CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Chernobyl disaster - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"3d34786a-d691-490e-b69f-f9179313efe0","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Chernobyl_disaster","wgTitle":"Chernobyl disaster","wgCurRevisionId":1258831879,"wgRevisionId":1258831879,"wgArticleId":2589713,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)","CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)","CS1 uses Ukrainian-language script (uk)","CS1 Ukrainian-language sources (uk)","Articles with Russian-language sources (ru)","CS1 maint: unfit URL","CS1 French-language sources (fr)","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from March 2022","Articles with permanently dead external links","CS1 German-language sources (de)", "CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no)","Articles intentionally citing retracted publications","Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Articles with short description","Short description matches Wikidata","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","Use Oxford spelling from August 2016","Use dmy dates from January 2024","Use shortened footnotes from May 2023","Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from October 2018","Articles with hAudio microformats","Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016","All articles containing potentially dated statements","Articles lacking reliable references from June 2019","Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata","Coordinates on Wikidata","Pages using the Kartographer extension","Chernobyl disaster","1986 health disasters","1986 in Belarus","1986 in the Soviet Union","1986 in Ukraine","1986 industrial disasters", "1986 disasters in Belarus","1986 disasters in the Soviet Union","1986 disasters in Ukraine","April 1986 events in Europe","April 1986 events in the Soviet Union","Chernobyl, Ukraine","Civilian nuclear power accidents","Disasters in the Soviet Union","Environment of the Soviet Union","Environmental disasters in Europe","Environmental disasters in Ukraine","Explosions in 1986","Fires in Ukraine","Health in Ukraine","Industrial fires and explosions","INES Level 7 accidents","Man-made disasters in Belarus","Man-made disasters in Ukraine","Man-made disasters in the Soviet Union","Pripyat","Radiation accidents and incidents","Soviet cover-ups"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Chernobyl_disaster","wgRelevantArticleId":2589713,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia", "wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgCoordinates":{"lat":51.38972222222222,"lon":30.099166666666665},"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q486","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false, "wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.kartographer.style":"ready","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.tablesorter.styles":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.kartographer.staticframe","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.tablesorter","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP", "ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.kartographer.style%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cjquery.tablesorter.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg/1200px-IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1843"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg/800px-IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1229"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg/640px-IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="983"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Chernobyl disaster - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Chernobyl_disaster rootpage-Chernobyl_disaster skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Chernobyl+disaster" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Chernobyl+disaster" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Chernobyl+disaster" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Chernobyl+disaster" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Accident_sequence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accident_sequence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Accident sequence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Accident_sequence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Accident sequence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Accident_sequence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reactor_cooling_after_shutdown" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactor_cooling_after_shutdown"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.1 Reactor cooling after shutdown </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactor_cooling_after_shutdown-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.2 Safety test </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Safety_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Test_delay_and_shift_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Test_delay_and_shift_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.3 Test delay and shift change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Test_delay_and_shift_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unexpected_drop_of_the_reactor_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unexpected_drop_of_the_reactor_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.4 Unexpected drop of the reactor power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unexpected_drop_of_the_reactor_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactor_conditions_priming_the_accident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactor_conditions_priming_the_accident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1.5 Reactor conditions priming the accident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactor_conditions_priming_the_accident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Accident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Test_execution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Test_execution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.1 Test execution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Test_execution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reactor_shutdown_and_power_excursion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reactor_shutdown_and_power_excursion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.2 Reactor shutdown and power excursion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reactor_shutdown_and_power_excursion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explosions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explosions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2.3 Explosions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explosions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_causes_for_the_second_explosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_causes_for_the_second_explosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Possible causes for the second explosion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_causes_for_the_second_explosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fizzled_nuclear_explosion_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fizzled_nuclear_explosion_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1 Fizzled nuclear explosion hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fizzled_nuclear_explosion_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immediate_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immediate_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Immediate response </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immediate_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fire_containment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_containment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.1 Fire containment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_containment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.2 Radiation levels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Accident_investigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accident_investigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Accident investigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accident_investigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crisis_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crisis_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Crisis management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Crisis_management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Crisis management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Crisis_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evacuation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evacuation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Evacuation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evacuation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Official_announcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_announcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Official announcement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_announcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_meltdown_risk_mitigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_meltdown_risk_mitigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Core meltdown risk mitigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Core_meltdown_risk_mitigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bubbler_pools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bubbler_pools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Bubbler pools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bubbler_pools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundation_protection_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundation_protection_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Foundation protection measures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundation_protection_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Site_cleanup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Site_cleanup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Site cleanup </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Site_cleanup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Debris_removal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debris_removal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Debris removal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Debris_removal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_of_the_sarcophagus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_of_the_sarcophagus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Construction of the sarcophagus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_of_the_sarcophagus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investigations_of_the_reactor_condition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investigations_of_the_reactor_condition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Investigations of the reactor condition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investigations_of_the_reactor_condition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Area_cleanup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Area_cleanup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Area cleanup </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Area_cleanup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Site_remediation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Site_remediation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Site remediation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Site_remediation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Site remediation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Site_remediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-No._4_reactor_confinement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#No._4_reactor_confinement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 No. 4 reactor confinement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-No._4_reactor_confinement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Waste management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fuel-containing_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fuel-containing_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Fuel-containing materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fuel-containing_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exclusion_zone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exclusion_zone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Exclusion zone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exclusion_zone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forest_fire_concerns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_fire_concerns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3.1 Forest fire concerns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_fire_concerns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recovery_projects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recovery_projects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Recovery projects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recovery_projects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tourism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tourism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Tourism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tourism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Long-term effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Long-term_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Long-term effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Long-term_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Release_and_spread_of_radioactive_materials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Release_and_spread_of_radioactive_materials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Release and spread of radioactive materials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Release_and_spread_of_radioactive_materials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Relative_isotopic_abundances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relative_isotopic_abundances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Relative isotopic abundances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relative_isotopic_abundances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Environmental impact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Water_bodies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_bodies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Water bodies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_bodies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flora,_fauna,_and_funga" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flora,_fauna,_and_funga"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Flora, fauna, and funga </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flora,_fauna,_and_funga-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_food_chain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_food_chain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Human food chain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_food_chain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Precipitation_on_distant_high_ground" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precipitation_on_distant_high_ground"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.4 Precipitation on distant high ground </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precipitation_on_distant_high_ground-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Human impact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acute_radiation_effects_and_immediate_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acute_radiation_effects_and_immediate_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Acute radiation effects and immediate aftermath </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acute_radiation_effects_and_immediate_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Long-term impact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_main_harmful_radionuclides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_main_harmful_radionuclides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Effects