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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Curriculum"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.1 Curriculum </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Curriculum-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing_and_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing_and_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Housing and land </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing_and_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_market" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_market"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Labor market </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_market-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.8 Media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.9 Politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.10 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wealth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wealth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.11 Wealth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wealth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 African Americans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-African_Americans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle African Americans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-African_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antebellum_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antebellum_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Antebellum period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antebellum_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_the_Reconstruction_Era_to_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_the_Reconstruction_Era_to_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 From the Reconstruction Era to World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_the_Reconstruction_Era_to_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_World_War_II_to_the_Civil_Rights_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_World_War_II_to_the_Civil_Rights_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 From World War II to the Civil Rights Movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_World_War_II_to_the_Civil_Rights_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_the_1970s_to_the_2000s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_the_1970s_to_the_2000s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 From the 1970s to the 2000s </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_the_1970s_to_the_2000s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-From_2008_to_the_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#From_2008_to_the_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 From 2008 to the present </div> </a> <ul id="toc-From_2008_to_the_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Native Americans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Native_Americans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Native Americans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Native_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reservation_marginalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservation_marginalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Reservation marginalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservation_marginalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Indian_boarding_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Indian_boarding_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 American Indian boarding schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Indian_boarding_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Current issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asian_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asian_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Asian Americans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Asian_Americans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Asian Americans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Asian_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-Japanese_sentiment_and_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-Japanese_sentiment_and_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Anti-Japanese sentiment and legislation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-Japanese_sentiment_and_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-Filipino_sentiment_and_legislation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-Filipino_sentiment_and_legislation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Anti-Filipino sentiment and legislation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-Filipino_sentiment_and_legislation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_postwar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_postwar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 World War II and postwar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_postwar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Second_Half_of_the_20th_Century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Second_Half_of_the_20th_Century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 The Second Half of the 20th Century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Second_Half_of_the_20th_Century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 European Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Hispanic and Latino Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Eastern_and_South_Asian_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Eastern_and_South_Asian_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Middle Eastern and South Asian Americans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Eastern_and_South_Asian_Americans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Middle Eastern and South Asian Americans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Eastern_and_South_Asian_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Arab Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iranian_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iranian_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Iranian Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iranian_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Indian Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Jewish Americans </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Consequences </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Consequences subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Developmental" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developmental"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Developmental </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developmental-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Societal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Societal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schemas_and_stereotypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schemas_and_stereotypes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Schemas and stereotypes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schemas_and_stereotypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Minority-minority_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Minority-minority_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 Minority-minority racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Minority-minority_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpersonal_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpersonal_discrimination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.3 Interpersonal discrimination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpersonal_discrimination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic-racial_socialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic-racial_socialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.4 Ethnic-racial socialization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic-racial_socialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutional_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutional_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Institutional racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutional_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nazi_Germany's_inspiration_from_American_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nazi_Germany's_inspiration_from_American_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3.1 Nazi Germany's inspiration from American racism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nazi_Germany's_inspiration_from_American_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Contemporary issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Contemporary issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hate_crimes_and_terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hate_crimes_and_terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Hate crimes and terrorism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hate_crimes_and_terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hateful_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hateful_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Hateful views </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hateful_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Social media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Artificial intelligence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Responses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.1 Articles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.2 Books </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Videos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Videos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15.3 Videos </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Videos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Racism in the United States</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" > 21 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassisme_in_die_Verenigde_State" title="Rassisme in die Verenigde State – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rassisme in die Verenigde State" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="العنصرية في الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العنصرية في الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassismus_in_den_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Rassismus in den Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rassismus in den Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racismo_en_Estados_Unidos" title="Racismo en Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Racismo en Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="نژادپرستی در ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نژادپرستی در ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racisme_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Racisme aux États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Racisme aux États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EC%9D%B8%EC%A2%85%EC%B0%A8%EB%B3%84" title="미국의 인종차별 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국의 인종차별" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wariyar_Launin_Fata_a_Amurka" title="Wariyar Launin Fata a Amurka – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Wariyar Launin Fata a Amurka" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%B6_%D4%B1%D5%84%D5%86-%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ռասիզմն ԱՄՆ-ում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռասիզմն 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a> has been reflected in discriminatory laws, practices, and actions (including violence) against <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">racial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups">ethnic groups</a>, throughout the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">history of the United States</a>. Since the early <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">colonial era</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">White Americans</a> have generally enjoyed legally or socially sanctioned privileges and rights, which have been denied to members of various ethnic or minority groups at various times. <a href="/wiki/European_Americans" title="European Americans">European Americans</a> have enjoyed advantages in matters of citizenship, criminal procedure, education, immigration, land acquisition, and voting rights. Before 1865, most <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> were <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">enslaved</a>; after the abolition of slavery, they have faced severe restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms. <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> have suffered <a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Genocide of Indigenous peoples">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">forced removals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">massacres</a>, and they continue to face <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Native_American_issues_in_the_United_States#Societal_discrimination_and_racism" title="Contemporary Native American issues in the United States">discrimination</a>. European Americans, <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_Americans" title="Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans" title="Asian Americans">Asian Americans</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans" title="Pacific Islander Americans">Pacific Islanders</a>, have also been the victims of discrimination. In addition, non-<a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> immigrants from Europe, particularly <a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_Americans" title="Polish Americans">Slavs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish</a> were often subjected to <a href="/wiki/Xenophobic" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenophobic">xenophobic</a> exclusion and other forms of ethnicity-based discrimination. Racism has manifested itself in a variety of ways, including <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">ethnic conflicts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_American_reservations" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American reservations">Native American reservations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_American_boarding_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American boarding schools">boarding schools</a>, racist <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalization</a> laws, and <a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">internment camps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> Formal racial discrimination was largely banned, by the mid-20th century, and over time, coming to be perceived as socially and morally unacceptable. Racial politics remains a major phenomenon, and racism continues to be <a href="/wiki/Racial_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Racial inequality in the United States">reflected in socioeconomic inequality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a> Into the 21st century, research has uncovered extensive evidence of racial discrimination, in various sectors of modern U.S. society, including the <a href="#Criminal_justice_system">criminal justice</a> system, <a href="#Business">business</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">economy</a>, <a href="#Housing_and_land">housing</a>, <a href="#Health">health care</a>, the <a href="#Media">media</a>, and <a href="#Politics">politics</a>. In the view of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=U.S._Human_Rights_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="U.S. Human Rights Network (page does not exist)">U.S. Human Rights Network</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">discrimination in the United States</a> permeates all aspects of life and extends to all <a href="/wiki/People_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="People of color">communities of color</a>."<a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aspects_of_American_life">Aspects of American life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Aspects of American life">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture of the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Southern_United_States" title="Culture of the Southern United States">Culture of the Southern United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society of the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citizenship_and_immigration">Citizenship and immigration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Citizenship and immigration">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790" title="Naturalization Act of 1790">Naturalization Act of 1790</a> set the first uniform rules for the granting of <a href="/wiki/Citizenship_of_the_United_States" title="Citizenship of the United States">United States citizenship</a> by <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalization</a>, which limited naturalization to "free white person[s],” thus, excluding <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servants</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">free Blacks</a> and later, excluding <a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans" title="Asian Americans">Asians</a> from citizenship. Citizenship and the lack of it profoundly impacted various legal and political rights, the most notable of which were <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Voting rights in the United States">suffrage rights</a> at both the federal and state level, the right to hold certain government offices, <a href="/wiki/Jury_duty" title="Jury duty">jury duty</a>, military service in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a>, as well as many other activities, besides access to <a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">government assistance and services</a>. The second <a href="/wiki/Militia_Act_of_1792" class="mw-redirect" title="Militia Act of 1792">Militia Act of 1792</a> also provided for the <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a> of every "free able-bodied white male citizen".<a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a> Tennessee's 1834 Constitution included a provision: "the free white men of this State have a right to Keep and bear arms for their common defense."<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Dancing_Rabbit_Creek" title="Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek">Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek</a>, made under the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> of 1830, allowed those <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> Indians who chose to remain in <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> to gain recognition as U.S. citizens, the first major non-European ethnic group to become entitled to U.S. citizenship. Racial discrimination in naturalization and immigration continued despite the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> (ratified in 1868). The Fourteenth Amendment overruled previous court decisions and gave U.S.-born African Americans citizenship through <a href="/wiki/Birthright_citizenship_in_the_United_States" title="Birthright citizenship in the United States">birthright citizenship</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1870" title="Naturalization Act of 1870">Naturalization Act of 1870</a> extended naturalization to Black persons but not to other non-white persons and revoked the citizenship of naturalized Chinese Americans.<a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a> The law relied on coded language to exclude "aliens ineligible for citizenship,” which primarily applied to <a href="/wiki/Chinese_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese American">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese American">Japanese</a> immigrants. Native Americans were granted citizenship in a piece-meal manner, until the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a>, which unilaterally bestowed blanket citizenship status on them, whether they belonged to a <a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">federally recognized tribe</a> or not, though by that date, two-thirds of Native Americans had already become US citizens by various means. The Act was not retroactive, so, citizenship was not extended to Native Americans who were born before the effective date of the 1924 Act, nor was it extended to indigenous persons who were born outside the United States. Further changes to racial eligibility for citizenship by naturalization were made after 1940, when eligibility was extended to "descendants of races indigenous to the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a>," "Filipino persons or persons of Filipino descent," "Chinese persons or persons of Chinese descent," and "persons of races indigenous to India."<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1952" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952</a>, now, prohibits racial and gender discrimination in naturalization.<a href="#cite_note-10">[8]</a> During the period when only "white" people could be naturalized, many court decisions were required to define which ethnic groups were included in this term. These are known as the "<a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_whiteness_in_the_United_States#Racial_prerequisite_cases" title="Definitions of whiteness in the United States">racial prerequisite cases</a>,” and they also informed subsequent legislation.<a href="#cite_note-11">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Voting">Voting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Voting">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> (ratified in 1870), explicitly prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, but delegated to Congress the responsibility for enforcement. During the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>, African Americans began to run for office and vote, but the <a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a> ended the era of strong federal enforcement of equal rights in the Southern states. White Southerners were prevented, by the Fifteenth Amendment, from explicitly denying the vote to Blacks by law, but they found other ways to <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchise</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> that targeted African Americans, without mentioning race, included <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literacy_tests" class="mw-redirect" title="Literacy tests">literacy</a> and comprehension tests for voters, residency and record-keeping requirements, and <a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clause" title="Grandfather clause">grandfather clauses</a> allowing White people to vote. <a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a> criminalized minor offenses like unemployment (styled "vagrancy"), providing a pretext to deny voting rights. Extralegal violence was also used to terrorize and sometimes kill African Americans who attempted to register or to vote, often in the form of <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cross_burning" title="Cross burning">cross burning</a>. These efforts to enforce white supremacy were very successful. For example, after 1890, less than 9,000 of Mississippi's 147,000 eligible African American voters were registered to vote, or about 6%. Louisiana went from 130,000 registered African American voters in 1896 to 1,342 in 1904 (about a 99% decrease).<a href="#cite_note-12">[10]</a> Even Native Americans who gained citizenship under the 1924 Act were not guaranteed <a href="/wiki/Native_American_voting_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American voting rights">voting rights</a> until 1948. According to a survey by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior" title="United States Department of the Interior">Department of Interior</a>, seven states still refused to grant Indians voting rights in 1938. Discrepancies between federal and state control provided loopholes in the Act's enforcement. States justified discrimination based on state statutes and constitutions. Three main arguments for Indian voting exclusion were Indian exemption from real estate taxes, maintenance of tribal affiliation and the notion that Indians were under guardianship, or lived on lands controlled by federal trusteeship.<a href="#cite_note-Peterson-13">[11]</a>: 121  By 1947, all states with large Indian populations, except <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, had extended voting rights to Native Americans who qualified under the 1924 Act. Finally, in 1948, a judicial decision forced the remaining states to withdraw their prohibition on Indian voting.<a href="#cite_note-Bruyneel-14">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> resulted in strong Congressional enforcement of the right to vote regardless of race, starting with the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. Though this greatly enhanced the ability of racial minorities to vote and run for office in all areas of the country, concerns over racially discriminatory voting laws and administration persist. <a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression_in_the_United_States" title="Voter suppression in the United States">voter suppression</a> efforts around the country, though mainly motivated by political considerations, often effectively disproportionately affect African Americans and other minorities. These include targeted <a href="/wiki/Voter_identification_laws" title="Voter identification laws">voter ID</a> requirements, registration hurdles, restricting vote-by-mail, and making voting facilities physically inconvenient to access due to long distances, long lines, or short hours. The 2013 U.S. Supreme court decision <a href="/wiki/Shelby_County_v._Holder" title="Shelby County v. Holder">Shelby County v. Holder</a> struck down the pre-clearance provisions of the 1965 Act, making anti-discrimination enforcement more difficult. In 2016, one in 13 African Americans of voting age was disenfranchised, more than four times greater than that of non-African Americans. Over 7.4% of adult African Americans were disenfranchised compared to 1.8% of non-African Americans. <a href="/wiki/Felony_disenfranchisement_in_Florida" title="Felony disenfranchisement in Florida">Felony disenfranchisement in Florida</a> disqualifies over 10% of its citizens for life and over 23% of its African American citizens.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_justice_system">Criminal justice system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Criminal justice system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_States" title="Race and crime in the United States">Race and crime in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Race_in_the_United_States_criminal_justice_system" title="Race in the United States criminal justice system">Race in the United States criminal justice system</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice_reform_in_the_United_States" title="Criminal justice reform in the United States">Criminal justice reform in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">Incarceration in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Police_brutality_in_the_United_States" title="Police brutality in the United States">Police brutality in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_and_the_war_on_drugs" title="Race and the war on drugs">Race and the war on drugs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system,_late_2010s.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png/220px-Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png/330px-Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png/440px-Race_disparities_in_US_criminal_justice_system%2C_late_2010s.png 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>Racial disparities in the share of prisoners, police officers, people shot by police, and judges in the United States in the late 2010s</figcaption></figure> There are unique experiences and disparities in the United States, in regard to the policing and prosecuting of various races and ethnicities. There have been different outcomes for different racial groups in convicting and sentencing felons in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_criminal_justice_system" class="mw-redirect" title="United States criminal justice system">United States criminal justice system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-United_States_2008-16">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> Experts and analysts have debated the relative importance of different factors that have led to these disparities.<a href="#cite_note-Stephan_Thernstrom_1999_273-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bobo,_Lawrence_D._2006-19">[17]</a> Academic research indicates that the over-representation of some racial minorities in the criminal justice system can, in part, be explained by socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, exposure to poor neighborhoods, poor access to public education, poor access to early childhood education, and exposure to harmful chemicals (such as <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">lead</a>) and pollution.<a href="#cite_note-:5-20">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> Racial <a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Housing segregation in the United States">housing segregation</a> has also been linked to racial disparities in crime rates, as Blacks have, historically, and to the present, been prevented from moving into prosperous low-crime areas, through actions of the government (such as <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a>) and private actors.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> Various explanations, within <a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a>, have been proposed for racial disparities in crime rates, including <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strain_theory_(sociology)" title="Strain theory (sociology)">strain theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_strain_theory" title="General strain theory">general strain theory</a>, social disorganization theory, macrostructural opportunity theory, <a href="/wiki/Social_control_theory" title="Social control theory">social control theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Subcultural_theory" title="Subcultural theory">subcultural theory</a>. Research also indicates that there is extensive racial and ethnic discrimination by police and the judicial system.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto3-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> A substantial academic literature has compared police searches (showing that contraband is found, at higher rates, in whites who are stopped), bail decisions (showing that whites with the same bail decision as Blacks commit more pre-trial violations), and sentencing (showing that Blacks are more harshly sentenced by juries and judges than whites, when the underlying facts and circumstances of the cases are similar), providing valid causal inferences of racial discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-:19-39">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-:25-40">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-:23-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-:33-42">[40]</a> Studies have documented patterns of racial discrimination, as well as patterns of police brutality and disregard for the constitutional rights of African-Americans, by police departments in various American cities, including <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Police_Department" title="Los Angeles Police Department">Los Angeles</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Police_Department" title="New York City Police Department">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Police_Department" title="Chicago Police Department">Chicago</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Police_Department" title="Philadelphia Police Department">Philadelphia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:42-43">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-:222-46">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> A report by the <a href="/wiki/National_Registry_of_Exonerations" title="National Registry of Exonerations">National Registry of Exonerations</a> found that, as of August 2022, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> make up 13.6% of the U.S. population but 53% of exonerations, and that they were seven times more likely to be falsely convicted, compared to White Americans.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education#United_States" title="Discrimination in education">Discrimination in education § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/School_integration_in_the_United_States" title="School integration in the United States">School integration in the United States</a></div> In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown vs. the Board of Education</a> ruled that <a href="/wiki/Desegregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Desegregation">integrated</a>, equal schools be accessible to all children, unbiased to skin color. Currently, in the United States, not all state funded schools are equally funded.  Schools are funded by the "federal, state, and local governments,” while "states play a large and increasing role in education funding."<a href="#cite_note-:11-50">[48]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Property_tax" title="Property tax">Property taxes</a> support most of the funding that local government provides for education."<a href="#cite_note-:11-50">[48]</a> Schools located in lower income areas receive a lower level of funding, and schools located in higher income areas receiving greater funding for education, all based on property taxes.  The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education" title="United States Department of Education">U.S. Department of Education</a> reports that "many high-poverty schools receive less than their fair share of state and local funding, leaving students in high-poverty schools with fewer resources than schools attended by their wealthier peers."<a href="#cite_note-:13-51">[49]</a> The U.S. Department of Education also reports this fact affects "more than 40% of low-income schools."<a href="#cite_note-:13-51">[49]</a> Children of color are much more likely to suffer from poverty than white children. The phrase "brown paper bag test," also known as a <a href="/wiki/Paper_bag_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Paper bag party">paper bag party</a>, along with the "ruler test" refers to a ritual once practiced by certain African-American sororities and fraternities who would not let anyone into the group whose skin tone was darker than a paper bag.<a href="#cite_note-Kerr-52">[50]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spike_Lee" title="Spike Lee">Spike Lee</a>'s film, <a href="/wiki/School_Daze" title="School Daze">School Daze</a>, satirized this practice at historically Black colleges and universities.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> Along with the "paper bag test," guidelines for acceptance among the lighter ranks included the "comb test" and "pencil test," which tested the coarseness of one's hair, and the "flashlight test," which tested a person's profile to make sure their features measured up or were close enough to those of the Caucasian race.<a href="#cite_note-Kerr-52">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Curriculum">Curriculum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Curriculum">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy_in_U.S._school_curriculum" title="White supremacy in U.S. school curriculum">White supremacy in U.S. school curriculum</a></div> The curriculum in U.S. schools has also contained racism against non-white Americans, including Native Americans, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">Black Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Americans" title="Mexican Americans">Mexican Americans</a>, and Asian Americans.<a href="#cite_note-:20-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-55">[53]</a> Particularly, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, school textbooks and other teaching materials emphasized the biological and social inferiority of Black Americans, consistently portraying Black people as simple, irresponsible, and oftentimes, in situations of suffering that were implied to be their fault (and not the effects of slavery and other oppression).<a href="#cite_note-:20-54">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-55">[53]</a> Black Americans were also depicted as expendable and their suffering as commonplace, as evidenced by a poem about "Ten Little Nigger Boys" dying off, one-by-one, that was circulated as a children's counting exercise from 1875 to the mid-1900s.<a href="#cite_note-:10-55">[53]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Carter_G._Woodson" title="Carter G. Woodson">Carter G. Woodson</a> analyzed American curriculum as completely lacking any mention of Black Americans' merits in the early 20th century. Based on his observations of the time, he wrote that American students, including Black students who went through U.S. schooling, would come out believing that Black people had no significant history and had contributed nothing to human civilization.<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> School curriculum, often, implicitly and explicitly upheld white people as the superior race and marginalized the contributions and perspectives of non-white peoples, as if they were (or are) not as important.<a href="#cite_note-Mills,_Charles_W._1994-57">[55]</a> In the 19th century, a significant number of students were taught that <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> were white, and the other races evolved from their various descendants, growing further and further away from the original white standard.<a href="#cite_note-:20-54">[52]</a> In addition, whites were also fashioned as the capable caretakers of other races, namely Black and Native people, who could not take care of themselves.<a href="#cite_note-:20-54">[52]</a> This concept was at odds with the violence white Americans had committed against indigenous and Black peoples, but it was coupled with soft language that, for example, defended these acts. Mills (1994) cites the narrative about Europeans' "discovery" of a "<a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>," despite the people who already inhabited it and its subsequent "colonization,” instead of conquest, as examples. He maintains that these word choices constitute a cooptation of history by white people, who have used it to their advantage.<a href="#cite_note-Mills,_Charles_W._1994-57">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health">Health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Health">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Medical_Apartheid" title="Medical Apartheid">Medical Apartheid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Medical racism in the United States">Medical racism in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Unethical_human_experimentation_in_the_United_States" title="Unethical human experimentation in the United States">Unethical human experimentation in the United States</a></div> A 2019 review of the literature in the <a href="/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Public_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Annual Review of Public health">Annual Review of Public health</a> found that <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">structural racism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">cultural racism</a>, and individual-level discrimination are "a fundamental cause of adverse health outcomes for racial/ethnic minorities and racial/ethnic inequities in health."<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> Studies have argued that there are racial disparities in how the media and politicians act, when they are faced with cases of drug addiction in which the victims are primarily Black, rather than white, citing the examples of how society responded differently to the <a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Crack epidemic in the United States">crack epidemic</a> than the <a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">opioid epidemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a> There are major <a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">racial differences in access to health care</a> as well as major racial differences in the quality of the health care, which is provided to people. A study published in the American Journal of Public Health estimated that: "over 886,000 deaths could have been prevented, from 1991 to 2000, if African Americans had received the same quality of care as whites.” The key differences that they cited were lack of insurance, inadequate <a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">insurance</a>, poor service, and reluctance to seek care.<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> A history of government-sponsored experimentation, such as the notorious <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study" title="Tuskegee Syphilis Study">Tuskegee Syphilis Study</a>, has left a legacy of African American distrust of the medical system.<a href="#cite_note-62">[60]</a> Inequalities in health care may also reflect a <a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">systemic bias</a> in the way in which medical procedures and treatments are prescribed to members of different ethnic groups. A <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a> Professor of Public Health, Raj Bhopal, writes that the history of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">racism in science</a> and medicine shows that people and institutions behave according to the ethos of their times, and he also warns of dangers that need to be avoided in the future.