%C3%A9s_de_Villafranca_(Madrid)_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Palacio_del_marqu%C3%A9s_de_Villafranca_%28Madrid%29_02.jpg/170px-Palacio_del_marqu%C3%A9s_de_Villafranca_%28Madrid%29_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Palacio_del_marqu%C3%A9s_de_Villafranca_%28Madrid%29_02.jpg/255px-Palacio_del_marqu%C3%A9s_de_Villafranca_%28Madrid%29_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Palacio_del_marqu%C3%A9s_de_Villafranca_%28Madrid%29_02.jpg/340px-Palacio_del_marqu%C3%A9s_de_Villafranca_%28Madrid%29_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4272" /></a><figcaption>A preserved <i>viaje de agua</i> in Madrid</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italy">Italy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 5,653 m (3.513 miles) long <a href="/wiki/Tunnels_of_Claudius" title="Tunnels of Claudius">Tunnels of Claudius</a>, intended to partially drain the largest Italian inland water, <a href="/wiki/Fucine_Lake" title="Fucine Lake">Fucine Lake</a>, was constructed using the qanat technique. It featured shafts up to 122 m deep.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The entire ancient town of <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> was equipped with a huge qanat system built during the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Arab period (827–1072)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the qanats are now mapped and some can be visited. The famous Scirocco room has an air-conditioning system cooled by the flow of water in a qanat and a "wind tower", a structure able to catch the wind and use it to draw the cooled air up into the room. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Luxembourg"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Raschp%C3%ABtzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Raschpëtzer">Raschpëtzer</a> near <a href="/wiki/Helmsange" title="Helmsange">Helmsange</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a> is a particularly well preserved example of a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> qanat. It is probably the most extensive system of its kind north of the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>. To date, some 330 m of the total tunnel length of 600 m have been explored. Thirteen of the 20 to 25 shafts have been investigated.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The qanat appears to have provided water for a large <a href="/wiki/Roman_villa" title="Roman villa">Roman villa</a> on the slopes of the <a href="/wiki/Alzette" title="Alzette">Alzette</a> valley. It was built during the <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Roman">Gallo-Roman</a> period, probably around the year 150 and functioned for about 120 years thereafter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spain">Spain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Irrigation_Alhambra_gardens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Irrigation_Alhambra_gardens.jpg/220px-Irrigation_Alhambra_gardens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Irrigation_Alhambra_gardens.jpg/330px-Irrigation_Alhambra_gardens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Irrigation_Alhambra_gardens.jpg/440px-Irrigation_Alhambra_gardens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3012" data-file-height="2045" /></a><figcaption>Irrigation at the <a href="/wiki/Alhambra" title="Alhambra">Alhambra</a> gardens in <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>There are still many examples of <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">galería</i></span> or qanat systems in Spain, most likely brought to the area by the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> during their rule of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian peninsula">Iberian peninsula</a>. <a href="/wiki/Turrillas" title="Turrillas">Turrillas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Andalusia" title="Andalusia">Andalusia</a> on the north facing slopes of the Sierra de Alhamilla has evidence of a qanat system. <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a> is another site with an extensive qanat system.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> they were called <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es-ES">viajes de agua</i></span> and were used until the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Canal_de_Isabel_II" title="Canal de Isabel II">Canal de Isabel II</a>. See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Viaje_de_agua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viaje de agua (page does not exist)">Viaje de agua</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viaje_de_agua" class="extiw" title="es:Viaje de agua">es</a>]</sup> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Viajes_de_agua_en_el_Madrid_hist%C3%B3rico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viajes de agua en el Madrid histórico (page does not exist)">Viajes de agua en el Madrid histórico</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viajes_de_agua_en_el_Madrid_hist%C3%B3rico" class="extiw" title="es:Viajes de agua en el Madrid histórico">es</a>]</sup> in Spanish. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Americas">The Americas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: The Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pages_from_1897_maybe_LOC_Los_Angeles,_California,_the_city_and_county_(1)_page_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Pages_from_1897_maybe_LOC_Los_Angeles%2C_California%2C_the_city_and_county_%281%29_page_1.jpg/220px-Pages_from_1897_maybe_LOC_Los_Angeles%2C_California%2C_the_city_and_county_%281%29_page_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Pages_from_1897_maybe_LOC_Los_Angeles%2C_California%2C_the_city_and_county_%281%29_page_1.jpg/330px-Pages_from_1897_maybe_LOC_Los_Angeles%2C_California%2C_the_city_and_county_%281%29_page_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Pages_from_1897_maybe_LOC_Los_Angeles%2C_California%2C_the_city_and_county_%281%29_page_1.jpg/440px-Pages_from_1897_maybe_LOC_Los_Angeles%2C_California%2C_the_city_and_county_%281%29_page_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Zanja" title="Zanja">zanjas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia">acequias</a> of the Americas are qanats by way of Spanish colonization</figcaption></figure> <p>Qanats in the Americas, usually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Puquios" title="Puquios">puquios</a> or filtration galleries, can be found in the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazca Province">Nazca Province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> and in northern <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-water_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-water-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origin and dating of the Nazca puquios is disputed, although some archaeologists have asserted that they were constructed by the indigenous people of the <a href="/wiki/Nazca_culture" title="Nazca culture">Nazca culture</a> beginning about 500 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Schreiber_and_Lancho_Rojas_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schreiber_and_Lancho_Rojas-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish introduced qanats into Mexico in 1520 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Atacama_Desert" title="Atacama Desert">Atacama Desert</a> of northern Chile the shafts of puquios are known as <i>socavones</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Licteetal2020_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Licteetal2020-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Socavones</i> are known to exist in <a href="/wiki/Azapa_Valley" title="Azapa Valley">Azapa Valley</a> and the oasis of <a href="/wiki/Sibaya" title="Sibaya">Sibaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pica,_Chile" title="Pica, Chile">Pica</a>-<a href="/wiki/Matilla" title="Matilla">Matilla</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Puquio_de_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez" title="Puquio de Núñez">Puquio de Núñez</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Licteetal2020_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Licteetal2020-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1918 geologist <a href="/wiki/Juan_Br%C3%BCggen" title="Juan Brüggen">Juan Brüggen</a> mentioned the existence of 23 <i>socavones</i> in the Pica oasis, yet these have since then been abandoned due to economic and social changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Licteetal2020_74-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Licteetal2020-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Cultural references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an August 21, 1906, letter written from <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, Florence Khanum, the American wife of Persian diplomat Ali Kuli Khan, described the use of qanats for the garden at the home of her brother-in-law, General Husayn Kalantar,<sup id="cite_ref-Getty_1913_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Getty_1913-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> January 1, 1913<sup id="cite_ref-Gail_1991_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gail_1991-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"The air is the most marvellous I ever was in, in any city. Mountain air, so sweet, dry and "preserving", delicious and life-giving.' She told of running streams, and fresh water bubbling up in the gardens. (This omnipresence of water, which doubtless spread from Persia to Baghdad and from there to Spain during its Muslim days, has given Spanish many a water-word: aljibe, for example, is Persian jub, brook; cano or pipe, is Arabic qanat—reed, canal. Thus J. T. Shipley, <i>Dictionary of Word Origins</i>)."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Florence Khanum (1906) cited in <i>Arches of the Years</i> (1999)</cite></div></blockquote><p> An old tradition in Iran was to hold symbolic wedding ceremonies between widows and qanats in which the widow became the "wife" of the qanat. This was believed to help ensure the continued flow of water.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryk" title="Aryk">Aryk</a> – Irrigation canal of central Asia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suranga" title="Suranga">Suranga</a> – Traditional water management system in Kerala and Karnataka, south India</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acequia" title="Acequia">Acequia</a> – Community-operated watercourse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aflaj_Irrigation_Systems_of_Oman" title="Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman">Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">History of water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menara_gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Menara gardens">Menara gardens</a> – Public garden in Marrakech, Morocco<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_water_sources_of_Persian_antiquity" title="Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity">Traditional water sources of Persian antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_cascade_system" title="Tank cascade system">Tank cascade system</a> – Ancient irrigation system in Sri Lanka</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFReminiKechardAchour2014" class="citation journal cs1">Remini, B.; Kechard, R.; Achour, B. (2014-12-01). "THE COLLECTING OF GROUNDWATER BY THE QANATS: A MILLENNIUM TECHNIQUE DECAYING". <i>Larhyss Journal</i> (20): 259–277.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Larhyss+Journal&rft.atitle=THE+COLLECTING+OF+GROUNDWATER+BY+THE+QANATS%3A+A+MILLENNIUM+TECHNIQUE+DECAYING.&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=259-277&rft.date=2014-12-01&rft.aulast=Remini&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Kechard%2C+R.