of main harmful radionuclides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_main_harmful_radionuclides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disputed_investigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disputed_investigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.4 Disputed investigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disputed_investigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Withdrawn_investigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Withdrawn_investigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.5 Withdrawn investigation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Withdrawn_investigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abortions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abortions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.6 Abortions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abortions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer_assessments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer_assessments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.7 Cancer assessments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer_assessments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.8 Other disorders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term_radiation_deaths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_radiation_deaths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.9 Long-term radiation deaths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_radiation_deaths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socio-economic_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socio-economic_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Socio-economic impact </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socio-economic_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Significance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Significance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Nuclear debate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Chernobyl disaster</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 107 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-107" aria-hidden="true" > 107 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsjernobil-kernramp" title="Tsjernobil-kernramp – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tsjernobil-kernramp" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katastrophe_von_Tschernobyl" title="Katastrophe von Tschernobyl – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Katastrophe von Tschernobyl" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%84" title="كارثة تشيرنوبل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كارثة تشيرنوبل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrofa_nucll%C3%A8%C3%A2ra_de_Tshornobyl" title="Catastrofa nucllèâra de Tshornobyl – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Catastrofa nucllèâra de Tshornobyl" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%27%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" title="চাৰ্ন'বিল বিপৰ্যয় – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="চাৰ্ন'বিল বিপৰ্যয়" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidente_de_Chern%C3%B3bil" title="Accidente de Chernóbil – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Accidente de Chernóbil" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ernob%C4%B1l_faci%C9%99si" title="Çernobıl faciəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çernobıl faciəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AC%DB%8C%D8%B9%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="چرنوبیل فاجیعه‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چرنوبیل فاجیعه‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC" title="চেরনোবিলের বিপর্যয় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চেরনোবিলের বিপর্যয়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_s%C5%AB-k%C3%B2%CD%98" title="Chernobyl sū-kò͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chernobyl sū-kò͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Чарнобыльская катастрофа – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Чарнобыльская катастрофа" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Чарнобыльская катастрофа – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Чарнобыльская катастрофа" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Чернобилска авария – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Чернобилска авария" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernobiljska_katastrofa" title="Černobiljska katastrofa – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Černobiljska katastrofa" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accident_de_Txorn%C3%B2bil" title="Accident de Txornòbil – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Accident de Txornòbil" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernobylsk%C3%A1_hav%C3%A1rie" title="Černobylská havárie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Černobylská havárie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trychineb_Chernobyl" title="Trychineb Chernobyl – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trychineb Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tjernobylulykken" title="Tjernobylulykken – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tjernobylulykken" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernobyla_lihkohisvuohta" title="Černobyla lihkohisvuohta – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Černobyla lihkohisvuohta" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearkatastrophe_von_Tschernobyl" title="Nuklearkatastrophe von Tschernobyl – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nuklearkatastrophe von Tschernobyl" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%A1ornob%C3%B5li_katastroof" title="Tšornobõli katastroof – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tšornobõli katastroof" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8D%CF%87%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%8C%CE%BC%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BB" title="Πυρηνικό ατύχημα του Τσερνόμπιλ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνικό ατύχημα του Τσερνόμπιλ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidente_de_Chern%C3%B3bil" title="Accidente de Chernóbil – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Accidente de Chernóbil" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_akcidento_de_%C4%88ernobilo" title="Nuklea akcidento de Ĉernobilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea akcidento de Ĉernobilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Txernobylgo_hondamendia" title="Txernobylgo hondamendia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Txernobylgo hondamendia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B9%D9%87_%DA%86%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84" title="فاجعه چرنوبیل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فاجعه چرنوبیل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tjernobyl_vanlukkan" title="Tjernobyl vanlukkan – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Tjernobyl vanlukkan" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrophe_nucl%C3%A9aire_de_Tchernobyl" title="Catastrophe nucléaire de Tchernobyl – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Catastrophe nucléaire de Tchernobyl" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kearnramp_fan_Tsjernobyl" title="Kearnramp fan Tsjernobyl – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kearnramp fan Tsjernobyl" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubaiste_Shearn%C3%B3bail" title="Tubaiste Shearnóbail – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tubaiste Shearnóbail" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidente_de_Chern%C3%B3bil" title="Accidente de Chernóbil – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Accidente de Chernóbil" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%A4%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%84_%D9%9A_%DA%A9%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%87" title="چرنؤبيل ٚ کأرسنه – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="چرنؤبيل ٚ کأرسنه" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">گیلکی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%B4%EB%A5%B4%EB%85%B8%EB%B9%8C_%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EB%A0%A5_%EB%B0%9C%EC%A0%84%EC%86%8C_%EC%82%AC%EA%B3%A0" title="체르노빌 원자력 발전소 사고 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="체르노빌 원자력 발전소 사고" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%A5%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BE%D5%A9%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Չեռնոբիլի ատոմակայանի վթար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չեռնոբիլի ատոմակայանի վթար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="चेर्नोबिल परमाणु दुर्घटना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चेर्नोबिल परमाणु दुर्घटना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernobilska_katastrofa" title="Černobilska katastrofa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Černobilska katastrofa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katastrofo_di_Chornobil" title="Katastrofo di Chornobil – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Katastrofo di Chornobil" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencana_Chernobyl" title="Bencana Chernobyl – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bencana Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disastro_de_Cernobyl" title="Disastro de Cernobyl – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Disastro de Cernobyl" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjarnorkuslysi%C3%B0_%C3%AD_Tsjernobyl" title="Kjarnorkuslysið í Tsjernobyl – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kjarnorkuslysið í Tsjernobyl" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disastro_di_%C4%8Cernobyl%27" title="Disastro di Černobyl' – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Disastro di Černobyl'" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A6%27%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%9C" title="אסון צ'רנוביל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אסון צ'רנוביל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8A%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A4" title="ಚೆರ್ನೊಬಿಲ್ ದುರಂತ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಚೆರ್ನೊಬಿಲ್ ದುರಂತ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%90" title="ჩერნობილის კატასტროფა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩერნობილის კატასტროფა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Чернобыль апаты – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Чернобыль апаты" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terosa_Chernobyl" title="Terosa Chernobyl – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Terosa Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maafa_ya_Chernobyl" title="Maafa ya Chernobyl – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maafa ya Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karesata_%C3%87ernob%C3%AEl%C3%AA" title="Karesata Çernobîlê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Karesata Çernobîlê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamitas_Czernobelensis" title="Calamitas Czernobelensis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Calamitas Czernobelensis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cornobi%C4%BCas_AES_katastrofa" title="Čornobiļas AES katastrofa – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Čornobiļas AES katastrofa" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katastroph_vun_Tschernobyl" title="Katastroph vun Tschernobyl – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Katastroph vun Tschernobyl" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernobylio_avarija" title="Černobylio avarija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Černobylio avarija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csernobili_atomer%C5%91m%C5%B1-baleset" title="Csernobili atomerőmű-baleset – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csernobili atomerőmű-baleset" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%9C%D0%B0" title="Чернобилска несреќа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Чернобилска несреќа" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voina_tao_Chernobyl" title="Voina tao Chernobyl – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Voina tao Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="ചെർണോബിൽ ദുരന്തം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചെർണോബിൽ ദുരന്തം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="चेर्नोबिल दुर्घटना – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चेर्नोबिल दुर्घटना" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AB%D9%87_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%84" title="كارثه تشرنوبل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كارثه تشرنوبل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bencana_Chernobyl" title="Bencana Chernobyl – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bencana Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%86%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%9C_%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1_%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A5" title="ꯆꯦꯔꯅꯣꯕꯜ ꯑꯃꯥꯡ ꯑꯇꯥ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯆꯦꯔꯅꯣꯕꯜ ꯑꯃꯥꯡ ꯑꯇꯥ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Чернобылийн осол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Чернобылийн осол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%98%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="ချာနိုဘိုင်း နျူးကလီးယား ပေါက်ကွဲမှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ချာနိုဘိုင်း နျူးကလီးယား ပေါက်ကွဲမှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernramp_van_Tsjernobyl" title="Kernramp van Tsjernobyl – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernramp van Tsjernobyl" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AB%E3%83%8E%E3%83%96%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AA%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B%E7%99%BA%E9%9B%BB%E6%89%80%E4%BA%8B%E6%95%85" title="チェルノブイリ原子力発電所事故 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チェルノブイリ原子力発電所事故" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disastro_%27e_Chernobyl" title="Disastro 'e Chernobyl – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Disastro 'e Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Napulitano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsjornobyl-ulykken" title="Tsjornobyl-ulykken – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tsjornobyl-ulykken" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsjernobylulukka" title="Tsjernobylulukka – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tsjernobylulukka" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9solatioun_de_Tchernobyl" title="Désolatioun de Tchernobyl – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Désolatioun de Tchernobyl" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastr%C3%B2fa_de_Chornobil" title="Catastròfa de Chornobil – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Catastròfa de Chornobil" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobil_fojiasi" title="Chernobil fojiasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Chernobil fojiasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9A%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2_%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE" title="ਚੇਰਨੋਬਿਲ ਹਾਦਸਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਚੇਰਨੋਬਿਲ ਹਾਦਸਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%86%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%BA%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%87" title="د چرنوبیل غمیزه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د چرنوبیل غمیزه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catastrofe_nucl%C3%A9oaire_Tchernobyl" title="Catastrofe nucléoaire Tchernobyl – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Catastrofe nucléoaire Tchernobyl" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katastrofa_w_Czarnobylskiej_Elektrowni_J%C4%85drowej" title="Katastrofa w Czarnobylskiej Elektrowni Jądrowej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Katastrofa w Czarnobylskiej