<a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a> Nancy Krieger, a <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a> Professor of Social Epidemiology, contended that much modern research supported the assumptions which were needed to justify racism. She wrote that racism underlies unexplained inequities in health care, including treatments for <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">heart disease</a>,<a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">renal failure</a>,<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bladder_cancer" title="Bladder cancer">bladder cancer</a>,<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> Bhopal writes that these inequalities have been documented in various studies, and there are consistent findings that Black Americans receive less health care than white Americans—particularly where this involves expensive new technology.<a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> The University of Michigan Health study found, in 2010, that black patients in pain clinics received 50% of the amount of drugs that other patients who were white received.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Black pain in medicine links to the racial disparities between pain management and racial bias on behalf of the health professional. In 2011, Vermont organizers took a proactive stand against racism in their communities to defeat the biopolitical struggles faced on a daily basis. The first and only universal health care law was passed in the state.<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> Two local governments in the US have issued declarations, stating that racism constitutes a <a href="/wiki/Public_health_emergency_(United_States)" title="Public health emergency (United States)">public health emergency</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee_County,_Wisconsin" title="Milwaukee County, Wisconsin">Milwaukee County, Wisconsin</a> executive in May 2019, and the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_City_Council" title="Cleveland City Council">Cleveland City Council</a>, in June 2020.<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Housing_and_land">Housing and land</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Housing and land">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Housing discrimination in the United States">Housing discrimination in the United States</a></div> A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial discrimination in the American housing market.<a href="#cite_note-RichExperiments-73">[71]</a> Minority applicants for housing needed to make many more inquiries to view properties.<a href="#cite_note-RichExperiments-73">[71]</a> Geographical steering of African Americans in US housing remains significant.<a href="#cite_note-RichExperiments-73">[71]</a> A 2003 study found "evidence that agents interpret an initial housing request as an indication of a customer's preferences, but also are more likely to withhold a house from all customers when it is in an integrated suburban neighborhood (<a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a>). Moreover, agents' marketing efforts increase with asking price for white, but not for black, customers; blacks are more likely than whites to see houses in suburban, integrated areas (<a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">steering</a>); and the houses agents show are more likely to deviate from the initial request when the customer is black than when the customer is white. These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act upon the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination)."<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> Historically, there was extensive and long-lasting racial discrimination against African Americans in the housing and mortgage markets in the United States,<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a> as well as discrimination against Black farmers whose numbers massively declined in post-WWII America due to anti-Black local and federal policies.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> According to a 2019 analysis by University of Pittsburgh economists, Blacks faced a two-fold penalty due to the racially segregated housing market: rental prices increased in blocks when they underwent racial transition whereas home values declined in neighborhoods that Blacks moved into.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> A 2017 paper by Troesken and Walsh found that pre-20th century cities "created and sustained residential segregation through private norms and vigilante activity." However, "when these private arrangements began to break down during the early 1900s" whites started "lobbying municipal governments for segregation ordinances." As a result, cities passed ordinances which "prohibited members of the majority racial group on a given city block from selling or renting property to members of another racial group" between 1909 and 1917.<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a> A 2017 study by Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago economists found that the practice of <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a>—the practice whereby banks discriminated against the inhabitants of certain neighborhoods—had a persistent adverse impact on the neighborhoods, with redlining affecting homeownership rates, home values and credit scores in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-81">[79]</a> Since many African Americans could not access conventional home loans, they had to turn to predatory lenders (who charged high interest rates).<a href="#cite_note-:16-81">[79]</a> Due to lower homeownership rates, slumlords were able to rent out apartments that would otherwise be owned.<a href="#cite_note-:16-81">[79]</a> A 2019 analysis estimated that predatory housing contracts targeting African Americans in Chicago in the 1950s and 1960s cost Black families between $3 billion and $4 billion in wealth.<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_market">Labor market</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Labor market">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></div> Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the American labor market.<a href="#cite_note-RichExperiments-73">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a> A 2017 meta-analysis found "no change in the levels of discrimination against African Americans since 1989, although we do find some indication of declining discrimination against Latinos."<a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests – tests where identical CVs for stereotypically Black and white names were sent to employers – in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North America.<a href="#cite_note-:22-83">[81]</a> These correspondence tests showed that equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.<a href="#cite_note-:22-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> A study which examined the job applications of actual people who were provided with identical résumés and similar interview training showed that African-American applicants with no criminal record were offered jobs at a rate as low as white applicants who had criminal records.<a href="#cite_note-88">[86]</a> A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found evidence of racial bias in how CVs were evaluated.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> A 2020 study revealed that discrimination not only exists against minorities in callback rates in audit studies, it also increases in severity after the callbacks in terms of job offers.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> Research suggests that light-skinned African American women have higher salaries and greater job satisfaction than dark-skinned women.<a href="#cite_note-Hunter-91">[89]</a> Being "too black" has recently been acknowledged by the U.S. Federal courts in an employment discrimination case under Title VII of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>. In Etienne v. Spanish Lake Truck & Casino Plaza, LLC the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit</a>, determined that an employee who was told on several occasions that her manager thought she was "too black" to do various tasks, found that the issue of the employee's skin color, rather than race, itself, played a key role in an employer's decision to keep the employee from advancing.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> A 2018 study uncovered evidence which suggests that immigrants with darker skin colors are discriminated against.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Media">Media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cyber_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber racism">Cyber racism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_stereotyping_in_advertising" title="Racial stereotyping in advertising">Racial stereotyping in advertising</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">Representation of African Americans in media</a></div> A 2017 report by Travis L. Dixon (of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) found that major media outlets tended to portray Black families as dysfunctional and dependent, while white families were portrayed as stable. These portrayals may suggest that poverty and welfare are primarily Black issues. According to Dixon, this can reduce public support for social safety programs and lead to stricter welfare requirements.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> African Americans who possess a lighter skin complexion and "European features," such as lighter eyes, and smaller noses and lips have more opportunities in the media industry. For example, film producers hire lighter-skinned African Americans more often, television producers choose lighter-skinned cast members, and magazine editors choose African American models that resemble European features.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> A content analysis conducted by Scott and Neptune (1997) shows that less than one percent of advertisements in major magazines featured African American models. When African Americans did appear in advertisements, they were mainly portrayed as athletes, entertainers, or unskilled laborers. In addition, seventy percent of the advertisements that feature animal print included African American women. Animal print reinforces the stereotypes that African Americans are animalistic in nature, sexually active, less educated, have lower income, and extremely concerned with personal appearances.<a href="#cite_note-Pious-97">[95]</a> Concerning African American males in the media, darker-skinned men are more likely to be portrayed as violent or more threatening, influencing the public perception of African American men. Since dark-skinned males are more likely to be linked to crime and misconduct, many people develop preconceived notions about the characteristics of Black men.<a href="#cite_note-Hall-98">[96]</a> During and after slavery, minstrel shows were a very popular form of theater that involved white and Black people in <a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a>, portraying Black people while doing demeaning things. The actors painted their faces with Black paint and overlined their lips with bright red lipstick, to exaggerate and make fun of Black people.<a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> When minstrel shows died out and television became popular, Black actors were rarely hired, and when they were, they had very specific roles. These roles included being servants, slaves, idiots, and criminals.<a href="#cite_note-100">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics">Politics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Politics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">Radical right (United States)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_welfare" title="Criticism of welfare">Criticism of welfare</a></div> Politically, the "<a href="/wiki/Winner-takes-all_voting" class="mw-redirect" title="Winner-takes-all voting">winner-takes-all</a>" structure of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_electoral_college" class="mw-redirect" title="United States electoral college">electoral college</a> benefits white representation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-101">[99]</a> This has been described as structural bias and often leads voters of color to feel <a href="/wiki/Political_alienation" class="mw-redirect" title="Political alienation">politically alienated</a> and therefore, not to vote. The lack of representation in Congress has also led to lower voter turnout.<a href="#cite_note-:1-101">[99]</a> As of 2016, African Americans only made up 8.7% of Congress, and Latinos 7%.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/Voter_ID_laws_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Voter ID laws in the United States">Voter ID laws</a> have brought on accusations of racial discrimination. In a 2014 review by the <a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a> of the academic literature, three studies out of five found that voter ID laws reduced minority turnout, whereas two studies found no significant impact.<a href="#cite_note-RichExperiments-73">[71]</a> Disparate impact may also be reflected in access to information about voter ID laws. A 2015 experimental study found that election officials queried about voter ID laws are more likely to respond to emails from a non-Latino white name (70.5% response rate) than a Latino name (64.8% response rate), though response accuracy was similar, across groups.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> Studies have also analyzed racial differences in ID requests rates. A 2012 study in the city of Boston found that Black and Hispanic voters were more likely to be asked for ID, during the 2008 election. According to exit polls, 23% of whites, 33% of Blacks, and 38% of Hispanics were asked for ID, though this effect is partially attributed to Black and Hispanics preferring non-peak voting hours, when election officials inspected a greater portion of IDs. Precinct differences also confound the data as Black and Hispanic voters tended to vote at Black and Hispanic-majority precincts.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> A 2015 study found that turnout, among Blacks in Georgia, was generally higher, since the state began enforcing its strict voter ID law.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> A 2016 study by <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Diego" title="University of California, San Diego">University of California, San Diego</a> researchers found that voter ID laws "have a differentially negative impact on the turnout of Hispanics, Blacks, and mixed-race Americans in primaries and general elections."<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> Research by University of Oxford economist Evan Soltas and Stanford political scientist David Broockman suggests that voters act upon racially discriminatory tastes.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> A 2018 study in <a href="/wiki/Public_Opinion_Quarterly" title="Public Opinion Quarterly">Public Opinion Quarterly</a> found that whites, in particular those who had racial resentment, largely attributed Obama's success among African-Americans to his race and not his characteristics as a candidate and the political preferences of African-Americans.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> A 2018 study in the journal <a href="/wiki/American_Politics_Research" title="American Politics Research">American Politics Research</a> found that white voters tended to misperceive political candidates from racial minorities as being more ideologically extreme than objective indicators would suggest; this adversely affected the electoral chances for those candidates.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a> A 2018 study in the <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Politics" title="The Journal of Politics">Journal of Politics</a> found that "when a white candidate makes vague statements, many [nonblack] voters project their own policy positions onto the candidate, increasing support for the candidate. But they are less likely to extend black candidates the same courtesy... In fact, black male candidates who make ambiguous statements are actually punished for doing so by racially prejudiced voters."<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a> It is argued that the racial coding of concepts, like crime and welfare, has been used to strategically influence public political views. Racial coding is implicit; it incorporates racially primed language or imagery to allude to racial attitudes and thinking. For example, in the context of domestic policy, it is argued that <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> implied that linkages existed between concepts like "special interests" and "<a href="/wiki/Big_government" title="Big government">big government</a>" and ill-perceived minority groups in the 1980s, using the conditioned negativity which existed toward the minority groups to discredit certain policies and programs during campaigns. In a study which analyzes how political ads prime attitudes, Valentino compares the voting responses of participants after they are exposed to the narration of a George W. Bush advertisement which is paired with three different types of visuals which contain different embedded racial cues to create three conditions: neutral, race comparison, and undeserving Blacks. For example, as the narrator states "Democrats want to spend your tax dollars on wasteful government programs,” the video shows an image of a Black woman and her child in an office setting. Valentino found that the undeserving Blacks condition produced the largest primed effect in racialized policies, like opposition to <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> and welfare spending.<a href="#cite_note-Valentino-111">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ian_Haney_L%C3%B3pez" title="Ian Haney López">Ian Haney López</a>, Professor of Law at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, refers to the phenomenon of racial coding as <a href="/wiki/Dog-whistle_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dog-whistle politics">dog-whistle politics</a>, which, he argues, has pushed middle class white Americans to vote against their economic self-interest to punish "undeserving minorities" which, they believe, are receiving too much public assistance at their expense. According to López, conservative middle-class whites, convinced that minorities are the enemy by powerful economic interests, supported politicians who promised to curb illegal immigration and crack down on crime, but inadvertently they also voted for policies that favor the extremely rich, such as slashing taxes for top income brackets, giving corporations more regulatory control over industry and financial markets, <a href="/wiki/Union_busting" title="Union busting">busting unions</a>, cutting pensions for future public employees, reducing funding for public schools, and retrenching the social welfare state. He argues that these same voters cannot link rising inequality which has impacted their lives to the policy agendas which they support, which resulted in a massive transfer of wealth to the top 1% of the population since the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-112">[110]</a> A book released by the former attorney of <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Cohen_(lawyer)" title="Michael Cohen (lawyer)">Michael Cohen</a>, in September 2020, <a href="/wiki/Disloyal:_A_Memoir" title="Disloyal: A Memoir">Disloyal: A Memoir</a> described Trump as routinely referring to Black leaders of foreign nations with racial insults and that he was consumed with hatred for <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>. Cohen, in the book, explained that "as a rule, Trump expressed low opinions of all Black folks, from music to culture and politics".<a href="#cite_note-113">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_of_churches_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation of churches in the United States">Racial segregation of churches in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States#Ethnicity" title="Religion in the United States">Religion in the United States § Ethnicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="History of religion in the United States">History of religion in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Catholicism in the United States">Anti-Catholicism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">Anti-Mormonism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States_in_the_21st_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century">Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">History of antisemitism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_antisemitic_incidents_in_the_United_States" title="List of antisemitic incidents in the United States">List of antisemitic incidents in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">List of attacks against African-American churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_Latter-day_Saint_churches" title="List of attacks against Latter-day Saint churches">List of attacks against Latter-day Saint churches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion of Black Americans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Religious discrimination in the United States">Religious discrimination in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wealth">Wealth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Wealth">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wealth_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Wealth inequality in the United States">Wealth inequality in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></div> Large racial differentials in wealth remain in the United States: between whites and African Americans, the gap is a factor of twenty.<a href="#cite_note-114">[112]</a> An analyst of the phenomenon, Thomas Shapiro, professor of law and social policy at <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_University" title="Brandeis University">Brandeis University</a> argues, "The <a href="/wiki/Wealth_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth gap">wealth gap</a> is not just a story of merit and achievement, it's also a story of the historical legacy of race in the United States."<a href="#cite_note-115">[113]</a> Differentials applied to the <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security Act</a> (which excluded agricultural workers, a sector which then included most black workers), rewards to military officers, and the educational benefits offered returning soldiers after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Pre-existing disparities in wealth are exacerbated by tax policies that reward investment over waged income, subsidize mortgages, and subsidize private sector developers.<a href="#cite_note-116">[114]</a> Redlining intentionally excluded black Americans from accumulating intergenerational wealth. The effects of this exclusion on black Americans' health continue to play out daily, generations later, in the same communities. This is evident currently in the disproportionate effects that COVID-19 has had on the same communities which the HOLC redlined in the 1930s. Research published in September 2020 overlaid maps of the highly affected COVID-19 areas with the HOLC maps, showing that those areas marked "risky" to lenders because they contained minority residents were the same neighborhoods most affected by COVID-19. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) looks at inequities in the social determinants of health like concentrated poverty and healthcare access that are interrelated and influence health outcomes with regard to COVID-19 as well as quality of life in general for minority groups. The CDC points to discrimination within health care, education, criminal justice, housing, and finance, direct results of systematically subversive tactics like redlining which led to chronic and toxic stress that shaped social and economic factors for minority groups, increasing their risk for COVID-19. Healthcare access is similarly limited by factors like a lack of public transportation, child care, and communication and language barriers which result from the spatial and economic isolation of minority communities from redlining. Educational, income, and wealth gaps that result from this isolation mean that minority groups' limited access to the job market may force them to remain in fields that have a higher risk of exposure to the virus, without options to take time off. Finally, a direct result of redlining is the overcrowding of minority groups into neighborhoods that do not boast adequate housing to sustain burgeoning populations, leading to crowded conditions that make prevention strategies for COVID-19 nearly impossible to implement.<a href="#cite_note-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-Myers,_JoAnne_2020-119">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-:52-123">[121]</a> A 2014 meta-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products.<a href="#cite_note-RichExperiments-73">[71]</a> Historically, African-Americans have faced discrimination in terms of getting access to credit.<a href="#cite_note-124">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="African_Americans">African Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: African Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">Racism against African Americans</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">African-American history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antebellum_period">Antebellum period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Antebellum period">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Whippedslaveedit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Whippedslaveedit.jpg/220px-Whippedslaveedit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Whippedslaveedit.jpg/330px-Whippedslaveedit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Whippedslaveedit.jpg/440px-Whippedslaveedit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1206" data-file-height="1613" /></a><figcaption>Scars on an enslaved man, Peter, April 2, 1863, <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana" title="Baton Rouge, Louisiana">Baton Rouge, Louisiana</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Antebellum_South" title="Antebellum South">Antebellum South</a></div> Between 1626 and 1860, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> brought more than 470,000 enslaved Africans to what is now the United States.<a href="#cite_note-125">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[124]</a> White European Americans who participated in the slave industry tried to justify their economic exploitation of <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Black people</a> by creating a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">"scientific" theory of white superiority and Black inferiority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Boggs-127">[125]</a> One such slave owner was <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, and it was his call for science to determine the obvious "inferiority" of Blacks that is regarded as "an extremely important stage in the evolution of scientific racism."<a href="#cite_note-128">[126]</a> He concluded that Blacks were "inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind."<a href="#cite_note-129">[127]</a> After the importation of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slaves into the United States</a> was outlawed by federal law from 1808, the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States#Domestic_slave_trade_and_forced_migration" title="Slavery in the United States">domestic slave trade</a> was expanded in an attempt to replace it.<a href="#cite_note-CUP-130">[128]</a> Maryland and Virginia, for example, would "export" their surplus slaves to the South. These sales of slaves broke up many families, with historian <a href="/wiki/Ira_Berlin" title="Ira Berlin">Ira Berlin</a> writing that whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people".<a href="#cite_note-131">[129]</a> During the 1820s and 1830s, the <a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a> established the colony of <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> and persuaded thousands of free Black Americans to move there because many members of the white elite both in the North and the South saw them as a problem to be got rid of. <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, who opposed the spread of slavery, spoke out for white superiority before the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> Lincoln said during the Fourth <a href="/wiki/Lincoln-Douglas_debates" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincoln-Douglas debates">Lincoln-Douglas debate</a> held in Charleston, Illinois, on September 18, 1858: "I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races, [applause]-that I am not nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people; and I will say in addition to this that there is a physical difference between the white and black races which I believe will forever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality. And inasmuch as they cannot so live, while they do remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as much as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race."<a href="#cite_note-133">[131]</a> In 1862-1865, during and immediately after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, all four million enslaved African Americans were set free. Major legal actions included <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">President Lincoln</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> which came into effect on January 1, 1863, and the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> which finally abolished slavery in December 1865.<a href="#cite_note-134">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_the_Reconstruction_Era_to_World_War_II">From the Reconstruction Era to World War II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: From the Reconstruction Era to World War II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_expulsions_of_African_Americans" title="List of expulsions of African Americans">List of expulsions of African Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">Mass racial violence in the United States</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg/252px-Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg" decoding="async" width="252" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg/378px-Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg/504px-Omaha_courthouse_lynching.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="825" /></a><figcaption>A group of white men pose for a 1919 photograph as they stand over the body of the Black lynching victim Will Brown before they decide to mutilate and burn them during the <a href="/wiki/Omaha_race_riot_of_1919" title="Omaha race riot of 1919">Omaha race riot of 1919</a> in <a href="/wiki/Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a>. Photographs and postcards of lynchings were popular souvenirs in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a></figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction Era</a> was characterized by the passage of federal legislation which was designed to protect the rights of the formerly enslaved people, including the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth amendment</a> granted full citizenship to African Americans and the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth amendment</a> guaranteed the <a href="/wiki/Voting_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting rights">voting rights</a> of African-American men (see <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a>). Despite this, <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacists</a> came to power in all Southern states, by intimidating Black voters with the assistance of terrorist groups like the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(Southern_United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Shirts (Southern United States)">Red Shirts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a>. "<a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a>" and <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> deprived African Americans of voting rights and other civil liberties by instituting systemic and discriminatory policies of unequal <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> Segregated facilities extended from white-only schools to white-only graveyards.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-miscegenation laws in the United States">Anti-miscegenation laws</a> forbade marriage and even sex between whites and non-whites.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> In the late 19th century and early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_tensions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic tensions">ethnic tensions</a> commonly existed between <a href="/wiki/Austrians" title="Austrians">Austrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Immigrants" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrants">immigrants</a> and African-Americans with long-rooted family histories in the United States, and racism and racist policies against non-white workers were often contributed to by <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Americans" title="Austrian Americans">Austrians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[137]</a> The new century saw a hardening of <a href="/wiki/Institutionalized_racism" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutionalized racism">institutionalized racism</a> and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Throughout the post-Civil War period, <a href="/wiki/Racial_stratification" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial stratification">racial stratification</a> was informally and systemically enforced, to solidify the pre-existing social order. Although their vote was guaranteed by the 15th Amendment, <a href="/wiki/Poll_tax_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poll tax (United States)">poll taxes</a>, pervasive acts of <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings</a> (often perpetrated by <a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">hate groups</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>), and discriminatory laws such as <a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clauses" class="mw-redirect" title="Grandfather clauses">grandfather clauses</a> kept Black Americans <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" title="Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">disenfranchised</a> in most Southern states. In response to <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-140">[138]</a> This era is sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">nadir of American race relations</a> because racism, <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a>, and expressions of <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> all increased. So did anti-Black violence, including <a href="/wiki/Mass_racial_violence_in_the_United_States" title="Mass racial violence in the United States">race riots</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_race_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta race riot">Atlanta race riot</a> of 1906, the <a href="/wiki/Elaine_massacre" title="Elaine massacre">Elaine massacre</a> of 1919, the <a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a> of 1921, the <a href="/wiki/Perry_massacre" title="Perry massacre">Perry massacre</a> of 1922, and the <a href="/wiki/Rosewood_massacre" title="Rosewood massacre">Rosewood massacre</a> of 1923. The Atlanta riot was characterized as a "racial massacre of negroes" by the French newspaper <a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)" title="Le Petit Journal (newspaper)">Le Petit Journal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a> The Charleston <a href="/wiki/The_Post_and_Courier" title="The Post and Courier">News and Courier</a> wrote in response to the Atlanta riots: "Separation of the races is the only radical solution of the negro problem in this country. There is nothing new about it. It was the Almighty who established the bounds of the habitation of the races. The negroes were brought here by compulsion; they should be induced to leave here by persuasion."<a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> Additionally, racism, which had previously been considered a problem which primarily existed in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern states</a>, burst onto the nation's consciousness following the <a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a>, the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the rural Southern states to the industrial centers of the North and West between 1910 and 1970. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:We_want_white_tenants.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/220px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/330px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/We_want_white_tenants.jpg/440px-We_want_white_tenants.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5974" data-file-height="4753" /></a><figcaption>White tenants seeking to prevent Blacks from moving into the <a href="/wiki/Public_housing_in_Detroit" title="Public housing in Detroit">housing project</a> erected this sign. Detroit, 1942.</figcaption></figure> Throughout this period, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings</a>—mob-directed hangings, usually racially motivated—increased dramatically in the 1920s. Urban riots—whites attacking Blacks—became a northern and western problem.<a href="#cite_note-143">[141]</a> Many whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, while many other whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Migration-144">[142]</a> Racially restrictive housing covenants were ruled unenforceable under the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> in the 1948 landmark <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> case <a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">Elected in 1912</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race#Segregating_the_federal_bureaucracy" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">authorized the practice of racial segregation</a> throughout the federal government's bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-146">[144]</a> In <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, Blacks who served in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a> served in <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States_Armed_Forces" title="Racial segregation in the United States Armed Forces">segregated units</a>. Black soldiers were often poorly trained and equipped, and they were often put on the frontlines and forced to go on <a href="/wiki/Suicide_mission" title="Suicide mission">suicide missions</a>. The U.S. military was still heavily segregated during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. In addition, no African-American was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor" title="Medal of Honor">Medal of Honor</a> during the war, and sometimes, Black soldiers who traveled on trains had to give their seats up to Nazi prisoners of war.<a href="#cite_note-147">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_World_War_II_to_the_Civil_Rights_Movement">From World War II to the Civil Rights Movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: From World War II to the Civil Rights Movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil rights movement (1896–1954)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg/220px-US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg/330px-US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg/440px-US_Marshals_with_Young_Ruby_Bridges_on_School_Steps.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1996" /></a><figcaption>Due to threats and violence against her, U.S. Marshals escorted 6-year-old <a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a> to and from the previously whites only <a href="/wiki/William_Frantz_Elementary_School" title="William Frantz Elementary School">William Frantz Elementary School</a> in New Orleans, 1960. As soon as Bridges entered the school, white parents pulled their children out.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> were state and local laws which were enacted in the Southern and <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(Civil_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Border states (Civil War)">border states</a> and enforced between 1876 and 1965. They mandated "<a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a>" status for Blacks. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were almost always inferior to those which were provided to whites. The most important laws required that public schools, public places, and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for whites and Blacks. State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> in 1954 in <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>. One of the first federal court cases which challenged segregation in schools was <a href="/wiki/Mendez_v._Westminster" title="Mendez v. Westminster">Mendez v. Westminster</a> in 1946. By the 1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> was gaining momentum. Membership in the NAACP increased in states across the U.S. Notable acts of anti-Black violence that sparked public outrage included the 1955 lynching of 14-year-old <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a> and the 1963 assassination of civil rights activist and <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> member <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a> by a member of the <a href="/wiki/White_Citizens%27_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="White Citizens' Council">White Citizens' Council</a>. In both cases, the perpetrators were able to evade conviction with the help of <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination_in_jury_selection" title="Racial discrimination in jury selection">all-white juries</a>. In the 1963 <a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klansmen</a> killed four Black girls, aged 11 to 14.<a href="#cite_note-148">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> In response to heightening discrimination and violence, non-violent acts of protest began to occur. The <a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a>, starting in February 1960, contributed to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee</a>. After many <a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">sit-ins</a> and other non-violent protests, including marches and boycotts, places began to agree to desegregate.