ADW: Ctenophora: INFORMATION

<!DOCTYPE html> <html xmlns:og="http://ogp.me/ns#" lang="en" xml:lang="en"> <head> <title>ADW: Ctenophora: INFORMATION</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Ctenophora/" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="//code.jquery.com/jquery-3.6.0.min.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="//code.jquery.com/jquery-migrate-3.3.2.min.js"></script> <script type="text/javascript" src="/static/js/compat.js"></script> <link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://animaldiversity.org/favicon.ico" /> <link href="//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Gentium+Book+Basic:400,400italic,700,700italic" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <link href="//fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=PT+Sans:400,700,400italic,700italic" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/static/bootstrap/css/bootstrap.css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/static/css/pica.styles.css" /> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/static/css/pica.print.css" media="print" />  <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/static/colorbox/colorbox.css" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Ctenophora/" /> <meta content="Ctenophora (comb jellies)" property="og:title" /> <meta content="website" property="og:type" /> <meta content="Animal Diversity Web" property="og:site_name" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@AnimalDiversity" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Ctenophora (comb jellies)" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Read about Ctenophora (comb jellies) on the Animal Diversity Web." /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Ctenophora/" /> <script type="text/javascript" src="/static/js/Hyphenator.js"></script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/static/social-likes/social-likes_birman.css" /> <style> .social-likes { margin: 0; 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Comb jellies have a wide variety of body shapes, from small, roughly spherical species of less than a centimeter in diameter, to flattened, ribbon-shaped forms that reach lengths of up to two meters. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#0423856E-7DE2-11E2-8B8E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Appeltans, et al., 2012</a>; <a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#26334578-7DE1-11E2-9AAD-002500F14F28" class="citation">Zhang, 2011</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="geographic_range">Geographic Range</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Although the majority of <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span>, up to 75%, live in warm waters, they are found globally in marine environments, including in Arctic seas, where certain species are found in abundance. Species of this phylum are native globally; however, they may be locally invasive. In one famous case, the ctenophore <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Mnemiopsis leidyi</span> was accidentally introduced to the Black Sea in the early 1980s; within 10 years, it had destroyed the fishing industry in the entire region, outcompeting native planktonic fishes and disrupting the food chain. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>; <a href="#54EA50CA-AC38-11E2-8700-002500F14F28" class="citation">Shiganova, 1998</a>; <a href="#C9788257-AC31-11E2-A841-002500F14F28" class="citation">Wrobel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Biogeographic Regions</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020914235803">nearctic</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020915001330">palearctic</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020915001348">oriental</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020916134510">ethiopian</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020915000403">neotropical</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020916135737">australian</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020916135918">antarctica</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020917113601">arctic ocean</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <span>indian ocean</span> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020917114102">atlantic ocean</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020917114731">pacific ocean</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <span>mediterranean sea</span> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145365">native</a> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Other Geographic Terms</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#200304045530">holarctic</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145620">cosmopolitan</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="habitat">Habitat</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Ctenophores</span> are exclusively marine animals. They may be found from coastal areas to open waters and are most typically planktonic, from surface waters down to 2,000 to 3,000 meters. A few species are epibenthic or benthic, and may be found in warm waters or on deep, cold, ocean floors; these are often found in association with echinoderms, cnidarians, or sponges. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>; <a href="#97691926-AC34-11E2-B1F7-002500F14F28" class="citation">Waggoner, et al., 2006</a>; <a href="#C9788257-AC31-11E2-A841-002500F14F28" class="citation">Wrobel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Habitat Regions</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145595">temperate</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145598">tropical</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145371">polar</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145582">saltwater or marine</a> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Aquatic Biomes</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145836">pelagic</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145431">benthic</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145675">reef</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145802">oceanic vent</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145825">coastal</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145323">abyssal</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="taxonomic_history">Systematic and Taxonomic History</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Evolutionary relationships within <span class="taxon-link rank-unspecified">Ctenophora</span> are largely unresolved. Based on morphological and molecular analyses there is at least one polyphyletic order within phylum <span class="taxon-link rank-unspecified">Ctenophora</span>, <span class="taxon-name">Cydippida</span>. The relationships of ctenophores to other metazoan phyla remain an open question, with different analyses alternately finding sister lineage to cnidarians, bilaterians, a clade containing cnidarians, placozoans, and bilaterians, or to all other animal phyla. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#A6A8E1BA-7DDD-11E2-98E0-002500F14F28" class="citation">Dunn, et al., 2008</a>; <a href="#B1408ED9-7DDE-11E2-8FF6-002500F14F28" class="citation">Harbison, 1985</a>; <a href="#3EED6817-7DDF-11E2-BD9F-002500F14F28" class="citation">Podar, et al., 2001</a>; <a href="#42A67457-7DE0-11E2-AC4D-002500F14F28" class="citation">Ryan, et al., 2010</a>)</span></p> <ul class="aside block-grid donthyphenate one-up"> <li> <dl> <dt>Synapomorphies</dt> <dd> <ul> <li>biradial symmetry</li> <li>eight rows of fused ciliary bands (ctenes)</li> <li>presence of colloblasts</li> <li>aboral sense organ</li> <li>cydippid larva (lacking in beroid sp.)</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="physical_description">Physical Description</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Comb jellies have a wide variety of body shapes, from small, roughly spherical species of less than a centimeter in diameter, to flattened, ribbon-shaped forms that reach lengths of up to two meters. They are of biradially symmetrical and acoelomate. Most <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span> are colorless, but some deep sea species are highly pigmented (often colored similarly to the invertebrates with which they are associated). It was once assumed that all ctenophores are bioluminescent; however, recent research shows that some species (members of genus <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Pleurobrachia</span> for example) are not capable of producing light. Bioluminescent ctenophores produce calcium-activated phytoproteins. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#90C12223-AC36-11E2-B6E4-002500F14F28" class="citation">Haddock and Case, 1995</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>)</span></p> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Body shape and robustness is directly related to the environment in which a species lives. Coastal species need to be tougher to withstand the force associated with wave motions, while pelagic species are often very fragile. Species in order <span class="taxon-name">Cydippida</span> are typically round or oblong, with small (less than 3 cm in diameter), solid bodies. They have two tentacles used for capturing prey, which are usually branched. Species in order <span class="taxon-name">Lobata</span> are generally larger than cydippids, and have expandable, sticky oral lobes used for capturing prey. The lobes have small tentacles within them. Members of order <span class="taxon-name">Beroida</span> have cylindrical or flat, sac-like bodies, which open to engulf prey. Ctenophores of order <span class="taxon-name">Platyctenida</span> are benthic organisms and most resemble sea slugs, but have branched feeding tentacles, similar to those of cydippids. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#833CD68C-AC2C-11E2-930E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills and Haddock, 2007</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>; <a href="#C9788257-AC31-11E2-A841-002500F14F28" class="citation">Wrobel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Ctenophore bodies are composed of two layers of epithelial tissue: an outer epidermis and inner gastrodermis. These sandwich the mesoglea, a jelly-like layer of mesenchymal tissue. True muscular cells, arranged in longitudinal and radial fibers, are found within the mesenchyme and provide the majority of support to the body and assist in movements associated with feeding. At some point in the life history of all comb jelly species (usually at all stages), the outer body bears eight plates of long, fused cilia, called 鈥渃tenes". These ciliary bands are the primary means of locomotion, and their beating is coordinated by an apical sense organ containing a calcareous statolith. In species with tentacles, these structures are armed with colloblasts, cells that discharge adhesive substances to aid in subduing prey. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Other Physical Features</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020916125902">heterothermic</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145642">bilateral symmetry</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145808">radial symmetry</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="development">Development</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Development is indirect, but non-metamorphic, with fertilized eggs of most species (with the exception of <span class="taxon-name">beroids</span>) rapidly growing into ciliated cydippid larvae, which gradually attain adult sizes and morphologies. <span class="taxon-name">Lobates</span> and <span class="taxon-name">cestids</span> lose the characteristic paired feeding tentacles as they grow, while <span class="taxon-name">cydippid</span> species retain them. Beroids lack tentacles at any developmental stage. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#C9788257-AC31-11E2-A841-002500F14F28" class="citation">Wrobel, 2012</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="reproduction">Reproduction</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Reproductive tissues develop within the meridional gastrovascular canals and gametes are expelled from the mouth, fertilization usually occurs in the water. In two benthic genera, <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Coeloplana</span> and <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Tjalfiella</span>, gametes are taken in through the mouth and fertilization is internal. <span class="taxon-link">Ctenophores</span> are able to self-fertilize, although cross-fertilization with other individuals is also common. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Mating System</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145483">polygynandrous (promiscuous)</a> </li> </ul> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Most <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span> are simultaneous hermaphrodites, although some dioecious species are known, such as members of genus <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Ocyropsis</span>. Members of order <span class="taxon-name">Platyctenida</span> are also known to reproduce asexually, with small fragments that break off as the animal moves, developing into fully-developed adults. Most ctenophores are capable of reproduction before they reach adulthood (paedogenesis). As adults, ctenophores release gametes daily for periods of weeks. Gamete production may slow or cease if food becomes scarce. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#3A958023-AC41-11E2-BF38-002500F14F28" class="citation">Jaspers, et al., 2012</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Key Reproductive Features</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145554">iteroparous</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145698">year-round breeding</a> </li> <li> <span>gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)</span> </li> <li> <span>simultaneous hermaphrodite</span> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145786">sexual</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145314">asexual</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145546">fertilization</a> <ul> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145726">external</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145427">internal</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145572">oviparous</a> </li> </ul> <p audience="advanced intermediate">As hermaphroditic broadcast spawners, <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span> exhibit no parental investment beyond the production of gametes. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Parental Investment</li> <li> <span>no parental involvement</span> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145398">precocial</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="lifespan_longevity">Lifespan/Longevity</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">While little information is available regarding average <span class="taxon-link">ctenophore</span> lifespans, individual species may have lifespans of anywhere from less than a month to three years. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#46C2FDA1-ACED-11E2-9687-002500F14F28" class="citation">Kasuya, et al., 2002</a>; <a href="#43D423E3-ACEF-11E2-A0B3-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 1984</a>; <a href="#DD4D6068-ACEC-11E2-AF90-002500F14F28" class="citation">Siferd and Conover, 1992</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="behavior">Behavior</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">While they may have locally high population densities, <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span> are solitary animals. Movement is achieved through the use of cilial motion, coordinated by an apical sense organ containing a calcareous statolith. Depending on the comb jellies' orientation, this statolith presses on one of four balancers (tufts of cilia supporting the statolith), causing the downside ctenes to beat more vigorously and right the animal. Benthic ctenophores may "creep" along a surface, using their flattened bodies as a sort of foot. Some ctenophores exhibit diurnal migration, following the movement of their planktonic prey into deeper water during the day and shallower water at night. The beating motion of their cilia causes light diffraction, which causes waves of color change down the comb rows, not to be confused with bioluminescence. Many, but not all species of ctenophores are also bioluminescent, however, producing blue-green light. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#90C12223-AC36-11E2-B6E4-002500F14F28" class="citation">Haddock and Case, 1995</a>; <a href="#AB35DE8F-ACEE-11E2-BFFE-002500F14F28" class="citation">Marinova, et al., 2004</a>; <a href="#833CD68C-AC2C-11E2-930E-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills and Haddock, 2007</a>; <a href="#43D423E3-ACEF-11E2-A0B3-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 1984</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>; <a href="#657B1B59-ACF2-11E2-B7DF-002500F14F28" class="citation">Nicol, 1960</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Key Behaviors</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020914213156">natatorial</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145414">diurnal</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145503">nocturnal</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145752">crepuscular</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145472">motile</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145381">solitary</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="communication">Communication and Perception</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">The <span class="taxon-link">ctenophore</span> nervous system is a non-centralized net, much like that of cnidarians, although it differs in many important specific aspects and is generally more specialized. Ctenophores have a diffuse subepidermal net of non-polar neurons; beneath the comb rows, these neurons form an elongate mesh resembling nerve fibers. A large concentration of nerve tissue is also found around the mouth. Outside of the apical sense organ, no other sensory organs have been confirmed, although some species possess oval tracts of cilia called polar fields on the aboral surface, which may play some sensory role. Areas near the mouths of some ctenophore species have chemoreceptive cells, aiding in prey detection and capture. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#558B174F-ACF6-11E2-9447-002500F14F28" class="citation">"Ctenophores", 2012</a>; <a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#EA5BF828-AD02-11E2-BCB8-002500F14F28" class="citation">Falkenhaug and Stabell, 1996</a>; <a href="#1355AF28-ACF5-11E2-AA08-002500F14F28" class="citation">Kass-Simon and Hufnagel, 1992</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Communication Channels</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145500">tactile</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145606">chemical</a> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate "> <li class="keywords-header">Other Communication Modes</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145612">photic/bioluminescent</a> </li> </ul> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Perception Channels</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145500">tactile</a> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145606">chemical</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="food_habits">Food Habits</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">All known <span class="taxon-link">ctenophore</span> species are carnivorous, feeding on <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Rotifera/">rotifers</a>, small <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Crustacea/">crustaceans</a> (including <span class="taxon-name">copepods</span>, <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Amphipoda/">amphipods</a>, and <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Euphausiacea/">euphausiids</a>), and the planktonic larvae of many other species (including <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Bivalvia/">clams</a> and <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Gastropoda/">snails</a>). <span class="taxon-name">Beroids</span> are known to feed on other ctenophores. Depending on the body structure of the specific species, prey may be captured with long tentacles or with a mucosal layer on the body surface, which carries the prey to the mouth by ciliary currents. Colloblasts, located on the animals' tentacles or lobes, aid in prey capture; species of genus <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Haeckelia</span> do not have colloblasts, and instead use sequestered nematocysts from their cnidarian prey. Species of <span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Euplokamis</span> have prehensile side branches on their tentacles, which wrap around and snare prey. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#B75E7000-ACF7-11E2-A8C6-002500F14F28" class="citation">Haddock, 2007</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Primary Diet</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145419">carnivore</a> <ul> <li> <span>eats non-insect arthropods</span> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020914202902">molluscivore</a> </li> </ul> </li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145368">planktivore</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="predation">Predation</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Known predators of <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span> include other ctenophores, <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Cnidaria/">cnidarians</a>, <span class="taxon-name">medusae</span>, other <span class="taxon-name">invertebrates</span>, fishes, <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Cetacea/">whales</a>, <span class="taxon-name">sea turtles</span>, and <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Molidae/">ocean sunfish</a>. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>; <a href="#FF53C168-ADAF-11E2-8600-002500F14F28" class="citation">Purcell and Cowan Jr, 1995</a>; <a href="#65E9134C-AD01-11E2-8082-002500F14F28" class="citation">Soulanille, 2012</a>; <a href="#C9788257-AC31-11E2-A841-002500F14F28" class="citation">Wrobel, 2012</a>)</span></p> <ul class="aside block-grid donthyphenate one-up"> <li> <dl> <dt>Known Predators</dt> <dd> <ul> <li>skipjack shads (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Alosa_chrysochloris/">Alosa chrysochloris</a>)</li> <li>alewives (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Alosa_pseudoharengus/">Alosa pseudoharengus</a>)</li> <li>American shads (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Alosa_sapidissima/">Alosa sapidissima</a>)</li> <li>bay anchovies (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Anchoa_mitchilli/">Anchoa mitchilli</a>)</li> <li>sea catfish (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Ariopsis_felis/">Ariopsis felis</a>)</li> <li>Atlantic menhadens (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Brevoortia_tyrannus/">Brevoortia tyrannus</a>)</li> <li>Atlantic herrings (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Clupea_harengus/">Clupea harengus</a>)</li> <li>cod (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Gadus_morhua/">Gadus morhua</a>)</li> <li>haddock (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Melanogrammus_aeglefinus/">Melanogrammus aeglefinus</a>)</li> <li>whitings (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Merluccius_bilinearis/">Merluccius bilinearis</a>)</li> <li>Atlantic crokers (<span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Micropogonius undulatus</span>)</li> <li>ocean sunfish (<a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Mola/">Mola</a> sp.)</li> <li>white perch (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Morone_americana/">Morone americana</a>)</li> <li>summer flounders (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Paralichthys_dentatus/">Paralichthys dentatus</a>)</li> <li>harvestfish (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Peprilus_paru/">Peprilus paru</a>)</li> <li>butterfish (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Peprilus_triacanthus/">Peprilus triacanthus</a>)</li> <li>pollak (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Pollachius_pollachius/">Pollachius pollachius</a>)</li> <li>winter flounder (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Pseudopleuronectes_americanus/">Pseudopleuronectes americanus</a>)</li> <li>bluefish (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Pomatomus_saltatrix/">Pomatomus saltatrix</a>)</li> <li>mackerels (<a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Scomber/">Scomber</a> sp.)