Elektrowni Jądrowej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidente_nuclear_de_Chernobil" title="Acidente nuclear de Chernobil – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Acidente nuclear de Chernobil" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidentul_nuclear_de_la_Cernob%C3%AEl" title="Accidentul nuclear de la Cernobîl – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Accidentul nuclear de la Cernobîl" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Чорнобыльська катастрофа – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Чорнобыльська катастрофа" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1" title="Авария на Чернобыльской АЭС – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Авария на Чернобыльской АЭС" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Чернобыль саахала – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Чернобыль саахала" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desacatu_de_%C4%8Cernobyl%27" title="Desacatu de Černobyl' – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Desacatu de Černobyl'" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chornobyl_disaster" title="Chornobyl disaster – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Chornobyl disaster" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatkeq%C3%ABsia_e_%C3%87ernobilit" title="Fatkeqësia e Çernobilit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fatkeqësia e Çernobilit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disastru_di_Chernobyl" title="Disastru di Chernobyl – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Disastru di Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chernobyl disaster" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%84_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%88%DA%AA%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AB%D9%88" title="چرنوبل نيوڪليائي حادثو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="چرنوبل نيوڪليائي حادثو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernoby%C4%BEsk%C3%A1_hav%C3%A1ria" title="Černobyľská havária – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Černobyľská havária" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernobilska_nesre%C4%8Da" title="Černobilska nesreča – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Černobilska nesreča" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%DA%86%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%86%DB%86%D8%A8%DA%B5" title="کارەساتی چێرنۆبڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کارەساتی چێرنۆبڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%99%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Чернобиљска катастрофа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Чернобиљска катастрофа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cernobilska_katastrofa" title="Černobilska katastrofa – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Černobilska katastrofa" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%A1ernobylin_ydinvoimalaonnettomuus" title="Tšernobylin ydinvoimalaonnettomuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tšernobylin ydinvoimalaonnettomuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tjernobylolyckan" title="Tjernobylolyckan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tjernobylolyckan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakuna_sa_Chernobyl" title="Sakuna sa Chernobyl – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sakuna sa Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="செர்னோபில் அணு உலை விபத்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="செர்னோபில் அணு உலை விபத்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D2%BB%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Чернобыль һәлакәте – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Чернобыль һәлакәте" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A5" title="ภัยพิบัติเชียร์โนบีล – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภัยพิบัติเชียร์โนบีล" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ernobil_Facias%C4%B1" title="Çernobil Faciası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çernobil Faciası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Чорнобильська катастрофа – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чорнобильська катастрофа" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%84_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%AB%DB%81" title="چرنوبل حادثہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چرنوبل حادثہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BA%A3m_h%E1%BB%8Da_Chernobyl" title="Thảm họa Chernobyl – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thảm họa Chernobyl" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BB%8A%E8%AB%BE%E6%AF%94%E6%A1%88" title="車諾比案 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="車諾比案" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsjernobyl" title="Tsjernobyl – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Tsjernobyl" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%87%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%BA%E8%B4%9D%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%8B%E6%95%85" title="切尔诺贝利事故 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="切尔诺贝利事故" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%87%E7%88%BE%E8%AB%BE%E8%B2%9D%E7%88%BE%E6%A0%B8%E7%81%BD" title="切爾諾貝爾核災 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="切爾諾貝爾核災" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%87%E5%B0%94%E8%AF%BA%E8%B4%9D%E5%88%A9%E6%A0%B8%E4%BA%8B%E6%95%85" title="切尔诺贝利核事故 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="切尔诺贝利核事故" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q486#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Chernobyl_disaster" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Chernobyl_disaster" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Chernobyl_disaster" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&oldid=1258831879" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Chernobyl_disaster&id=1258831879&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FChernobyl_disaster">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FChernobyl_disaster">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Chernobyl_disaster&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chernobyl_disaster" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q486" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chernobyl_disaster&params=51_23_23_N_30_05_57_E_region:UA_type:landmark&title=Chernobyl+disaster">51°23′23″N 30°05′57″E / 51.38972°N 30.09917°E / 51.38972; 30.09917 (Chernobyl disaster)</a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1986 nuclear accident in the Soviet Union</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Chernobyl disaster</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><a href="/wiki/File:IAEA_02790015_(5613115146).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg/240px-IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="369" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg/360px-IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg/480px-IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1328" data-file-height="2040" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Reactor 4 several months after the disaster. Reactor 3 can be seen behind the ventilation stack.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><a class="mw-kartographer-map notheme mw-kartographer-container center" style="width: 250px; height: 200px;" data-mw-kartographer="mapframe" data-style="osm-intl" data-width="250" data-height="200" data-zoom="12" data-lat="51.389722222222" data-lon="30.099166666667" data-overlays="["_f12de65ae136e75aea49e22427f24c5695da383e"]" href="/wiki/Special:Map/12/51.389722222222/30.099166666667/en"><img src="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,12,51.389722222222,30.099166666667,250x200.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Chernobyl_disaster&revid=1258831879&groups=_f12de65ae136e75aea49e22427f24c5695da383e" width="250" height="200" decoding="async" srcset="https://maps.wikimedia.org/img/osm-intl,12,51.389722222222,30.099166666667,250x200@2x.png?lang=en&domain=en.wikipedia.org&title=Chernobyl_disaster&revid=1258831879&groups=_f12de65ae136e75aea49e22427f24c5695da383e 2x" alt="Map" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">26 April 1986; 38 years ago (1986-04-26)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Time</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">01:23 <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Summer_Time" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Summer Time">MSD</a> (<a href="/wiki/UTC%2B04:00" title="UTC+04:00">UTC+04:00</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Raion" title="Chernobyl Raion">Chernobyl Raion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiev_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev Oblast">Kiev Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Vyshhorod_Raion" title="Vyshhorod Raion">Vyshhorod Raion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_Oblast" title="Kyiv Oblast">Kyiv Oblast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Nuclear and Radiation accident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">Reactor design and operator error</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">INES</a> Level 7 (major accident)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">2 killed by debris <a href="/wiki/Valery_Khodemchuk" title="Valery Khodemchuk">(including 1 missing)</a> and 28 killed by <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute radiation sickness</a>. 15 terminal cases of thyroid cancer, with varying estimates of increased cancer mortality over subsequent decades (for more details, see <a href="/wiki/Deaths_due_to_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Deaths due to the Chernobyl disaster">Deaths due to the disaster</a>)</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#000000;padding:0.25em;border-bottom:5px solid whitesmoke;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chernobyl disaster </a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02"><img alt="Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02.jpg/200px-Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02.jpg/300px-Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02.jpg/400px-Chernobyl_-_power_plant_-_reactor_4_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4177" data-file-height="2779" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">Reactor No. 4 in 2013</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases" title="Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases">Comparison with other radioactivity releases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_the_Chernobyl_and_Fukushima_nuclear_accidents" title="Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents">Comparison with Fukushima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster">Cultural impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deaths_due_to_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Deaths due to the Chernobyl disaster">Deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_dogs" title="Chernobyl dogs">Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant%27s_Foot_(Chernobyl)" title="Elephant's Foot (Chernobyl)">Elephant's Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_groundwater_contamination" title="Chernobyl groundwater contamination">Groundwater contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TORCH_report" title="TORCH report">TORCH report</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Individual_involvement_in_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Individual involvement in the Chernobyl disaster">Individuals</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Akimov" title="Aleksandr Akimov">Aleksandr Akimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Dyatlov" title="Anatoly Dyatlov">Anatoly Dyatlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Ignatenko" title="Vasily Ignatenko">Vasily Ignatenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valery_Khodemchuk" title="Valery Khodemchuk">Valery Khodemchuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Shcherbina" title="Boris Shcherbina">Boris Shcherbina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valery_Legasov" title="Valery Legasov">Valery Legasov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mykola_Melnyk" title="Mykola Melnyk">Mykola Melnyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassili_Nesterenko" title="Vassili Nesterenko">Vassili Nesterenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Pikalov" title="Vladimir Pikalov">Vladimir Pikalov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Pravyk" title="Volodymyr Pravyk">Volodymyr Pravyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tarakanov" title="Nikolai Tarakanov">Nikolai Tarakanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Telyatnikov" title="Leonid Telyatnikov">Leonid Telyatnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Toptunov" title="Leonid Toptunov">Leonid Toptunov</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Locations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl Exclusion Zone">Exclusion Zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernihiv%E2%80%93Ovruch_railway" title="Chernihiv–Ovruch railway">Chernihiv–Ovruch railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">power plant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kopachi" title="Kopachi">Kopachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opachychi" title="Opachychi">Opachychi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poliske" title="Poliske">Poliske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Forest" title="Red Forest">Red Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarasy" title="Tarasy">Tarasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velyki_Klishchi" title="Velyki Klishchi">Velyki Klishchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilcha,_Kiev_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilcha, Kiev Oblast">Vilcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaniv_(village)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaniv (village)">Yaniv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polesie_State_Radioecological_Reserve" title="Polesie State Radioecological Reserve">Polesie Reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aravichy" title="Aravichy">Aravichy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzernavichy" title="Dzernavichy">Dzernavichy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pripyat_amusement_park" title="Pripyat amusement park">amusement park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azure_Swimming_Pool" title="Azure Swimming Pool">Azure swimming pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avanhard_Stadium_(Pripyat)" title="Avanhard Stadium (Pripyat)">Avanhard stadium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FC_Stroitel_Pripyat" title="FC Stroitel Pripyat">FC Stroitel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Culture_Energetik" title="Palace of Culture Energetik">Energetik cultural palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(factory)" title="Jupiter (factory)">Jupiter factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polissya_hotel" title="Polissya hotel">Polissya hotel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavutych" title="Slavutych">Slavutych</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Organisations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Children_International" title="Chernobyl Children International">Chernobyl Children International</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_Chernobyl_Benefit_Concert" title="Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert">Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Forum" title="Chernobyl Forum">Chernobyl Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Recovery_and_Development_Programme" title="Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme">Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Shelter_Fund" title="Chernobyl Shelter Fund">Chernobyl Shelter Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Chernobyl%27s_Children" title="Friends of Chernobyl's Children">Friends of Chernobyl's Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellesrad" title="Bellesrad">State Institution for Radiation Monitoring and Radiation Safety</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chernobyl" title="Capture of Chernobyl">2022 Russian capture of Chernobyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl:_Abyss" title="Chernobyl: Abyss">Chernobyl: Abyss (2021 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_(miniseries)" title="Chernobyl (miniseries)">Chernobyl (2019 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_necklace" title="Chernobyl necklace">Chernobyl necklace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobylite" title="Chernobylite">Chernobylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant_sarcophagus" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus">Sarcophagus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_New_Safe_Confinement" title="Chernobyl New Safe Confinement">New Safe Confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samosely" title="Samosely">Samosely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Chernobyl_Museum" title="Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum">National Chernobyl Museum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chernobyl" title="Template:Chernobyl"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chernobyl" title="Template talk:Chernobyl"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chernobyl" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chernobyl"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The Chernobyl disaster began on 26 April 1986 with the explosion of the No. 4 <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">reactor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant</a> near the city of <a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a> in northern Ukraine, near the Belarus border in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> It is one of only two nuclear energy accidents rated at the maximum severity on the <a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale</a>, the other being the 2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident" title="Fukushima nuclear accident">Fukushima nuclear accident</a>. The response involved more than <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">500,000 personnel</a> and cost an estimated 18 billion <a href="/wiki/Soviet_ruble" title="Soviet ruble">rubles</a> (about $68 billion USD in 2019).