<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22,_1956,_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg/220px-Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg/330px-Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg/440px-Rosa_Parks_being_fingerprinted_by_Deputy_Sheriff_D.H._Lackey_after_being_arrested_on_February_22%2C_1956%2C_during_the_Montgomery_bus_boycott.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5748" data-file-height="4549" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a> being fingerprinted on February 22, 1956, after being arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white person</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/170px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/255px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg/340px-Bayard_Rustin_NYWTS_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2050" data-file-height="2625" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Robinson" title="Cleveland Robinson">Cleveland Robinson</a> (right), organizers of the March, on August 7, 1963</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> on August 28, 1963, with an estimated 250,000 Black and white participants, at which <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> delivered his historic "<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>" speech, helped facilitate the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a> (1967), the Supreme Court declared <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-miscegenation law">anti-miscegenation laws</a> unconstitutional.<a href="#cite_note-Anti-miscegenation-151">[149]</a> Segregation continued even after the demise of the Jim Crow laws. Data on house prices and attitudes towards integration suggest that in the mid-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude Blacks from their neighborhoods.<a href="#cite_note-vigdor-152">[150]</a> Segregation also took the form of <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a>, the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs,<a href="#cite_note-153">[151]</a> access to health care,<a href="#cite_note-154">[152]</a> or even supermarkets<a href="#cite_note-155">[153]</a> to residents in certain, often racially determined,<a href="#cite_note-eastny-156">[154]</a> areas. Although in the U.S. informal discrimination and segregation have always existed, redlining began with the <a href="/wiki/National_Housing_Act_of_1934" title="National Housing Act of 1934">National Housing Act of 1934</a>, which established the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Housing_Administration" title="Federal Housing Administration">Federal Housing Administration</a> (FHA). The practice was fought first through passage of the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Housing_Act_of_1968" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Housing Act of 1968">Fair Housing Act of 1968</a> (which prevents redlining when the criteria for redlining are based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, or ethnic origin), and later through the <a href="/wiki/Community_Reinvestment_Act" title="Community Reinvestment Act">Community Reinvestment Act</a> of 1977, which requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities.<a href="#cite_note-157">[155]</a> Although redlining is illegal some argue that it continues to exist in other forms. Up until the 1940s, the full revenue potential of what was called "the Negro market" was largely ignored by white-owned manufacturers in the U.S., with advertising focused on whites.<a href="#cite_note-158">[156]</a> Blacks, including Olympic champion <a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a>,<a href="#cite_note-espn1-159">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[158]</a> were also denied commercial deals. Famous Blacks like Owens and <a href="/wiki/Hattie_McDaniel" title="Hattie McDaniel">Hattie McDaniel</a> had to suffer humiliating treatment even at events celebrating their achievements.<a href="#cite_note-schwartz-161">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-LA_segregation-162">[160]</a> As the civil rights movement and the dismantling of Jim Crow laws in the 1950s and 1960s deepened existing racial tensions in much of the Southern U.S., a Republican Party electoral strategy – the <a href="/wiki/Southern_strategy" title="Southern strategy">Southern strategy</a> – was enacted to increase political support among white voters in the South by appealing to racism against African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-163">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[162]</a> Republican politicians such as presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a> developed strategies that successfully contributed to the political realignment of many white, conservative voters in the South who had traditionally supported the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party.<a href="#cite_note-Apple-165">[163]</a> Nixon and <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> exhibited racial prejudice toward African people in a recorded phone conversation in 1971, and in another conversation with White House aids Nixon commented on African Americans: "We're going to (place) more of these little Negro bastards on the welfare rolls at $2,400 a family".<a href="#cite_note-166">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_the_1970s_to_the_2000s">From the 1970s to the 2000s</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: From the 1970s to the 2000s">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_(AME)_Church_Corrected.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg/220px-Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg/330px-Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg/440px-Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_%28AME%29_Church_Corrected.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church">Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church</a> where nine Black church-goers, including the pastor, were killed by <a href="/wiki/Dylann_Roof" title="Dylann Roof">a white man</a> in the 2015 <a href="/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting" title="Charleston church shooting">Charleston church shooting</a>. The church, founded in 1817, is the oldest <a href="/wiki/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="African Methodist Episcopal Church">AME</a> church in the South.</figcaption></figure> While substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, <a href="/wiki/African-American_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American poverty">Black poverty</a> and lack of education continued in the context of de-industrialization.<a href="#cite_note-167">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Takaki-CivRights-168">[166]</a> From 1981 to 1997, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> discriminated against tens of thousands of Black American farmers, denying loans that were provided to white farmers in similar circumstances. The discrimination was the subject of the <a href="/wiki/Pigford_v._Glickman" title="Pigford v. Glickman">Pigford v. Glickman</a> lawsuit brought by members of the <a href="/wiki/National_Black_Farmers_Association" title="National Black Farmers Association">National Black Farmers Association</a>, which resulted in two settlement agreements of $1.06 billion in 1999 and of $1.25 billion in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-169">[167]</a> Numerous authors, academics, and historians have asserted that the <a href="/wiki/War_on_Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Drugs">War on Drugs</a> has been racially and politically motivated. Continuing the "tough on crime" policies and rhetoric of earlier politicians, President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> announced his administration's <a href="/wiki/War_on_Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Drugs">War on Drugs</a> in October 1982.<a href="#cite_note-170">[168]</a> A few years later, the <a href="/wiki/Crack_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Crack epidemic">crack epidemic</a> spread across the country in the mid 1980s, leading Congress to pass the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Drug_Abuse_Act_of_1986" title="Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986">Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986</a>. Under these sentencing guidelines, five grams of <a href="/wiki/Crack_cocaine" title="Crack cocaine">crack cocaine</a>, often sold by and to African-Americans, carried a mandatory five-year prison sentence. However, for powder cocaine, often sold by and to white Americans, it would take one hundred times that amount, or 500 grams, for the same sentence, leading many to criticize the law as discriminatory. The 100:1 sentencing disparity was reduced to 18:1 in 2010 by the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Sentencing_Act" title="Fair Sentencing Act">Fair Sentencing Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-171">[169]</a> In addition to discriminatory sentencing for drug-related offenses, many African-Americans have gone as far as accusing the U.S. government of deliberately flooding their communities with drugs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It has been demonstrated that government officials, including the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> and Reagan administration officials linked to the <a href="/wiki/Iran-Contra_scandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-Contra scandal">Iran-Contra scandal</a>, were aware of <a href="/wiki/CIA_involvement_in_Contra_cocaine_trafficking" title="CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking">drug trafficking by the Nicaraguan Contras</a>, and collaborated with and protected Contra members who were known drug traffickers. In 1996, the <a href="/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News" class="mw-redirect" title="San Jose Mercury News">San Jose Mercury News</a> ran a series of articles by investigative journalist <a href="/wiki/Gary_Webb" title="Gary Webb">Gary Webb</a> which linked the CIA-backed <a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Contras" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicaraguan Contras">Contras</a> to the origins of the crack epidemic,<a href="#cite_note-172">[170]</a> although this was rejected by separate investigations by <a href="/wiki/The_Los_Angeles_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="The Los Angeles Times">The Los Angeles Times</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[171]</a> During the 1980s and 1990s, a number of riots occurred that were related to longstanding racial tensions between police and minority communities. One of these was the <a href="/wiki/1992_Los_Angeles_riots" title="1992 Los Angeles riots">1992 Los Angeles riots</a>, after a nearly all-white jury acquitted four Los Angeles police officers for the beating of Black motorist <a href="/wiki/Rodney_King" title="Rodney King">Rodney King</a>. <a href="/wiki/Khalil_Gibran_Muhammad" title="Khalil Gibran Muhammad">Khalil Gibran Muhammad</a>, the Director of the Harlem-based <a href="/wiki/Schomburg_Center_for_Research_in_Black_Culture" title="Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture">Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture</a> has identified more than 100 instances of mass racial violence in the United States since 1935 and has noted that almost every instance was precipitated by a police incident.<a href="#cite_note-174">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">Violence against Black churches</a> has continued – 145 fires were set to <a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black churches</a> around the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> in the 1990s,<a href="#cite_note-175">[173]</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting" title="Charleston church shooting">mass shooting in Charleston, South Carolina</a> was committed in 2015 at the historic <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church">Mother Emanuel Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_2008_to_the_present">From 2008 to the present</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: From 2008 to the present">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Charleston_church_shooting" title="Charleston church shooting">Charleston church shooting</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_racial_unrest_(2020%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States racial unrest (2020–present)">United States racial unrest (2020–present)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2022_Buffalo_shooting" title="2022 Buffalo shooting">2022 Buffalo shooting</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DSC_0008_(50283939071).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg/220px-DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg/330px-DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg/440px-DSC_0008_%2850283939071%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Reverend <a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a> speaking at the <a href="/wiki/Commitment_March:_Get_Your_Knee_Off_Our_Necks" title="Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks">Commitment March: Get Your Knee Off Our Necks</a> in August 2020</figcaption></figure> Some Americans saw the presidential election of <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a>, who was the nation's first Black president, as a sign that the nation had entered a new, <a href="/wiki/Post-racial_America" title="Post-racial America">post-racial era</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-178">[176]</a> The election of President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> in 2016, who was a chief proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Birther_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Birther movement">birther movement</a> which is considered by many to be racist and has a history of speech and actions that have been <a href="/wiki/Racial_views_of_Donald_Trump" title="Racial views of Donald Trump">widely viewed as racist or racially charged</a>, has been viewed by some commentators as a <a href="/wiki/White_backlash#United_States" title="White backlash">racist backlash</a> against the election of Barack Obama.<a href="#cite_note-:2-179">[177]</a> During the mid-2010s, American society has seen a resurgence of high levels of racism and discrimination. One new phenomenon has been the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">"alt-right" movement</a>: a <a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">white nationalist</a> coalition which seeks the expulsion of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_minority" title="Sexual minority">sexual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">racial minorities</a> from the United States.<a href="#cite_note-180">[178]</a> Since the mid-2010s, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">Department of Homeland Security</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> have identified <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacist</a> violence as the leading threat of <a href="/wiki/Domestic_terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Domestic terrorism in the United States">domestic terrorism in the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[180]</a> Sociologist Russ Long stated in 2013 that there is now a more subtle racism that associates a specific race with a specific characteristic.<a href="#cite_note-183">[181]</a> In a 1993 study conducted by Katz and Braly, it was presented that "blacks and whites hold a variety of stereotypes towards each other, often negative".<a href="#cite_note-Leonard_1993-184">[182]</a> The Katz and Braley study also found that African-Americans and whites view the traits that they identify each other with as threatening, interracial communication between the two is likely to be "hesitant, reserved, and concealing".<a href="#cite_note-Leonard_1993-184">[182]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a> movement started in 2013 after <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_George_Zimmerman" title="Trial of George Zimmerman">the acquittal</a> of a man who had killed the African-American teen <a href="/wiki/Trayvon_Martin" title="Trayvon Martin">Trayvon Martin</a> in 2012.<a href="#cite_note-185">[183]</a> In August 2017, the <a href="/wiki/International_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Racial_Discrimination#Committee_on_the_Elimination_of_Racial_Discrimination" title="International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination">UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination</a> issued a rare warning to the population of the US and its leadership and it also urged them to "unequivocally and unconditionally" condemn racist speech and crime, following <a href="/wiki/Charlottesville_car_attack" title="Charlottesville car attack">violence in Charlottesville</a> during a <a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">rally</a> which was organized by <a href="/wiki/White_nationalism#United_States" title="White nationalism">white nationalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy#United_States" title="White supremacy">white supremacists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Klansmen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neo-Nazism#United_States" title="Neo-Nazism">neo-Nazis</a> and various <a href="/wiki/American_militia_movement" title="American militia movement">right-wing militias</a> in August.<a href="#cite_note-186">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[185]</a> On May 25, 2020, <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd" title="George Floyd">George Floyd</a>, a 46-year-old Black man, was <a href="/wiki/Murder_of_George_Floyd" title="Murder of George Floyd">murdered</a> by a white <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Police_Department" title="Minneapolis Police Department">Minneapolis Police Department</a> officer, who forced his knee on Floyd's neck for a total of <a href="/wiki/8_minutes_and_46_seconds" class="mw-redirect" title="8 minutes and 46 seconds">9 minutes and 29 seconds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-9:30_not_8:46-195">[c]</a> Floyd's murder sparked a <a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">wave of protests</a> across the United States and worldwide<a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a> as well as reigniting the <a href="/wiki/BLM_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="BLM protests">BLM protests</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native_Americans">Native Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Native Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Racism against Native Americans in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">List of Indian massacres in North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_indigenous_peoples_of_Canada_and_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States">Stereotypes of indigenous peoples of Canada and the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_Native_Americans" title="Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans">Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Trail_of_Tears" title="Choctaw Trail of Tears">Choctaw Trail of Tears</a>, <a href="/wiki/California_Genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="California Genocide">California Genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comanche_campaign" title="Comanche campaign">Comanche campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_Trail_of_Death" title="Potawatomi Trail of Death">Potawatomi Trail of Death</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cherokee_removal" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Cherokee removal">Timeline of Cherokee removal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Indiana" title="Indian removals in Indiana">Indian removals in Indiana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_removals_in_Ohio" title="Indian removals in Ohio">Indian removals in Ohio</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png/220px-Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png/330px-Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png/440px-Creeks_in_Oklahoma.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek) Nation">Muscogee (Creek) Nation</a> in Oklahoma around 1877.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> have <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement of the Americas">inhabited the North American continent</a> for at least 10,000 years, and <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas">millions of Native Americans</a> lived in the region composing the modern-day United States prior to <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-197">[194]</a> Both during and after the colonial period of American history, white settlers waged a <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">long series of wars</a> against Native Americans with the aim of displacing them and colonizing their lands. Many Native Americans were <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">enslaved</a> as a result of these wars, while others were forcibly <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilated</a> into the culture of the white settlers.<a href="#cite_note-198">[195]</a> During the 19th century, the desire to <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">forcibly remove certain Native American nations</a> gained momentum. However, some Native Americans either chose to or were allowed to remain on their land and as a result, they avoided removal but thereafter, the federal government treated them in a racist manner. The Choctaws in <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> described their situation in 1849, "we have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died."<a href="#cite_note-peterson-199">[196]</a> According to Charles Hudson, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Cobb" title="Joseph B. Cobb">Joseph B. Cobb</a>, who moved to Mississippi from Georgia, described the Choctaws as having "no nobility or virtue at all, and in some respects he found blacks, especially native Africans, to be more interesting and admirable, the red man's superior in every way. The Choctaw and Chickasaw, the tribes he knew best, were beneath contempt; that is, even worse than black slaves."<a href="#cite_note-charles_hudson-200">[197]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GreenoughRescue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/GreenoughRescue.jpg/220px-GreenoughRescue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/GreenoughRescue.jpg/330px-GreenoughRescue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/GreenoughRescue.jpg/440px-GreenoughRescue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1591" data-file-height="2062" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Rescue_(sculpture)" title="The Rescue (sculpture)">The Rescue</a> sculpture stood outside the U.S. Capitol building between 1853 and 1958. A work commissioned by the U.S. government, its sculptor <a href="/wiki/Horatio_Greenough" title="Horatio Greenough">Horatio Greenough</a> wrote that it was "to convey the idea of the triumph of the whites over the savage tribes".<a href="#cite_note-201">[198]</a></figcaption></figure> In the 1800s, ideologies such as <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a>, which held the view that the United States was destined to expand from coast to coast on the North American continent, fueled U.S. attacks against, and maltreatment of, Native Americans. In the years leading up to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act of 1830</a> there were many armed conflicts between white settlers and Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-202">[199]</a> A justification for the conquest and subjugation of indigenous people emanated from the stereotyped perception that Native Americans were "merciless Indian savages" (as described in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>).<a href="#cite_note-203">[200]</a> Sam Wolfson in <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> writes, "The declaration's passage has often been cited as an encapsulation of the dehumanizing attitude toward indigenous Americans that the US was founded on."<a href="#cite_note-204">[201]</a> Simon Moya-Smith, culture editor at <a href="/wiki/Indian_Country_Today" title="Indian Country Today">Indian Country Today</a>, states, "Any holiday that would refer to my people in such a repugnant, racist manner is certainly not worth celebrating. [July Fourth] is a day when we celebrate our resiliency, our culture, our languages, our children and we mourn the millions – literally millions – of indigenous people who have died as a consequence of American imperialism."<a href="#cite_note-205">[202]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Why_We_Can%27t_Wait" title="Why We Can't Wait">Why We Can't Wait</a>, he wrote, "Our nation was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race."<a href="#cite_note-206">[203]</a> In 1861, residents of <a href="/wiki/Mankato,_Minnesota" title="Mankato, Minnesota">Mankato, Minnesota</a>, formed the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_Forest" title="Knights of the Forest">Knights of the Forest</a>, with the goal of 'eliminating all Indians from Minnesota.' An egregious attempt occurred with the <a href="/wiki/California_gold_rush" title="California gold rush">California gold rush</a>, the first two years of which saw the death of thousands of Native Americans. Under <a href="/wiki/Alta_California" title="Alta California">Mexican rule in California</a>, Indians were subjected to de facto enslavement under a system of <a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">peonage</a> by the white elite. While in 1850, California formally entered the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">Union</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Free_state_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Free state (United States)">free state</a>, with respect to the issue of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>, the practice of Indian <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servant">indentured servitude</a> was not outlawed by the <a href="/wiki/California_State_Legislature" title="California State Legislature">California Legislature</a> until 1863.<a href="#cite_note-207">[204]</a> The 1864 deportation of the <a href="/wiki/Navajos" class="mw-redirect" title="Navajos">Navajos</a> by the U.S. government occurred when 9,000 Navajos were forcibly relocated to an <a href="/wiki/Internment_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Internment camp">internment camp</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bosque_Redondo" class="mw-redirect" title="Bosque Redondo">Bosque Redondo</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Jaimes-208">[205]</a> where, under armed guards, up to 3,500 Navajo and <a href="/wiki/Mescalero_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="Mescalero Apache">Mescalero Apache</a> men, women, and children died from starvation and disease over the next 4 years.<a href="#cite_note-Jaimes-208">[205]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee,_South_Dakota,_c._1891.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg/220px-Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg/330px-Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg/440px-Soldiers_at_a_burial_for_the_dead_at_Wounded_Knee%2C_South_Dakota%2C_c._1891.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1843" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption>Mass grave for the dead Lakota following the <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Wounded Knee massacre">Wounded Knee massacre</a>. Eyewitness <a href="/wiki/American_Horse" title="American Horse">American Horse</a>, chief of the Oglala Lakota, stated, "A people's dream died there. It was a beautiful dream ... the nation's hope is broken and scattered. There is no center any longer, and the sacred tree is dead."<a href="#cite_note-209">[206]</a></figcaption></figure> Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the U.S. throughout the 19th century, through what were called generally <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[207]</a> Notable conflicts in this period include the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War</a>. In the years leading up to the <a href="/wiki/Wounded_Knee_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Wounded Knee massacre">Wounded Knee massacre</a> the U.S. government had continued to seize <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a> lands. A <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a> ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Knee, <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a>, led to the U.S. Army's attempt to subdue the Lakota. The dance was part of a religion founded by <a href="/wiki/Wovoka" title="Wovoka">Wovoka</a> that told of the return of the Messiah to relieve the suffering of Native Americans and promised that if they would live righteous lives and perform the Ghost Dance properly, the European American invaders would vanish, the bison would return, and the living and the dead would be reunited in an Edenic world.<a href="#cite_note-211">[208]</a> On December 29, 1890, at Wounded Knee, gunfire erupted, and U.S. soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, mostly old men, women and children.<a href="#cite_note-Wounded_Knee-212">[209]</a> During the period surrounding the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre, author <a href="/wiki/L._Frank_Baum" title="L. Frank Baum">L. Frank Baum</a> wrote two editorials about Native Americans. Five days after the killing of the <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a> <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">holy man</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sitting_Bull" title="Sitting Bull">Sitting Bull</a>, Baum wrote, "The proud spirit of the original owners of these vast prairies inherited through centuries of fierce and bloody wars for their possession, lingered last in the bosom of Sitting Bull. With his fall the nobility of the <a href="/wiki/Redskin" title="Redskin">Redskin</a> is extinguished, and what few are left are a pack of whining curs who lick the hand that smites them. The Whites, by the law of conquest, by a justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians. Why not annihilation? Their glory has fled, their spirit broken, their manhood effaced; better that they die than live the miserable wretches that they are."<a href="#cite_note-editorials-213">[210]</a> Following the December 29, 1890, massacre, Baum wrote, "The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination [sic] of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth. In this lies safety for our settlers and the soldiers who are under incompetent commands. Otherwise, we may expect future years to be as full of trouble with the redskins as those have been in the past."<a href="#cite_note-editorials-213">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reservation_marginalization">Reservation marginalization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Reservation marginalization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Native_American_reservations" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American reservations">Native American reservations</a></div> Once their territories were incorporated into the United States, surviving Native Americans were denied equality before the law and often treated as wards of the state.<a href="#cite_note-215">[212]</a> Many Native Americans were moved to reservations—constituting 4% of U.S. territory. In a number of cases, treaties signed with Native Americans were violated. Tens of thousands of American Indians and Alaska Natives were forced to attend a <a href="/wiki/Indian_boarding_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian boarding school">residential school system</a> which sought to reeducate them in white-settler American values, culture, and economy.<a href="#cite_note-216">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[214]</a> Further dispossession of various kinds continues into the present, although these current dispossessions, especially in terms of land, rarely make major news headlines in the country (e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Lenape</a> people's recent fiscal troubles and subsequent land grab by the <a href="/wiki/State_of_New_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="State of New Jersey">State of New Jersey</a>), and sometimes even fail to make it to headlines in the localities in which they occur. Through concessions for industries such as oil, mining, and timber and through division of land from the <a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">General Allotment Act</a> forward, these concessions have raised problems of consent, exploitation of low royalty rates, environmental injustice, and gross mismanagement of funds held in trust, resulting in the loss of $10–40 billion.<a href="#cite_note-218">[215]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Worldwatch_Institute" title="Worldwatch Institute">Worldwatch Institute</a> notes that 317 reservations are threatened by environmental hazards, while <a href="/wiki/Western_Shoshone" title="Western Shoshone">Western Shoshone</a> land has been subjected to more than 1,000 nuclear explosions.<a href="#cite_note-219">[216]</a> However, the last known nuclear explosion testing in the United States occurred in September 1992.<a href="#cite_note-220">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Indian_boarding_schools">American Indian boarding schools</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: American Indian boarding schools">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lieut_Richard_Henry_Pratt,_Founder_and_Superintendent_of_Carlisle_Indian_School,_in_Military_Uniform_and_With_Sword_1879.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lieut_Richard_Henry_Pratt%2C_Founder_and_Superintendent_of_Carlisle_Indian_School%2C_in_Military_Uniform_and_With_Sword_1879.jpg/220px-Lieut_Richard_Henry_Pratt%2C_Founder_and_Superintendent_of_Carlisle_Indian_School%2C_in_Military_Uniform_and_With_Sword_1879.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Lieut_Richard_Henry_Pratt%2C_Founder_and_Superintendent_of_Carlisle_Indian_School%2C_in_Military_Uniform_and_With_Sword_1879.jpg/330px-Lieut_Richard_Henry_Pratt%2C_Founder_and_Superintendent_of_Carlisle_Indian_School%2C_in_Military_Uniform_and_With_Sword_1879.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Lieut_Richard_Henry_Pratt%2C_Founder_and_Superintendent_of_Carlisle_Indian_School%2C_in_Military_Uniform_and_With_Sword_1879.jpg 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>Richard Henry Pratt founded the first Native American boarding school in 1879. The goal of these schools was to teach Native American students White ways of being through education which emphasized European cultural values and the superiority of White American ways of life.<a href="#cite_note-221">[218]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a>, were established in the United States during the 19th and lasted through the mid-20th centuries with the primary objective of assimilating Native Americans into the dominant White American culture. The effect of these schools has been described as forced assimilation against Native peoples.<a href="#cite_note-:10-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-222">[219]</a> In these schools, Native children were prohibited from participating in any of their cultures' traditions, including speaking their own languages. Instead, they were required to speak English at all times and learn geography, science, and history (among other disciplines) as white Americans saw fit.<a href="#cite_note-:10-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-222">[219]</a> This meant learning a version of history that upheld whites' superiority and rightful "inheritance" of the lands of the United States, while Natives were relegated to a position of having to assimilate to white culture without ever truly being considered equals.<a href="#cite_note-:10-55">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_issues">Current issues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Current issues">edit</a>]</div> While formal equality has been legally recognized, <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">American Indians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska Natives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islanders" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islanders">Pacific Islanders</a> remain among the most economically disadvantaged groups in the country, and according to national mental health studies, American Indians as a group tend to suffer from high levels of alcoholism, depression and suicide.<a href="#cite_note-223">[220]</a> Native Americans are killed in police encounters at a higher rate than any other racial or ethnic group in the United States. Native Americans are killed by police at 3 times the rate of <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">White Americans</a> and 2.6 times the rate of <a href="/wiki/Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Americans">Black Americans</a>, yet rarely do these deaths gain the national spotlight. The initial lack of media coverage and accountability has resulted in Indigenous-led movements such as Native Lives Matter and Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls, and People.<a href="#cite_note-224">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Safety_and_Justice_Challenge-226">[223]</a> Native Americans are disproportionately represented in state and federal criminal justice systems. Native Americans are incarcerated at a rate 38% higher than the national average and were overrepresented in the prison population in 19 states compared to any other race and ethnicity. The National Prisoner Statistics series of 2016 reported 22,744 Native Americans were incarcerated in state and federal facilities and represented 2.1 to 3.7% of the federal offender population during 2019 despite only accounting for 1.7% of the United States population. In states with higher Native American populations such as North Dakota, incarceration rates are up to 7 times that of their White counterparts. A study analyzing federal sentencing data found that Native Americans are sentenced more harshly than White, African American, and Hispanic offenders. In fact, further analysis showed that young Native American males receive the most punitive sentences, surpassing punishment imposed upon young, African American or Hispanic males.<a href="#cite_note-Safety_and_Justice_Challenge-226">[223]</a> The healthcare system also demonstrates disregard for Native American lives by creating additional barriers to accessing care in the state system, which places a higher burden on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Health_Service" title="Indian Health Service">Indian Health Service</a> that is already chronically underfunded and understaffed. Native Americans experience a higher rate of violent hate crime victimizations than any other race or ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-227">[224]</a> Overall, Native Americans continue to experience racism, oppression, discrimination, microaggressions, mockery, and misunderstandings of current day Nativeness. The tandem exoticization and devaluation of Native American lives contributes to the epidemic of disappearances and murders of Native Americans, paired with delayed or poor investigations of these occurrences.<a href="#cite_note-Safety_and_Justice_Challenge-226">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asian_Americans">Asian Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Asian Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Asian_Americans" title="History of Asian Americans">History of Asian Americans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians#United_States" title="Racism against Asians">Racism against Asians § United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_East_Asians_in_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States">Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asian_American_activism" title="Asian American activism">Asian American activism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans" title="Asian Americans">Asian Americans</a>, including those of <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_people" title="East Asian people">East Asian</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asian ethnic groups">South Asian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Southeast_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a> descent, have experienced racism since the first major groups of Chinese immigrants arrived in America. The <a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1790" title="Naturalization Act of 1790">Naturalization Act of 1790</a> made Asians ineligible for citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-Schultz-228">[225]</a> First-generation immigrants, the children of immigrants, and Asians who are adopted by non-Asian families are still impacted by discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-Eguchi,_Shinsuke_2013-229">[226]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_the_United_States" title="Industrial Revolution in the United States">Industrial Revolution in the United States</a>, labor shortages in the mining and rail industries were prevalent. Chinese immigrant labor was often used to fill this gap, most notably with the construction of the <a href="/wiki/First_transcontinental_railroad" title="First transcontinental railroad">first transcontinental railroad</a>, leading to large-scale Chinese immigration.<a href="#cite_note-Eguchi,_Shinsuke_2013-229">[226]</a> These Chinese immigrants were seen as taking the jobs of whites for lower wages, and the phrase <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Peril" title="Yellow Peril">Yellow Peril</a>, which predicted the demise of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a> as the result of Chinese immigration, gained popularity.