</li> <li>hogchokers (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Trinectes_maculatus/">Trinectes maculatus</a>)</li> <li>squirrel hakes (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Urophycis_chuss/">Urophycis chuss</a>)</li> <li>spotted hakes (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Urophycis_regia/">Urophycis regia</a>)</li> <li>white hakes (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Urophycis_tenuis/">Urophycis tenuis</a>)</li> <li>thorny skates (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Amblyraja_radiata/">Amblyraja radiata</a>)</li> <li>little summer skates (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Leucoraja_erinacea/">Leucoraja erinacea</a>)</li> <li>winter skates (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Leucoraja_ocellata/">Leucoraja ocellata</a>)</li> <li>smoothhounds (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Mustelus_canis/">Mustelus canis</a>)</li> <li>spiny dogfish (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Squalus_acanthias/">Squalus acanthias</a>)</li> <li>eastern oysters (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Crassostrea_virginica/">Crassostrea virginica</a>)</li> <li>softshell clams (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Mya_arenaria/">Mya arenaria</a>)</li> <li>polychaete worms (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Polychaeta/">Polychaeta</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Annelida/">Annelida</a>)</li> <li>clam worms (<a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Nereis/">Nereis</a> sp.)</li> <li>blue crabs (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Callinectes_sapidus/">Callinectes sapidus</a>)</li> <li>toothed whales (Suborder <a class="taxon-link rank-suborder" href="/accounts/Odontoceti/">Odontoceti</a>, Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Mammalia/">Mammalia</a>)</li> <li>sea turtles (Order <a class="taxon-link rank-order" href="/accounts/Testudines/">Testudines</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Reptilia/">Reptilia</a>)</li> <li>arrow worms (Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Chaetognatha/">Chaetognatha</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Beroe ovata</span> (Phylum <span class="taxon-link rank-unspecified">Ctenophora</span>)</li> <li>Atlantic sea nettles (<a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Chrysaora_quinquecirrha/">Chrysaora quinquecirrha</a>)</li> </ul> </dd> </dl> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="ecosystem_roles">Ecosystem Roles</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate"><span class="taxon-link">Ctenophores</span> may host a variety of parasites, including endoparasitic <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Trematoda/">trematodes</a>, <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Cestoda/">cestodes</a>, <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Nematoda/">nematodes</a>, ectoparasitic <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Isopoda/">isopods</a>, <span class="taxon-name">dinoflagellates</span>, and <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Amphipoda/">amphipods</a>. Some species may also host a parasitic <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Actiniaria/">sea anemone</a>. They may serve as intermediate hosts to <span class="taxon-name">digenean flukes</span>, due to their placement on the food chain. A few species of ctenophores may themselves be parasitic on <a class="taxon-link" href="/accounts/Salpa_fusiformis/">salps</a>. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#5BA20661-ADBC-11E2-87DC-002500F14F28" class="citation">Boero and Bouillon, 2005</a>; <a href="#2D58862E-ADBB-11E2-88E1-002500F14F28" class="citation">Martorelli, 2001</a>; <a href="#57C72D0F-ADB4-11E2-8E06-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills and McLean, 1991</a>; <a href="#6BF8E854-ADB3-11E2-BD60-002500F14F28" class="citation">Reitzel, et al., 2007</a>; <a href="#40F2112B-ADBE-11E2-AF12-002500F14F28" class="citation">Selander, et al., 2010</a>; <a href="#2E6289B0-ADB2-11E2-9E24-002500F14F28" class="citation">Yip, 1984</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Ecosystem Impact</li> <li> <a class="gloss" href="#20020904145767">parasite</a> </li> </ul> <div class="note"> <strong>Species Used as Host</strong> <br /> <ul> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Salpa_fusiformis/">Salpa fusiformis</a> (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Thaliacea/">Thaliacea</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-phylum" href="/accounts/Chordata/">Chordata</a>)</li> </ul> </div> <div class="note"> <strong>Commensal/Parasitic Species</strong> <br /> <ul> <li>Didymozoid sp. (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Trematoda/">Trematoda</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Platyhelminthes/">Platyhelminthes</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Bacciger</span> sp. (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Trematoda/">Trematoda</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Platyhelminthes/">Platyhelminthes</a>)</li> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-family" href="/accounts/Hemiuridae/">Hemiuridae</a> sp. (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Trematoda/">Trematoda</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Platyhelminthes/">Platyhelminthes</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Hemiurus communis</span> (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Trematoda/">Trematoda</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Platyhelminthes/">Platyhelminthes</a>)</li> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-genus" href="/accounts/Opechona/">Opechona</a> sp. (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Trematoda/">Trematoda</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Platyhelminthes/">Platyhelminthes</a>)</li> <li><a class="taxon-link rank-species" href="/accounts/Opechona_bacillaris/">Opechona bacillaris</a> (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Trematoda/">Trematoda</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Platyhelminthes/">Platyhelminthes</a>)</li> <li>Epicaridian isopods (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Crustacea/">Crustacea</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-unspecified" href="/accounts/Arthropoda/">Arthropoda</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Edwardsiella lineata</span> (Class <a class="taxon-link rank-class" href="/accounts/Anthozoa/">Anthozoa</a>, Phylum <a class="taxon-link rank-phylum" href="/accounts/Cnidaria/">Cnidaria</a>)</li> <li><span rank="Genus" class="taxon-name rank-genus">Oodinium</span> sp. (Class <span class="taxon-name">Blastodiniphyceae</span>, Phylum <span class="taxon-name">Dinoflagellata</span>)</li> </ul> </div> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="economic_importance_positive">Economic Importance for Humans: Positive</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">Beyond the potential for scientific research and display in public aquaria, there are no known positive economic effects of <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span> on humans. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#70084633-7DDD-11E2-AB99-002500F14F28" class="citation">Brusca and Brusca, 2003</a>; <a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>)</span></p> <ul class="keywords donthyphenate last"> <li class="keywords-header">Positive Impacts</li> <li> <span>research and education</span> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="economic_importance_negative">Economic Importance for Humans: Negative</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">The introduction of the North American species <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Mnemiopsis leidyi</span> into the Black Sea in the early 1980s, most likely in ballast water from ships originating in the northwestern Atlantic, completely disrupted this ecosystem's natural food chain. As a rapidly reproducing, generalized feeder, it spread throughout the area, outcompeting native planktonic fishes and completely destroying the region's fishing industry within 10 years of its introduction. Since then, another <span class="taxon-link">ctenophore</span>, <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Beroe ovata</span>, has been introduced as well (likely by the same means). A voracious predator, <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">B. ovata</span> has reduced populations of <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">M. leidyi</span> and native fauna populations have rebounded since its introduction, however, the long term effects of this second invasion are unknown. <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Mnemiopsis leidyi</span> and <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Beroe ovata</span> have moved into the Caspian Sea from the Black Sea; the ecological ramifications of this introduction remain to be seen. As of 2009, <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">M. leidyi</span> had spread to most European coastlines as well. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>; <a href="#54EA50CA-AC38-11E2-8700-002500F14F28" class="citation">Shiganova, 1998</a>)</span></p> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="conservation_status">Conservation Status</h3> <p audience="advanced intermediate">There is currently no concern that <span class="taxon-link">ctenophores</span> will become threatened or endangered, on either a local or global scale. <span class="citations"> (<a href="#136C77BD-AC32-11E2-9242-002500F14F28" class="citation">Mills, 2010</a>)</span></p> <ul class="aside block-grid donthyphenate one-up"> <li> <dl> <dt>IUCN Red List <a href="http://www.iucnredlist.org/">[Link]</a></dt> <dd>Not Evaluated</dd> </dl> </li> </ul> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="contributors">Contributors</h3> <p>Jeremy Wright (author), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, Leila Siciliano Martina (editor), Animal Diversity Web Staff. </p> </section> <section class="offscreen"> <h3 id="glossary">Glossary</h3> <div id="20020916135918"> <dl> <dt>Antarctica</dt> <dd> <p>lives on Antarctica, the southernmost continent which sits astride the southern pole.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020917113601"> <dl> <dt>Arctic Ocean</dt> <dd> <p>the body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America which occurs mostly north of the Arctic circle.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020917114102"> <dl> <dt>Atlantic Ocean</dt> <dd> <p>the body of water between Africa, Europe, the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), and the western hemisphere. It is the second largest ocean in the world after the Pacific Ocean.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020916135737"> <dl> <dt>Australian</dt> <dd> <p>Living in Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, New Guinea and associated islands.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020916134510"> <dl> <dt>Ethiopian</dt> <dd> <p>living in sub-Saharan Africa (south of 30 degrees north) and Madagascar.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020914235803"> <dl> <dt>Nearctic</dt> <dd> <p>living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020915000403"> <dl> <dt>Neotropical</dt> <dd> <p>living in the southern part of the New World. In other words, Central and South America.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020917114731"> <dl> <dt>Pacific Ocean</dt> <dd> <p>body of water between the southern ocean (above 60 degrees south latitude), Australia, Asia, and the western hemisphere. This is the world's largest ocean, covering about 28% of the world's surface.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020915001330"> <dl> <dt>Palearctic</dt> <dd> <p>living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145323"> <dl> <dt>abyssal</dt> <dd> <p>on or near the ocean floor in the deep ocean. Abyssal regions are characterized by complete lack of light, extremely high water pressure, low nutrient availability, and continuous cold (3 degrees C).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145314"> <dl> <dt>asexual</dt> <dd> <p>reproduction that is not sexual; that is, reproduction that does not include recombining the genotypes of two parents</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145431"> <dl> <dt>benthic</dt> <dd> <p>Referring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water. Also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones. Bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans (below 9000 m) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone. see also oceanic vent.