<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a> It remains the worst nuclear disaster in history,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_disasters_by_cost" title="List of disasters by cost">costliest disaster in human history</a>, with an estimated cost of $700 billion USD.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The disaster occurred while running a test to simulate cooling the reactor during an accident in blackout conditions. The operators carried out the test despite an accidental drop in reactor power, and due to a design issue, attempting to shut down the reactor in those conditions resulted in a dramatic power surge. The reactor components ruptured, lost coolants, and the resulting steam explosions and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">meltdown</a> destroyed the containment building, followed by a reactor core fire that spread radioactive contaminants across the USSR and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> A 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl Exclusion Zone">exclusion zone</a> was established 36 hours after the accident, initially evacuating around 49,000 people. The exclusion zone was later expanded to 30 kilometres (19 mi), resulting in the evacuation of approximately 68,000 more people.<a href="#cite_note-Nuclear_Disasters_pp_55-7">[7]</a> Following the explosion, which killed two engineers and severely burned two others, an emergency operation began to put out the fires and stabilize the reactor. Of the 237 workers hospitalized, 134 showed symptoms of <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute radiation syndrome</a> (ARS); 28 of them died within three months. Over the next decade, 14 more workers (nine of whom had ARS) died of various causes mostly unrelated to radiation exposure.<a href="#cite_note-:5-8">[8]</a> It is the only instance in commercial nuclear power history where radiation-related fatalities occurred.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> As of 2011, 15 childhood <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a> deaths were attributed to the disaster.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a> estimates fewer than 100 deaths have resulted from the fallout.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Predictions of the eventual total death toll vary; a 2006 World Health Organization study projected 9,000 cancer-related fatalities in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization_report_ex-13">[13]</a> Pripyat was abandoned and replaced by the purpose-built city of <a href="/wiki/Slavutych" title="Slavutych">Slavutych</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant_sarcophagus" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus</a>, completed in December 1986, reduced the spread of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> and provided <a href="/wiki/Radiological_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiological protection">radiological protection</a> for the crews of the undamaged reactors. In 2016–2018, the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_New_Safe_Confinement" title="Chernobyl New Safe Confinement">Chernobyl New Safe Confinement</a> was constructed around the old sarcophagus to enable the removal of the reactor debris, with clean-up scheduled for completion by 2065.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accident_sequence">Accident sequence</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reactor_cooling_after_shutdown">Reactor cooling after shutdown</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG/220px-Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG/330px-Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG/440px-Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>Reactor <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">decay heat</a> shown as % of thermal power from time of sustained fission shutdown using two different correlations. Due to decay heat, solid fuel power reactors need high flows of coolant after a fission shutdown for a considerable time to prevent <a href="/wiki/Behavior_of_nuclear_fuel_during_a_reactor_accident" title="Behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident">fuel cladding damage</a>, or in the worst case, a full <a href="/wiki/Core_melt_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Core melt accident">core meltdown</a>.</figcaption></figure> In nuclear reactor operation, most heat is generated by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>, but over 6% comes from <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> heat, which continues after the reactor shuts down. Continued coolant circulation is essential to prevent core overheating or a <a href="/wiki/Core_meltdown" class="mw-redirect" title="Core meltdown">core meltdown</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a> reactors, like those at Chernobyl, use water as a coolant, circulated by electrically driven pumps.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Reactor No. 4 had 1,661 individual fuel channels, requiring over 12 million US gallons (45 million litres) per hour for the entire reactor. In case of a total power loss, each of Chernobyl's reactors had three backup <a href="/wiki/Diesel_generator" title="Diesel generator">diesel generators</a>, but they took 60–75 seconds to reach full load and generate the 5.5 MW needed to run one main pump.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 15  Special counterweights on each pump provided coolant via inertia to bridge the gap to generator startup.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> However, a potential safety risk existed in the event that a station blackout occurred simultaneously with the rupture of a coolant pipe. In this scenario the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_core_cooling_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency core cooling system">emergency core cooling system</a> (ECCS) is needed to pump additional water into the core.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a> It had been theorized that the rotational momentum of the reactor's <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> could be used to generate the required electrical power to operate the ECCS via the feedwater pumps. The turbine's speed would run down as energy was taken from it, but analysis indicated that there might be sufficient energy to provide electrical power to run the coolant pumps for 45 seconds.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 16  This would not quite bridge the gap between an external power failure and the full availability of the emergency generators, but would alleviate the situation.<a href="#cite_note-NV_Karpan:_312–13-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safety_test">Safety test</h4></div> The turbine run-down energy capability still needed to be confirmed experimentally, and previous tests had ended unsuccessfully. An initial test carried out in 1982 indicated that the <a href="/wiki/Excitation_(magnetic)" title="Excitation (magnetic)">excitation</a> voltage of the turbine-generator was insufficient. The electrical system was modified, and the test was repeated in 1984 but again proved unsuccessful. In 1985, the test was conducted a third time but also yielded no results due to a problem with the recording equipment. The test procedure was to be run again in 1986 and was scheduled to take place during a controlled power-down of reactor No. 4, which was preparatory to a planned maintenance outage.<a href="#cite_note-NV_Karpan:_312–13-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 51  A test procedure had been written, but the authors were not aware of the unusual RBMK-1000 reactor behaviour under the planned operating conditions.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 52  It was regarded as purely an electrical test of the generator, even though it involved critical unit systems. According to the existing regulations, such a test did not require approval by either the chief design authority for the reactor (NIKIET) or the nuclear safety regulator.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 51–52  The test program called for disabling the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_core_cooling_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency core cooling system">emergency core cooling system</a>, a passive/active system of core cooling intended to provide water to the core in a <a href="/wiki/Loss-of-coolant_accident" title="Loss-of-coolant accident">loss-of-coolant accident</a>. Approval from the site chief engineer had been obtained according to regulations.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 18  The test procedure was intended to run as follows: <ol><li>The reactor thermal power was to be reduced to between 700 MW and 1,000 MW (to allow for adequate cooling, as the turbine would be spun at operating speed while disconnected from the power grid)</li> <li>The steam-turbine generator was to be run at normal operating speed</li> <li>Four out of eight main circulating pumps were to be supplied with off-site power, while the other four would be powered by the turbine</li> <li>When the correct conditions were achieved, the steam supply to the turbine generator would be closed, which would trigger an automatic reactor shutdown in ordinary conditions</li> <li>The voltage provided by the coasting turbine would be measured, along with the voltage and revolutions per minute (RPMs) of the four main circulating pumps being powered by the turbine</li> <li>When the emergency generators supplied full electrical power, the turbine generator would be allowed to continue free-wheeling down</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Test_delay_and_shift_change">Test delay and shift change</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RBMK_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/RBMK_en.svg/480px-RBMK_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="480" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/RBMK_en.svg/720px-RBMK_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/RBMK_en.svg/960px-RBMK_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>Process flow diagram of the reactor</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gen_II_nuclear_reactor_vessels_sizes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Gen_II_nuclear_reactor_vessels_sizes.svg/440px-Gen_II_nuclear_reactor_vessels_sizes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="456" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Gen_II_nuclear_reactor_vessels_sizes.svg/660px-Gen_II_nuclear_reactor_vessels_sizes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Gen_II_nuclear_reactor_vessels_sizes.svg/880px-Gen_II_nuclear_reactor_vessels_sizes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>Comparative <a href="/wiki/Generation_II_reactor" title="Generation II reactor">Generation II reactor</a> vessels size comparison, a design classification of commercial reactors built until the end of the 1990s.</figcaption></figure> The test was to be conducted during the day-shift of 25 April 1986 as part of a scheduled reactor shutdown. The day shift had been instructed in advance on the reactor operating conditions to run the test, and a special team of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical engineer">electrical engineers</a> was present to conduct the electrical test once the correct conditions were reached.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> As planned, a gradual reduction in the output of the power unit began at 01:06 on 25 April, and the power level had reached 50% of its nominal 3,200 MW thermal level by the beginning of the day shift.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 53  The day shift was scheduled to perform the test at 14:15.<a href="#cite_note-Karpan44-24">[24]</a>: 3  Preparations for the test were carried out, including the disabling of the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_core_cooling_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency core cooling system">emergency core cooling system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 53  Meanwhile, another regional power station unexpectedly went offline. At 14:00,<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 53  the <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kiev</a> electrical grid controller requested that the further reduction of Chernobyl's output be postponed, as power was needed to satisfy the peak evening demand. Soon, the day shift was replaced by the evening shift.<a href="#cite_note-Karpan44-24">[24]</a>: 3  Despite the delay, the emergency core cooling system was left disabled. This system had to be disconnected via a manual isolating slide valve,<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 51  which in practice meant that two or three people spent the whole shift manually turning sailboat-helm-sized valve wheels.<a href="#cite_note-Karpan44-24">[24]</a>: 4  The system had no influence on the disaster, but allowing the reactor to run for 11 hours outside of the test without emergency protection was indicative of a general lack of safety culture.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 10, 18  At 23:04, the Kiev grid controller allowed the reactor shutdown to resume. The day shift had long since departed, the evening shift was also preparing to leave, and the night shift would not take over until midnight, well into the job. According to plan, the test should have been finished during the day shift, and the night shift would only have had to maintain decay heat cooling systems in an otherwise shut-down plant.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 36–38  The night shift had very limited time to prepare for and carry out the experiment. <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Dyatlov" title="Anatoly Dyatlov">Anatoly Dyatlov</a>, deputy chief-engineer of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant</a> (ChNPP), was present to direct the test. He was one of the test's chief authors and he was the highest-ranking individual present. Unit Shift Supervisor <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Akimov" title="Aleksandr Akimov">Aleksandr Akimov</a> was in charge of the Unit 4 night shift, and <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Toptunov" title="Leonid Toptunov">Leonid Toptunov</a> was the Senior Reactor Control Engineer responsible for the reactor's operational regimen, including the movement of the <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a>. 