&rft.au=Achour%2C+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kheirabadi-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kheirabadi_2-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKheirabadi,_Masoud1991" class="citation book cs1">Kheirabadi, Masoud (1991). <i>Iranian Cities: Formation and Development</i>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-78517-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-78517-5"><bdi>978-0-292-78517-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iranian+Cities%3A+Formation+and+Development&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-292-78517-5&rft.au=Kheirabadi%2C+Masoud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ajam_Qanats_2003-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ajam_Qanats_2003_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAjam2003" class="citation conference cs1">Ajam, Mohammad (2003). <i>Iranian Qanats: a heritage from ancient</i>. Seminar of Qanat in Gonabad. <a href="/wiki/Gonabad" title="Gonabad">Gonabad</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Iranian+Qanats%3A+a+heritage+from+ancient&rft.place=Gonabad&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Ajam&rft.aufirst=Mohammad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reading in World Cultures - Paul Thomas Welty</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nair-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nair_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nair_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060616215409/http://www.boloji.com/environment/24.htm">"Article titled Etymological Conduit to the Land of Qanat by Dr. V. Sankaran Nair, 2004"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boloji.com/environment/24.htm">the original</a> on 2006-06-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Article+titled+Etymological+Conduit+to+the+Land+of+Qanat+by+Dr.+V.+Sankaran+Nair%2C+2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.boloji.com%2Fenvironment%2F24.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson_2008-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_2008_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_2008_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wilson_(classical_archaeologist)" title="Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist)">Wilson, Andrew</a> (2008). "Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply". In <a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">Oleson, John Peter</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107055629/http://glirby.people.wm.edu/COLL100/Oxford-HydraulicEngineering.pdf"><i>Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 290–293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973485-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973485-6"><bdi>978-0-19-973485-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glirby.people.wm.edu/COLL100/Oxford-HydraulicEngineering.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-11-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2000), Renovating Qanats in a changing world, a case study in Syria, paper presented to the International Syposuim on Qanats, May 2000, Yazd, Iran, quoted in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/">WaterHistory.org:Qanats</a>, accessed on October 25, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTapperMcLachlan2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Tapper" title="Richard Tapper">Tapper, Richard</a>; McLachlan, Keith (2003). <i>Technology, tradition and survival: aspects of material culture in the Middle East and Central Asia</i>. London: Routledge. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780714644875" title="Special:BookSources/9780714644875"><bdi>9780714644875</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Technology%2C+tradition+and+survival%3A+aspects+of+material+culture+in+the+Middle+East+and+Central+Asia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780714644875&rft.aulast=Tapper&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=McLachlan%2C+Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBahadori_MN1978" class="citation journal cs1">Bahadori MN (February 1978). "Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture". <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>238</b> (2): 144–54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978SciAm.238b.144B">1978SciAm.238b.144B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0278-144">10.1038/scientificamerican0278-144</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119819386">119819386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Passive+Cooling+Systems+in+Iranian+Architecture&rft.volume=238&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=144-54&rft.date=1978-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119819386%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0278-144&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978SciAm.238b.144B&rft.au=Bahadori+MN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBahadori_MN1978" class="citation journal cs1">Bahadori MN (February 1978). "Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture". <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>238</b> (2): 144–54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978SciAm.238b.144B">1978SciAm.238b.144B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0278-144">10.1038/scientificamerican0278-144</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119819386">119819386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Passive+Cooling+Systems+in+Iranian+Architecture&rft.volume=238&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=144-54&rft.date=1978-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119819386%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0278-144&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978SciAm.238b.144B&rft.au=Bahadori+MN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rael-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rael_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rael_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rael_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eartharchitecture.org/index.php?