<a href="#cite_note-230">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Chinese_Americans" title="History of Chinese Americans">History of Chinese Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Anti-Chinese sentiment § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_legislation_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese legislation in the United States">Anti-Chinese legislation in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg/220px-The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg/330px-The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg/440px-The_only_one_barred_out_cph.3b48680.jpg 2x" data-file-width="976" data-file-height="1060" /></a><figcaption>A political cartoon from 1882 ridiculing the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a>, showing a Chinese man, surrounded by benefits of Chinese immigration, being barred entry to the "Golden Gate of Liberty", while other groups, including <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hoodlum" title="Hoodlum">hoodlums</a>, are allowed to enter. The caption reads sarcastically, "We must draw the line somewhere, you know."</figcaption></figure> In 1871, one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">lynchings in American history</a> was committed against <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Americans" title="Chinese Americans">Chinese immigrants</a> in Los Angeles, California. It would go on to become known as the <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Chinese_massacre_of_1871" title="Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871">Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871</a>. The 1879 Constitution of the State of California prohibited the employment of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_people" title="Chinese people">Chinese people</a> by state and local governments, as well as by businesses that were incorporated in California. Also, the 1879 constitution delegated power to local governments in California to enable them to remove Chinese people from the borders of their communities.<a href="#cite_note-archives.cdn.sos.ca.gov-231">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hitler's_American_Model_2017_p._35-232">[229]</a> The federal <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act" title="Chinese Exclusion Act">Chinese Exclusion Act</a> of 1882 banned the immigration of Chinese labourers for ten years. The <a href="/wiki/Geary_Act" title="Geary Act">Geary Act</a> of 1892 extended the Chinese Exclusion Act by requiring all Chinese citizens to carry their <a href="/wiki/United_States_Permanent_Resident_Card" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Permanent Resident Card">resident permit</a> at all times or risk either deportation or a year of hard labor, and was upheld by the 1893 <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> case <a href="/wiki/Fong_Yue_Ting_v._United_States" title="Fong Yue Ting v. United States">Fong Yue Ting v. United States</a>. Several mob attacks against Chinese people took place, including the <a href="/wiki/Rock_Springs_massacre" title="Rock Springs massacre">Rock Springs massacre</a> of 1885 in <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> in which at least 28 Chinese miners were killed and 15 other Chinese miners were injured, and the <a href="/wiki/Hells_Canyon_massacre" title="Hells Canyon massacre">Hells Canyon massacre</a> of 1887 in <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a> in which 34 Chinese miners were killed.<a href="#cite_note-:0-233">[230]</a> In 1888, the <a href="/wiki/Scott_Act_(1888)" title="Scott Act (1888)">Scott Act</a> prevented 20,000-30,000 Chinese abroad from returning to the United States and was later upheld in the 1889 Supreme Court case <a href="/wiki/Chae_Chan_Ping_v._United_States" title="Chae Chan Ping v. United States">Chae Chan Ping v. United States</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Los_Angeles,_corpses_of_Chinese_victims,_Oct_1871.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg/250px-Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg/375px-Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg/500px-Los_Angeles%2C_corpses_of_Chinese_victims%2C_Oct_1871.jpg 2x" data-file-width="809" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Chinese_massacre_of_1871" title="Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871">Los Angeles Chinese massacre of 1871</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG/170px-1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG/255px-1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG/340px-1880_Anti-Chinese_Riot_in_Denver_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2868" /></a><figcaption>Denver's anti-Chinese riot in 1880</figcaption></figure> Local discriminatory laws were also enacted to stifle Chinese business and job opportunities; for example, in the 1886 <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> case of <a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo v. Hopkins</a>, a San Francisco city ordinance requiring permits for laundries (which were mostly Chinese-owned) was struck down, as it was evident the law solely targeted Chinese Americans. When the law was in effect, the city issued permits to virtually all non-Chinese permit applicants, while only granting one permit out of two hundred applications from Chinese laundry owners. When the Chinese laundries continued to operate, the city tried to fine the owners. In 1913, California, home to many Chinese immigrants, enacted an <a href="/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1913" title="California Alien Land Law of 1913">Alien Land Law</a>, which significantly restricted land ownership by Asian immigrants, and <a href="/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1920" class="mw-redirect" title="California Alien Land Law of 1920">extended it</a> in 1920, ultimately banning virtually all land ownership by Asians.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-234">[231]</a> Japanese immigrants, who were unaffected by the Chinese Exclusion Act, began to enter the United States in large numbers in 1907, filling jobs that were once filled by Chinese workers. This influx also led to discrimination and President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> restricted Japanese immigration. Theodore Roosevelt's <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_589" class="extiw" title="s:Executive Order 589">Executive Order 589</a> specifically prevented Japanese and Korean laborers, who possessed valid passports to go to Mexico, Canada, or Hawaii, from entering the continental United States. Later, Japanese immigration was closed when Japan entered into the <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907" title="Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907">Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907</a> to stop issuing passports to Japanese workers intending to move to the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-235">[232]</a> The immigration of people from all Asian countries was banned by the sweeping <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917" title="Immigration Act of 1917">Immigration Act of 1917</a>, also known as the Asiatic Barred Zone Act, which also banned homosexuals, people with <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>, and people with an anarchist worldview.<a href="#cite_note-Hitler's_American_Model_2017_p._35-232">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-Japanese_sentiment_and_legislation">Anti-Japanese sentiment and legislation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Anti-Japanese sentiment and legislation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Anti-Japanese sentiment § United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States">Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907" title="Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907">Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907</a>, <a href="/wiki/California_Alien_Land_Law_of_1913" title="California Alien Land Law of 1913">California Alien Land Law of 1913</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">Internment of Japanese Americans</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-Filipino_sentiment_and_legislation">Anti-Filipino sentiment and legislation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Anti-Filipino sentiment and legislation">edit</a>]</div> In 1927, the four-day <a href="/wiki/Yakima_Valley_riots" title="Yakima Valley riots">Yakima Valley riots</a> in Washington state resulted in hundreds of Filipinos being forced to leave the valley under threat of death. In 1930, the <a href="/wiki/Watsonville_riots" title="Watsonville riots">Watsonville riots</a> in California involved a mob of 500 white men and youths causing five days of violent attacks on Filipino farm workers, and the death of one worker who was shot through the heart. In 1934, the <a href="/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act" title="Tydings–McDuffie Act">Tydings–McDuffie Act</a> allowed the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, then an American colony, to become an independent country after ten years. The act established a quota of 50 Filipino immigrants to the United States per year. The <a href="/wiki/Filipino_Repatriation_Act_of_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935">Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935</a> provided voluntary one-way passage for Filipinos in the United States to return to the Philippines. However, if they wanted to return to the United States, they would then be subject to the quota of 50 Filipino immigrants per year. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II_and_postwar">World War II and postwar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: World War II and postwar">edit</a>]</div> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> was an ally of the United States, and the federal government praised the resistance of the Chinese against Japan during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>, in an attempt to reduce <a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">anti-Chinese sentiment</a>. In 1943, the <a href="/wiki/Magnuson_Act" title="Magnuson Act">Magnuson Act</a> was passed by Congress, repealing the Chinese Exclusion Act and reopening Chinese immigration; at the time, the United States was actively fighting against the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a>, which was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Anti-Japanese racism</a>, which spiked after the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, was tacitly encouraged by the government, which used slurs such as "<a href="/wiki/Jap" title="Jap">Jap</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_for_Japanese-American_internment" title="Propaganda for Japanese-American internment">propaganda posters</a>. On February 19, 1942, President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> signed <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Order 9066</a> which cleared the way for <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment of 120,000 Japanese Americans</a>, citing possible security threats. American soldiers who fought in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific theater</a> frequently dehumanized their enemies, leading them to <a href="/wiki/American_mutilation_of_Japanese_war_dead" title="American mutilation of Japanese war dead">mutilate Japanese war dead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[233]</a> The racist nature of this dehumanization is revealed by the different ways in which corpses were treated in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">European theaters</a>. Apparently, some soldiers mailed Japanese skulls home as souvenirs, but none of them mailed German or Italian skulls home.<a href="#cite_note-237">[234]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a> continued to exist for some time after the end of the war, and anti-Asian racism also affected U.S. policy during the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam Wars</a>, even though Asians fought on both sides during both of those wars as well as during World War II. Some historians have alleged that a climate of racism, with unofficial rules like the "mere gook rule",<a href="#cite_note-238">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[236]</a> allowed a pattern to exist in which <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnamese</a> civilians were treated as if they were less than human and <a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes#Vietnam_War" title="United States war crimes">war crimes</a> were also common.<a href="#cite_note-240">[237]</a> Despite poor treatment by the United States, thousands of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_American_service_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese American service in World War II">Japanese Americans joined the US military</a> during World War II, in the segregated <a href="/wiki/442nd_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)" title="442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)">442nd Infantry Regiment</a> and <a href="/wiki/100th_Infantry_Battalion_(United_States)" title="100th Infantry Battalion (United States)">100th Infantry Battalion</a>. The 442nd suffered heavy losses during its fight against Nazi Germany while it was rescuing the <a href="/wiki/Lost_Battalion_(Europe,_World_War_II)" title="Lost Battalion (Europe, World War II)">Lost Battalion</a>, and in recognition of these combat casualties, it was nicknamed "The <a href="/wiki/Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Heart</a> Battalion." On October 18, 1948, President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> issued <a href="/wiki/List_of_executive_actions_by_Harry_S._Truman#1948" title="List of executive actions by Harry S. Truman">Executive Order 10009</a> to revoke in part Executive Orders 589 from March 14, 1907, and Executive Order 1712 from February 24, 1913.<a href="#cite_note-241">[238]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhagatsinghthind.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bhagatsinghthind.jpg/170px-Bhagatsinghthind.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bhagatsinghthind.jpg/255px-Bhagatsinghthind.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Bhagatsinghthind.jpg/340px-Bhagatsinghthind.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bhagat_Singh_Thind" title="Bhagat Singh Thind">Bhagat Singh Thind</a> was twice denied citizenship as he was not deemed white.<a href="#cite_note-242">[239]</a></figcaption></figure> Prior to 1965, Indian immigration to the U.S. was small and isolated, with fewer than 50,000 Indian immigrants in the country. The <a href="/wiki/Bellingham_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellingham riots">Bellingham riots</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bellingham,_Washington" title="Bellingham, Washington">Bellingham, Washington</a>, on September 5, 1907, epitomized the low tolerance in the U.S. for Indians and <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a>. While anti-Asian racism was embedded in U.S. politics and culture in the early 20th century, Indians were also racialized, with U.S. officials casting them as "Hindu menaces" and pushing for Western imperial expansion abroad.<a href="#cite_note-Seema-243">[240]</a> In the 1923 case, <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Bhagat_Singh_Thind" title="United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind">United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind</a>, the Supreme Court ruled that high caste Hindus were not "white persons" and were therefore racially ineligible for naturalized citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-Thind-244">[241]</a> The Court also argued that the racial difference between Indians and whites was so great that the "great body of our people" would reject assimilation with Indians.<a href="#cite_note-Thind-244">[241]</a> It was after the <a href="/wiki/Luce%E2%80%93Celler_Act" title="Luce–Celler Act">Luce–Celler Act</a> of 1946 that a quota of 100 Indians per year could immigrate to the U.S. and become citizens.<a href="#cite_note-245">[242]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965</a> facilitated entry to the U.S. for immigrants other than the traditional <a href="/wiki/Northern_European" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern European">Northern European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic groups</a>, and as a result, it would significantly, and unintentionally, alter the demographic mix in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-Immigration_law-246">[243]</a> On the U.S. immigration laws prior to 1965, sociologist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Klineberg" title="Stephen Klineberg">Stephen Klineberg</a> stated the law "declared that Northern Europeans are a superior subspecies of the white race."<a href="#cite_note-Immigration_law-246">[243]</a> In 1990, Asian immigration was encouraged when nonimmigrant temporary working visas were given to help with the shortage of skilled labor within the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Eguchi,_Shinsuke_2013-229">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Second_Half_of_the_20th_Century">The Second Half of the 20th Century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: The Second Half of the 20th Century">edit</a>]</div> Despite the many injustices done unto Asian-Americans in the 20th Century, one field of cultural interest that actually saw the opposite trend was <a href="/wiki/Martial_arts" title="Martial arts">Traditional Martial Arts</a>. This trend arguably began when American soldiers brought home, various Japanese and Okinawan martial arts that they had studied while living in Japan, in the years following the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-247">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-248">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[246]</a> In other instances, local caucasian and black Americans who studied under Asian-American masters, helped popularized their styles and culture.<a href="#cite_note-250">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[248]</a> Such was the case of <a href="/wiki/Ed_Parker" title="Ed Parker">Ed Parker</a> with his art of <a href="/wiki/American_Kenpo" title="American Kenpo">American Kenpo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[249]</a> What else was instrumental in promoting this positive image of Asian-Americans, was existence of television shows such as <a href="/wiki/Kung_Fu_(1972_TV_series)" title="Kung Fu (1972 TV series)">Kung Fu</a>. Due to these varying phenomenon Asian-Americans, and especially Chinese-Americans, became culturally cast as having a positive association with martial arts skills, which many amongst the American non-Asian public were then seeking to acquire.<a href="#cite_note-253">[250]</a> The general cultural sentiment was expressed in art and popular as well, such as in the song <a href="/wiki/Kung_Fu_Fighting" title="Kung Fu Fighting">Kung Fu Fighting</a> and the band <a href="/wiki/Wu-Tang_Clan" title="Wu-Tang Clan">Wu-Tang Clan</a> - both of which were initiatives of African-Americans. All of this has contributed greatly to the rise of many notable Asian martial arts teachers in the United States, such as <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brandon_Lee" title="Brandon Lee">Brandon Lee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dan_Inosanto" title="Dan Inosanto">Dan Inosanto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fumio_Demura" title="Fumio Demura">Fumio Demura</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pat_Morita" title="Pat Morita">Pat Morita</a> (who portrayed a martial arts master in film but did not practice himself), <a href="/wiki/Jason_Scott_Lee" title="Jason Scott Lee">Jason Scott Lee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Dacascos" title="Mark Dacascos">Mark Dacascos</a>, and others.<a href="#cite_note-254">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/China_Initiative" title="China Initiative">China Initiative</a></div> Since the 20th century, Asians, particularly East Asians, have been <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_East_Asians_in_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of East Asians in the United States">cast</a> as a "<a href="/wiki/Model_minority" title="Model minority">model minority</a>". They are categorized as being more educated and successful, and they are also stereotyped as being intelligent and hard-working, but they are also stereotyped as being socially inept.<a href="#cite_note-Lai,_Lei_2013-255">[252]</a> Asians may experience expectations of natural intelligence and excellence from whites as well as from members of other minority groups.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-234">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[253]</a> This has led to discrimination in the workplace, as Asian Americans may face unreasonable expectations because of this stereotype. According to the Journal of Organizational Behavior, in 2000, out of 1,218 adult Asian Americans, 92 percent of those who experienced personal discrimination believed that the unfair treatment which they were subjected to was due to their ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-Lai,_Lei_2013-255">[252]</a> These stereotypes can also render the experience of the large number of Asians who are living in poverty in the United States invisible. These stereotypes can also obstruct career paths; because Asians are seen as better skilled in engineering, computing, and mathematics, they are often encouraged to pursue technical careers. They are also discouraged from pursuing non-technical occupations as well as executive occupations which require more social interaction, since Asians are perceived as having poor social skills. In the 2000 study, forty percent of those surveyed who experienced discrimination believed that they had lost hiring or promotion opportunities. In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a> reported that Asians make up 10 percent of professional jobs, while 3.7 percent of them held executive, senior level, or manager positions.<a href="#cite_note-Lai,_Lei_2013-255">[252]</a> Other forms of discrimination against Asian Americans include <a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">racial profiling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">hate crimes</a>. The FBI noted that in 2015, 3.2 percent of all hate crimes involved anti-Asian bias.<a href="#cite_note-257">[254]</a> In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/Seattle" title="Seattle">Seattle</a> Police Department reported that there was a 40 percent increase in race-based crimes against Asian Americans, both criminal and non-criminal.<a href="#cite_note-258">[255]</a> Research shows that discrimination has led to more use of informal mental health services by Asian Americans. Asian Americans who feel discriminated against also tend to smoke more.<a href="#cite_note-259">[256]</a> There have been widespread <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_related_to_the_COVID-19_pandemic#United_States" title="Xenophobia and racism related to the COVID-19 pandemic">incidents of xenophobia, racist bullying, and racist violence</a> against Chinese Americans and other Asian Americans in response to the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_Racism-260">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-261">[258]</a> According to a poll done in 2022, 33 percent of Americans believe Asian Americans are "more loyal to their country of origin" than the US while 21 percent falsely believe Asian Americans are at least "partially responsible" for the COVID-19 pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-:3-262">[259]</a> Additionally, only 29 percent of Asian Americans believe they "completely agree" with the statement that they feel they belong and are accepted in the US, while 71 percent say they are discriminated in the US.<a href="#cite_note-:3-262">[259]</a> According to a poll conducted in 2023, only 22 percent of Asian Americans completely agree that "Personally, I feel like I belong and am accepted in the U.S."<a href="#cite_note-263">[260]</a> More than half of Asian Americans answered that they did not feel safe in public spaces.<a href="#cite_note-264">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_Americans">European Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: European Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Religious discrimination in the United States">Religious discrimination in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Catholicism in the United States">Anti-Catholicism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-French sentiment in the United States">Anti-French sentiment in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-German sentiment">Anti-Germanism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Anti-Irish sentiment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism#In_the_United_States" title="Anti-Italianism">Anti-Italianism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Anti-Polish sentiment in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Anti-Slavic sentiment in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nativism_in_United_States_politics" title="Nativism in United States politics">Nativism in United States politics</a></div> Various <a href="/wiki/European_Americans" title="European Americans">European American</a> immigrant groups have been subjected to discrimination on the basis of their <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Religious discrimination in the United States">Religious discrimination in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Catholicism in the United States">Anti-Catholicism in the United States</a>), immigrant status (which is known as "<a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a>") or ethnicity (country of origin). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riot_in_Philadelphia,_June_(i.e._July)_7th_1844_-_H._Bucholzer._LCCN2003654121.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Riot_in_Philadelphia%2C_June_%28i.e._July%29_7th_1844_-_H._Bucholzer._LCCN2003654121.jpg/220px-Riot_in_Philadelphia%2C_June_%28i.e._July%29_7th_1844_-_H._Bucholzer._LCCN2003654121.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Riot_in_Philadelphia%2C_June_%28i.e._July%29_7th_1844_-_H._Bucholzer._LCCN2003654121.jpg/330px-Riot_in_Philadelphia%2C_June_%28i.e._July%29_7th_1844_-_H._Bucholzer._LCCN2003654121.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Riot_in_Philadelphia%2C_June_%28i.e._July%29_7th_1844_-_H._Bucholzer._LCCN2003654121.jpg/440px-Riot_in_Philadelphia%2C_June_%28i.e._July%29_7th_1844_-_H._Bucholzer._LCCN2003654121.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5422" data-file-height="3772" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_nativist_riots" title="Philadelphia nativist riots">Philadelphia nativist riots</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NINA-nyt.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/NINA-nyt.JPG/220px-NINA-nyt.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/NINA-nyt.JPG/330px-NINA-nyt.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/NINA-nyt.JPG/440px-NINA-nyt.JPG 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="301" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a>, 1854 ad, reading "No Irish need apply."</figcaption></figure> In the 19th century, this was particularly true because of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">anti-Irish prejudice</a>, which was based on <a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">anti-Catholic</a> sentiment, and prejudice against the Irish as an ethnicity. This was especially true for Irish Catholics who immigrated to the U.S. in the mid-19th century; the large number of Irish (both Catholics and Protestants) who settled in America in the 18th century had largely (but not entirely) escaped such discrimination and eventually blended into the white American population. During the 1830s in the U.S., riots over control of job sites broke out in rural areas among rival labor teams whose members were from different parts of Ireland, and riots also broke out between Irish and local American work teams which were competing for construction jobs.<a href="#cite_note-265">[262]</a> The Native American Party, commonly called the <a href="/wiki/Know_Nothing" title="Know Nothing">Know Nothing</a> movement was a political party, whose membership was limited to Protestant men, that operated on a national basis during the mid-1850s and sought to limit the influence of Irish Catholics and other immigrants, thus reflecting nativism and anti-Catholic sentiment. There was widespread anti-Irish job discrimination in the United States and "No Irish need apply" signs were common.<a href="#cite_note-266">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-LongIsland-268">[265]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ku_Klux_Klan_members_march_down_Pennsylvania_Avenue_in_Washington,_D.C._in_1928.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ku_Klux_Klan_members_march_down_Pennsylvania_Avenue_in_Washington%2C_D.C._in_1928.jpg/220px-Ku_Klux_Klan_members_march_down_Pennsylvania_Avenue_in_Washington%2C_D.C._in_1928.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ku_Klux_Klan_members_march_down_Pennsylvania_Avenue_in_Washington%2C_D.C._in_1928.jpg/330px-Ku_Klux_Klan_members_march_down_Pennsylvania_Avenue_in_Washington%2C_D.C._in_1928.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ku_Klux_Klan_members_march_down_Pennsylvania_Avenue_in_Washington%2C_D.C._in_1928.jpg/440px-Ku_Klux_Klan_members_march_down_Pennsylvania_Avenue_in_Washington%2C_D.C._in_1928.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> members march down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. in 1928. The second era Klan was a large nationwide movement with between four million and six million members.</figcaption></figure> The second era <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> was a very large nationwide organization in the 1920s, consisting of between four million and six million members (15% of the nation's eligible population) that especially opposed Catholics.<a href="#cite_note-269">[266]</a> The revival of the Klan was spurred by the release of the 1915 film <a href="/wiki/The_Birth_of_a_Nation" title="The Birth of a Nation">The Birth of a Nation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-270">[267]</a> The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent references to America's "<a href="/wiki/White_Anglo-Saxon_Protestants" title="White Anglo-Saxon Protestants">Anglo-Saxon</a> blood".<a href="#cite_note-271">[268]</a> Anti-Catholic sentiment, which appeared in North America with the first Pilgrim and <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> settlers in New England in the early 17th century, remained evident in the United States up to the presidential campaign of <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, who went on to become the first Catholic U.S. president in 1961.<a href="#cite_note-272">[269]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacvan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sacvan.jpg/220px-Sacvan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sacvan.jpg/330px-Sacvan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Sacvan.jpg/440px-Sacvan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1030" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>Italian immigrants <a href="/wiki/Sacco_and_Vanzetti" title="Sacco and Vanzetti">Sacco and Vanzetti</a> were wrongfully executed in 1927; most historians agree that they were given an unfair trial heavily influenced by anti-Italianism and anti-immigrant bias.</figcaption></figure> The 20th century saw discrimination against immigrants from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a> and Eastern Europe (notably Italian Americans and <a href="/wiki/Polish_Americans" title="Polish Americans">Polish Americans</a>), partially as a result of anti-Catholic sentiment (as well as discrimination against Irish Americans), partially as a result of <a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a>. The primary spokesman for Nordicism was the eugenicist <a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a>. His 1916 book, <a href="/wiki/The_Passing_of_the_Great_Race" title="The Passing of the Great Race">The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History</a> about Nordicism was highly influential among racial thinkers and government policy makers in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-273">[270]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Biological laws tell us that certain divergent people will not mix or blend. The Nordics propagate themselves successfully. With other races, the outcome shows deterioration on both sides.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Future U.S. president <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>, 1921.<a href="#cite_note-274">[271]</a></cite></div></blockquote> Discrimination was also directed at physical appearances. Immigrants from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern Europe</a> often times had heavy tans and spoke foreign languages. This caused many whites in America to treat them as if the darker immigrants were not white. This was especially noticeable in immigrants that spoke <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> which the majority of white Americans could not distinguish from <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>; thus the immigrants from countries such as <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> were treated similar to Hispanics from places like <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, who were then, and still now treated as people of color. Over time, as the immigrants children and their descendants learned English with no accent, and did not tan as dark without the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_climate" title="Mediterranean climate">Mediterranean climate</a>, these Europeans were more likely to be accepted as white. The largest mass <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a> in American history happened to Italians in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-275">[272]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[274]</a> An advocate of the U.S. immigration laws that favored Northern Europeans, the Klansman <a href="/wiki/Lothrop_Stoddard" title="Lothrop Stoddard">Lothrop Stoddard</a> primarily wrote about the alleged dangers which "<a href="/wiki/Colored" title="Colored">colored</a>" peoples posed to white civilization, with his most famous book <a href="/wiki/The_Rising_Tide_of_Color_Against_White_World-Supremacy" title="The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy">The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy</a> in 1920. Nordicism led to the reduction in Southern European, along with <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavic</a> Eastern European and Russian immigrants in the <a href="/wiki/National_Origins_Formula" title="National Origins Formula">National Origins Formula</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Quota_Act" title="Emergency Quota Act">Emergency Quota Act</a> of 1921 and the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1924" title="Immigration Act of 1924">Immigration Act of 1924</a>, whose goal was to maintain the status quo distribution of ethnicity by limiting immigration of non-Northern Europeans. According to the U.S. Department of State the purpose of the act was "to preserve the ideal of American homogeneity".<a href="#cite_note-278">[275]</a> The racial term <a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a> originates from the title of Stoddard's 1922 book The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-man.<a href="#cite_note-279">[276]</a> It was later adopted by the Nazis (and its chief racial theorist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Rosenberg" title="Alfred Rosenberg">Alfred Rosenberg</a>) from that book's German version Der Kulturumsturz: Die Drohung des Untermenschen (1925).<a href="#cite_note-280">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans">Hispanic and Latino Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Hispanic and Latino Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States">History of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexican_Americans" title="History of Mexican Americans">History of Mexican Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hispanophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanophobia">Hispanophobia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States">Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Anti-Mexican sentiment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/2019_El_Paso_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="2019 El Paso shooting">2019 El Paso shooting</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puerto_Rico_Rally_IMG_7743_(37439192926).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Puerto_Rico_Rally_IMG_7743_%2837439192926%29.jpg/220px-Puerto_Rico_Rally_IMG_7743_%2837439192926%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Puerto_Rico_Rally_IMG_7743_%2837439192926%29.jpg/330px-Puerto_Rico_Rally_IMG_7743_%2837439192926%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Puerto_Rico_Rally_IMG_7743_%2837439192926%29.jpg/440px-Puerto_Rico_Rally_IMG_7743_%2837439192926%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A rally is held for victims of <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Maria" title="Hurricane Maria">Hurricane Maria</a> in protest against the U.S. government's response to it and the <a href="/wiki/Political_status_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Political status of Puerto Rico">Political status of Puerto Rico</a>.</figcaption></figure> Americans of <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin American</a> ancestry (<a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_(ethnic_categories)" title="Hispanic and Latino (ethnic categories)">often categorized</a> as "<a href="/wiki/Hispanic" title="Hispanic">Hispanic</a>" or <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino Americans</a>) come from a wide variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds. As a result, not all Latinos are distinguishable as members of a single racial minority. After the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> (1846–1848), the United States annexed much of the current <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern region</a> from Mexico. Mexicans who resided in that territory were subjected to discrimination. According to conservative estimates, 597 Mexicans were lynched between 1848 and 1928, corresponding to a per capita lynching rate second only to that suffered by the African American community.<a href="#cite_note-281">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-282">[279]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:No_Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans_-_Racist_Sign_from_Deep_South_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/No_Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans_-_Racist_Sign_from_Deep_South_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg/220px-No_Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans_-_Racist_Sign_from_Deep_South_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/No_Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans_-_Racist_Sign_from_Deep_South_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg/330px-No_Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans_-_Racist_Sign_from_Deep_South_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/No_Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans_-_Racist_Sign_from_Deep_South_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg/440px-No_Dogs-Negroes-Mexicans_-_Racist_Sign_from_Deep_South_-_National_Civil_Rights_Museum_-_Downtown_Memphis_-_Tennessee_-_USA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Racist sign from the deep south (<a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> Many public institutions, businesses, and homeowners associations officially excluded <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Americans" title="Mexican Americans">Mexican Americans</a> as a matter of policy. School children of Mexican American descent were subjected to racial segregation in the public school system. In many counties, Mexican Americans were excluded from serving as jurors in court cases, especially in those that involved Mexican American defendants. In many areas across the Southwest, they lived in separate residential areas, due to laws and real estate company policies.<a href="#cite_note-283">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-284">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated5-285">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[283]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:California_Santa_Cruz_illegales.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/California_Santa_Cruz_illegales.jpg/220px-California_Santa_Cruz_illegales.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/California_Santa_Cruz_illegales.jpg/330px-California_Santa_Cruz_illegales.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/California_Santa_Cruz_illegales.jpg/440px-California_Santa_Cruz_illegales.jpg 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption>Hispanic protest against California immigration policy. Todos somos ilegales – We are all Illegals.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>, the U.S. government sponsored a <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Repatriation" title="Mexican Repatriation">Mexican Repatriation</a> program which was intended to encourage Mexican immigrants to voluntarily return to Mexico, however, many were forcibly removed against their will. At least 355,000 persons of Mexican ancestry went to Mexico during the 1930s, 40 to 60 percent of those individuals were U.S. citizens – overwhelmingly children. Voluntary repatriation was more common than formal deportation. The government formally deported at least 82,000 people to Mexico between 1929 and 1935.<a href="#cite_note-gratton-287">[284]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Zoot_Suit_Riots" title="Zoot Suit Riots">Zoot Suit Riots</a> were incidents of racial violence against Latinos in Los Angeles in 1943 which lasted several days.