25-year-old Toptunov had worked independently as a senior engineer for approximately three months.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 36–38  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unexpected_drop_of_the_reactor_power">Unexpected drop of the reactor power</h4></div> The test plan called for a gradual decrease in reactor power to a thermal level of 700–1000 MW,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and an output of 720 MW was reached at 00:05 on 26 April.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 53  However, due to the reactor's production of a fission byproduct, <a href="/wiki/Xenon-135" title="Xenon-135">xenon-135</a>, which is a reaction-inhibiting <a href="/wiki/Neutron_absorber" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron absorber">neutron absorber</a>, power continued to decrease in the absence of further operator action, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Reactor_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor poisoning">reactor poisoning</a>. In steady-state operation, this is avoided because xenon-135 is "burned off" as quickly as it is created, becoming highly stable <a href="/wiki/Xenon-136" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenon-136">xenon-136</a>. With the reactor power reduced, high quantities of previously produced <a href="/wiki/Iodine-135" class="mw-redirect" title="Iodine-135">iodine-135</a> were decaying into the neutron-absorbing xenon-135 faster than the reduced <a href="/wiki/Neutron_flux" title="Neutron flux">neutron flux</a> could "burn it off".<a href="#cite_note-nf-26">[26]</a> Xenon poisoning in this context made reactor control more difficult, but was a predictable phenomenon during such a power reduction. When the reactor power had decreased to approximately 500 MW, the reactor power control was switched from local automatic regulator to the automatic regulators, to manually maintain the required power level.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 11  AR-1 then activated, removing all four of AR-1's control rods automatically, but AR-2 failed to activate due to an imbalance in its ionization chambers. In response, Toptunov reduced power to stabilize the automatic regulators' ionization sensors. The result was a sudden power drop to an unintended near-<a href="/wiki/Shutdown_(nuclear_reactor)" title="Shutdown (nuclear reactor)">shutdown</a> state, with a power output of 30 MW thermal or less. The exact circumstances that caused the power drop are unknown. Most reports attribute the power drop to Toptunov's error, but Dyatlov reported that it was due to a fault in the AR-2 system.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 11  The reactor was now producing only 5% of the minimum initial power level prescribed for the test.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 73  This low reactivity inhibited the burn-off of xenon-135<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 6  within the reactor core and hindered the rise of reactor power. To increase power, control-room personnel removed numerous control rods from the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Several minutes elapsed before the reactor was restored to 160 MW at 00:39, at which point most control rods were at their upper limits, but the rod configuration was still within its normal operating limit, with Operational Reactivity Margin (ORM) equivalent to having more than 15 rods inserted. Over the next twenty minutes, reactor power would be increased further to 200 MW.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 73  The operation of the reactor at the low power level was accompanied by unstable core temperatures and coolant flow, and, possibly, by instability of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_flux" title="Neutron flux">neutron flux</a>. The control room received repeated emergency signals regarding the low levels in one half of the steam/water separator drums, with accompanying drum separator pressure warnings. In response, personnel triggered rapid influxes of feedwater. <a href="/wiki/Relief_valve" title="Relief valve">Relief valves</a> opened to relieve excess steam into a <a href="/wiki/Surface_condenser" title="Surface condenser">turbine condenser</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reactor_conditions_priming_the_accident">Reactor conditions priming the accident</h4></div> When a power level of 200 MW was reattained, preparation for the experiment continued, although the power level was much lower than the prescribed 700 MW. As part of the test, two additional main circulating pumps were activated at 01:05. The increased coolant flow lowered the overall core temperature and reduced the existing steam voids in the core. Because water absorbs neutrons better than steam, the neutron flux and reactivity decreased. The operators responded by removing more manual control rods to maintain power.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch1-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> It was around this time that the number of control rods inserted in the reactor fell below the required value of 15. This was not apparent to the operators, because the RBMK did not have any instruments capable of calculating the inserted rod worth in real time. The combined effect of these various actions was an extremely unstable reactor configuration. Nearly all of the 211 control rods had been extracted, and excessively high coolant flow rates meant that the water had less time to cool between trips through the core, therefore entering the reactor very close to the boiling point. Unlike other <a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">light-water reactor</a> designs, the RBMK design at that time had a positive <a href="/wiki/Void_coefficient" title="Void coefficient">void coefficient</a> of reactivity at typical fuel burnup levels. This meant that the formation of steam bubbles (voids) from boiling cooling water intensified the nuclear chain reaction owing to voids having lower <a href="/wiki/Neutron_absorption" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron absorption">neutron absorption</a> than water. Unknown to the operators, the void coefficient was not counterbalanced by other reactivity effects in the given operating regime, meaning that any increase in boiling would produce more steam voids which further intensified the chain reaction, leading to a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> loop. Given this characteristic, reactor No. 4 was now at risk of a runaway increase in its core power with nothing to restrain it. The reactor was now very sensitive to the regenerative effect of steam voids on reactor power.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 3, 14  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accident">Accident</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Test_execution">Test execution</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RBMK_Reaktor_ChNPP-4.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/RBMK_Reaktor_ChNPP-4.svg/570px-RBMK_Reaktor_ChNPP-4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="570" height="570" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/RBMK_Reaktor_ChNPP-4.svg/855px-RBMK_Reaktor_ChNPP-4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/RBMK_Reaktor_ChNPP-4.svg/1140px-RBMK_Reaktor_ChNPP-4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2408" data-file-height="2408" /></a><figcaption>Plan view of reactor No. 4 core. The number on each control rod indicates the insertion depth in centimeters one minute prior to the disaster. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style>  neutron detectors (12) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  control rods (167) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  short control rods from below reactor (32) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  automatic control rods (12) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  pressure tubes with fuel rods (1661)</figcaption></figure> At 01:23:04, the test began.<a href="#cite_note-:2-30">[30]</a> Four of the eight main circulating pumps (MCP) were to be powered by voltage from the coasting turbine, while the remaining four pumps received electrical power from the grid as normal. The steam to the turbines was shut off, beginning a run-down of the turbine generator. The diesel generators started and sequentially picked up loads; the generators were to have completely picked up the MCPs' power needs by 01:23:43. As the <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> of the turbine generator decreased, so did the power it produced for the pumps. The water flow rate decreased, leading to increased formation of steam voids in the coolant flowing up through the fuel pressure tubes.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 8  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reactor_shutdown_and_power_excursion">Reactor shutdown and power excursion</h4></div> At 01:23:40, a <a href="/wiki/Scram" title="Scram">scram</a> (emergency shutdown) of the reactor was initiated<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> as the experiment was wrapping-up.<a href="#cite_note-auto-32">[32]</a> The scram was started when the AZ-5 button of the reactor emergency protection system was pressed: this engaged the drive mechanism on all control rods to fully insert them, including the manual control rods that had been withdrawn earlier. The personnel had intended to shut down using the AZ-5 button in preparation for scheduled maintenance<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and the scram preceded the sharp increase in power.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 13  However, the reason why the button was pressed when it was is not certain, as only the deceased Akimov and Toptunov made that decision, though the atmosphere in the control room was calm, according to eyewitnesses.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>: 85  The RBMK designers claim the button had to have been pressed only after the reactor already began to self-destruct.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>: 578  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chernobyl_burning-aerial_view_of_core.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f6/Chernobyl_burning-aerial_view_of_core.jpg" decoding="async" width="272" height="367" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>Steam plumes continued to be generated days after the initial explosion<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></figcaption></figure> When the AZ-5 button was pressed, the insertion of control rods into the reactor core began. The control rod insertion mechanism moved the rods at 0.4 metres per second (1.3 ft/s), so that the rods took 18 to 20 seconds to travel the full height of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_core" title="Nuclear reactor core">core</a>, about 7 metres (23 ft). A bigger problem was the design of the <a href="/wiki/RBMK#Control_rods" title="RBMK">RBMK control rods</a>, each of which had a graphite neutron moderator section attached to its end to boost reactor output by displacing water when the control rod section had been fully withdrawn from the reactor. That is, when a control rod was at maximum extraction, a neutron-moderating graphite extension was centered in the core with 1.25 metres (4.1 ft) columns of water above and below it.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a> Consequently, injecting a control rod downward into the reactor in a scram initially displaced neutron-absorbing water in the lower portion of the reactor with neutron-moderating graphite. Thus, an emergency scram could initially increase the reaction rate in the lower part of the core.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 4  This behaviour was discovered when the initial insertion of control rods in another RBMK reactor at <a href="/wiki/Ignalina_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant">Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant</a> in 1983 induced a power spike. Procedural countermeasures were not implemented in response to Ignalina. The IAEA investigative report INSAG-7 later stated, "Apparently, there was a widespread view that the conditions under which the positive scram effect would be important would never occur. However, they did appear in almost every detail in the course of the actions leading to the Chernobyl accident."<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 13  A few seconds into the scram, a power spike occurred, and the core overheated, causing some of the <a href="/wiki/Fuel_rod" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel rod">fuel rods</a> to fracture. Some have speculated that this also blocked the control rod columns, jamming them at one-third insertion. Within three seconds the reactor output rose above 530 MW.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 31  Instruments did not register the subsequent course of events; it was reconstructed through mathematical simulation. The power spike would have caused an increase in fuel temperature and steam buildup, leading to a rapid increase in <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">steam pressure</a>. This caused the fuel cladding to fail, releasing the fuel elements into the coolant and rupturing the channels in which these elements were located.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Explosions">Explosions</h4></div> As the <a href="/wiki/Scram" title="Scram">scram</a> continued, the reactor output jumped to around 30,000 MW thermal, 10 times its normal operational output, the indicated last reading on the control panel. Some estimate the power spike may have gone 10 times higher than that. It was not possible to reconstruct the precise sequence of the processes that led to the destruction of the reactor and the power unit building, but a <a href="/wiki/Steam_explosion" title="Steam explosion">steam explosion</a> appears to have been the next event. There is a general understanding that it was explosive steam pressure from the damaged fuel channels escaping into the reactor's exterior cooling structure that caused the explosion that destroyed the reactor casing, tearing off and blasting the upper plate called the upper biological shield,<a href="#cite_note-interestingengineering.com-39">[39]</a> to which the entire reactor assembly is fastened, through the roof of the reactor building. This is believed to be the first explosion that many heard.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>: 366  This explosion ruptured further fuel channels, as well as severing most of the coolant lines feeding the reactor chamber. As a result, the remaining coolant flashed to steam and escaped the reactor core. The total water loss combined with a high positive void coefficient further increased the reactor's thermal power.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a> A second, more powerful explosion occurred about two or three seconds after the first; this explosion dispersed the damaged core and effectively terminated the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. This explosion compromised more of the reactor containment vessel and ejected hot lumps of graphite moderator. The ejected graphite and the demolished channels still in the remains of the reactor vessel caught fire on exposure to air, significantly contributing to the spread of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_fallout" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive fallout">radioactive fallout</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch1-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[a]</a> The explosion is estimated to have had the <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">power equivalent</a> of 225 tons of <a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DeGeerNuclearJet-44">[43]</a> According to observers outside Unit 4, burning lumps of material and sparks shot into the air above the reactor. Some of them fell onto the roof of the machine hall and started a fire. About 25% of the red-hot graphite blocks and overheated material from the fuel channels was ejected. Parts of the graphite blocks and fuel channels were out of the reactor building. As a result of the damage to the building, an airflow through the core was established by the core's high temperature. The air ignited the hot graphite and started a graphite fire.