%2Farchives%2F1045-Yakhchal-Ancient-Refrigerators.html">"Yakchal: Ancient Refrigerators"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120331061635/http://www.eartharchitecture.org/index.php?%2Farchives%2F1045-Yakhchal-Ancient-Refrigerators.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-03-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yakchal%3A+Ancient+Refrigerators&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eartharchitecture.org%2Findex.php%3F%252Farchives%252F1045-Yakhchal-Ancient-Refrigerators.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061129065203/http://www.mappeonline.com/unesco/atlas/data/photographical%20inventory/A17photograph.htm">"An excellent UNESCO article with numerous clear photographs showing the Foggara in Algeria"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mappeonline.com/unesco/atlas/data/photographical%20inventory/A17photograph.htm">the original</a> on 2006-11-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+excellent+UNESCO+article+with+numerous+clear+photographs+showing+the+Foggara+in+Algeria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mappeonline.com%2Funesco%2Fatlas%2Fdata%2Fphotographical%2520inventory%2FA17photograph.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlmstead1948" class="citation book cs1">Olmstead, A. T. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/history_persian_empire.pdf"><i>History of the Persian Empire</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Chicago_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Chicago Press">The University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 224. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-62777-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-62777-2"><bdi>0-226-62777-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Persian+Empire&rft.pages=224&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.isbn=0-226-62777-2&rft.aulast=Olmstead&rft.aufirst=A.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fisac.uchicago.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fuploads%2Fshared%2Fdocs%2Fhistory_persian_empire.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wuttman-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wuttman_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wuttman_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Michel Wuttmann, "The Qanats of 'Ayn-Manâwîr, Kharga Oasis, Egypt", in <i>Jasr</i> 2001, p. 1 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.achemenet.com/pdf/jasr/jasr2000.1.pdf">(pdf)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><i>The 153 Club Newsletter</i> (112): 14–19. July 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+153+Club+Newsletter&rft.issue=112&rft.pages=14-19&rft.date=2007-07&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span> reprinted from <i>Current world Archaeology</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaveroQninbaRiescoEsquivias2017" class="citation journal cs1">Clavero, Miguel; Qninba, Abdeljebbar; Riesco, María; Esquivias, Javier; Calzada, Javier; Delibes, Miguel (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.29094%2FFiSHMED.2017.003">"Moroccan desert rivers: fish on the arid extreme of Mediterranean streams"</a>. <i>Fishes in Mediterranean Environments</i>. <b>2017</b>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.29094%2FFiSHMED.2017.003">10.29094/FiSHMED.2017.003</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fishes+in+Mediterranean+Environments&rft.atitle=Moroccan+desert+rivers%3A+fish+on+the+arid+extreme+of+Mediterranean+streams&rft.volume=2017&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.29094%2FFiSHMED.2017.003&rft.aulast=Clavero&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft.au=Qninba%2C+Abdeljebbar&rft.au=Riesco%2C+Mar%C3%ADa&rft.au=Esquivias%2C+Javier&rft.au=Calzada%2C+Javier&rft.au=Delibes%2C+Miguel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.29094%252FFiSHMED.2017.003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-water-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-water_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-water_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-water_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/">History from Waterhistory.org</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeraaouz,_M.Abioui,_M.Hssaisoune,_M.Martínez-Frías,_J.2022" class="citation journal cs1">Beraaouz, M., Abioui, M., Hssaisoune, M., Martínez-Frías, J. (December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs43238-022-00073-x">"Khettaras in the Tafilalet oasis (Morocco): contribution to the promotion of tourism and sustainable development"</a>. <i>Built Heritage</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 24. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022BuHer...6...24B">2022BuHer...6...24B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs43238-022-00073-x">10.1186/s43238-022-00073-x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2096-3041">2096-3041</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Built+Heritage&rft.atitle=Khettaras+in+the+Tafilalet+oasis+%28Morocco%29%3A+contribution+to+the+promotion+of+tourism+and+sustainable+development&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=24&rft.date=2022-12&rft.issn=2096-3041&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs43238-022-00073-x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022BuHer...6...24B&rft.au=Beraaouz%2C+M.&rft.au=Abioui%2C+M.&rft.au=Hssaisoune%2C+M.&rft.au=Mart%C3%ADnez-Fr%C3%ADas%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs43238-022-00073-x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightfoot,_D._R.1996" class="citation journal cs1">Lightfoot, D. 