<a href="#cite_note-288">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-289">[286]</a> During the 1960s, young Mexican Americans formed the <a href="/wiki/Chicano_Movement" title="Chicano Movement">Chicano Civil Rights Movement</a>. U.S. president <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> is recorded exhibiting prejudice toward Mexican Americans and African Americans: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I have the greatest affection for [blacks], but I know they're not going to make it for 500 years. ... The Mexicans are a different cup of tea. They have a heritage. At the present time they steal, they're dishonest, but they do have some concept of family life. They don't live like a bunch of dogs, which the Negroes do live like.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>U.S. president <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, 1971.<a href="#cite_note-290">[287]</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Eastern_and_South_Asian_Americans">Middle Eastern and South Asian Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Middle Eastern and South Asian Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anti-Middle_Eastern_sentiment#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment">Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Anti-Iranian sentiment § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Anti-Indian sentiment § United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Arabs_and_Muslims_in_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States">Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg/220px-Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg/330px-Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg/440px-Assyrianchurchdetroit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/ACOE" class="mw-redirect" title="ACOE">Assyrian church</a> after it was vandalized in Detroit (2007). Although they are not Arabs and are mostly <a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_people" title="Assyrian people">Assyrians</a> often face a racist backlash in the US because of their Middle Eastern background.<a href="#cite_note-291">[288]</a></figcaption></figure> People of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_Americans" title="Middle Eastern Americans">Middle Eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Americans" title="South Asian Americans">South Asian descent</a> historically occupied an ambiguous racial status in the United States. Middle Eastern and South Asian immigrants were among those who sued in the late 19th and early 20th century to determine whether they were "white" immigrants as required by naturalization law. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence", including the notion of a "<a href="/wiki/Caucasian_race" title="Caucasian race">Caucasian race</a>" including Middle Easterners and many South Asians, was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian argues that in reality this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, education, intermarriage and a community's role in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-292">[289]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_Americans">Arab Americans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Arab Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arab_Americans" title="Arab Americans">Arab Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Arab immigration to the United States">Arab immigration to the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism#United_States" title="Anti-Arab racism">Anti-Arab racism § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism#United_States" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Anti-Palestinianism § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_States" title="Islam in the United States">Islam in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Arabs_and_Muslims_in_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States">Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy_in_the_Middle_East" title="United States foreign policy in the Middle East">United States foreign policy in the Middle East</a></div> Racism against <a href="/wiki/Arab_Americans" title="Arab Americans">Arab Americans</a><a href="#cite_note-Leonard-293">[290]</a> and racialized <a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a> against <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_States" title="Islam in the United States">American Muslims</a> have risen concomitantly with tensions between the American government and the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-294">[291]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/September_11,_2001,_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="September 11, 2001, attacks">September 11, 2001, attacks</a> in the United States, discrimination and <a href="/wiki/Racialized" class="mw-redirect" title="Racialized">racialized</a> violence has markedly increased against Arab Americans and many other religious and cultural groups.<a href="#cite_note-295">[292]</a> Scholars, including Sunaina Maira and Evelyn Alsultany, argue that in the post-September 11 climate, the markers of the <a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">racialization</a> of Muslim Americans are cultural, political, and religious rather than <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-296">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[294]</a> There have been attacks not only against <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> Arabs, but also numerous <a href="/wiki/Christian_Arabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Arabs">Christian Arabs</a> have been attacked based on their appearances.<a href="#cite_note-298">[295]</a> Non-Arab and non-Muslim Middle Eastern people, as well as <a href="/wiki/South_Asians" class="mw-redirect" title="South Asians">South Asians</a> of different ethnic/religious backgrounds (<a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindus</a>, Muslims and <a href="/wiki/Sikh" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh">Sikhs</a>) have been stereotyped as "Arabs" and racialized in a similar manner. The case of <a href="/wiki/Balbir_Singh_Sodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Balbir Singh Sodhi">Balbir Singh Sodhi</a>, a Sikh who was murdered at a <a href="/wiki/Mesa,_Arizona" title="Mesa, Arizona">Mesa, Arizona</a> gas station by a <a href="/wiki/White_supremacist" class="mw-redirect" title="White supremacist">white supremacist</a> for "looking like an Arab terrorist" (because of the turban, a requirement of <a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>), as well as that of Hindus being attacked for "being Muslims" have achieved prominence and criticism following the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-299">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[297]</a> <a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">Racial profiling</a> is a growing problem for Arab Americans following the <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a>. Particularly in airports, Arab Americans are often subject to heightened <a href="/wiki/Airport_security" title="Airport security">security screening</a>, pre-boarding searches and interrogations, and are sometimes denied passage "based solely on the belief that ethnicity or national origin increases passengers' flight risk."<a href="#cite_note-301">[298]</a> On January 27, 2017, President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> signed <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13769" title="Executive Order 13769">Executive Order 13769</a>, titled "Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States", otherwise known as the "Muslim Ban". Entry was suspended for persons coming from <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>. More than 700 travelers were detained, and up to 60,000 visas were "provisionally revoked". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iranian_Americans">Iranian Americans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Iranian Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Americans" title="Iranian Americans">Iranian Americans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Iran–United States relations">Iran–United States relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest,_1979.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg/220px-Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg/330px-Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg/440px-Man_holding_sign_during_Iranian_hostage_crisis_protest%2C_1979.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4677" data-file-height="3117" /></a><figcaption>A man holding a sign that reads "deport all Iranians" and "get the hell out of my country" during a protest of the <a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis</a> in Washington, D.C. in 1979.</figcaption></figure> The November 1979 <a href="/wiki/Iranian_hostage_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian hostage crisis">Iranian hostage crisis</a> of the U.S. embassy in <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a> precipitated a wave of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment#In_the_United_States" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">anti-Iranian sentiment in the United States</a>, directed both against the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">new Islamic regime</a> and Iranian nationals and immigrants. Even though such sentiments gradually declined after the release of the hostages at the start of 1981, they sometimes flare up. In response, some Iranian immigrants to the U.S. have distanced themselves from their nationality and instead identify primarily on the basis of their ethnic or religious affiliations.<a href="#cite_note-302">[299]</a> Since the 1980s and especially since the 1990s, it has been argued, Hollywood's depiction of Iranians has gradually shown signs of vilifying Iranians.<a href="#cite_note-303">[300]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Americans">Indian Americans</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Indian Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Americans#Discrimination" title="Indian Americans">Indian Americans § Discrimination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment#United_States" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Anti-Indian sentiment § United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="India–United States relations">India–United States relations</a></div> In the United States, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Americans" title="Indian Americans">Indian Americans</a> have sometimes been mistaken for <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a>, and thus, many of the same prejudices which have been experienced by Arab Americans have also been experienced by Indian Americans, regardless of their actual religious or ethnic background. In the 1980s, a gang known as the <a href="/wiki/Dotbusters" title="Dotbusters">Dotbusters</a> specifically targeted Indian Americans in <a href="/wiki/Jersey_City,_New_Jersey" title="Jersey City, New Jersey">Jersey City, New Jersey</a> with violence and harassment.<a href="#cite_note-304">[301]</a> Studies of <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Stereotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotyping">stereotyping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">scapegoating</a> of Indian Americans have been conducted in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-Dhillon-305">[302]</a> In particular, racial discrimination against Indian Americans in the workplace has been correlated with <a href="/wiki/Indophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Indophobia">Indophobia</a> due to the rise in outsourcing/<a href="/wiki/Offshoring" title="Offshoring">offshoring</a>, whereby Indian Americans are blamed for US companies offshoring <a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">white-collar</a> labor to India.<a href="#cite_note-306">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yee-307">[304]</a> According to the offices of the Congressional Caucus on India, many Indian Americans are severely concerned of a backlash, though nothing serious has taken place yet.<a href="#cite_note-Yee-307">[304]</a> Due to various socio-cultural reasons, implicit racial discrimination against Indian Americans largely go unreported by the Indian American community.<a href="#cite_note-Dhillon-305">[302]</a> Numerous cases of religious stereotyping of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_United_States" title="Hinduism in the United States">American Hindus</a> (mainly of Indian origin) have also been documented.<a href="#cite_note-308">[305]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/September_11,_2001,_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="September 11, 2001, attacks">September 11, 2001, attacks</a>, there have been scattered incidents of Indian Americans becoming mistaken targets for <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">hate crimes</a>. In one example, a <a href="/wiki/Sikhs" title="Sikhs">Sikh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balbir_Singh_Sodhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Balbir Singh Sodhi">Balbir Singh Sodhi</a>, was murdered at a <a href="/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona" title="Phoenix, Arizona">Phoenix</a> gas station in a hate crime.<a href="#cite_note-309">[306]</a> This happened after <a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11</a>, and the murderer claimed that his <a href="/wiki/Turban" title="Turban">turban</a> made him think that the victim was a Middle Eastern American. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jewish_Americans">Jewish Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Jewish Americans">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Antisemitism in the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/African_American%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="African American–Jewish relations">African American–Jewish relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States_in_the_21st_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century">Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_antisemitism#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography of antisemitism">Geography of antisemitism § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism#United_States" title="History of antisemitism">History of antisemitism § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">History of antisemitism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">History of the Jews in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interminority_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Interminority racism in the United States">Interminority racism in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Israel–United States relations">Israel–United States relations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charlottesville_%22Unite_the_Right%22_Rally_(35780274914).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Charlottesville_%22Unite_the_Right%22_Rally_%2835780274914%29.jpg/220px-Charlottesville_%22Unite_the_Right%22_Rally_%2835780274914%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Charlottesville_%22Unite_the_Right%22_Rally_%2835780274914%29.jpg/330px-Charlottesville_%22Unite_the_Right%22_Rally_%2835780274914%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Charlottesville_%22Unite_the_Right%22_Rally_%2835780274914%29.jpg/440px-Charlottesville_%22Unite_the_Right%22_Rally_%2835780274914%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Protesters at the <a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a> carrying <a href="/wiki/Confederate_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate flag">Confederate flags</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gadsden_flag" title="Gadsden flag">Gadsden flags</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Nazi_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi flag">Nazi flag</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a> <a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="History of antisemitism in the United States">has also played a role</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">history of the United States</a>. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, hundreds of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> escaped from the <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> which were occurring in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Takaki-JewishMigr-310">[307]</a> Beginning in the 1910s, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the Southern United States">Southern Jewish communities</a> were attacked by the Ku Klux Klan, which objected to Jewish immigration, and frequently used "<a href="/wiki/Economic_antisemitism" title="Economic antisemitism">The Jewish Banker</a>" caricature in its <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a>. In 1915, <a href="/wiki/Leo_Frank" title="Leo Frank">Leo Frank</a> was lynched in Georgia while he was serving a life sentence after being convicted of <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lynching_openly_organized2-311">[308]</a> This event was a catalyst in the re-formation of the Ku Klux Klan.<a href="#cite_note-time-312">[309]</a> Universities, such as <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a>, introduced <a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quotas</a> which effectively placed a limit on the number of Jews admitted to the university. According to the historian <a href="/wiki/David_Oshinsky" title="David Oshinsky">David Oshinsky</a>, "Most of the surrounding medical schools (<a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale</a>) had rigid quotas in place. In 1935 Yale accepted 76 applicants from a pool of 501. About 200 of those applicants were Jewish and only five got in." He notes that Dean Milton Winternitz's instructions were precise: "Never admit more than five Jews, and take no blacks at all."<a href="#cite_note-313">[310]</a> Events in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> attracted attention in the United States. Jewish lobbying for intervention in Europe drew opposition from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_non-interventionism" title="United States non-interventionism">isolationists</a>, amongst whom was Father <a href="/wiki/Charles_Coughlin" title="Charles Coughlin">Charles Coughlin</a>, a well known radio priest, who believed that the Jews were leading the United States into <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">the war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Coughlin-314">[311]</a> He preached weekly, overtly anti-Semitic sermons and, from 1936, he began the publication of a newspaper, <a href="/wiki/Social_Justice_(periodical)" title="Social Justice (periodical)">Social Justice</a>, in which he printed <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_canard" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitic canard">anti-Semitic accusations</a> such as those which are contained in <a href="/wiki/The_Protocols_of_the_Elders_of_Zion" title="The Protocols of the Elders of Zion">The Protocols of the Elders of Zion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-315">[312]</a> A number of Jewish organizations, Christian organizations, Muslim organizations, and academics consider the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam_and_antisemitism" title="Nation of Islam and antisemitism">anti-Semitic</a>. Specifically, they claim that the <a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a> has engaged in <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">revisionist and antisemitic interpretations</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a> and exaggerates the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">role of Jews in the Atlantic slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-316">[313]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a> (ADL) alleged that the NOI's Health Minister, Dr. Abdul Alim Muhammad, accused Jewish doctors of injecting <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">Blacks</a> with the <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS virus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-317">[314]</a> an allegation that Muhammad and <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> have refuted.<a href="#cite_note-318">[315]</a> Although Jews are usually considered white by mainstream American society, the relationship between Jews and the concept of whiteness remains complex, so some Jews prefer not to identify as white.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-319">[316]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[318]</a><a href="#cite_note-Village_Voice_1993-322">[319]</a> Prominent activist and rabbi <a href="/wiki/Michael_Lerner_(rabbi)" title="Michael Lerner (rabbi)">Michael Lerner</a> argues, in a 1993 <a href="/wiki/The_Village_Voice" title="The Village Voice">Village Voice</a> article, that "in America, to be 'white' means to be the beneficiary of the past 500 years of European exploration and exploitation of the rest of the world" and that "Jews can only be deemed white if there is massive amnesia on the part of non-Jews about the monumental history of anti-Semitism".<a href="#cite_note-Village_Voice_1993-322">[319]</a> On October 27, 2018, Robert D. Bowers opened fire in a synagogue in <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh" title="Pittsburgh">Pittsburgh</a> with an <a href="/wiki/AR-15_style_rifle" class="mw-redirect" title="AR-15 style rifle">AR-15-style rifle</a> while he was shouting <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">anti-Semitic</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">racial slurs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_synagogue_shooting" title="Pittsburgh synagogue shooting">This attack</a> resulted in 11 dead and 6 wounded, leaving the assailant charged with 29 criminal counts, one of which was the obstruction of free exercise of religious beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-323">[320]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States_in_the_21st_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisemitism in the United States in the 21st century">Continuing antisemitism</a> has remained an issue in the United States and the 2011 Survey of American Attitudes Toward Jews in America, which was released by the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a> (ADL), has found that the recent <a href="/wiki/Late-2000s_recession" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-2000s recession">world economic recession</a> increased the expression of some antisemitic viewpoints among Americans. Most of the people who were surveyed expressed <a href="/wiki/Philo-Semitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo-Semitism">pro-Jewish sentiments</a>, with 64% of them believing that Jewish people have contributed much to U.S. social culture. Yet the polling also found that 19% of Americans answered "probably true" to the <a href="/wiki/Antisemitic_trope" title="Antisemitic trope">antisemitic trope</a> that "Jews have too much control/influence on <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a>" (see <a href="/wiki/Economic_antisemitism" title="Economic antisemitism">Economic antisemitism</a>) while 15% of Americans concurred with the related statement that Jews seem "more willing to use shady practices" in business than other people do. Reflecting on the lingering antisemitism of about one in five Americans, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_H._Foxman" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham H. Foxman">Abraham H. Foxman</a>, the ADL's national director, has argued, "It is disturbing that with all of the strides we have made in becoming a more tolerant society, anti-Semitic beliefs continue to hold a vice-grip on a small but not insubstantial segment of the American public."<a href="#cite_note-adl-poll-324">[321]</a> The JNS reported in 2023 that America was experiencing the worst eruption of antisemitism in its 250 year history.<a href="#cite_note-325">[322]</a> Jews were the religious group that faced the most hate crime in the United States in 2022 according to an FBI report.<a href="#cite_note-326">[323]</a> FBI director said that 60% of religious based hate crimes were on Jews.<a href="#cite_note-327">[324]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences">Consequences</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Consequences">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Racial_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Racial inequality in the United States">Racial inequality in the United States</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developmental">Developmental</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Developmental">edit</a>]</div> Using <a href="/wiki/Psychometrics_of_racism" title="Psychometrics of racism">The Schedule of Racist Events</a> (SRE), an 18-item self-report inventory which assesses the frequency of racist discrimination, <a href="/wiki/Hope_Landrine" title="Hope Landrine">Hope Landrine</a> and Elizabeth A. Klonoff found that racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and as a result, it is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-328">[325]</a> A study on racist events in the lives of African American women found that lifetime experiences of racism were positively related to lifetime histories of both physical disease and the frequency of recent common colds. These relationships were largely unaccounted for by other variables. Demographic variables such as <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income</a> and <a href="/wiki/Educational_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Educational inequality in the United States">educational inequality</a> were not related to experiences of racism. The results suggest that racism can be detrimental to African Americans' well-being.<a href="#cite_note-329">[326]</a> The physiological stress caused by racism has been documented in studies by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Steele" title="Claude Steele">Claude Steele</a>, Joshua Aronson, and Steven Spencer on what they term "<a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">stereotype threat</a>."<a href="#cite_note-330">[327]</a> Much research has been done on the effects of racism on adults, but racism and discrimination also affect children and teens.<a href="#cite_note-:9-331">[328]</a> From infancy to adolescence, studies document a children's growth in understanding of race from being aware of race to later understanding how race and prejudice affects their life, the lives of others', and society as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-332">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-334">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-331">[328]</a> The comprehensive literature review of 214 published articles with key words related to the topic, such as <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">discrimination</a>, racism, and <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">prejudice</a> for adolescents aged 10–20 years (Benner et al., 2008) highlighted a link between teens' experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination and "their socioemotional distress, academic success, and risky health behaviors". This study chose larger sample sized and <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer reviewed</a> studies, over smaller sampled and non-peer reviewed studies.<a href="#cite_note-:9-331">[328]</a> In this review, researchers showed links between racial discrimination and lower socioemotional, academic, and behavioral outcomes. The socioemotional variable included depression, internalized symptoms, self-esteem, and positive well-being; academics included achievement, engagement, and motivation; and behavioral outcomes included externalized behaviors, substance abuse, deviant peer associations, and risky sexual behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-:9-331">[328]</a> Researchers examined the links between discrimination and other demographic variables such as race, age, and country of residence. When looking at the impact of race/ethnicity, results show that Asian and Latino youth show greater socioemotional distress and Latino youth show lower academic outcomes. Younger teens (10 to 13 years) experience more socioemotional distress than those in middle or late teens. Furthermore, when looking at county of residence, teens in the United States have a much stronger link to socioemotional distress than other countries included in the review.<a href="#cite_note-:9-331">[328]</a> In 2023 a study was released that looked at the effect of structural inequities on the brains of Black children. Examining MRI scans of 7,350 White and 1,786 Black children ages 9 and 10 researchers reported that Black children living in poverty face increased instances of stress and trauma that can alter their brain development. The study defines the stressors as "prolonged exposure to adverse experiences" including neighborhood disadvantage, family conflict, and income. Researchers found Black children had greater exposure to adversity, lower volume of different brain regions, and more PTSD symptoms. Accounting for differences in exposure to adversity significantly attenuated race-related differences in volume in several brain regions.<a href="#cite_note-336">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-337">[334]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Societal">Societal</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Societal">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schemas_and_stereotypes">Schemas and stereotypes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Schemas and stereotypes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg/220px-1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg/330px-1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg/440px-1900sc_Mammy_Card_Interracial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption>This racist <a href="/wiki/Postcard" title="Postcard">postcard</a> from the 1900s shows the casual denigration of Black women. It states "I know you're not particular to a fault / Though I'm not sure you'll never be sued for assault / You're so fond of women that even a wench / Attracts your gross fancy despite her strong stench"</figcaption></figure> Media <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_groups_within_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of groups within the United States">Stereotypes of groups within the United States</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_East_Asians_in_the_Western_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world">Stereotypes of East Asians in the Western world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes of African Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States">Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Native_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Stereotypes of Native Americans">Stereotypes of Native Americans</a></div> Popular culture (songs, theater) for European American audiences in the 19th century created and perpetuated negative <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">stereotypes of African Americans</a>. One key symbol of racism against African Americans was the use of <a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">blackface</a>. Directly related to this was the institution of <a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">minstrelsy</a>. Other stereotypes of African Americans included the fat, dark-skinned "<a href="/wiki/Mammy_archetype" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammy archetype">mammy</a>" and the irrational, hypersexual male "buck". Many of these stereotypes entered public media with an imprimatur from the highest levels of white society. In a 1943 speech on the floor of Congress quoted in both <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_News_(Detroit)" title="The Jewish News (Detroit)">The Jewish News of Detroit</a><a href="#cite_note-TheJewishNews19430716-338">[335]</a> and the antisemitic magazine The Defender of Wichita<a href="#cite_note-TheDefenderSeptember1943-339">[336]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> Representative <a href="/wiki/John_E._Rankin" title="John E. Rankin">John E. Rankin</a> stated that Jewish Communists were arranging for white women to be raped by Black American men. In recent years increasing numbers of African-American activists have asserted that <a href="/wiki/Rap_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Rap music">rap music</a> videos commonly use scantily clothed African-American performers posing as thugs or pimps. The <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_Black_Women" title="National Congress of Black Women">National Congress of Black Women</a> also have called for the reform of images on videos and on television. <a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a> said that in a segregated society, people get their impressions of other groups from what they see in videos and what they hear in music.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes1-340">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-341">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-342">[339]</a><a href="#cite_note-343">[340]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1899BalanceCartoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1899BalanceCartoon.jpg/220px-1899BalanceCartoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/1899BalanceCartoon.jpg/330px-1899BalanceCartoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/1899BalanceCartoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="428" data-file-height="622" /></a><figcaption>In 1899 Uncle Sam balances his new possessions which are depicted as "savage" children. The figures are <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>, Hawaii, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and "Ladrone Is." (the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>).</figcaption></figure> It is understood that representations of minorities in the media have the ability to reinforce or change stereotypes. For example, in one study, a collection of white subjects were primed by a comedy skit either showing a stereotypical or neutral portrayal of African-American characters. Participants were then required to read a vignette describing an incident of sexual violence, with the alleged offender either white or black, and assign a rating for perceived guilt. For those shown the stereotypical African-American character, there was a significantly higher guilt rating for black alleged offender in the subsequent vignette, in comparison to the other conditions.<a href="#cite_note-344">[341]</a> While schemas have an overt societal consequence, the strong development of them have lasting effect on recipients. Overall, it is found that strong in-group attitudes are correlated with academic and economic success. In a study analyzing the interaction of assimilation and racial-ethnic schemas for Hispanic youth found that strong schematic identities for Hispanic youth undermined academic achievement.<a href="#cite_note-345">[342]</a> Additional stereotypes attributed to minorities continue to influence societal interactions. For example, a 1993 Harvard Law Review article states that Asian Americans are commonly viewed as submissive, as a combination of relative physical stature and Western comparisons of cultural attitudes. Furthermore, Asian Americans are depicted as the model minority, unfair competitors, foreigners, and indistinguishable. These stereotypes can serve to dehumanize Asian Americans and catalyze hostility and violence.<a href="#cite_note-346">[343]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Minority-minority_racism">Minority-minority racism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Minority-minority racism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interminority_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Interminority racism in the United States">Interminority racism in the United States</a></div> Minority racism is sometimes considered controversial because of theories of <a href="/wiki/Power_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (sociology)">power</a> in society. Some <a href="/wiki/Prejudice_plus_power" title="Prejudice plus power">theories of racism</a> insist that racism can only exist in the context of social power so it can be imposed upon others.<a href="#cite_note-347">[344]</a> Yet discrimination and racism has also been noted between racially <a href="/wiki/Marginalized" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalized">marginalized</a> groups. For example, there has been ongoing violence between African American and <a href="/wiki/Mexican_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican American">Mexican American</a> gangs, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Southern_California" title="Southern California">Southern California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-348">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-349">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-351">[348]</a> Conflict has also been noted between recent immigrant groups and their established ethnic counterparts within the United States. Rapidly-growing communities of <a href="/wiki/Africans_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Africans in the United States">African</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> immigrants have come into conflict with African Americans. The amount of interaction and cooperation between Black immigrants and African Americans are considered to be disputable. One can argue that racial discrimination and cooperation are not ordinarily based on skin color, but are instead based on shared or common, cultural experiences and beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-352">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-353">[350]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Interpersonal_discrimination">Interpersonal discrimination</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Interpersonal discrimination">edit</a>]</div> In a manner that defines interpersonal discrimination in the United States, Darryl Brown of the Virginia Law Review states that while "our society has established a consensus against blatant, intentional racism in the decades since Brown v Board of Education and it has also developed a sizeable set of legal remedies to address it", our legal system "ignores the possibility that 'race' is structural or interstitial, that it can be the root of injury even when it is not traceable to a specific intention or action".<a href="#cite_note-Brown-354">[351]</a> Unlike formal discrimination, interpersonal discrimination is often not an overt or deliberate act of racism. For example, in an incident regarding a racial remark which was made by a professor at Virginia Law, a rift was created by conflicting definitions of racism. For the students who defended the professor's innocence, "racism was defined as an act of intentional maliciousness". Yet for African Americans, racism was broadened to a detrimental influence on "the substantive dynamics of the classroom". As an effect, it is argued that the "daily repetition of subtle racism and subordination in the classroom can ultimately be, for African Americans, even more reductive of stress, anxiety and alienation than blatant racist acts can be." Moreover, the attention which is given to these acts of discrimination diverts energy from academics, becoming a distraction that white students do not generally face.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-354">[351]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ethnic-racial_socialization">Ethnic-racial socialization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Ethnic-racial socialization">edit</a>]</div> Ethnic-racial socialization refers to the transfer of knowledge about various aspects of race or ethnicity through generations.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> Parents of color use ethnic-racial socialization to transfer cultural knowledge to their children to protect them from potential biases which they may face as a result of their ethnicity and/or race.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> However, how parents choose to socialize their children regarding issues of ethnicity and race may affect children differently.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> For example, when parent's socialization efforts focus on positive aspects of their race or ethnicity, children of color tend to report higher self-esteem.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> On the other hand, if the focus of socialization mainly revolves around mistrust about interracial or inter-ethnic relations, children's self-concept, or how children view themselves might suffer.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> Promotion of socialization that centers on mistrust is especially harmful when parents present it without also teaching positive coping skills.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> Wang et al. (2020)<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> conducted a meta-analytic review of 334 articles examining the effects of ethnic-racial socialization on children of color's psychosocial adjustment. Researchers evaluated the stage of children's development in which the effects of ethnic-racial socialization would be most prominent. Their findings using their systematic review process showed a positive relationship between parental ethnic-racial socialization and psychosocial well-being measures, including self-perception, confidence, and interpersonal relationships. The effects of age varied based on the psychosocial well-being measure a study used. Results showed that the link between positive self-perception and ethnic-racial socialization was most effective when it occurred in childhood and early adolescence.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> On the other hand, children who reported positive relationships between their interpersonal relationships and ethnic-racial socialization showed this paper in middle to late adolescence.