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 32  After the larger explosion, several employees at the power station went outside to get a clearer view of the extent of the damage. One such survivor, <a href="/wiki/Individual_involvement_in_the_Chernobyl_disaster#Aleksandr_Yuvchenko" title="Individual involvement in the Chernobyl disaster">Alexander Yuvchenko</a>, said that once he stepped out and looked up towards the reactor hall, he saw a "very beautiful" laser-like beam of blue light caused by the <a href="/wiki/Ionized-air_glow" title="Ionized-air glow">ionized-air glow</a> that appeared to be "flooding up into infinity".<a href="#cite_note-Meyer-45">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bond-46">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_causes_for_the_second_explosion">Possible causes for the second explosion</h3></div> There were initially several hypotheses about the nature of the second, larger explosion. One view was that the second explosion was caused by the combustion of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>, which had been produced either by the overheated steam-<a href="/wiki/Zircaloy" class="mw-redirect" title="Zircaloy">zirconium</a> reaction or by the <a href="/wiki/Syngas" title="Syngas">reaction of red-hot graphite with steam</a> that produced hydrogen and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a>. Another hypothesis, by Konstantin Checherov, published in 1998, was that the second explosion was a thermal explosion of the reactor due to the uncontrollable escape of <a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">fast neutrons</a> caused by the complete water loss in the reactor core.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fizzled_nuclear_explosion_hypothesis">Fizzled nuclear explosion hypothesis</h4></div> The force of the second explosion and the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_xenon" title="Isotopes of xenon">xenon radioisotopes</a> released after the accident led Sergei A. Pakhomov and Yuri V. Dubasov in 2009 to theorize that the second explosion could have been an extremely fast nuclear power transient resulting from core material melting in the absence of its water coolant and moderator. Pakhomov and Dubasov argued that there was no delayed supercritical increase in power but a runaway <a href="/wiki/Prompt_criticality" title="Prompt criticality">prompt criticality</a>, similar to the explosion of a <a href="/wiki/Fizzle_(nuclear_test)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fizzle (nuclear test)">fizzled nuclear weapon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pakhomov2009-48">[47]</a> Their evidence came from <a href="/wiki/Cherepovets" title="Cherepovets">Cherepovets</a>, a city 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) northeast of Chernobyl, where physicists from the <a href="/wiki/V.G._Khlopin_Radium_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="V.G. Khlopin Radium Institute">V.G. Khlopin Radium Institute</a> measured anomalous high levels of <a href="/wiki/Xenon-135" title="Xenon-135">xenon-135</a>—a short half-life isotope—four days after the explosion. This meant that a nuclear event in the reactor may have ejected xenon to higher altitudes in the atmosphere than the later fire did, allowing widespread movement of xenon to remote locations.<a href="#cite_note-DeGeer-49">[48]</a> This was an alternative to the more accepted explanation of a positive-feedback power excursion where the reactor disassembled itself by steam explosion.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pakhomov2009-48">[47]</a> The energy released by the second explosion, which produced the majority of the damage, was estimated by Pakhomov and Dubasov to be at 40 billion <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joules</a>, the <a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">equivalent</a> of about 10 tons of <a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pakhomov2009-48">[47]</a> Pakhomov and Dubasov's nuclear fizzle hypothesis was examined in 2017 by Lars-Erik De Geer, Christer Persson and Henning Rodhe, who put the hypothesized fizzle event as the more probable cause of the first explosion.<a href="#cite_note-DeGeerNuclearJet-44">[43]</a>: <span title="Page: 11
Quotation: "The first explosion consisted of thermal neutron mediated nuclear explosions in one or rather a few fuel channels, which caused a jet of debris that reached an altitude of some 2500 to 3000 m. The second explosion would then have been the steam explosion most experts believe was the first one."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">11 <a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Embury-Dennis-51">[50]</a> Both analyses argue that the nuclear fizzle event, whether producing the second or first explosion, consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Prompt_neutron" title="Prompt neutron">prompt</a> chain reaction that was limited to a small portion of the reactor core, since self-disassembly occurs rapidly in fizzle events.<a href="#cite_note-Pakhomov2009-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeGeerNuclearJet-44">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immediate_response">Immediate response</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fire_containment">Fire containment</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonid_Telyatnikov_(1951-2004)_decorated_in_UK.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0b/Leonid_Telyatnikov_%281951-2004%29_decorated_in_UK.jpg/220px-Leonid_Telyatnikov_%281951-2004%29_decorated_in_UK.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0b/Leonid_Telyatnikov_%281951-2004%29_decorated_in_UK.jpg/330px-Leonid_Telyatnikov_%281951-2004%29_decorated_in_UK.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/0b/Leonid_Telyatnikov_%281951-2004%29_decorated_in_UK.jpg 2x" data-file-width="345" data-file-height="288" /></a><figcaption>Firefighter <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Telyatnikov" title="Leonid Telyatnikov">Leonid Telyatnikov</a> being decorated for bravery</figcaption></figure> Contrary to safety regulations, <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>, a combustible material, had been used in the construction of the roof of the reactor building and the turbine hall. Ejected material ignited at least five fires on the roof of the adjacent reactor No. 3, which was still operating. It was imperative to put out those fires and protect the cooling systems of reactor No. 3.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 42  Inside reactor No. 3, the chief of the night shift, Yuri Bagdasarov, wanted to shut down the reactor immediately, but chief engineer Nikolai Fomin would not allow this. The operators were given <a href="/wiki/Respirator" title="Respirator">respirators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Potassium_iodide" title="Potassium iodide">potassium iodide</a> tablets and told to continue working. At 05:00, Bagdasarov made his own decision to shut down the reactor,<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 44  which was confirmed in writing by Dyatlov and Station Shift Supervisor Rogozhkin. Shortly after the accident, firefighters arrived to try to extinguish the fires.<a href="#cite_note-:2-30">[30]</a> First on the scene was a Chernobyl Power Station firefighter brigade under the command of Lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Pravyk" title="Volodymyr Pravyk">Volodymyr Pravyk</a>, who died on 11 May 1986 of <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">acute radiation sickness</a>. They were not told how dangerously radioactive the smoke and the debris were, and may not even have known that the accident was anything more than a regular electrical fire: "We didn't know it was the reactor. No one had told us."<a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a> Grigorii Khmel, the driver of one of the fire engines, later described what happened: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">We arrived there at 10 or 15 minutes to two in the morning ... We saw graphite scattered about. Misha asked: "Is that graphite?" I kicked it away. But one of the fighters on the other truck picked it up. "It's hot," he said. The pieces of graphite were of different sizes, some big, some small enough to pick them up [...] We didn't know much about radiation. Even those who worked there had no idea. There was no water left in the trucks. Misha filled a <a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">cistern</a> and we aimed the water at the top. Then those boys who died went up to the roof—Vashchik, Kolya and others, and Volodya Pravik ... They went up the ladder ... and I never saw them again.<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ejected_graphite_from_Chernobyl_core.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e4/Ejected_graphite_from_Chernobyl_core.jpg/220px-Ejected_graphite_from_Chernobyl_core.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e4/Ejected_graphite_from_Chernobyl_core.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Video still image showing a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">graphite moderator</a> block ejected from the core</figcaption></figure> Anatoli Zakharov, a fireman stationed in Chernobyl, offered a different description in 2008: "I remember joking to the others, 'There must be an incredible amount of radiation here. We'll be lucky if we're all still alive in the morning.'"<a href="#cite_note-nuclruss-54">[53]</a> He also stated, "Of course we knew! If we'd followed regulations, we would never have gone near the reactor. But it was a moral obligation—our duty. We were like <a href="/wiki/Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">kamikaze</a>."<a href="#cite_note-nuclruss-54">[53]</a> The immediate priority was to extinguish fires on the roof of the station and the area around the building containing Reactor No. 4 to protect No. 3. The fires were extinguished by 5:00, but many firefighters received high doses of radiation. The fire inside Reactor No. 4 continued to burn until 10 May 1986; it is possible that well over half of the graphite burned out.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 73  It was thought by some that the core fire was extinguished by a combined effort of helicopters dropping more than 5,000 tonnes (11 million pounds) of sand, lead, clay, and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron-absorbing</a> <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> onto the burning reactor. It is now known that virtually none of these materials reached the core.<a href="#cite_note-BBCContaining-55">[54]</a> Historians estimate that about 600 Soviet pilots risked dangerous levels of radiation to fly the thousands of flights needed to cover reactor No. 4 in this attempt to seal off radiation.<a href="#cite_note-56">[55]</a> From eyewitness accounts of the firefighters involved before they died, one described his experience of the radiation as "tasting like metal", and feeling a sensation similar to <a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">pins and needles</a> all over his face. This is consistent with the description given by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> physicist who died days after a fatal radiation overdose from <a href="/wiki/Demon_core#Second_incident" title="Demon core">a criticality accident</a>.<a href="#cite_note-zeilig22-57">[56]</a> The explosion and fire threw hot particles of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> and more dangerous <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a> into the air. The residents of the surrounding area observed the radioactive cloud on the night of the explosion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Radiation_levels">Radiation levels</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> levels in the worst-hit areas of the reactor building have been estimated to be 5.6 <a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">roentgens</a> per second (R/s), equivalent to more than 20,000 roentgens per hour. A lethal dose is around 500 roentgens (~5 <a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gray (Gy)</a> in modern radiation units) over five hours. In some areas, unprotected workers received fatal doses in less than a minute. Unfortunately, a <a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">dosimeter</a> capable of measuring up to 1,000 R/s was buried in the rubble of a collapsed part of the building, and another one failed when turned on. Most remaining dosimeters had limits of 0.001 R/s and therefore read "off scale". The reactor crew could ascertain only that the radiation levels were somewhere above 0.001 R/s (3.6 R/h), while the true levels were vastly higher in some areas.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 42–50  Because of the inaccurate low readings, the reactor crew chief Aleksandr Akimov assumed that the reactor was intact. The evidence of pieces of graphite and reactor fuel lying around the building was ignored, and the readings of another dosimeter brought in by 04:30 were dismissed under the assumption that the new dosimeter must have been defective.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 42–50  Akimov stayed in the reactor building until morning, sending members of his crew to try to pump water into the reactor. None of them wore any protective gear. Most, including Akimov, died from radiation exposure within three weeks.<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevG-58">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-MedvedevGweb-59">[58]</a>: 247–248  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accident_investigation">Accident investigation</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Investigations_into_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Investigations into the Chernobyl disaster">Investigations into the Chernobyl disaster</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/IAEA" class="mw-redirect" title="IAEA">IAEA</a> had created the <a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Safety_Group" title="International Nuclear Safety Group">International Nuclear Safety Advisory Group</a> (INSAG) in 1985.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> INSAG produced two significant reports on Chernobyl: INSAG-1 in 1986, and a revised report, INSAG-7, in 1992. According to INSAG-1, the main cause of the accident was the operators' actions, but according to INSAG-7, the main cause was the reactor's design.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 24 <a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> Both reports identified an inadequate "safety culture" (INSAG-1 coined the term) at all managerial and operational levels as a major underlying factor.<a href="#cite_note-insag7-21">[21]</a>: 21, 24  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crisis_management">Crisis management</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evacuation">Evacuation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG/220px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG/330px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG/440px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat_zoomed.JPG 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant</a> in the distance</figcaption></figure> The nearby city of Pripyat was not immediately evacuated and the townspeople were not alerted during the night to what had just happened. However, within a few hours, dozens of people fell ill. Later, they reported severe headaches and metallic tastes in their mouths, along with uncontrollable fits of coughing and vomiting.<a href="#cite_note-TimeDisaster-62">[61]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] As the plant was run by authorities in Moscow, the government of Ukraine did not receive prompt information on the accident.