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"Moroccan khettara: Traditional irrigation and progressive desiccation". <i>Geoforum</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 261–273. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0016-7185%2896%2900008-5">10.1016/0016-7185(96)00008-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7185">0016-7185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoforum&rft.atitle=Moroccan+khettara%3A+Traditional+irrigation+and+progressive+desiccation&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=261-273&rft.date=1996-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0016-7185%2896%2900008-5&rft.issn=0016-7185&rft.au=Lightfoot%2C+D.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070310005456/http://www.institut.veolia.org/en/cahiers/water-symbolism/water-symbolism/practical-issues.aspx">"Water: symbolism and culture"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.institut.veolia.org/en/cahiers/water-symbolism/water-symbolism/practical-issues.aspx">the original</a> on 2007-03-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-06-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Water%3A+symbolism+and+culture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.institut.veolia.org%2Fen%2Fcahiers%2Fwater-symbolism%2Fwater-symbolism%2Fpractical-issues.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>"Karez: Afghanistan's Traditional Irrigation System."</i> The Alternative Development Knowledge Network. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090307202938/http://www.adkn.org/EN/agriculture/article.asp?a=67">link</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mei.edu/publications/necessity-karez-water-systems-balochistan">"The Necessity of Karez Water Systems in Balochistan"</a>. <i>Middle East Institute</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Phillips <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124224652409516525">Learning a Hard History Lesson in 'Talibanistan':To Accommodate New Troops, the U.S. Military Expanded a Base and Inadvertently Disrupted Ancient Afghan Canals</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>, May 14, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120914110948/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101">"Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated Bibliography."</a> US <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">Army Corps of Engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Army_Geospatial_Center" title="Army Geospatial Center">Army Geospatial Center</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen" class="citation web cs1">Hansen, Roger D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/">"Karez (Qanats) of Turpan, China"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 May</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Karez+%28Qanats%29+of+Turpan%2C+China&rft.pub=WaterHistory.org&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.waterhistory.org%2Fhistories%2Fturpan%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICOMOS_2016-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ICOMOS_2016_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icomos.org/en/home-wh/8287-nouveaux-sites-patrimoine-mondial-2017">"New World Heritage sites 2016 - International Council on Monuments and Sites"</a>. <i>www.icomos.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/International_Council_on_Monuments_and_Sites" title="International Council on Monuments and Sites">ICOMOS</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.icomos.org&rft.atitle=New+World+Heritage+sites+2016+-+International+Council+on+Monuments+and+Sites&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.icomos.org%2Fen%2Fhome-wh%2F8287-nouveaux-sites-patrimoine-mondial-2017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNESCO_ICHHT_2015-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UNESCO_ICHHT_2015_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1506.pdf">Executive Summary: the Persian Qanat for inscription on the World Heritage List</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). Teheran, Iran: UNESCO. 2015. p. 20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Executive+Summary%3A+the+Persian+Qanat+for+inscription+on+the+World+Heritage+List&rft.place=Teheran%2C+Iran&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fuploads%2Fnominations%2F1506.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span> In Farsi and English 1. Qasebeh Qanat Northern Representative, 2. Qanat of Baladeh Eastern Representative, 3. Qanat of Zarch Central Representative, 4. Hasan Abad-e Moshir Qanat Central Representative, 5. Ebrāhim Ābād Qanat (Markazi Province), Western Representative, 6. Qanat of Vazvān (Esfahan Province) Western Representative, 7. Mozd Ābād Qanat (Esfahan Province) Western Representative, 8. Qanat of the Moon (Esfahan Province), Western Representative, 9. Qanat of Gowhar-riz (Kerman Province) Southern Representative, 10. Jupār – Ghāsem Ābād Qanat (Kerman Province) Southern Representative, 11. Akbar Ābād Qanat (Kerman Province) Southern Representative</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemmelt_LukkienY._WesselsReza_Ardakamia2009" class="citation web cs1">Remmelt Lukkien; Y. Wessels; Reza Ardakamia (14 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107141714/http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/?pg=33&s=films_details&id=255">"Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures. Yazd, Iran"</a>. <i>www.unesco.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/?pg=33&s=films_details&id=255">the original</a> on 2017-11-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.unesco.org&rft.atitle=Qanats+and+Historic+Hydraulic+Structures.+Yazd%2C+Iran&rft.date=2009-05-14&rft.au=Remmelt+Lukkien&rft.au=Y.