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145642"> <dl> <dt>bilateral symmetry</dt> <dd> <p>having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145419"> <dl> <dt>carnivore</dt> <dd> <p>an animal that mainly eats meat</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145606"> <dl> <dt>chemical</dt> <dd> <p>uses smells or other chemicals to communicate</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145825"> <dl> <dt>coastal</dt> <dd> <p>the nearshore aquatic habitats near a coast, or shoreline.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145620"> <dl> <dt>cosmopolitan</dt> <dd> <p>having a worldwide distribution. Found on all continents (except maybe Antarctica) and in all biogeographic provinces; or in all the major oceans (Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145752"> <dl> <dt>crepuscular</dt> <dd> <p>active at dawn and dusk</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145414"> <dl> <dt>diurnal</dt> <dd> <ol class="arabic simple"> <li>active during the day, 2. lasting for one day.</li> </ol> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145726"> <dl> <dt>external fertilization</dt> <dd> <p>fertilization takes place outside the female's body</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145546"> <dl> <dt>fertilization</dt> <dd> <p>union of egg and spermatozoan</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020916125902"> <dl> <dt>heterothermic</dt> <dd> <p>having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="200304045530"> <dl> <dt>holarctic</dt> <dd> <p>a distribution that more or less circles the Arctic, so occurring in both the Nearctic and Palearctic biogeographic regions.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> <p>Found in northern North America and northern Europe or Asia.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145427"> <dl> <dt>internal fertilization</dt> <dd> <p>fertilization takes place within the female's body</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145554"> <dl> <dt>iteroparous</dt> <dd> <p>offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020914202902"> <dl> <dt>molluscivore</dt> <dd> <p>eats mollusks, members of Phylum Mollusca</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145472"> <dl> <dt>motile</dt> <dd> <p>having the capacity to move from one place to another.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020914213156"> <dl> <dt>natatorial</dt> <dd> <p>specialized for swimming</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145365"> <dl> <dt>native range</dt> <dd> <p>the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145503"> <dl> <dt>nocturnal</dt> <dd> <p>active during the night</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145802"> <dl> <dt>oceanic vent</dt> <dd> <p>Areas of the deep sea floor where continental plates are being pushed apart. Oceanic vents are places where hot sulfur-rich water is released from the ocean floor. An aquatic biome.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020915001348"> <dl> <dt>oriental</dt> <dd> <p>found in the oriental region of the world. In other words, India and southeast Asia.</p> <p align="center"> <img alt="World Map" src="/images/worldmap.2001.jpg" /> </p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145572"> <dl> <dt>oviparous</dt> <dd> <p>reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145767"> <dl> <dt>parasite</dt> <dd> <p>an organism that obtains nutrients from other organisms in a harmful way that doesn't cause immediate death</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145836"> <dl> <dt>pelagic</dt> <dd> <p>An aquatic biome consisting of the open ocean, far from land, does not include sea bottom (benthic zone).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145612"> <dl> <dt>photic/bioluminescent</dt> <dd> <p>generates and uses light to communicate</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145368"> <dl> <dt>planktivore</dt> <dd> <p>an animal that mainly eats plankton</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145371"> <dl> <dt>polar</dt> <dd> <p>the regions of the earth that surround the north and south poles, from the north pole to 60 degrees north and from the south pole to 60 degrees south.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145483"> <dl> <dt>polygynandrous</dt> <dd> <p>the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145808"> <dl> <dt>radial symmetry</dt> <dd> <p>a form of body symmetry in which the parts of an animal are arranged concentrically around a central oral/aboral axis and more than one imaginary plane through this axis results in halves that are mirror-images of each other. Examples are cnidarians (Phylum Cnidaria, jellyfish, anemones, and corals).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145675"> <dl> <dt>reef</dt> <dd> <p>structure produced by the calcium carbonate skeletons of coral polyps (Class Anthozoa). Coral reefs are found in warm, shallow oceans with low nutrient availability. They form the basis for rich communities of other invertebrates, plants, fish, and protists. The polyps live only on the reef surface. Because they depend on symbiotic photosynthetic algae, zooxanthellae, they cannot live where light does not penetrate.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145582"> <dl> <dt>saltwater or marine</dt> <dd> <p>mainly lives in oceans, seas, or other bodies of salt water.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145786"> <dl> <dt>sexual</dt> <dd> <p>reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145381"> <dl> <dt>solitary</dt> <dd> <p>lives alone</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145500"> <dl> <dt>tactile</dt> <dd> <p>uses touch to communicate</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145595"> <dl> <dt>temperate</dt> <dd> <p>that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145598"> <dl> <dt>tropical</dt> <dd> <p>the region of the earth that surrounds the equator, from 23.5 degrees north to 23.5 degrees south.</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145698"> <dl> <dt>year-round breeding</dt> <dd> <p>breeding takes place throughout the year</p> </dd> </dl> </div> <div id="20020904145398"> <dl> <dt>young precocial</dt> <dd> <p>young are relatively well-developed when born</p> </dd> </dl> </div> </section> <section class="hyphenate"> <h3 id="references">References</h3> <p id="558B174F-ACF6-11E2-9447-002500F14F28">2012. 