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Valentyna_Shevchenko_(politician)" title="Valentyna Shevchenko (politician)">Valentyna Shevchenko</a>, then Chairwoman of the Presidium of <a href="/wiki/Verkhovna_Rada" title="Verkhovna Rada">Verkhovna Rada</a> of the Ukrainian SSR, said that Ukraine's acting Minister of Internal Affairs <a href="/wiki/Vasyl_Durdynets" title="Vasyl Durdynets">Vasyl Durdynets</a> phoned her at work at 09:00 to report current affairs; only at the end of the conversation did he add that there had been a fire at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, but it was extinguished and everything was fine. When Shevchenko asked "How are the people?", he replied that there was nothing to be concerned about: "Some are celebrating a wedding, others are gardening, and others are fishing in the <a href="/wiki/Pripyat_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Pripyat River">Pripyat River</a>".<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> Shevchenko then spoke by telephone to <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Shcherbytsky" title="Volodymyr Shcherbytsky">Volodymyr Shcherbytsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine">General Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukraine</a> and de facto head of state, who said he anticipated a delegation of the state commission headed by <a href="/wiki/Boris_Shcherbina" title="Boris Shcherbina">Boris Shcherbina</a>, the deputy chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Government of the Soviet Union">Council of Ministers of the USSR</a>.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chernobyl_BW_2019_G28.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Chernobyl_BW_2019_G28.jpg/220px-Chernobyl_BW_2019_G28.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Chernobyl_BW_2019_G28.jpg/330px-Chernobyl_BW_2019_G28.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Chernobyl_BW_2019_G28.jpg/440px-Chernobyl_BW_2019_G28.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5400" data-file-height="3700" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of abandoned house in Chernobyl, 2019</figcaption></figure> A commission was established later in the day to investigate the accident. It was headed by <a href="/wiki/Valery_Legasov" title="Valery Legasov">Valery Legasov</a>, First Deputy Director of the Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy, and included leading nuclear specialist <a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Velikhov" title="Evgeny Velikhov">Evgeny Velikhov</a>, hydro-meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Izrael" title="Yuri Izrael">Yuri Izrael</a>, radiologist Leonid Ilyin, and others. They flew to <a href="/wiki/Boryspil_International_Airport" title="Boryspil International Airport">Boryspil International Airport</a> and arrived at the power plant in the evening of 26 April.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> By that time two people had already died and 52 were hospitalized. The delegation soon had ample evidence that the reactor was destroyed and extremely high levels of radiation had caused a number of cases of radiation exposure. In the early daylight hours of 27 April, they ordered the evacuation of Pripyat.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Pripyat_1986.ogg" title="File:Pripyat 1986.ogg">Pripyat evacuation broadcast</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="154" data-mwtitle="Pripyat_1986.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Pripyat_1986.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/cb/Pripyat_1986.ogg/Pripyat_1986.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=ar&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ar" label="العربية ‪(ar)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=ast&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ast" label="asturianu ‪(ast)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=cs&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="cs" label="čeština ‪(cs)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=de&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="de" label="Deutsch ‪(de)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=fa&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fa" label="فارسی ‪(fa)‬" data-dir="rtl" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=fr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="fr" label="français ‪(fr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=hi&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="hi" label="हिन्दी ‪(hi)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=id&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="id" label="Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=ko&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ko" label="한국어 ‪(ko)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=pl&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pl" label="polski ‪(pl)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=pt&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt" label="português ‪(pt)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=ru&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="ru" label="русский ‪(ru)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=sr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sr" label="српски / srpski ‪(sr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=tr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tr" label="Türkçe ‪(tr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=uk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="uk" label="українська ‪(uk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=zh-cn&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hans-CN" label="中文（中国大陆） ‪(zh-cn)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APripyat_1986.ogg&lang=zh-tw&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="zh-Hant-TW" label="中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Russian language announcement</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> A translated excerpt of the evacuation announcement follows: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">For the attention of the residents of Pripyat! The City Council informs you that due to the accident at Chernobyl Power Station in the city of Pripyat the radioactive conditions in the vicinity are deteriorating. The Communist Party, its officials and the armed forces are taking necessary steps to combat this. Nevertheless, with the view to keep people as safe and healthy as possible, the children being top priority, we need to temporarily evacuate the citizens in the nearest towns of Kiev region. For these reasons, starting from 27 April 1986, 14:00 each apartment block will be able to have a bus at its disposal, supervised by the police and the city officials. It is highly advisable to take your documents, some vital personal belongings and a certain amount of food, just in case, with you. The senior executives of public and industrial facilities of the city has decided on the list of employees needed to stay in Pripyat to maintain these facilities in a good working order. All the houses will be guarded by the police during the evacuation period. Comrades, leaving your residences temporarily please make sure you have turned off the lights, electrical equipment and water and shut the windows. Please keep calm and orderly in the process of this short-term evacuation.<a href="#cite_note-pripyat_evacuation_announcement-64">[63]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P9060463_(11383823203).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/P9060463_%2811383823203%29.jpg/220px-P9060463_%2811383823203%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/P9060463_%2811383823203%29.jpg/330px-P9060463_%2811383823203%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/P9060463_%2811383823203%29.jpg/440px-P9060463_%2811383823203%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Abandoned objects in the evacuation zone</figcaption></figure> To expedite the evacuation, residents were told to bring only what was necessary, and that they would remain evacuated for approximately three days. As a result, most personal belongings were left behind, and residents were only allowed to recover certain items after months had passed. By 15:00, 53,000 people were evacuated to the <a href="/wiki/Kyiv_Oblast" title="Kyiv Oblast">Kiev region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> The next day, talks began for evacuating people from the 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) zone.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> Ten days after the accident, the evacuation area was expanded to 30 kilometres (19 mi).<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 115, 120–121  The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant_Exclusion_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Exclusion Zone">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Exclusion Zone</a> has remained ever since, although its shape has changed and its size has been expanded. The surveying and detection of isolated fallout hotspots outside this zone over the following year eventually resulted in 135,000 long-term evacuees in total.<a href="#cite_note-Nuclear_Disasters_pp_55-7">[7]</a> The years between 1986 and 2000 saw the near tripling in the total number of permanently resettled persons from the most severely contaminated areas to approximately 350,000.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Official_announcement">Official announcement</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SPOT-1-1986-05-01-Tchernobyl-PAN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SPOT-1-1986-05-01-Tchernobyl-PAN.jpg/350px-SPOT-1-1986-05-01-Tchernobyl-PAN.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SPOT-1-1986-05-01-Tchernobyl-PAN.jpg/525px-SPOT-1-1986-05-01-Tchernobyl-PAN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/SPOT-1-1986-05-01-Tchernobyl-PAN.jpg/700px-SPOT-1-1986-05-01-Tchernobyl-PAN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1746" data-file-height="1332" /></a><figcaption>Picture taken by French satellite <a href="/wiki/SPOT_(satellite)" title="SPOT (satellite)">SPOT-1</a> on 1 May 1986</figcaption></figure> Evacuation began one and a half days before the accident was publicly acknowledged by the Soviet Union. In the morning of 28 April, radiation levels set off alarms at the <a href="/wiki/Forsmark_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant">Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>,<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sveriges-69">[68]</a> over 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the Chernobyl Plant. Workers at Forsmark reported the case to the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Radiation_Safety_Authority" title="Swedish Radiation Safety Authority">Swedish Radiation Safety Authority</a>, which determined that the radiation had originated elsewhere. That day, the Swedish government contacted the Soviet government to inquire about whether there had been a nuclear accident in the Soviet Union. The Soviets initially denied it. It was only after the Swedish government suggested they were about to file an official alert with the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> that the Soviet government admitted that an accident had taken place at Chernobyl.<a href="#cite_note-Sveriges-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-schmemann19860429-70">[69]</a> At first, the Soviets only conceded that a minor accident had occurred, but once they began evacuating more than 100,000 people, the full scale of the situation was realized by the global community.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> At 21:02 the evening of 28 April, a 20-second announcement was read in the TV news programme <a href="/wiki/Vremya" title="Vremya">Vremya</a>: "There has been an accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. One of the nuclear reactors was damaged. The effects of the accident are being remedied. Assistance has been provided for any affected people. An investigative commission has been set up."<a href="#cite_note-GalleryTimeline-72">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-vremya-73">[72]</a> This was the first time the Soviet Union officially announced a nuclear accident. The <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_Agency_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union">Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union</a> (TASS) then discussed the <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> and other American nuclear accidents, which <a href="/wiki/Serge_Schmemann" title="Serge Schmemann">Serge Schmemann</a> of The New York Times wrote was an example of the common Soviet tactic of <a href="/wiki/Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">whataboutism</a>. The mention of a commission also indicated to observers the seriousness of the incident,<a href="#cite_note-schmemann19860429-70">[69]</a> and subsequent state radio broadcasts were replaced with classical music, which was a common method of preparing the public for an announcement of a tragedy in the USSR.<a href="#cite_note-GalleryTimeline-72">[71]</a> Around the same time, <a href="/wiki/ABC_News_(United_States)" title="ABC News (United States)">ABC News</a> released its report about the disaster.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> Shevchenko was the first of the Ukrainian state top officials to arrive at the disaster site early on 28 April. She returned home near midnight, stopping at a radiological checkpoint in Vilcha, one of the first that were set up soon after the accident.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> There was a notification from Moscow that there was no reason to postpone the 1 May <a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">International Workers' Day</a> celebrations in Kiev. On 30 April a meeting of the Political bureau of the Central Committee of the CPSU took place to discuss the plan for the celebration. Scientists were reporting that the radiological background level in Kiev was normal. It was decided to shorten celebrations from the regular three and a half to four hours to under two hours.<a href="#cite_note-shevchenko-63">[62]</a> Several buildings in Pripyat were kept open to be used by workers still involved with the plant. These included the <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(Factory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (Factory)">Jupiter factory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Azure_Swimming_Pool" title="Azure Swimming Pool">Azure Swimming Pool</a>, used by the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a> for recreation during the clean-up. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Core_meltdown_risk_mitigation">Core meltdown risk mitigation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chernobyl_lava_flow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7c/Chernobyl_lava_flow.jpg/220px-Chernobyl_lava_flow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7c/Chernobyl_lava_flow.jpg/330px-Chernobyl_lava_flow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7c/Chernobyl_lava_flow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="262" /></a><figcaption>Chernobyl lava-like <a href="/wiki/Corium_(nuclear_reactor)" title="Corium (nuclear reactor)">corium</a>, formed by fuel-containing mass, flowed into the basement of the plant.<a href="#cite_note-Lava1-75">[74]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Levels_of_radioactivity_in_the_lava_under_the_Chernobyl_number_four_reactor_1986.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Levels_of_radioactivity_in_the_lava_under_the_Chernobyl_number_four_reactor_1986.svg/530px-Levels_of_radioactivity_in_the_lava_under_the_Chernobyl_number_four_reactor_1986.svg.png" decoding="async" width="530" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Levels_of_radioactivity_in_the_lava_under_the_Chernobyl_number_four_reactor_1986.svg/795px-Levels_of_radioactivity_in_the_lava_under_the_Chernobyl_number_four_reactor_1986.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Levels_of_radioactivity_in_the_lava_under_the_Chernobyl_number_four_reactor_1986.svg/1060px-Levels_of_radioactivity_in_the_lava_under_the_Chernobyl_number_four_reactor_1986.