+Wessels&rft.au=Reza+Ardakamia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Farchives%2Fmultimedia%2F%3Fpg%3D33%26s%3Dfilms_details%26id%3D255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNESCO_list-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UNESCO_list_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1506"><i>The Persian Qanat</i></a>, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Qanat&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F1506&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span> This includes the list of eleven significant qanets in Iran</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNESCO_Persian_Qanat-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UNESCO_Persian_Qanat_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/archive/2017/whc17-41com-18-en.pdf"><i>The Persian Qanat</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2017</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Qanat&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Farchive%2F2017%2Fwhc17-41com-18-en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span>The Persian Qanats were placed on the list of tenative World Heritage Sites in 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Qanat-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Qanat_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Qanat_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Qanat_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAjam" class="citation conference cs1">Ajam, Mohammad. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aftabir.com/articles/view/science_education/technical/c3c1183387267p1.php/%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%88-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86"><i>Water clock in Persia 1383</i></a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://amordadnews.com/neveshtehNamyesh.aspx?NId=6010">the original</a> on 2014-04-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C+%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AF+-+%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%8A+%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A+%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%81%E2%80%8C%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF+%D8%A8%D8%B1+%D9%83%D9%87%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%86+%22%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA+%D8%A2%D8%A8%D9%8A%22%E2%80%8C+%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famordadnews.com%2FneveshtehNamyesh.aspx%3FNId%3D6010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span> آAmordad</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golbot_1979-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Golbot_1979_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolbot1979" class="citation book cs1">Golbot, Henri (1979). <i>Les Qanats. 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Origin and Dissemination", in: <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, section: (4) Agricultural uses outside the Iranian lands. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kariz_4">Online</a> retrieved 24 November 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/grj1984a/60/2/60_2_109/_article">SYMPOSIUM II RESEARCHES ON "MANBO & QANAT"</a>, J-STAGE, 25 December 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Querschnitt-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Querschnitt_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathias_Döring" class="citation journal cs1">Mathias Döring. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160111182937/https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf">"Wasser für Gadara – 94 km langer antiker Tunnel im Norden Jordaniens entdeckt"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Querschnitt</i>. <b>21</b>: 25–35. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publikationen.h-da.de/downloadByDMID.skat?dmid=ID1480820_11158167&filename=querschnitt_21.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-01-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Querschnitt&rft.atitle=Wasser+f%C3%BCr+Gadara+%E2%80%93+94+km+langer+antiker+Tunnel+im+Norden+Jordaniens+entdeckt&rft.volume=21&rft.pages=25-35&rft.au=Mathias+D%C3%B6ring&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpublikationen.h-da.de%2FdownloadByDMID.skat%3Fdmid%3DID1480820_11158167%26filename%3Dquerschnitt_21.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span> p 25, 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6110/">UNESO Karez System Cultural Landscape</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1207/">Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman</a>, accessed on October 25, 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OBG2010-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OBG2010_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f9l90XsF5-sC&pg=PA171">"Al Ain"</a>. <i>The Report Abu Dhabi 2010</i>. Oxford Business Group. 2010. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9070-6521-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9070-6521-7"><bdi>978-1-9070-6521-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Al+Ain&rft.btitle=The+Report+Abu+Dhabi+2010&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=Oxford+Business+Group&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-9070-6521-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df9l90XsF5-sC%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gulfnews.com/uae/new-evidence-shows-falaj-in-al-ain-is-worlds-oldest-1.350276">"New evidence shows falaj in Al Ain is world's oldest"</a>. <i>gulfnews.com</i>. 2003-03-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gulfnews.com&rft.atitle=New+evidence+shows+falaj+in+Al+Ain+is+world%27s+oldest&rft.date=2003-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgulfnews.com%2Fuae%2Fnew-evidence-shows-falaj-in-al-ain-is-worlds-oldest-1.350276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPower" class="citation web cs1">Power, Timothy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/35872359">"Julfar and the Ports of Northern Oman"</a>. <i>Academia</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Academia&rft.atitle=Julfar+and+the+Ports+of+Northern+Oman&rft.aulast=Power&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F35872359&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApostol2004" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_M._Apostol" title="Tom M. Apostol">Apostol, Tom M.