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> The effects of ethnic-racial socialization also varied based on children's race/ethnicity. Self-perception and ethnic-racial socialization are related more positively among African Americans,<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> suggesting that parents used ethnic-racial socialization to buffer against the deep-rooted stigma and biases African Americans face in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> Contrary to the experiences of African Americans, ethnic-racial socialization was related to low self-perception among Asian Americans.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> Extensive research is required to better understand the connection of ethnic-racial socialization for Asian American children's psychosocial well-being.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> To better understand the effects of ethnic-racial socialization and psychological development, research should take into account known moderating factors similar to <a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">stereotype threat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-355">[352]</a> It is important to note that the research findings were correlational and as such does not imply causality. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutional_racism">Institutional racism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Institutional racism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Institutional racism in the United States">Institutional racism</a> is the theory that aspects of the existing social structure, pervasive attitudes, and established institutions in society disadvantage some racial groups, but not with an overtly discriminatory mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-356">[353]</a> There are several factors which play into institutional racism, including: accumulated wealth/benefits for racial groups which have benefited from past discrimination, educational and occupational disadvantages which are faced by non-native English speakers in the United States, ingrained stereotypical images which still exist in American society (e.g. black men are likely to be criminals).<a href="#cite_note-357">[354]</a> Institutional racism impacts the lives of racial groups negatively as although legislations where passed in the mid 20th century to abolish any sort of segregation and discrimination it still does not change the fact that institutional racism is still able to occur to anyone. Peter Kaufman, a former sociology professor at the State University of New York<a href="#cite_note-358">[355]</a> published an article in which Kaufman describes three instances in which institutional racism has contributed to current views of race.<a href="#cite_note-359">[356]</a> These are: <ol><li>The mis- and Missing Education of Race, in which he describes problems which the educational system has in discussing "slavery, race, racism, and topics such as white privilege." He goes on to say that schools are still segregated based on class and race, which also contributes to the poor state of race relations<a href="#cite_note-:0-233">[230]</a></li> <li>Residential Racial Segregation. According to Kaufman, schools are still segregated because towns and cities are still largely segregated.</li> <li>Media Monsters. This describes the role which the media plays in the portrayal of race. The mass media tends to play on "depictions of racialized stereotypes in the mass media [which are] ubiquitous, and such caricaturized images shape our perceptions of various racial groups." An example of this is the stereotyping of Blacks as criminals.<a href="#cite_note-:0-233">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-360">[357]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nazi_Germany's_inspiration_from_American_racism">Nazi Germany's inspiration from American racism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Nazi Germany's inspiration from American racism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nazi_racial_theories" title="Nazi racial theories">Nazi racial theories</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racial_policy_of_Nazi_Germany" title="Racial policy of Nazi Germany">Racial policy of Nazi Germany</a></div> The U.S. was a global leader in codified racism, and its race laws fascinated <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and other German <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Whitman-361">[358]</a> who praised America's system of institutional racism, believing it to be a model to follow in their <a href="/wiki/Reich" title="Reich">Reich</a>. Hitler's book <a href="/wiki/Mein_Kampf" title="Mein Kampf">Mein Kampf</a> praised America as the only contemporary example of a country with racist ("völkisch") citizenship statutes in the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-Whitman-361">[358]</a> The National Socialist Handbook for Law and Legislation of 1934–35, edited by lawyer <a href="/wiki/Hans_Frank" title="Hans Frank">Hans Frank</a>, contains a pivotal essay by Herbert Kier on the recommendations for race legislation which devoted a quarter of its pages to U.S. legislation—from segregation, race based citizenship, immigration regulations, and anti-miscegenation.<a href="#cite_note-Whitman-361">[358]</a> Nazi lawyers were inspired by American laws when they designed their <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_legislation_in_pre-war_Nazi_Germany" title="Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany">own laws</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Whitman-361">[358]</a> including racist citizenship laws, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">anti-miscegenation laws</a> which inspired the two principal <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a>—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.<a href="#cite_note-Whitman-361">[358]</a> Hitler and other Nazis were also inspired by America's 19th century westward expansion, believing it to be a model for the <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">expansion of German territory into the territories of other nations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Generalplan_Ost" title="Generalplan Ost">elimination of their indigenous inhabitants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Watson-362">[359]</a> In 1928, Hitler praised the United States for having "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage".<a href="#cite_note-363">[360]</a> On Nazi Germany's expansion eastward, in 1941 Hitler stated, "Our Mississippi [the line beyond which Thomas Jefferson wanted all Indians expelled] must be the Volga, and not the Niger."<a href="#cite_note-Westermann-364">[361]</a> In a later speech Hitler stated, "in the East a similar process will repeat itself for a second time as in the conquest of America", and Nazi troops "had a duty to look upon natives as Redskins".<a href="#cite_note-Watson-362">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-365">[362]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contemporary_issues">Contemporary issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Contemporary issues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_racial_unrest_(2020%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States racial unrest (2020–present)">United States racial unrest (2020–present)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hate_crimes_and_terrorism">Hate crimes and terrorism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Hate crimes and terrorism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Hate crime laws in the United States">Hate crime laws in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_terrorism#United_States" title="Right-wing terrorism">Right-wing terrorism § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Domestic_terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Domestic terrorism in the United States">Domestic terrorism in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_terrorist_attacks_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of terrorist attacks in the United States">Timeline of terrorist attacks in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a>, <a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics#United_States" title="Far-right politics">Far-right politics § United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radical_right_(United_States)" title="Radical right (United States)">Radical right (United States)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_civil_unrest_in_the_United_States" title="List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States">List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States</a></div> In the United States, most crimes in which victims are targeted on the basis of their <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnicity</a> are considered <a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">hate crimes</a>. Leading forms of bias which are cited in the FBI's Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program, based on law enforcement agency filings include: anti-Black, anti-Jewish, <a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">anti-homosexual</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hispanophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanophobia">anti-Hispanic bias</a> in that order in both 2004 and 2005.<a href="#cite_note-366">[363]</a> According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, whites, Black people, and Hispanic people had similar rates of violent hate crime victimization between 2007 and 2011.<a href="#cite_note-367">[364]</a><a href="#cite_note-368">[365]</a> However, from 2011 to 2012, violent hate crimes against Hispanic people increased by 300%.<a href="#cite_note-369">[366]</a> When considering all hate crimes, not just violent ones, African Americans are far more likely to be victims than other racial groups.<a href="#cite_note-370">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-371">[368]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hateful_views">Hateful views</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Hateful views">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></div> Following the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Nationality_Act_of_1965" title="Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965">Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965</a>, the racist preference for white immigrants<a href="#cite_note-Schultz-228">[225]</a> which dated back to the 18th century was ended,<a href="#cite_note-372">[369]</a> and in response to this change, <a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">white nationalism</a> grew in the United States as the <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative movement</a> developed in <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">mainstream American society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-373">[370]</a> Political scientist <a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel P. Huntington</a> argues that it developed in reaction to the perceived decline in the essence of America's identity, an identity which was believed to be European, Anglo-Saxon Protestant and English-speaking.<a href="#cite_note-374">[371]</a> An <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a> report which was released in 2007 recounted that past ABC polls which were conducted over a period of several years have tended to find that "six percent have self-reported harboring prejudice against Jews, 27 percent have self-reported harboring prejudice against <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslims</a>, 25 percent have self-reported harboring prejudice against <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>," and "one in 10 have conceded harboring at least a little bit of prejudice " against <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic Americans</a>. The report also stated that a full 34% of Americans reported harboring "some racist feelings" in general as a self-description.<a href="#cite_note-abc-375">[372]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yahoo_News" title="Yahoo News">Yahoo News</a> survey of 2,227 adult Americans in 2008 found that 10% of white respondents stated that "a lot" of discrimination still exists against African-Americans while 45% of white respondents stated that only "some" discrimination still exists against African Americans compared to 57% of African American respondents who stated that "a lot" of discrimination still exists against them. In the same poll, more whites applied positive attributes to African Americans than negative ones, with black people describing whites even more highly, but a significant minority of whites still called African Americans "irresponsible", "lazy", or other such things.<a href="#cite_note-babington-376">[373]</a> In 2008, Stanford University political scientist Paul Sniderman remarked that, in the modern U.S., racism and prejudices are "a deep challenge, and it's one that Americans in general, and for that matter, political scientists, just haven't been ready to acknowledge fully."<a href="#cite_note-babington-376">[373]</a> In 2017, citizens gathered in the college community of <a href="/wiki/Charlottesville" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlottesville">Charlottesville</a>, Virginia to attend the <a href="/wiki/Unite_the_Right_rally" title="Unite the Right rally">Unite the Right rally</a>. One woman was killed and dozens of other people were injured when a white supremacist <a href="/wiki/Charlottesville_car_attack" title="Charlottesville car attack">drove his car into a group of counter-protesters</a>.<a href="#cite_note-377">[374]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_media">Social media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Social media">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Online_hate_speech" title="Online hate speech">Online hate speech</a> and <a href="/wiki/Racism_on_the_Internet" title="Racism on the Internet">Racism on the Internet</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">contemporary times</a>, many racist views have found a means of expression through <a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a>.<a href="#cite_note-378">[375]</a> Among the popular social networks, in particular, the American platform <a href="/wiki/Reddit" title="Reddit">Reddit</a> has been defined by the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">Southern Poverty Law Center</a> as the "home of the most violently racist internet content."<a href="#cite_note-:21-379">[376]</a> The SPLC pointed at how racist views had gained more and more traction on Reddit, which was even replacing traditionally far-right websites such as <a href="/wiki/Stormfront_(website)" title="Stormfront (website)">Stormfront</a> in both the quantity and frequency of its racist content.<a href="#cite_note-:21-379">[376]</a> Several prominent intellectuals and publications have agreed with this view, considering Reddit a platform which is filled with hateful, racist and harassing content. So far, however, little or nothing has been done to address this problem.<a href="#cite_note-380">[377]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Artificial intelligence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence#Algorithmic_bias_and_fairness" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence § Algorithmic bias and fairness</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning_algorithm" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine learning algorithm">Machine learning algorithms</a> trained on data affected by racism may lead to <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> models that project and perpetuate the bias.<a href="#cite_note-381">[378]</a> On July 5, 2024, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> became the first city to enact regulation requiring firms utilizing AI-driven hiring algorithms,<a href="/wiki/Automated_Employment_Decision_Tools" class="mw-redirect" title="Automated Employment Decision Tools">Automated Employment Decision Tools</a>(AEDT), to prove that their selections were free from sexism and racism.<a href="#cite_note-382">[379]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Responses">Responses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Responses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Critical_race_theory" title="Critical race theory">Critical race theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black nationalism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asian_American_activism" title="Asian American activism">Asian American activism</a></div> There is a wide plethora of societal and political suggestions on how to alleviate the effects of continued discrimination in the United States. For example, within universities, it has been suggested that a type of committee could respond to non-sanctionable behavior.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-354">[351]</a> It is also argued that there is a need for "white students and faculty to reformulate white-awareness toward a more secure identity that is not threatened by black cultural institutions and can recognize the racial non-neutrality of the institutions which whites dominate" (Brown, 334). Paired with this effort, Brown encourages the increase in minority faculty members, so the embedded white normative experience begins to fragment.<a href="#cite_note-Brown-354">[351]</a> Within the media, it is found that racial cues prime <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">racial stereotypic thought</a>. Thus, it is argued that "stereotype inconsistent cues might lead to more intentioned thought, thereby suppressing racial priming effects."<a href="#cite_note-Valentino-111">[109]</a> Social psychologists, such as <a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Eberhardt" title="Jennifer Eberhardt">Jennifer Eberhardt</a>, have done work that indicates such priming effects subconsciously help determine attitudes and behavior toward individuals regardless of intentions. These results have been incorporated into training, for example, in some police departments.<a href="#cite_note-383">[380]</a> It has also been argued that more evidence-based guidance from psychologists and sociologists is needed for people to learn what is effective in alleviating racism.<a href="#cite_note-384">[381]</a> Such evidence-based approaches can reveal, for example, the many psychological biases to which humans are subject, such as <a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">ingroup bias</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fundamental_attribution_error" title="Fundamental attribution error">fundamental attribution error</a>, which can underlie racist attitudes.<a href="#cite_note-385">[382]</a> Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Vyse" title="Stuart Vyse">Stuart Vyse</a> has argued that argument, ideas, and facts will not mend divisions but there is evidence, such as that which is provided by the <a href="/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory#Robbers_cave_study" title="Realistic conflict theory">Robbers Cave Experiment</a>, that seeking shared goals can help alleviate racism.<a href="#cite_note-386">[383]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Racism_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a>.</div></div> </div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_white_Americans" title="Stereotypes of white Americans">Stereotypes of white Americans</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Internment camps are particularly associated with <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, but also existed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The most significant being the <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment</a> of 120,000 <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Americans" title="Japanese Americans">Japanese Americans</a> during World War II. Additionally, almost 11,000 <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</a> were <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_German_Americans" title="Internment of German Americans">similarly interned</a> during World War II, and some Italian Americans were <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Italian_Americans" title="Internment of Italian Americans">also interned</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> In his 2009 visit to the US, the UN Special Rapporteur on Racism commented: "Socio-economic indicators show that poverty, <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a> continue to overlap in the United States. This reality is a direct legacy of the past, in particular, it is a direct legacy of slavery, segregation, and the forcible resettlement of Native Americans, which was confronted by the United States during the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>. However, whereas the country managed to establish equal treatment and non-discrimination in its laws, it has yet to redress the socioeconomic consequences of the historical legacy of racism."<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9:30_not_8:46-195"><a href="#cite_ref-9:30_not_8:46_195-0">^</a> The initial criminal complaint gave the duration as 8:46, which came to be <a href="/wiki/Eight_minutes_46_seconds" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight minutes 46 seconds">often cited by protesters and the media</a>. Prosecutors revised this about three weeks later to 7:46.<a href="#cite_note-190">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-latimes_20200618_derek-191">[189]</a> In August, police body camera footage was publicly released, which showed the duration to be about 9:30.<a href="#cite_note-192">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-XiongAugust3rd-193">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[192]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Henry, P. J., David O. Sears. Race and Politics: The Theory of Symbolic Racism. University of California, Los Angeles. 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCERD_Task_Force_of_the_US_Human_Rights_Network2010" class="citation book cs1">CERD Task Force of the US Human Rights Network (August 2010). "From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Implementing US Obligations Under the International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)". Universal Periodic Review Joint Reports: United States of America. p. 44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+Civil+Rights+to+Human+Rights%3A+Implementing+US+Obligations+Under+the+International+Convention+on+the+Elimination+of+All+forms+of+Racial+Discrimination+%28ICERD%29&rft.btitle=Universal+Periodic+Review+Joint+Reports%3A+United+States+of+America&rft.pages=44&rft.date=2010-08&rft.au=CERD+Task+Force+of+the+US+Human+Rights+Network&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFU.S._Human_Rights_Network2010" class="citation book cs1">U.S. Human Rights Network (August 2010). "The United States of America: Summary Submission to the UN Universal Periodic Review". Universal Periodic Review Joint Reports: United States of America. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+United+States+of+America%3A+Summary+Submission+to+the+UN+Universal+Periodic+Review&rft.btitle=Universal+Periodic+Review+Joint+Reports%3A+United+States+of+America&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2010-08&rft.au=U.S.+Human+Rights+Network&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large/Volume_1/2nd_Congress/1st_Session/Chapter_33" class="extiw" title="s:United States Statutes at Large/Volume 1/2nd Congress/1st Session/Chapter 33">second Militia Act of 1792</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdm15138.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/tfd/id/495/rec/2">"Tennessee Constitution, 1834"</a>. Retrieved February 14, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tennessee+Constitution%2C+1834&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdm15138.contentdm.oclc.org%2Fcdm%2Fcompoundobject%2Fcollection%2Ftfd%2Fid%2F495%2Frec%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wouYAP1oKDsC&pg=PA31">Forbidden Citizens: Chinese Exclusion and the U.S. Congress: A Legislative History</a>. The Capitol Net. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58733-252-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58733-252-4"><bdi>978-1-58733-252-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forbidden+Citizens%3A+Chinese+Exclusion+and+the+U.S.+Congress%3A+A+Legislative+History&rft.pub=The+Capitol+Net&rft.isbn=978-1-58733-252-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwouYAP1oKDsC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulson2015" class="citation journal cs1">Coulson, Doug (2015). "British Imperialism, the Indian Independence Movement, and the Racial Eligibility Provisions of the Naturalization Act: United States v. Thind Revisited". 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BBC. Retrieved August 9, 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarthikeyanChin2011" class="citation ssrn cs1">Karthikeyan, Hrishi; Chin, Gabriel Jackson (April 14, 2011). 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Andrews (historian)">Andrews, Thomas G.</a> (2008). Killing for Coal: America's Deadliest Labor War. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03101-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03101-2"><bdi>978-0-674-03101-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Killing+for+Coal%3A+America%27s+Deadliest+Labor+War&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03101-2&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Thomas+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Kwame Anthony Appiah, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds. Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, in articles "Civil Rights Movement" by Patricia Sullivan (pp. 441–455) and "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" by Kate Tuttle (pp 1, 388–1, 391). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-465-00071-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-465-00071-1">0-465-00071-1</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6176609/f3.image">"Un lynchage monstre"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)" title="Le Petit Journal (newspaper)">Le Petit Journal</a>. September 24, 1906. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225115030/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k6176609/f3.image">Archived</a> from the original on February 25, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Le+Petit+Journal&rft.atitle=Un+lynchage+monstre&rft.date=1906-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k6176609%2Ff3.image&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1906/09/30/101799831.pdf">"Deporting the Negroes"</a> (September 30, 1906) <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Michael O. Emerson, Christian Smith (2001). "Divided by Faith: Evangelical Religion and the Problem of Race in America". p. 42. Oxford University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-Migration-144"><a href="#cite_ref-Migration_144-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeligman2005" class="citation book cs1">Seligman, Amanda (2005). Block by block: neighborhoods and public policy on Chicago's West Side. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 213–214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74663-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74663-0"><bdi>978-0-226-74663-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Block+by+block%3A+neighborhoods+and+public+policy+on+Chicago%27s+West+Side&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=213-214&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-226-74663-0&rft.aulast=Seligman&rft.aufirst=Amanda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948) </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Michael Kazin, Rebecca Edwards, Adam Rothman (2009). "The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History". p. 245. Princeton University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/forgotten-details-heroism-black-soldiers-wwii-article-1.2419211">"Forgotten' details heroism of black soldiers in WWII"</a>. New York Daily News. Retrieved August 5, 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRavitz" class="citation news cs1">Ravitz, Jessica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/14/us/birmingham-church-bombing-anniversary-victims-siblings/">"Siblings of the bombing: Remembering Birmingham church blast 50 years on"</a>. Retrieved October 20, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Siblings+of+the+bombing%3A+Remembering+Birmingham+church+blast+50+years+on&rft.aulast=Ravitz&rft.aufirst=Jessica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2013%2F09%2F14%2Fus%2Fbirmingham-church-bombing-anniversary-victims-siblings%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131015055957/http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/la-rebellion/timeline/birmingham-church-bombed-0">"Birmingham Church Bombed"</a>. L.A. Rebellion: Film & Television Archive. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cinema.ucla.edu/la-rebellion/timeline/birmingham-church-bombed-0">the original</a> on October 15, 2013. Retrieved October 20, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Birmingham+Church+Bombed&rft.pub=L.A.+Rebellion%3A+Film+%26+Television+Archive&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cinema.ucla.edu%2Fla-rebellion%2Ftimeline%2Fbirmingham-church-bombed-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Carol Berkin, Christopher Miller, Robert Cherny, James Gormly (2011). "Making America: A History of the United States, Volume 2: From 1865". p. 749. Cengage Learning </li> <li id="cite_note-Anti-miscegenation-151"><a href="#cite_ref-Anti-miscegenation_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/eugenics-race-and-marriage">"Eugenics, Race, and Marriage"</a>. Facing History.org. Retrieved February 23, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Facing+History.org&rft.atitle=Eugenics%2C+Race%2C+and+Marriage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facinghistory.org%2Fresource-library%2Feugenics-race-and-marriage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vigdor-152"><a href="#cite_ref-vigdor_152-0">^</a> The Rise and Decline of the American Ghetto David M. Cutler, Edward L. Glaeser, Jacob L. Vigdor The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 107, No. 3 (Jun. 1999), pp. 455–506 </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071130210614/http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf">"Racial Discrimination and Redlining in Cities"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.core.ucl.ac.be/services/psfiles/dp99/dp9913.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on November 30, 2007. Retrieved February 16, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Racial+Discrimination+and+Redlining+in+Cities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.core.ucl.ac.be%2Fservices%2Fpsfiles%2Fdp99%2Fdp9913.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> See: <a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenhauer2001" class="citation journal cs1">Eisenhauer, Elizabeth (2001). "In poor health: Supermarket redlining and urban nutrition". GeoJournal. 53 (2): 125–133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GeoJo..53..125E">2001GeoJo..53..125E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1015772503007">10.1023/A:1015772503007</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151164815">151164815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GeoJournal&rft.atitle=In+poor+health%3A+Supermarket+redlining+and+urban+nutrition&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=125-133&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151164815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1015772503007&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001GeoJo..53..125E&rft.aulast=Eisenhauer&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eastny-156"><a href="#cite_ref-eastny_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThabit2003" class="citation book cs1">Thabit, Walter (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TWo8OFJpFtAC">How East New York Became a Ghetto</a>. NYU Press. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8267-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-8267-5"><bdi>978-0-8147-8267-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+East+New+York+Became+a+Ghetto&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-8267-5&rft.aulast=Thabit&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTWo8OFJpFtAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroganProscio2001" class="citation book cs1">Grogan, Paul; Proscio, Tony (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e-7qfF0nXNYC">Comeback Cities: A Blueprint for Urban Neighborhood Revival</a>. 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Retrieved February 19, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Black+Lives+Matter+Reached+Every+Corner+of+America&rft.date=2020-06-13&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Burch&rft.aufirst=Audra+D.+S.&rft.au=Cai%2C+Weiyi&rft.au=Gianordoli%2C+Gabriel&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+Morrigan&rft.au=Patel%2C+Jugal+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2020%2F06%2F13%2Fus%2Fgeorge-floyd-protests-cities-photos.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Mann, Charles C., 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, Vintage Books, 2006, c.2005, p. 18 </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <a href="/wiki/An_Indigenous_Peoples%27_History_of_the_United_States" title="An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States">An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States</a>. New York: Beacon, 2014. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5783-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5783-4">978-0-8070-5783-4</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/898228330">898228330</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-peterson-199"><a href="#cite_ref-peterson_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1979" class="citation book cs1">Walter, Williams (1979). "Three Efforts at Development among the Choctaws of Mississippi". Southeastern Indians: Since the Removal Era. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Three+Efforts+at+Development+among+the+Choctaws+of+Mississippi&rft.btitle=Southeastern+Indians%3A+Since+the+Removal+Era&rft.place=Athens%2C+Georgia&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Williams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-charles_hudson-200"><a href="#cite_ref-charles_hudson_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1971" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, Charles (1971). "The Ante-Bellum Elite". Red, White, and Black; Symposium on Indians in the Old South. University of Georgia Press. p. 80. SBN 820303089.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ante-Bellum+Elite&rft.btitle=Red%2C+White%2C+and+Black%3B+Symposium+on+Indians+in+the+Old+South&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Albert_Boime" title="Albert Boime">Boime, Albert</a> (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=24Hgr0U8K3QC&dq=Rescue+AND+Greenough&pg=PA527">A Social History of Modern Art, Volume 2: Art in an Age of Counterrevolution, 1815-1848</a>, (Series: Social History of Modern Art); <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>, pg 527. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, Robert Tignor, Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, Suzanne Marchand, Gyan Prakash, Michael Tsin, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, 2000, p. 274. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Out West. University of Nebraska Press. 2000. p. 96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+West&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/05/facebook-declaration-of-independence-hate-speech">"Facebook labels declaration of independence as 'hate speech'"</a>. The Guardian. Retrieved August 7, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Facebook+labels+declaration+of+independence+as+%27hate+speech%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2018%2Fjul%2F05%2Ffacebook-declaration-of-independence-hate-speech&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mic.com/articles/121671/native-americans-have-nothing-to-celebrate-on-july-4#.Qst75mbCL">"Millions of Americans Have Nothing to Celebrate on the Fourth of July"</a>. Mic. Retrieved August 20, 2017 </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200603175817/https://nacc.yalecollege.yale.edu/reflection-today-our-nation-was-born-genocide-when-it-embraced-doctrin">"Reflection today: "Our nation was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrin..."</a> Yale University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nacc.yalecollege.yale.edu/reflection-today-our-nation-was-born-genocide-when-it-embraced-doctrin">the original</a> on June 3, 2020. Retrieved June 3, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Reflection+today%3A+%22Our+nation+was+born+in+genocide+when+it+embraced+the+doctrin...&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnacc.yalecollege.yale.edu%2Freflection-today-our-nation-was-born-genocide-when-it-embraced-doctrin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_D._Castillo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward D. Castillo (page does not exist)">Castillo, Edward D.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceres.ca.gov/nahc/califindian.html">"Short Overview of California Indian History"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214031402/http://www.ceres.ca.gov/nahc/califindian.html">Archived</a> December 14, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, California Native American Heritage Commission. </li> <li id="cite_note-Jaimes-208">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jaimes_208-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jaimes_208-1">b</a> M. Annette Jaimes (1992). The State of Native America: Genocide, Colonization, and Resistance. p. 34. South End Press </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlack_Elk,_John_Gneisenau_Neihardt2008" class="citation book cs1">Black Elk, John Gneisenau Neihardt (2008) [1961]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7p9VqRLiKqcC&pg=PA218">Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a Holy Man of the Oglala Sioux</a>. <a href="/wiki/SUNY_Press" title="SUNY Press">SUNY Press</a>. p. 281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2540-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-2540-5"><bdi>978-1-4384-2540-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Elk+Speaks%3A+Being+the+Life+Story+of+a+Holy+Man+of+the+Oglala+Sioux&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-2540-5&rft.au=Black+Elk%2C+John+Gneisenau+Neihardt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7p9VqRLiKqcC%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1990" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, Russell (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9iQYSQ9y60MC">American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2220-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2220-5"><bdi>978-0-8061-2220-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Holocaust+and+Survival%3A+A+Population+History+Since+1492&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2220-5&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9iQYSQ9y60MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.war.056">"Plains Humanities: Wounded Knee Massacre"</a>. Retrieved August 4, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plains+Humanities%3A+Wounded+Knee+Massacre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplainshumanities.unl.edu%2Fencyclopedia%2Fdoc%2Fegp.war.056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wounded_Knee-212"><a href="#cite_ref-Wounded_Knee_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.war.056">"Plains Humanities: Wounded Knee Massacre"</a>. Retrieved August 9, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Plains+Humanities%3A+Wounded+Knee+Massacre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplainshumanities.unl.edu%2Fencyclopedia%2Fdoc%2Fegp.war.056&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-editorials-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-editorials_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-editorials_213-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071209193251/http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm">"L. Frank Baum's Editorials on the Sioux Nation"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm">the original</a> on December 9, 2007. Retrieved December 9, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=L.+Frank+Baum%27s+Editorials+on+the+Sioux+Nation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.northern.edu%2Fhastingw%2Fbaumedts.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> Full text of both, with commentary by professor A. Waller Hastings </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Professor Robert Venables, Senior Lecturer Rural Sociology Department, Cornell University, "Looking Back at Wounded Knee 1890", Northeast Indian Quarterly, Spring 1990 </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160701214200/http://www.eskimo.com/~recall/bleed/0303.htm">"Our Daily Bleed..."</a> Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eskimo.com/~recall/bleed/0303.htm">the original</a> on July 1, 2016. Retrieved January 28, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+Daily+Bleed...&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eskimo.com%2F~recall%2Fbleed%2F0303.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Ward Churchill, Kill the Indian, Save the Man, 2006. The basis for this theory was that inside every native person, there was a repressed white person screaming to come to the surface. Abuse both physical and psychological was common in these schools, and often their objective of 'compulsory whiteness' was not even ultimately achieved, with many of the Indians who later returned to the reservations afterwards not at all 'becoming white', but instead simply becoming heavy alcoholics and displaying signs of permanent psychological distress, and even <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>. Further, these individuals were often either totally unemployable or only marginally employed, as it was sensed by those around them that on the one hand, they had not successfully assimilated into 'white society', nor were they any longer acceptable to the Indian societies from which they had originated. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrasserCarpenter2010" class="citation news cs1">Strasser, Franz; Carpenter, Sharon (November 22, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/world_news_america/9097996.stm">"Native Americans battle teenage suicide"</a>. BBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Native+Americans+battle+teenage+suicide&rft.date=2010-11-22&rft.aulast=Strasser&rft.aufirst=Franz&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+Sharon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fprogrammes%2Fworld_news_america%2F9097996.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> United States Senate, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiantrust.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=OtherMedia.ViewDetail&Other_id=12&Month=3&Year=2007">Oversight Hearing on Trust Fund Litigation, Cobell v. Kempthorne</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090112213806/http://www.indiantrust.com/index.cfm?FuseAction=OtherMedia.ViewDetail&Other_id=12&Month=3&Year=2007">Archived</a> January 12, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. See also, <a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Norton" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobell v. Norton">Cobell v. Norton</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Winona_LaDuke" title="Winona LaDuke">Winona LaDuke</a>, All Our Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life, 1999, p. 2-3. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/story/nuclear-tests-have-changed-but-they-never-really-stopped/#:~:text=The%20US%20conducted%20its%20last%20explosive%20nuclear%20test%20in%20September%2C%201992.">"Nuclear Tests Have Changed, but They Never Really Stopped"</a>. Wired. July 16, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Tests+Have+Changed%2C+but+They+Never+Really+Stopped&rft.date=2020-07-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fnuclear-tests-have-changed-but-they-never-really-stopped%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520US%2520conducted%2520its%2520last%2520explosive%2520nuclear%2520test%2520in%2520September%252C%25201992.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStout,_Mary2012" class="citation book cs1">Stout, Mary (2012). Native American boarding schools. 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South End Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89608-090-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89608-090-4"><bdi>978-0-89608-090-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Washington+Connection+and+Third+World+Fascism&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=South+End+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-89608-090-4&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft.au=Herman%2C+Edward+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlWjLdLahLToC%26q%3Dmere%2Bgook%2Brule%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/read/vietnam-and-the-mere-gook-rule">"The Secret History of the Vietnam War"</a>. 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Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8691-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-8691-1"><bdi>978-0-8050-8691-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kill+Anything+That+Moves%3A+The+Real+American+War+in+Vietnam&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-8691-1&rft.aulast=Turse&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6q3vpJ3ePH4C%26q%3Dkill%2Banything%2Bthat%2Bmoves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTruman1948" class="citation news cs1">Truman, Harry S. (October 18, 1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-10009-revoking-part-executive-orders-no-589-march-14-1907-and-no-1712">"Executive Order 10009—Revoking in Part Executive Orders No. 589 of March 14, 1907, and No. 1712 of February 24, 1913"</a>. presidency.ucsb.edu. American Presidency Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210404174745/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-10009-revoking-part-executive-orders-no-589-march-14-1907-and-no-1712">Archived</a> from the original on April 4, 2021. Retrieved April 4, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=presidency.ucsb.edu&rft.atitle=Executive+Order+10009%E2%80%94Revoking+in+Part+Executive+Orders+No.+589+of+March+14%2C+1907%2C+and+No.+1712+of+February+24%2C+1913&rft.date=1948-10-18&rft.aulast=Truman&rft.aufirst=Harry+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fdocuments%2Fexecutive-order-10009-revoking-part-executive-orders-no-589-march-14-1907-and-no-1712&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1923/02/20/archives/court-rules-hindu-not-a-white-person-bars-high-caste-native-of.html">"Court Rules Hindu Not a 'White Person'; Bars High Caste Native of India From Naturalization as an American Citizen"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. February 20, 1923. Retrieved October 11, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Court+Rules+Hindu+Not+a+%27White+Person%27%3B+Bars+High+Caste+Native+of+India+From+Naturalization+as+an+American+Citizen&rft.date=1923-02-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1923%2F02%2F20%2Farchives%2Fcourt-rules-hindu-not-a-white-person-bars-high-caste-native-of.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seema-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Seema_243-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSohi2014" class="citation book cs1">Sohi, Seema (2014). Echoes of Mutiny: Race, Surveillance, and Indian Anticolonialism in North America. Oxford University Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937625-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-937625-4"><bdi>978-0-19-937625-4</bdi></a>. <q>Indians in North America, nearly 90 percent of whom where Sikhs from the state of Punjab, were also racialized through colonial gendered discourses. During the early decades of the twentieth century, US Immigration, Justice, and State Department officials cast Indian anti-colonialists as a "Hindu" menace</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Echoes+of+Mutiny%3A+Race%2C+Surveillance%2C+and+Indian+Anticolonialism+in+North+America&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-937625-4&rft.aulast=Sohi&rft.aufirst=Seema&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thind-244">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thind_244-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thind_244-1">b</a> Zhao, X. & Park, E.J.W. (2013). Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History. Greenwood. pp. 1142. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-239-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-239-5">978-1-59884-239-5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/rootsinthesand/a_lucecellar.html">"Roots in the Sand – the Archives"</a>. PBS. Retrieved May 8, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Roots+in+the+Sand+%E2%80%93+the+Archives&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Frootsinthesand%2Fa_lucecellar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Immigration_law-246">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Immigration_law_246-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Immigration_law_246-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLudden" class="citation news cs1">Ludden, Jennifer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5391395">"1965 immigration law changed face of America"</a>. NPR.org. NPR. Retrieved May 8, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=1965+immigration+law+changed+face+of+America&rft.aulast=Ludden&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D5391395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicol1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C.W._Nicol" class="mw-redirect" title="C.W. Nicol">Nicol, C.W.</a> (1975). Moving Zen: Karate as a Way to Gentleness. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0710082810" title="Special:BookSources/0710082810"><bdi>0710082810</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moving+Zen%3A+Karate+as+a+Way+to+Gentleness&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=C.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Check <code class="cs1-code">|isbn=</code> value: checksum (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_isbn" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBishop1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Bishop" title="Mark Bishop">Bishop, Mark</a> (1989). 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Verge, "The Impact of the Second World War on Los Angeles," The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 63, No. 3, Fortress California at War: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego, 1941–1945. (Aug. 1994), pp. 306–307. </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1999-11-07-9911070165-story.html">"Nixon On Tape Expounds On Welfare And Homosexuality"</a>. Chicago Tribune. 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Retrieved February 9, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Arab+American+Institute+Still+Deliberately+Claiming+Assyrians+Are+Arabs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aina.org%2Freleases%2F20070416140021.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> John Tehranian, "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America," <a href="/wiki/The_Yale_Law_Journal" title="The Yale Law Journal">The Yale Law Journal</a>, Vol. 109, No. 4. (Jan. 2000), pp. 817–848. </li> <li id="cite_note-Leonard-293"><a href="#cite_ref-Leonard_293-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://loansbadcreditusa.com/wkconline/seminars/">"WKConline starts new seminars in partnership with Loans for Bad Credit USA"</a>. loansbadcreditusa.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=loansbadcreditusa.com&rft.atitle=WKConline+starts+new+seminars+in+partnership+with+Loans+for+Bad+Credit+USA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Floansbadcreditusa.com%2Fwkconline%2Fseminars%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNettonAlsultany2006" class="citation book cs1">Netton, Ian Richard; Alsultany, Evelyn (2006). "From ambiguity to abjection: Iraqi-Americans negotiating race in the United States". In Zahia Smail Salhi (ed.). The Arab diaspora: Voices of an anguished scream. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. pp. 140–143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37542-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37542-9"><bdi>978-0-415-37542-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+ambiguity+to+abjection%3A+Iraqi-Americans+negotiating+race+in+the+United+States&rft.btitle=The+Arab+diaspora%3A+Voices+of+an+anguished+scream&rft.pages=140-143&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-37542-9&rft.aulast=Netton&rft.aufirst=Ian+Richard&rft.au=Alsultany%2C+Evelyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/usahate/usa1102.htm">"United States"</a>. Hrw.org. <a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch" title="Human Rights Watch">Human Rights Watch</a>. September 11, 2001. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308194039/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/usahate/usa1102.htm">Archived</a> from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved February 16, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hrw.org&rft.atitle=United+States&rft.date=2001-09-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Freports%2F2002%2Fusahate%2Fusa1102.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> "While African-Americans, Asians, and Native Americans are racialized according to phenotype, Arab-Americans are often racialized according to religion and politics. Religious racialization conflates Arabs and Islam, and consequently positions all Arabs as Muslim; represents Islam as a monolithic religion erasing diversity among Arabs and Muslims; and marks Islam as a backwards, fanatical, uncivilized, and a terroristic belief system" (p. 127). "Whereas before September 11, Arab- and Muslim-Americans were not included in discourses on race and racism in the United States, a public discourse emerged after September 11 on whether Arabs and Muslims were being treated fairly or being subjected to racism with the rise in hate crimes and government measures targeting Arabs and Muslims" (p. 141). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlsultany2006" class="citation book cs1">Alsultany, Evelyn (2006). "From ambiguity to abjection: Iraqi-Americans negotiating race in the United States". In Zahia Smail Salhi; Ian Richard Netton (eds.). The Arab diaspora: Voices of an anguished scream. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37542-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-37542-9"><bdi>978-0-415-37542-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=From+ambiguity+to+abjection%3A+Iraqi-Americans+negotiating+race+in+the+United+States&rft.btitle=The+Arab+diaspora%3A+Voices+of+an+anguished+scream&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-415-37542-9&rft.aulast=Alsultany&rft.aufirst=Evelyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> "'Muslim' identity has certainly congealed as a marker of exclusion and marginalization, in relation to white or mainstream America, which is subjected to similar processes of racialization, and racism, that operate for racial minority groups."<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaira2009" class="citation book cs1">Maira, Sunaina (January 2009). Missing: youth, citizenship, and empire after 9/11. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. p. 229. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4409-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4409-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-4409-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Missing%3A+youth%2C+citizenship%2C+and+empire+after+9%2F11&rft.pages=229&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2009-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4409-4&rft.aulast=Maira&rft.aufirst=Sunaina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/niot/citizens_respond/losaltos.html">Attacks on Arab Americans</a> (<a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy,_Jarrett2009" class="citation news cs1">Murphy, Jarrett (February 11, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021127140124/http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/11/25/national/main530749.shtml">"Hindu Beaten Because He's Muslim, Mistaken Anti-Islam Thugs Pummel, Hogtie And Stab Deliveryman"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CBS_News" title="CBS News">CBS News</a>. Associated Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/11/25/national/main530749.shtml">the original</a> on November 27, 2002. Retrieved February 16, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBS+News&rft.atitle=Hindu+Beaten+Because+He%27s+Muslim%2C+Mistaken+Anti-Islam+Thugs+Pummel%2C+Hogtie+And+Stab+Deliveryman&rft.date=2009-02-11&rft.au=Murphy%2C+Jarrett&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbsnews.com%2Fstories%2F2002%2F11%2F25%2Fnational%2Fmain530749.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080718203616/http://www.adl.org/presrele/hatcr_51/4277_51.asp">"ADL Condemns Hate Crime Against Hindu"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anti-Defamation_League" title="Anti-Defamation League">Anti-Defamation League</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adl.org/presrele/hatcr_51/4277_51.asp">the original</a> on July 18, 2008. Retrieved July 18, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ADL+Condemns+Hate+Crime+Against+Hindu&rft.pub=Anti-Defamation+League&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adl.org%2Fpresrele%2Fhatcr_51%2F4277_51.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandrasekhar" class="citation journal cs1">Chandrasekhar, Charu A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/aslj10&i=224">"Flying while Brown: Federal Civil Rights Remedies to Post-9/11 Airline Racial Profiling of South Asians"</a>. Asian Law Journal. 10 (2). <a href="/wiki/HeinOnline" title="HeinOnline">HeinOnline</a>: 215–252.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Flying+while+Brown%3A+Federal+Civil+Rights+Remedies+to+Post-9%2F11+Airline+Racial+Profiling+of+South+Asians&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=215-252&rft.aulast=Chandrasekhar&rft.aufirst=Charu+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FP%3Fh%3Dhein.journals%2Faslj10%26i%3D224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBozorgmehr2001" class="citation news cs1">Bozorgmehr, Mehdi (May 2, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2001/May/Iranians/index.html#3a">"No solidarity: Iranians in the U.S"</a>. The Iranian. Retrieved February 2, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Iranian&rft.atitle=No+solidarity%3A+Iranians+in+the+U.S&rft.date=2001-05-02&rft.aulast=Bozorgmehr&rft.aufirst=Mehdi&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranian.com%2FOpinion%2F2001%2FMay%2FIranians%2Findex.html%233a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> See detailed analysis in: The U.S. Media and the Middle East: Image and Perception. Praeger, 1997; Greenwood, 1995. </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichel_Marriott1987" class="citation news cs1">Michel Marriott (October 12, 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1987/10/12/nyregion/in-jersey-city-indians-protest-violence.html?pagewanted=all">"In Jersey City, Indians Protest Violence"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Jersey City (Nj). Retrieved August 11, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=In+Jersey+City%2C+Indians+Protest+Violence&rft.date=1987-10-12&rft.au=Michel+Marriott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1987%2F10%2F12%2Fnyregion%2Fin-jersey-city-indians-protest-violence.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dhillon-305">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dhillon_305-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dhillon_305-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180102072827/http://www.kavitachhibber.com/main/main.jsp?id=legal-Jan2006">"Kavita Chhibber"</a>. Kavitachhibber.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kavitachhibber.com/main/main.jsp?id=legal-Jan2006">the original</a> on January 2, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kavitachhibber.com&rft.atitle=Kavita+Chhibber&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kavitachhibber.com%2Fmain%2Fmain.jsp%3Fid%3Dlegal-Jan2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~ap2231/ET/et80_July27-05.htm">Indophobia: Facts versus Fiction</a>, Arvind Panagariya, <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> archives of <a href="/wiki/The_Economic_Times" title="The Economic Times">The Economic Times</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yee-307">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yee_307-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yee_307-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://modelminority.com/article705.html">Worries about technical-job losses, discrimination</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080704175405/http://www.modelminority.com/article705.html">Archived</a> July 4, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Amy_Yee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Amy Yee (page does not exist)">Amy Yee</a>, The Financial Times Ltd., 2004 </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/reference/cshm/ohrc066.html">"Center for the study of history and memory"</a>. Dlib.indiana.edu. Retrieved August 11, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Center+for+the+study+of+history+and+memory&rft.pub=Dlib.indiana.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dlib.indiana.edu%2Freference%2Fcshm%2Fohrc066.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2002/spring/the-forgotten?page=0,6">"Remembering Victims of Hate Crimes"</a>. Southern Poverty Law Center. Retrieved July 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Remembering+Victims+of+Hate+Crimes&rft.pub=Southern+Poverty+Law+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.splcenter.org%2Fget-informed%2Fintelligence-report%2Fbrowse-all-issues%2F2002%2Fspring%2Fthe-forgotten%3Fpage%3D0%2C6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Takaki-JewishMigr-310"><a href="#cite_ref-Takaki-JewishMigr_310-0">^</a> Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1993), 277–283. </li> <li id="cite_note-lynching_openly_organized2-311"><a href="#cite_ref-lynching_openly_organized2_311-0">^</a> Phagan, 1987, p. 27, states that "everyone knew the identity of the lynchers" (putting the words in her father's mouth). Oney, 2003, p. 526, quotes Carl Abernathy as saying, "They'd go to a man's office and talk to him or ... see a man on the job and talk to him," and an unidentified lyncher as saying "The organization of the body was more open than mysterious." </li> <li id="cite_note-time-312"><a href="#cite_ref-time_312-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080819190502/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898581,00.html">"The Various Shady Lives of the Ku Klux Klan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Time_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time magazine">Time magazine</a>. April 9, 1965. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898581,00.html">the original</a> on August 19, 2008. <q>An itinerant Methodist preacher named <a href="/wiki/William_Joseph_Simmons" title="William Joseph Simmons">William Joseph Simmons</a> started up the Klan again in Atlanta. On Thanksgiving Eve 1915, Simmons took 15 friends to the top of Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, built an <a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">altar</a> on which he placed an <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">American flag</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and an unsheathed <a href="/wiki/Sword" title="Sword">sword</a>, set fire to a crude wooden cross, muttered a few incantations about a "practical fraternity among men," and declared himself <a href="/wiki/Grand_Wizard" title="Grand Wizard">Imperial Wizard</a> of the Invisible Empire of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time+magazine&rft.atitle=The+Various+Shady+Lives+of+the+Ku+Klux+Klan&rft.date=1965-04-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C898581%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerard_N._Burrow2008" class="citation book cs1">Gerard N. Burrow (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XzYX_MduAG8C&pg=PA107">A History of Yale's School of Medicine: Passing Torches to Others</a>. Yale University Press. pp. 107ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13288-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-13288-5"><bdi>978-0-300-13288-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Yale%27s+School+of+Medicine%3A+Passing+Torches+to+Others&rft.pages=107ff&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-300-13288-5&rft.au=Gerard+N.+Burrow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXzYX_MduAG8C%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coughlin-314"><a href="#cite_ref-Coughlin_314-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/53/coughlin.html">Father Charles Edward Coughlin (1891–1971)</a> By Richard Sanders, editor, Press for Conversion! </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> Mary Christine Athans, "A New Perspective on Father Charles E. Coughlin," Church History, Vol. 56, No. 2. (June 1987), pp. 224–235, <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Church_History" title="American Society of Church History">American Society of Church History</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~antis/papers/occasional.papers.html">"H-Antisemitism Occasional Papers, No. 1M"</a>. H-net.msu.edu. Retrieved February 16, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=H-Antisemitism+Occasional+Papers%2C+No.+1M&rft.pub=H-net.msu.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.h-net.msu.edu%2F~antis%2Fpapers%2Foccasional.papers.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060426194442/http://www.adl.org/focus_sheets/focus_islam.asp">"The Nation of Islam"</a>. Anti-Defamation League. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adl.org/focus_sheets/focus_islam.asp">the original</a> on April 26, 2006. Retrieved July 17, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nation+of+Islam&rft.pub=Anti-Defamation+League&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adl.org%2Ffocus_sheets%2Ffocus_islam.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1993" class="citation news cs1">Goldstein, Amy (September 27, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1993/09/27/a-dc-clinics-controversial-rx-for-aids/19d2c4a8-5d3a-48a3-8df3-061eb6a99d26/">"A D.C. Clinic's Controversial Rx for AIDS"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved July 17, 2016. <q>His critics, including the Anti-Defamation League, contend that Muhammad's speeches contain antisemitic slurs. The critics have provided evidence of such remarks made by [NOI leader Louis] Farrakhan but not by Muhammad. In his several taped speeches, Muhammad has named Israel among the countries in what he calls the genocidal AIDS conspiracy, but he does not single out Jews for criticism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=A+D.C.+Clinic%27s+Controversial+Rx+for+AIDS&rft.date=1993-09-27&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F1993%2F09%2F27%2Fa-dc-clinics-controversial-rx-for-aids%2F19d2c4a8-5d3a-48a3-8df3-061eb6a99d26%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-319"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_319-0">^</a> Seth Korelitz, "The Menorah Idea: From Religion to Culture, From Race to Ethnicity," American Jewish History 1997 85(1): 75–100. 0164–0178 </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (1999); Hilene Flanzbaum, ed. The Americanization of the Holocaust (1999); Monty Noam Penkower, "Shaping Holocaust Memory," American Jewish History 2000 88(1): 127–132. 0164–0178 </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> Steve Siporin, "Immigrant and Ethnic Family Folklore," Western States Jewish History 1990 22(3): 230–242. 0749–5471 </li> <li id="cite_note-Village_Voice_1993-322">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Village_Voice_1993_322-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Village_Voice_1993_322-1">b</a> Lerner, Michael (May 18, 1993). "Jews Are Not White". <a href="/wiki/The_Village_Voice" title="The Village Voice">The Village Voice</a>. XXXVIII (20). pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertsonMeleTavernise2018" class="citation news cs1">Robertson, Campbell; Mele, Christopher; Tavernise, Sabrina (October 27, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/27/us/active-shooter-pittsburgh-synagogue-shooting.html">"11 Killed in Synagogue Massacre; Suspect Charged With 29 Counts"</a>. The New York Times. 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Retrieved January 13, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=Racism+Is+Rampant+on+Reddit%2C+and+Its+Editors+Are+in+Open+Revolt&rft.date=2020-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2020-06-18%2Fracism-is-rampant-on-reddit-and-its-editors-are-in-open-revolt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2023/07/19/1188739764/how-ai-could-perpetuate-racism-sexism-and-other-biases-in-society">"How AI could perpetuate racism, sexism and other biases in society"</a>. NPR. July 19, 2023. Retrieved June 8, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=How+AI+could+perpetuate+racism%2C+sexism+and+other+biases+in+society&rft.date=2023-07-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F07%2F19%2F1188739764%2Fhow-ai-could-perpetuate-racism-sexism-and-other-biases-in-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-382"><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2023" class="citation news cs1">Cross, Ameshia (July 7, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/were-finally-starting-to-fight-back-against-racism-in-ai">"We're Finally Starting to Fight Back Against Racism in AI"</a>. The Daily Beast. Retrieved June 8, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Beast&rft.atitle=We%27re+Finally+Starting+to+Fight+Back+Against+Racism+in+AI&rft.date=2023-07-07&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Ameshia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Fwere-finally-starting-to-fight-back-against-racism-in-ai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2018" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, Sam (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180623180420/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/a_hard_look_at_how_we_see_race">"A Hard Look at How We See Race"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a>. 42 (1): 37–41. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/a_hard_look_at_how_we_see_race">the original</a> on June 23, 2018. Retrieved June 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=A+Hard+Look+at+How+We+See+Race&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-41&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fa_hard_look_at_how_we_see_race&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadford2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Radford" title="Benjamin Radford">Radford, Benjamin</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180622191042/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/critical_thinking_approaches_to_confronting_racism">"Critical Thinking Approaches to Confronting Racism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a>. 42 (1): 31. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/critical_thinking_approaches_to_confronting_racism">the original</a> on June 22, 2018. Retrieved June 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Critical+Thinking+Approaches+to+Confronting+Racism&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=31&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Radford&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fcritical_thinking_approaches_to_confronting_racism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterSamuels2018" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, Craig; Samuels, Steven (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180623185156/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/psychology_skepticism_and_confronting_racism">"Psychology, Skepticism, and Confronting Racism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a>. 42 (1): 32–33. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/psychology_skepticism_and_confronting_racism">the original</a> on June 23, 2018. Retrieved June 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Psychology%2C+Skepticism%2C+and+Confronting+Racism&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=32-33&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft.au=Samuels%2C+Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fpsychology_skepticism_and_confronting_racism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVyse2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Vyse" title="Stuart Vyse">Vyse, Stuart</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180623182447/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/combating_racism_through_shared_goals">"Combating Racism through Shared Goals"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a>. 42 (1): 34–35. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/combating_racism_through_shared_goals">the original</a> on June 23, 2018. Retrieved June 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Combating+Racism+through+Shared+Goals&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=34-35&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Vyse&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fcombating_racism_through_shared_goals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_sources">Further sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Articles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Foner, Eric</a>, "The Little Man's Big Friends" (review of <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Cowie" title="Jefferson Cowie">Jefferson Cowie</a>, Freedom's Dominion: A Saga of White Resistance to Federal Power, Basic, 2022, 497 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B1%2B5416%2B7280%2B2" title="Special:BookSources/978+1+5416+7280+2">978 1 5416 7280 2</a>), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 45, no. 11 (1 June 2023), pp. 29–30. "More than half a century after he stood in the 'schoolhouse door', the ghost of <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> still haunts American politics." (final sentence of the review, p. 30.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn-Harris2018" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Kahn-Harris" title="Keith Kahn-Harris">Kahn-Harris, Keith</a> (November 28, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/nov/28/white-supremacy-degeneracy-far-right-populists">"'White supremacy' is really about white degeneracy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%27White+supremacy%27+is+really+about+white+degeneracy&rft.date=2018-11-28&rft.aulast=Kahn-Harris&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2F2018%2Fnov%2F28%2Fwhite-supremacy-degeneracy-far-right-populists&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall_Kennedy" title="Randall Kennedy">Kennedy, Randall</a>, "Racist Litter" (review of <a href="/wiki/Eric_Foner" title="Eric Foner">Eric Foner</a>, The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution, Norton, October 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-65257-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-65257-4">978-0-393-65257-4</a>, 288 pp.), <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a>, vol. 42, no. 15 (July 30, 2020), pp. 21–23. Kennedy quotes Foner (p. 23): "A century and a half after the end of slavery, the project of equal citizenship remains unfinished."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2018" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alex_Ross_(music_critic)" title="Alex Ross (music critic)">Ross, Alex</a> (April 30, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/04/30/how-american-racism-influenced-hitler">"The Hitler Vortex: How American Racism Influenced Nazi Thought"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>. pp. 66–73.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Hitler+Vortex%3A+How+American+Racism+Influenced+Nazi+Thought&rft.pages=66-73&rft.date=2018-04-30&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2018%2F04%2F30%2Fhow-american-racism-influenced-hitler&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanneh2019" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kelefa_Sanneh" title="Kelefa Sanneh">Sanneh, Kelefa</a> (August 19, 2019). "The Color of Injustice". <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>. pp. 18–22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=The+Color+of+Injustice&rft.pages=18-22&rft.date=2019-08-19&rft.aulast=Sanneh&rft.aufirst=Kelefa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Books">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Derrick_Bell" title="Derrick Bell">Bell, Derrick</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/facesatbottomofw00bell">Faces at the Bottom of the Well: The Permanence of Racism</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06817-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-06817-3"><bdi>978-0-465-06817-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faces+at+the+Bottom+of+the+Well%3A+The+Permanence+of+Racism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-465-06817-3&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Derrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffacesatbottomofw00bell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKendi2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ibram_X._Kendi" title="Ibram X. Kendi">Kendi, Ibram X.</a> (2017). <a href="/wiki/Stamped_from_the_Beginning" title="Stamped from the Beginning">Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America</a>. <a href="/wiki/Type_Media_Center" title="Type Media Center">Bold Type Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-598-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56858-598-7"><bdi>978-1-56858-598-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stamped+from+the+Beginning%3A+The+Definitive+History+of+Racist+Ideas+in+America&rft.pub=Bold+Type+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-56858-598-7&rft.aulast=Kendi&rft.aufirst=Ibram+X.