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Natural history of ctenophores in the Resolute Passage area of the Canadian High Arctic with special reference to <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Mertensia ovum</span>. <span style="font-style: italic">Marine Ecology Progress Series</span>, 86: 133-144. Accessed April 24, 2013 at <tt><a href="http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/86/m086p133.pdf">http://www.int-res.com/articles/meps/86/m086p133.pdf</a></tt>. </p> <p id="65E9134C-AD01-11E2-8082-002500F14F28">Soulanille, E. 2012. "<span class="taxon-link rank-unspecified">Ctenophora</span>" (On-line). Encyclopedia of Life. Accessed April 23, 2013 at <tt><a href="http://eol.org/pages/69/details">http://eol.org/pages/69/details</a></tt>. </p> <p id="97691926-AC34-11E2-B1F7-002500F14F28">Waggoner, B., L. Gerswin, A. Collins. 2006. "Introduction to <span class="taxon-link rank-unspecified">Ctenophora</span>" (On-line). University of California Museum of Paleontology. Accessed April 23, 2013 at <tt><a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/ctenophora.html">http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/ctenophora.html</a></tt>. </p> <p id="C9788257-AC31-11E2-A841-002500F14F28">Wrobel, D. 2012. "Ctenophores" (On-line). The Jellies Zone. Accessed April 23, 2013 at <tt><a href="http://jellieszone.com/ctenophores.htm">http://jellieszone.com/ctenophores.htm</a></tt>. </p> <p id="2E6289B0-ADB2-11E2-9E24-002500F14F28">Yip, S. 1984. Parasites of <span rank="Species" class="taxon-name rank-species">Pleurobrachia pileus</span> Muller, 1776 (Ctenophora), from Galway Bay, western Ireland. <span style="font-style: italic">Journal of Plankton Research</span>, 6/1: 107-121. Accessed April 25, 2013 at <tt><a href="http://plankt.oxfordjournals.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/content/6/1/107.full.pdf+html">http://plankt.oxfordjournals.org.proxy.lib.umich.edu/content/6/1/107.full.pdf+html</a></tt>. </p> <p id="26334578-7DE1-11E2-9AAD-002500F14F28">Zhang, Z. 2011. Animal biodiversity: an introduction to higher-level classification and taxonomic richness. <span style="font-style: italic">Zootaxa</span>, 3148: 7-12. </p> </section> </div> </div> <div class="span2_5 right sidebar"> <div class="well" id="pocket-guide-link"> <a href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/adw-pocket-guide/id916179421?mt=8" target="_blank"><i class="icon-download icon-white" style="vertical-align: bottom"></i> ADW Pocket Guides on the iOS App Store! </a> <p>The Animal Diversity Web team is excited to announce ADW Pocket Guides!</p> <p> <a href="/news/5009059054038197651/">Read more...</a> </p> </div> <h2 class="offscreen">Search</h2> <div id="site-search"> <form action="/search" method="GET"> <label for="q" class="offscreen">Enter search text</label> <input value="" id="q" name="q" class="span12" size="15" type="text" placeholder="Search ADW" /> <button class="btn"> <i class="icon-zoom-in"></i> <span class="offscreen">Search</span> </button> <p style="max-height: 35px"> <label for="feature-list" class="offscreen">Search in feature</label> <select size="1" name="feature" class="feature-list input-medium" id="feature-list"> <option value="INFORMATION">Taxon Information</option> <option value="COLLECTIONS">Contributor Galleries</option> <option value="TOPICS">Topics</option> <option value="CLASSIFICATION">Classification</option> </select> </p> </form> <ul class="unstyled"> <li> <a href="https://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/quaardvark/">Explore Data @ Quaardvark</a> </li> <li> <a href="/search_guide/">Search Guide</a> </li> </ul> </div> <h2 class="offscreen">Navigation Links</h2> <dl class="tabbed features"> <dd class="feature-information active"> <a name="feature-information" href="/accounts/Ctenophora/" class="active" id="feature-information"> Information </a> </dd> <dd class="feature-specimens"> <a name="feature-specimens" href="/accounts/Ctenophora/specimens/" id="feature-specimens"> Specimens </a> </dd> <dd class="feature-classification"> <a name="feature-classification" href="/accounts/Ctenophora/classification/#Ctenophora" id="feature-classification"> Classification </a> </dd> </dl> <div class="classification well"> <h3>Classification</h3> <ul class="unstyled"> <li> <span class="rank">Kingdom</span> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/" class="taxon-name rank-kingdom">Animalia</a> <span class="vernacular-name">animals</span> <div class="features"> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/" class="feature feature-information" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: information (1)" data-delay="250" data-total="4749">Animalia: information (1)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/pictures/" class="feature feature-pictures" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: pictures (22861)" data-delay="250">Animalia: pictures (22861)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/specimens/" class="feature feature-specimens" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: specimens (7109)" data-delay="250">Animalia: specimens (7109)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/sounds/" class="feature feature-sounds" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: sounds (722)" data-delay="250">Animalia: sounds (722)</a> <a href="/accounts/Animalia/maps/" class="feature feature-maps" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Animalia: maps (42)" data-delay="250">Animalia: maps (42)</a> </div> </li> <li class="active"> <span class="rank">Unspecified</span> <a href="/accounts/Ctenophora/" class="taxon-name rank-unspecified">Ctenophora</a> <span class="vernacular-name">comb jellies</span> <div class="features"> <a href="/accounts/Ctenophora/" class="feature feature-information" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Ctenophora: information (1)" data-delay="250" data-total="1">Ctenophora: information (1)</a> <span class="feature-off feature-pictures"></span> <a href="/accounts/Ctenophora/specimens/" class="feature feature-specimens" rel="tooltip" data-original-title="Ctenophora: specimens (1)" data-delay="250">Ctenophora: specimens (1)</a> <span class="feature-off feature-sounds"></span> <span class="feature-off feature-maps"></span> </div> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="footer" aria-role="contentinfo"> <div class="inner-footer"> <div class="page-citation"> <p class="content">To cite this page: Wright, J. 2014. 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ADW: Ctenophora: INFORMATION