</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714025051/http://www.mamikon.com/TunnelSamos.pdf">"The Tunnel of Samos"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Engineering and Science</i> (1): 30–40. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mamikon.com/TunnelSamos.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-07-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Engineering+and+Science&rft.atitle=The+Tunnel+of+Samos&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=30-40&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Apostol&rft.aufirst=Tom+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mamikon.com%2FTunnelSamos.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grewe, Klaus: <i>Licht am Ende des Tunnels. Planung und Trassierung im antiken Tunnelbau</i>, Mainz 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8053-2492-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-8053-2492-8">3-8053-2492-8</a>, pp.94–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lofrane, G. et al. (2013); "Water Collection and Distribution Systems in the Palermo Plain during the Middle Ages", in: <i>Water</i>, vol. 5, nr 4. Online <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/5/4/1662/htm">here</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.raschpetzer.lu/doc/RaschpVersionDeFr.pdf">Pierre Kayser and Guy Waringo: L'aqueduc souterrain des Raschpëtzer, un monument antique de l'art de l'ingénieur au Luxembourg</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090305153936/http://www.raschpetzer.lu/doc/RaschpVersionDeFr.pdf">Archived</a> 2009-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 2 December 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/ghi/02143038/articulos/ELEM8484120249A.PDF">Water supplies in Granada</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110609052009/http://www.ucm.es/BUCM/revistas/ghi/02143038/articulos/ELEM8484120249A.PDF">Archived</a> 2011-06-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – A good visible qanat can be seen to the west of the church of San Lorenzo, a suburb of Segovia, irrigating what were <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">huertas</i></span> (market gardens).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schreiber_and_Lancho_Rojas-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schreiber_and_Lancho_Rojas_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchreiberLancho_Rojas1995" class="citation journal cs1">Schreiber, Katharina; Lancho Rojas, Josue (1995). "The Puquios of Nasca". <i>Latin American Antiquity</i>. <b>6</b> (3): 252–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F971674">10.2307/971674</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/971674">971674</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163646495">163646495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Puquios+of+Nasca&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=252-253&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163646495%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F971674%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F971674&rft.aulast=Schreiber&rft.aufirst=Katharina&rft.au=Lancho+Rojas%2C+Josue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041016133645/http://www.qanat.info/en/colloge.php">Libyan web site on qanats</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPonce-Vega,_L._A.2015" class="citation journal cs1">Ponce-Vega, L. A. 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Getty Images. January 1, 1913<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2017</span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Portrait of Persian diplomat Ali Kuli Khan (1879–1966) and his wife, American Florence Khanum (nee Breed, 1875–1950) as they posed next to a carriage in front of the White House, Washington DC, 1913. January 01, 1913</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Florence+%28Breed%29+Khanum+%281875%E2%80%931950%29&rft.series=Getty+Images&rft.date=1913-01-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gettyimages.ca%2Fdetail%2Fnews-photo%2Fportrait-of-persian-diplomat-ali-kuli-khan-and-his-wife-news-photo%2F102685628%23portrait-of-persian-diplomat-ali-kuli-khan-and-his-wife-american-as-picture-id102685628&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gail_1991-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gail_1991_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGail1991" class="citation book cs1">Gail, Marzieh (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://holy-writings.com/index.php?a=RESULT&d=/en/Bahai%20Faith/2%20-%20Bahai%20Studies/Marzieh%20Gail/Arches%20of%20the%20Years.txt&q=Haifa&q2=5&c=1"><i>Arches of the Years</i></a>. George Ronald Publisher. p. 339<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arches+of+the+Years&rft.pages=339&rft.pub=George+Ronald+Publisher&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Gail&rft.aufirst=Marzieh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fholy-writings.com%2Findex.php%3Fa%3DRESULT%26d%3D%2Fen%2FBahai%2520Faith%2F2%2520-%2520Bahai%2520Studies%2FMarzieh%2520Gail%2FArches%2520of%2520the%2520Years.txt%26q%3DHaifa%26q2%3D5%26c%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ifpnews.com/exclusive/even-underground-tunnels-used-to-get-married-in-iran/">"Even Underground Tunnels Used to Get Married in Iran!"</a>. <i>IFP News</i>. 