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erika_Lee" title="Erika Lee">Lee, Erika</a> (2019). America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-7260-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5416-7260-4"><bdi>978-1-5416-7260-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America+for+Americans%3A+A+History+of+Xenophobia+in+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-5416-7260-4&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Erika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Videos">Videos</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Videos">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hkYCZuCz2dQ">Racism in America: Small Town 1950s Case Study</a>. Levittown, PA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180910224337/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCW58RCgqOQ">Archived</a> from the original on September 10, 2018. Retrieved July 4, 2024. <q>The first black family, the Myers, who bought a second-hand house [in Levittown]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Racism+in+America%3A+Small+Town+1950s+Case+Study&rft.place=Levittown%2C+PA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DhkYCZuCz2dQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARacism+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Racism_in_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Americas_topic" title="Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Americas_topic" title="Template talk:Americas topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Americas_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Racism_in_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Racism in the Americas</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in the Americas">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Argentina" title="Racism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Bahamas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Bahamas (page does not exist)">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Barbados&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Barbados (page does not exist)">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Brazil" title="Racism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Chile" title="Racism in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Colombia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Colombia (page does not exist)">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Costa_Rica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Costa Rica (page does not exist)">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Cuba" title="Racism in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Racism in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Ecuador (page does not exist)">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Haiti (page does not exist)">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Honduras (page does not exist)">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Jamaica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Jamaica (page does not exist)">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Mexico" title="Racism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Panama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Panama (page does not exist)">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Paraguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Paraguay (page does not exist)">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Peru" title="Racism in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Suriname&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Suriname (page does not exist)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Racism in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Uruguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Uruguay (page does not exist)">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Venezuela" title="Racism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/200px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Territory" title="Territory">territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Anguilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Anguilla (page does not exist)">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Falkland_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Falkland Islands (page does not exist)">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_French_Guiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in French Guiana (page does not exist)">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Racism in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_Central_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in Central America (page does not exist)">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Racism_in_the_Caribbean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Racism in the Caribbean (page does not exist)">Caribbean</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_America" title="Racism in South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Racism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Racism_topics" title="Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Racism_topics" title="Template talk:Racism topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Racism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Racism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aversive_racism" title="Aversive racism">Aversive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Colorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_racism" title="Covert racism">Covert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_on_the_Internet" title="Racism on the Internet">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendered_racism" title="Gendered racism">Gendered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_racism" title="Internalized racism">Internalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_racism" title="Patent racism">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_racism" title="Laissez-faire racism">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_racism" title="Linguistic racism">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocolonial_racism" title="Neocolonial racism">Neocolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_racism" title="Romantic racism">Romantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_racism" title="Societal racism">Societal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_racism" title="Symbolic racism">Symbolic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Discrimination based on nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">Ethnic slurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Ethnic stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hierarchy" title="Racial hierarchy">Racial hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">Racial profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_apartheid" title="Global apartheid">Global apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Africa" title="Racism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Racism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Asia" title="Racism in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_Korea" title="Racism in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Korea" title="Racism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Thailand" title="Racism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Vietnam" title="Racism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Racism in the Arab world">Arab world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Libya" title="Racism in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Sudan" title="Racism in Sudan">Sudan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Australia" title="Racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Europe" title="Racism in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Denmark" title="Racism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_France" title="Racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Poland" title="Racism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Portugal" title="Racism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Russia" title="Racism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Spain" title="Racism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Ukraine" title="Racism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Iran" title="Racism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Israel" title="Racism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Racism in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_discrimination_in_Turkey" title="Xenophobia and discrimination in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Mexico" title="Racism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_America" title="Racism in South America">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Argentina" title="Racism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Brazil" title="Racism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Chile" title="Racism in Chile">Chile</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Racism by target</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Chinese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States">Japanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea">Japanese Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Black sentiment">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanophobia">Hispanic & Latino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Jewish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Jewish_communities" title="Racism in Jewish communities">In Jewish communities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_LGBT_community" title="Racism in the LGBT community">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Muslim_communities" title="Racism in Muslim communities">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_wine_industry" title="Racism in the wine industry">Wine industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Racial supremacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Ableism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Casteism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_plastic_surgery" title="Ethnic plastic surgery">Ethnic plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_back_to_where_you_came_from" title="Go back to where you came from">Go back to where you came from</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herrenvolk_democracy" title="Herrenvolk democracy">Herrenvolk democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interminority_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Interminority racism in the United States">Interminority racism in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Hispanic_and_Latino_American_communities" title="Racism in Hispanic and Latino American communities">Hispanics/Latinos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">Passing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics_of_racism" title="Psychometrics of racism">Psychometrics of racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_sexuality" title="Race and sexuality">Race and sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_card" title="Race card">Race card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Racial figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport" title="Racism in sport">Racism in sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport_in_Australia" title="Racism in sport in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociology of race and ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism" title="Category:Racism">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Racism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Racism">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_racism-related_articles" title="Index of racism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination" title="Template talk:Discrimination"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus">Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Prejudice_and_discrimination" title="Category:Prejudice and discrimination">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Demographics_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Demography_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Demography of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Demography_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Demography of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Demography_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Demography of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Demographics_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic history</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By economic and social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Gender inequality in the United States">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_the_United_States" title="Emigration from the United States">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Housing segregation in the United States">Housing segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_Spoken_at_Home_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Language Spoken at Home in the United States of America">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_demographics_of_the_United_States" title="LGBT demographics of the United States">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Racial inequality in the United States">Racial inequality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_achievement_gap_in_the_United_States" title="Racial achievement gap in the United States">Racial achievement gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_pay_gap_in_the_United_States" title="Racial pay gap in the United States">Racial wage gap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_unemployment_rate" title="List of U.S. states and territories by unemployment rate">Unemployment by state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocultural_politics_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnocultural politics in the United States">Ethnocultural politics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">By religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_the_United_States" title="Baháʼí Faith in the United States">Baha'is</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_United_States" title="Christianity in the United States">Christians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church in the United States">Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Americans" title="Coptic Americans">Coptics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormons" title="Mormons">Mormons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_the_United_States" title="Protestantism in the United States">Protestants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_the_United_States" title="Hinduism in the United States">Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism_in_the_United_States" title="Jainism in the United States">Jains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_States" title="Islam in the United States">Muslims</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_in_the_United_States" title="Ahmadiyya in the United States">Ahmadiyyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-Percent_Nation" title="Five-Percent Nation">Five Percenters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorish_Science_Temple_of_America" title="Moorish Science Temple of America">Moorish Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nation_of_Islam" title="United Nation of Islam">Value Creators</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopaganism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopaganism in the United States">Neopagans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_the_United_States" title="Irreligion in the United States">Non-religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Rastafari movement in the United States">Rastafaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology_in_the_United_States" title="Scientology in the United States">Scientologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_the_United_States" title="Sikhism in the United States">Sikhs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_the_United_States" title="Zoroastrianism in the United States">Zoroastrians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">By continent and ethnic ancestry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_in_the_Americas" title="African diaspora in the Americas">African diaspora in the Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Indian_Americans" title="West Indian Americans">Afro-Caribbean/West Indian Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiguan_and_Barbudan_Americans" title="Antiguan and Barbudan Americans">Antiguan and Barbudan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahamian_Americans" title="Bahamian Americans">Bahamian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbadian_Americans" title="Barbadian Americans">Barbadian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermudian_Americans" title="Bermudian Americans">Bermudian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Americans_(Dominica)" title="Dominican Americans (Dominica)">Dominican Americans (Dominica)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_Indian_Americans" title="Dutch West Indian Americans">Dutch West Indian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenadian_Americans" title="Grenadian Americans">Grenadian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Americans" title="Haitian Americans">Haitian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Americans" title="Jamaican Americans">Jamaican Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kittian_and_Nevisian_Americans" title="Kittian and Nevisian Americans">Kittian and Nevisian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucian_Americans" title="Saint Lucian Americans">Saint Lucian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stateside_Virgin_Islands_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateside Virgin Islands Americans">Stateside Virgin Islands Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_Americans" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian Americans">Trinidadian and Tobagonian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincentian_Americans" title="Vincentian Americans">Vincentian Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Black Hispanic and Latino Americans">Black Hispanic and Latino Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="African immigration to the United States">African immigrants to the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Africans_in_the_United_States" title="Central Africans in the United States">Central Africans in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_Americans" title="Cameroonian Americans">Cameroonian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_Americans" title="Congolese Americans">Congolese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatoguinean_Americans" title="Equatoguinean Americans">Equatoguinean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabonese_Americans" title="Gabonese Americans">Gabonese Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africans_in_the_United_States" title="East Africans in the United States">East Africans in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eritrean_Americans" title="Eritrean Americans">Eritrean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Americans" title="Ethiopian Americans">Ethiopian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyan_Americans" title="Kenyan Americans">Kenyan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Americans" title="Somali Americans">Somali Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Sudanese_Americans" title="South Sudanese Americans">South Sudanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Americans" title="Sudanese Americans">Sudanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_Americans" title="Tanzanian Americans">Tanzanian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_Americans" title="Ugandan Americans">Ugandan Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africans_in_the_United_States" title="Southern Africans in the United States">Southern Africans in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angolan_Americans" title="Angolan Americans">Angolan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malawian_Americans" title="Malawian Americans">Malawian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Americans" title="South African Americans">South African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwean_Americans" title="Zimbabwean Americans">Zimbabwean Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africans_in_the_United_States" title="West Africans in the United States">West Africans in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beninese_Americans" title="Beninese Americans">Beninese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bissau-Guinean_Americans" title="Bissau-Guinean Americans">Bissau-Guinean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Verdean_Americans" title="Cape Verdean Americans">Cape Verdean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Americans" title="Gambian Americans">Gambian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_Americans" title="Ghanaian Americans">Ghanaian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinean_Americans" title="Guinean Americans">Guinean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivorian_Americans" title="Ivorian Americans">Ivorian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_Americans" title="Liberian Americans">Liberian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malian_Americans" title="Malian Americans">Malian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Americans" title="Nigerian Americans">Nigerian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegalese_Americans" title="Senegalese Americans">Senegalese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leonean_Americans" title="Sierra Leonean Americans">Sierra Leonean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togolese_Americans" title="Togolese Americans">Togolese Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africans_in_the_United_States" title="North Africans in the United States">North Africans in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Americans" title="Berber Americans">Berber Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Americans" title="Algerian Americans">Algerian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Americans" title="Libyan Americans">Libyan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Moroccan American">Moroccan American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Americans" title="Tunisian Americans">Tunisian Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Americans" title="Coptic Americans">Coptic Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Americans" title="Egyptian Americans">Egyptian Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans" title="Asian Americans">Asian Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans">Asian Hispanic and Latino Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asians_in_the_United_States" title="Central Asians in the United States">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afghan_Americans" title="Afghan Americans">Afghan Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pashtun_Americans" title="Pashtun Americans">Pashtun Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baloch_Americans" title="Baloch Americans">Baloch Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Americans" title="Kazakh Americans">Kazakh Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Americans" title="Kyrgyz Americans">Kyrgyz Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_Americans" title="Tajik Americans">Tajik Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen Americans">Turkmen Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Americans" title="Uyghur Americans">Uyghur Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_Americans" title="Uzbek Americans">Uzbek Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Americans" title="East Asian Americans">East Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Americans" title="Chinese Americans">Chinese Americans</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuzhounese_Americans" title="Fuzhounese Americans">Fuzhounese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakka_Americans" title="Hakka Americans">Hakka Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoklo_Americans" title="Hoklo Americans">Hoklo Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Americans" title="Hong Kong Americans">Hong Kong Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Americans" title="Japanese Americans">Japanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Americans" title="Korean Americans">Korean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Americans" title="Mongolian Americans">Mongolian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_Americans" title="Ryukyuan Americans">Ryukyuan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Americans" title="Taiwanese Americans">Taiwanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Americans" title="Tibetan Americans">Tibetan Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Americans" title="South Asian Americans">South Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_Americans" title="Bangladeshi Americans">Bangladeshi Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Americans" title="Bengali Americans">Bengali Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhutanese_Americans" title="Bhutanese Americans">Bhutanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Americans" title="Indian Americans">Indian Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Americans" title="Bengali Americans">Bengali Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Americans" title="Gujarati Americans">Gujarati Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Caribbean_Americans" title="Indo-Caribbean Americans">Indo-Caribbean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Americans" title="Punjabi Americans">Punjabi Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_Americans" title="Sindhi Americans">Sindhi Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Americans" title="Tamil Americans">Tamil Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Americans" title="Telugu Americans">Telugu Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_Americans" title="Maldivian Americans">Maldivian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Americans" title="Nepalese Americans">Nepalese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_Americans" title="Pakistani Americans">Pakistani Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Americans" title="Punjabi Americans">Punjabi Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_Americans" title="Sindhi Americans">Sindhi Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Americans" title="Sri Lankan Americans">Sri Lankan Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Americans" title="Tamil Americans">Tamil Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_Americans" title="Southeast Asian Americans">Southeast Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Americans" title="Burmese Americans">Burmese Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Americans" title="Karen Americans">Karen Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_Americans" title="Cambodian Americans">Cambodian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_Americans" title="Filipino Americans">Filipino Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong_Americans" title="Hmong Americans">Hmong Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Americans" title="Indonesian Americans">Indonesian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iu_Mien_Americans" title="Iu Mien Americans">Iu Mien Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laotian_Americans" title="Laotian Americans">Laotian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_Americans" title="Malaysian Americans">Malaysian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singaporean_Americans" title="Singaporean Americans">Singaporean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_Americans" title="Thai Americans">Thai Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Americans" title="Vietnamese Americans">Vietnamese Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romani_Americans" title="Romani Americans">Romani Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Slovak_Gypsies_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Slovak Gypsies in the United States">Hungarian Slovak Gypsies</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_Americans" title="Middle Eastern Americans">West Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Americans" title="Arab Americans">Arab Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahraini Americans">Bahraini Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Americans" title="Emirati Americans">Emirati Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Americans" title="Iraqi Americans">Iraqi Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Americans" title="Jordanian Americans">Jordanian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Americans" title="Kuwaiti Americans">Kuwaiti Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Americans" title="Lebanese Americans">Lebanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Omani Americans">Omani Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Americans" title="Palestinian Americans">Palestinian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatari_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Qatari Americans">Qatari Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi_Americans" title="Saudi Americans">Saudi Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Americans" title="Syrian Americans">Syrian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Americans" title="Yemeni Americans">Yemeni Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Americans" title="Armenian Americans">Armenian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Americans" title="Assyrian Americans">Assyrian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_Americans" title="Azerbaijani Americans">Azerbaijani Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_Americans" title="Circassian Americans">Circassian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Americans" title="Chechen Americans">Chechen Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Americans" title="Georgian Americans">Georgian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Americans" title="Iranian Americans">Iranian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Jews" title="American Jews">Jewish Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Americans" title="Israeli Americans">Israeli Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgin_Americans" title="Lezgin Americans">Lezgin Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Americans" title="Kurdish Americans">Kurdish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Americans" title="Turkish Americans">Turkish Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/European_Americans" title="European Americans">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">White Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Americans" title="Albanian Americans">Albanian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_Americans" title="Asturian Americans">Asturian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Americans" title="Austrian Americans">Austrian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_Americans" title="Basque Americans">Basque Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Americans" title="Belarusian Americans">Belarusian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_Americans" title="Belgian Americans">Belgian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Americans" title="Bosnian Americans">Bosnian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Americans" title="British Americans">British Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Americans" title="Cornish Americans">Cornish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Americans" title="English Americans">English Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_Americans" title="Manx Americans">Manx Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Americans" title="Scottish Americans">Scottish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Americans" title="Welsh Americans">Welsh Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Americans" title="Bulgarian Americans">Bulgarian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Americans" title="Catalan Americans">Catalan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Americans" title="Croatian Americans">Croatian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Americans" title="Cypriot Americans">Cypriot Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_Americans" title="Czech Americans">Czech Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Americans" title="Dutch Americans">Dutch Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Americans" title="Estonian Americans">Estonian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_Americans" title="Finnish Americans">Finnish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Americans" title="French Americans">French Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Americans" title="Galician Americans">Galician Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Americans" title="Greek Americans">Greek Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Americans" title="Hungarian Americans">Hungarian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italian Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_the_United_States_before_1880" title="Italians in the United States before 1880">before 1880</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Americans" title="Latvian Americans">Latvian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liechtensteiner_Americans" title="Liechtensteiner Americans">Liechtensteiner Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Americans" title="Lithuanian Americans">Lithuanian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Americans" title="Luxembourgish Americans">Luxembourgish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Americans" title="Macedonian Americans">Macedonian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Americans" title="Maltese Americans">Maltese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldovan_Americans" title="Moldovan Americans">Moldovan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_Americans" title="Montenegrin Americans">Montenegrin Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_Americans" title="Polish Americans">Polish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Americans" title="Portuguese Americans">Portuguese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Americans" title="Romanian Americans">Romanian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Americans" title="Russian Americans">Russian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammarinese_Americans" title="Sammarinese Americans">Sammarinese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_and_Scandinavian_Americans" title="Nordic and Scandinavian Americans">Nordic and Scandinavian Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_Americans" title="Danish Americans">Danish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Americans" title="Icelandic Americans">Icelandic Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Americans" title="Norwegian Americans">Norwegian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Americans" title="Swedish Americans">Swedish Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Americans" title="Serbian Americans">Serbian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Americans" title="Slovak Americans">Slovak Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenian_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Slovenian Americans">Slovenian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Americans" title="Spanish Americans">Spanish Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Californios" title="Californios">Californios</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Americans" title="Swiss Americans">Swiss Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Americans" title="Ukrainian Americans">Ukrainian Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Hispanic_whites" title="Non-Hispanic whites">Non-Hispanic whites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="White Hispanic and Latino Americans">White Hispanic and Latino Americans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki" title="Abenaki">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piegan_Blackfeet" title="Piegan Blackfeet">Blackfeet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colville_people" title="Colville people">Colville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_people" title="Crow people">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houma_people" title="Houma people">Houma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuga_people" title="Cayuga people">Cayuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_people" title="Oneida people">Oneida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onondaga_people" title="Onondaga people">Onondaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_people" title="Seneca people">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_people" title="Tuscarora people">Tuscarora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape" title="Lenape">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menominee" title="Menominee">Menominee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_people" title="Mohave people">Mohave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Indians" title="Mission Indians">Mission Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cahuilla" title="Cahuilla">Cahuilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemehuevi" title="Chemehuevi">Chemehuevi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_people" title="Chumash people">Chumash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupe%C3%B1o" title="Cupeño">Cupeño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Diegueño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esselen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Esselen people">Esselen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juane%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Juaneño">Juaneño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitanemuk" title="Kitanemuk">Kitanemuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Luiseño people">Luiseño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok" title="Miwok">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patwin" title="Patwin">Patwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pomo people">Pomo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinan_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Salinan people">Salinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serrano_people" title="Serrano people">Serrano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suisun_people" title="Suisun people">Suisunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohlone people">Ohlone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awaswas" title="Awaswas">Awaswas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalon_people" title="Chalon people">Chalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chochenyo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Chochenyo people">Chochenyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karkin_people" title="Karkin people">Karkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyen people">Tamyen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tataviam" title="Tataviam">Tataviam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongva_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tongva people">Tongva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wappo" title="Wappo">Wappo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wintun" title="Wintun">Wintun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts" title="Yokuts">Yokuts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Nation" title="Osage Nation">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odawa" title="Odawa">Odawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute" title="Paiute">Paiute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pima_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pima people">Pima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puebloans" title="Puebloans">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zia_people_(New_Mexico)" title="Zia people (New Mexico)">Zia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_people" title="Zuni people">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quechan" title="Quechan">Quechan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salish_peoples" title="Salish peoples">Salish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole" title="Seminole">Seminole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tohono_O%CA%BCodham" title="Tohono Oʼodham">Tohono Oʼodham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_people" title="Ute people">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakama_Indian_Reservation" title="Yakama Indian Reservation">Yakama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska Natives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Athabaskans" title="Alaskan Athabaskans">Alaskan Athabaskans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleut" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleut">Aleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alutiiq" title="Alutiiq">Alutiiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwich%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Gwich'in">Gwich'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiat" title="Iñupiat">Iñupiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian" title="Tsimshian">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlingit" title="Tlingit">Tlingit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yupik_peoples" title="Yupik peoples">Yupik</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Americans" title="Canadian Americans">Canadian Americans</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic and Latino Americans</a> <ul><li>Central America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_Americans" title="Belizean Americans">Belizean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rican_Americans" title="Costa Rican Americans">Costa Rican Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guatemalan_Americans" title="Guatemalan Americans">Guatemalan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honduran_Americans" title="Honduran Americans">Honduran Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaraguan_Americans" title="Nicaraguan Americans">Nicaraguan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panamanian_Americans" title="Panamanian Americans">Panamanian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvadoran_Americans" title="Salvadoran Americans">Salvadoran Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_Americans" title="Cuban Americans">Cuban Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Americans" title="Dominican Americans">Dominican Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Americans">Puerto Rican Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Americans" title="Mexican Americans">Mexican Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicano" title="Chicano">Chicanos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Mexican_Americans" title="Indigenous Mexican Americans">Indigenous Mexican Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_Americans" title="Oceanian Americans">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islander_Americans" title="Pacific Islander Americans">Pacific Islander Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chamorro_people" title="Chamorro people">Chamorro Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fijian_Americans" title="Fijian Americans">Fijian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Polynesian_Americans" title="French Polynesian Americans">French Polynesian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshallese_Americans" title="Marshallese Americans">Marshallese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_Americans" title="Micronesian Americans">Micronesian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palauan_Americans" title="Palauan Americans">Palauan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Americans" title="Samoan Americans">Samoan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_Americans" title="Tongan Americans">Tongan Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li>Americans of Euro Oceanic origin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Americans" title="Australian Americans">Australian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Americans" title="New Zealand Americans">New Zealand Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_Americans" title="Argentine Americans">Argentine Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_Americans" title="Bolivian Americans">Bolivian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Americans" title="Brazilian Americans">Brazilian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_Americans" title="Chilean Americans">Chilean Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Americans" title="Colombian Americans">Colombian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_Americans" title="Ecuadorian Americans">Ecuadorian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyanese_Americans" title="Guyanese Americans">Guyanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguayan_Americans" title="Paraguayan Americans">Paraguayan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Americans" title="Peruvian Americans">Peruvian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Americans" title="Surinamese Americans">Surinamese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguayan_Americans" title="Uruguayan Americans">Uruguayan Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_Americans" title="Venezuelan Americans">Venezuelan Americans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiracial_Americans" title="Multiracial Americans">Multiethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asians#United_States" title="Afro-Asians">Afro-Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerasian" title="Amerasian">Amerasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapa" title="Hapa">Hapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulatto#United_States" title="Mulatto">Mulatto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Mexican_Americans" title="Punjabi Mexican Americans">Punjabi Mexican Americans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People of the United States / Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_ancestry" title="American ancestry">American ancestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American ancestry">Native American ancestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maps_of_American_ancestries" class="mw-redirect" title="Maps of American ancestries">Maps of American ancestries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_United_States_census" title="2010 United States census">2010 census</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the census</a></li></ul></li> <li>Births of U.S. states and territories by race/ethnicity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_(EEO)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race and ethnicity (EEO)">Race and ethnicity in the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Racism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q2617137#identifiers" title="Edit this at 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