2018-07-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-07-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IFP+News&rft.atitle=Even+Underground+Tunnels+Used+to+Get+Married+in+Iran%21&rft.date=2018-07-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fifpnews.com%2Fexclusive%2Feven-underground-tunnels-used-to-get-married-in-iran%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhaneiki2021" class="citation book cs1">Khaneiki, Majid Labbaf (2021). <i>Cultural Dynamics Of Water In Iranian Civilization</i>. Cham, Switzerland: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Nature" title="Springer Nature">Springer Nature</a>. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-58902-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-58902-8"><bdi>978-3-030-58902-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Dynamics+Of+Water+In+Iranian+Civilization.&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-030-58902-8&rft.aulast=Khaneiki&rft.aufirst=Majid+Labbaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglish1968" class="citation journal cs1">English, Paul Ward (1968). "The Origin and Spread of Qanats in the Old World". <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i>. <b>112</b> (3): 170–181. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/986162">986162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=The+Origin+and+Spread+of+Qanats+in+the+Old+World&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=170-181&rft.date=1968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F986162%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=English&rft.aufirst=Paul+Ward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaveh_Madani2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaveh_Madani" title="Kaveh Madani">Kaveh Madani</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scitation.aip.org/vsearch/servlet/VerityServlet?KEY=ASCERL&smode=strresults&maxdisp=25&possible1=Madani%2C+Kaveh&possible1zone=author&OUTLOG=NO&aqs=true&viewabs=ASCECP&key=DISPLAY&docID=1&page=0&chapter=0&aqs=true">"Reasons behind Failure of Qanats in the 20th Century"</a>. <i>World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2008</i>: 1–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1061%2F40976%28316%2977">10.1061/40976(316)77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-0976-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7844-0976-3"><bdi>978-0-7844-0976-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Environmental+and+Water+Resources+Congress+2008&rft.atitle=Reasons+behind+Failure+of+Qanats+in+the+20th+Century&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1061%2F40976%28316%2977&rft.isbn=978-0-7844-0976-3&rft.au=Kaveh+Madani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscitation.aip.org%2Fvsearch%2Fservlet%2FVerityServlet%3FKEY%3DASCERL%26smode%3Dstrresults%26maxdisp%3D25%26possible1%3DMadani%252C%2BKaveh%26possible1zone%3Dauthor%26OUTLOG%3DNO%26aqs%3Dtrue%26viewabs%3DASCECP%26key%3DDISPLAY%26docID%3D1%26page%3D0%26chapter%3D0%26aqs%3Dtrue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQanat" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged January 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Hadden, Robert Lee. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120914110948/http://handle.dtic.mil/100.2/ADA444101">"Adits, Caves, Karizi-Qanats, and Tunnels in Afghanistan: An Annotated Bibliography,"</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">United States Army Corps of Engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Army_Geospatial_Center" title="Army Geospatial Center">Army Geospatial Center</a>.</li> <li>Ozden, Dursun Directed & Written by; ANATOLIAN WATER CIVILIZATION & ANATOLIAN KARIZES-QANATS, The Documentary Film & Book, 2004–2011 Istanbul, Turkey. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.dursunozden.com.tr">http://www.dursunozden.com.tr</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qanat&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Qanat" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Qanat">Qanat</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/turpan/">WaterHistory.org Article on Karez in Turpan, Xinjiang, China</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?2637/Peace-in-Afghanistan-requires-good-water-management">World Wildlife Fund Editorial on Karez in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040715213146/http://www.qanat.info/">Useful information on Qanat provided by Farzad Kohandel, in arabic</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050205102218/http://qanat.info/en/index.php">and in english</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/misc/qanat/">Qanat</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100326131646/http://www.destinationiran.com/Kariz_(Qanat).htm">Information on Qanats (includes photo of access shafts from above)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040715213146/http://www.qanat.info/">International Center on Qanats and Historic Hydraulic Structures</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SFkLAAAAIAAJ&q=achaemenid">The origin and spread of qanats in the Old World</a> – by PW English, in <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society</i> Volume 112, Number 3 June 21, 1968.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060720133318/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200603/the.art.and.science.of.water.htm">The art and science of water, in Saudi Aramco May/June 2006</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131030121819/http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art154.htm">Carlo Trabia: "Kanats of Sicily", in: <i>Best of Sicily Magazine,</i> March 2005, with Photo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121007144217/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199206/oman.s.unfailing.springs..htm">Lynn Teo Simarski, <i>Oman's "Unfailing Springs"</i>, 1992, Saudi Aramco World</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uh.edu/engines/epi1250.htm">"Engines of Ingenuity," episode no. 1250, "Water in the Desert," University of Houston, College of Engineering</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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