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1692" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Extremely high levels of radioactivity in the lava under the Chernobyl number four reactor in 1986</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bubbler_pools">Bubbler pools</h4></div> Two floors of bubbler pools beneath the reactor served as a large water reservoir for the emergency cooling pumps and as a pressure suppression system capable of condensing steam in case of a small broken steam pipe; the third floor above them, below the reactor, served as a steam tunnel. The steam released by a broken pipe was supposed to enter the steam tunnel and be led into the pools to bubble through a layer of water. After the disaster, the pools and the basement were flooded because of ruptured cooling water pipes and accumulated firefighting water. The smoldering graphite, fuel and other material, at more than 1,200 °C (2,190 °F),<a href="#cite_note-lava2-76">[75]</a> started to burn through the reactor floor and mixed with molten concrete from the reactor lining, creating <a href="/wiki/Corium_(nuclear_reactor)" title="Corium (nuclear reactor)">corium</a>, a radioactive semi-liquid material comparable to <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lava1-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-lava3-77">[76]</a> It was feared that if this mixture melted through the floor into the pool of water, the resulting steam production would further contaminate the area or even cause another explosion, ejecting more radioactive material. It became necessary to drain the pool.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> These fears ultimately proved unfounded, since corium began dripping harmlessly into the flooded bubbler pools before the water could be removed.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-79">[78]</a> The molten fuel hit the water and cooled into a light-brown ceramic pumice, whose low density allowed it to float on the water's surface.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-79">[78]</a> Unaware of this, the government commission directed that the bubbler pools be drained by opening its <a href="/wiki/Sluice_gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Sluice gates">sluice gates</a>. The valves controlling it, however, were located in a flooded corridor in a subterranean annex adjacent to the reactor building. Volunteers in <a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">diving suits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Respirator" title="Respirator">respirators</a>, and equipped with <a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">dosimeters</a>, entered the knee-deep radioactive water and opened the valves.<a href="#cite_note-kramer-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-mkru-81">[80]</a> These were the engineers <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Ananenko" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexei Ananenko">Oleksiy Ananenko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valeri_Bezpalov" class="mw-redirect" title="Valeri Bezpalov">Valeri Bezpalov</a>, accompanied by the shift supervisor <a href="/wiki/Boris_Baranov" title="Boris Baranov">Boris Baranov</a>.<a href="#cite_note-divers2-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chernobyl_1986,_p.178-84">[83]</a> Numerous media reports falsely suggested that all three men died just days later. In fact, all three survived and were awarded the <a href="/wiki/Order_For_Courage" class="mw-redirect" title="Order For Courage">Order For Courage</a> in May 2018.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> Once the bubbler pool gates were opened, fire brigade pumps were then used to drain the basement. The operation was not completed until 8 May, after 20,000 tonnes (20,000 long tons; 22,000 short tons) of water were pumped out.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundation_protection_measures">Foundation protection measures</h4></div> The government commission was concerned that the molten core would burn into the earth and contaminate groundwater. To reduce the likelihood of this, it was decided to freeze the earth beneath the reactor, which would also stabilize the foundations. Using oil <a href="/wiki/Well_drilling" title="Well drilling">well drilling</a> equipment, injection of liquid nitrogen began on 4 May. It was estimated that 25 tonnes (55 thousand pounds) of liquid nitrogen per day would be required to keep the soil frozen at −100 °C (−148 °F).<a href="#cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">[18]</a>: 59  This idea was quickly scrapped.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> As an alternative, subway builders and <a href="/wiki/Coal_miner" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal miner">coal miners</a> were deployed to excavate a tunnel below the reactor to make room for a cooling system. The final makeshift design for the cooling system was to incorporate a coiled formation of pipes cooled with water and covered on top with a thin thermally conductive graphite layer. The graphite layer would prevent the concrete above from melting. This graphite cooling plate layer was to be encapsulated between two concrete layers, each 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) thick for stabilisation. This graphite-concrete "sandwich" would be similar in concept to later <a href="/wiki/Core_catcher" title="Core catcher">core catchers</a> now part of many nuclear reactor designs.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> The graphite cooling plate and the prior nitrogen injection proposal, were not used following the drop in aerial temperatures and indicative reports that the fuel melt had stopped. It was later determined that the fuel had flowed three floors, with a few cubic meters coming to rest at ground level. The precautionary underground channel with its active cooling was deemed redundant and the excavation was filled with concrete to strengthen the foundation below the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Site_cleanup">Site cleanup</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Debris_removal">Debris removal</h4></div> In the months after the explosion, attention turned to removing the radioactive debris from the roof.<a href="#cite_note-robotsroof-91">[90]</a> While the worst of the radioactive debris had remained inside what was left of the reactor, an estimated 100 tons of debris on that roof had to be removed to enable the safe construction of the "sarcophagus"—a concrete structure that would entomb the reactor and reduce radioactive dust being released.<a href="#cite_note-robotsroof-91">[90]</a> The initial plan was to use robots to clear the roof. The Soviets used approximately 60 remote-controlled robots, primarily designed for use in lunar exploration or policing work <a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a>most of them built in the Soviet Union. Most famous of these robots was the modified West German Police robot "Joker" a bright yellow robot. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robots_used_during_the_Chernobyl_cleanup_(11384369646).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Robots_used_during_the_Chernobyl_cleanup_%2811384369646%29.jpg/220px-Robots_used_during_the_Chernobyl_cleanup_%2811384369646%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Robots_used_during_the_Chernobyl_cleanup_%2811384369646%29.jpg/330px-Robots_used_during_the_Chernobyl_cleanup_%2811384369646%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Robots_used_during_the_Chernobyl_cleanup_%2811384369646%29.jpg/440px-Robots_used_during_the_Chernobyl_cleanup_%2811384369646%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption> STR-1 robot used in cleanup, nicknamed “Moon Walker”</figcaption></figure>Many failed due to the difficult terrain, combined with the effect of high radiation fields on their batteries and electronic controls.<a href="#cite_note-robotsroof-91">[90]</a> In 1987, <a href="/wiki/Valery_Legasov" title="Valery Legasov">Valery Legasov</a>, first deputy director of the <a href="/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute_of_Atomic_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy">Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy</a> in Moscow, said: "We learned that robots are not the great remedy for everything. Where there was very high radiation, the robot ceased to be a robot—the electronics quit working."<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-93">[92]</a> Consequently, the most highly radioactive materials were shoveled by <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a> from the military, wearing protective gear (dubbed "bio-robots"). These soldiers could only spend a maximum of 40–90 seconds working on the rooftops of the surrounding buildings because of the extremely high radiation levels. Only 10% of the debris cleared from the roof was performed by robots; the other 90% was removed by 3,828 men who absorbed, on average, an estimated dose of 25 <a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">rem</a> (250 <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">mSv</a>) of radiation each.<a href="#cite_note-robotsroof-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Construction_of_the_sarcophagus">Construction of the sarcophagus</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant_sarcophagus" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus">Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chernobylreactor_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Chernobylreactor_1.jpg/260px-Chernobylreactor_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Chernobylreactor_1.jpg/390px-Chernobylreactor_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Chernobylreactor_1.jpg/520px-Chernobylreactor_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>No. 4 reactor site in 2006 showing the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant_sarcophagus" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus">sarcophagus containment structure</a>; Reactor No. 3 is to the left of the smoke stack</figcaption></figure> With the extinguishing of the open air reactor fire, the next step was to prevent the spread of contamination due to wind or birds which could land within the wreckage and then carry contamination elsewhere. In addition, rainwater could wash contamination into the sub-surface water table, where it could migrate outside the site area. Rainwater falling on the wreckage could also accelerate corrosion of steelwork in the remaining reactor structure. A further challenge was to reduce the large amount of emitted <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma radiation</a>, which was a hazard to the workforce operating the adjacent reactor No. 3. The solution chosen was to enclose the wrecked reactor by the construction of a huge composite steel and concrete shelter, which became known as the "Sarcophagus". It had to be erected quickly and within the constraints of high levels of ambient gamma radiation. The design started on 20 May 1986, 24 days after the disaster, and construction was from June to late November.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> The construction workers had to be protected from radiation, and techniques such as crane drivers working from lead-lined control cabins were employed. The construction work included erecting walls around the perimeter, clearing and surface concreting the surrounding ground to remove sources of radiation and to allow access for large construction machinery, constructing a thick radiation shielding wall to protect the workers in reactor No. 3, fabricating a high-rise buttress to strengthen parts of the old structure, constructing an overall roof, and provisioning a <a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)" title="Ventilation (architecture)">ventilation</a> extract system to capture any airborne contamination within the shelter. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Investigations_of_the_reactor_condition">Investigations of the reactor condition</h4></div> During the construction of the sarcophagus, a scientific team, as part of an investigation dubbed "Complex Expedition", re-entered the reactor to locate and contain nuclear fuel to prevent another explosion. These scientists manually collected cold fuel rods, but great heat was still emanating from the core. Rates of radiation in different parts of the building were monitored by drilling holes into the reactor and inserting long metal detector tubes. The scientists were exposed to high levels of radiation.<a href="#cite_note-BBCContaining-55">[54]</a> In December 1986, after six months of investigation, the team discovered with the help of a remote camera that an intensely radioactive mass more than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) wide had formed in the basement of Unit Four. The mass was called "<a href="/wiki/Elephant%27s_Foot_(Chernobyl)" title="Elephant's Foot (Chernobyl)">the elephant's foot</a>" for its wrinkled appearance.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> It was composed of melted sand, concrete, and a large amount of nuclear fuel that had escaped from the reactor. The concrete beneath the reactor was steaming hot, and was breached by now-solidified lava and spectacular unknown crystalline forms termed <a href="/wiki/Chernobylite" title="Chernobylite">chernobylite</a>. It was concluded that there was no further risk of explosion.<a href="#cite_note-BBCContaining-55">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Area_cleanup">Area cleanup</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%A9dailles_liquidateurs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/M%C3%A9dailles_liquidateurs.jpg/260px-M%C3%A9dailles_liquidateurs.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/M%C3%A9dailles_liquidateurs.jpg/390px-M%C3%A9dailles_liquidateurs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/M%C3%A9dailles_liquidateurs.jpg/520px-M%C3%A9dailles_liquidateurs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1050" /></a><figcaption>Soviet badge and medal awarded to <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20110426-IWHO-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/20110426-IWHO-22.jpg/220px-20110426-IWHO-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/20110426-IWHO-22.jpg/330px-20110426-IWHO-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/20110426-IWHO-22.jpg/440px-20110426-IWHO-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1087" /></a><figcaption>Portraits of deceased <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a> used for an <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-nuclear">anti-nuclear</a> power protest in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a></figcaption></figure> The official contaminated zones saw a massive clean-up effort lasting seven months.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 177–183  The official reason for such early, and dangerous, decontamination efforts, rather than allowing time for natural decay, was that the land must be repopulated and brought back into cultivation. Within fifteen months 75% of the land was under cultivation, even though only a third of the evacuated villages were resettled. Defence forces must have done much of the work. Yet this land was of marginal agricultural value. According to David Marples, the administration wished to forestall panic regarding nuclear energy, and even to restart the power station.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 78–79, 87, 192–193  Helicopters regularly sprayed large areas of contaminated land with "Barda", a sticky polymerizing fluid, designed to entrap radioactive dust.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> Although a number of radioactive emergency vehicles were buried in trenches, many of the vehicles used by the liquidators still remained, as of 2018, parked in a field in the Chernobyl area. Scavengers have removed many functioning, but highly radioactive, parts.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> A unique "clean up" medal was given to the clean-up workers, known as "liquidators".<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> Liquidators worked under deplorable conditions, poorly informed and with poor protection. Many, if not most of them, exceeded radiation safety limits.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 177–183 <a href="#cite_note-PetrynaLE-99">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Site_remediation">Site remediation</h2></div> Questions arose about the future of the plant and its fate. All work on the unfinished reactors No. 5 and No. 6 was halted three years later. The damaged reactor was sealed off and 200 cubic meters (260 cu yd) of concrete was placed between the disaster site and the operational buildings. The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ukraine" title="Government of Ukraine">Ukrainian government</a> allowed the three remaining reactors to continue operating because of an energy shortage. In October 1991, a fire occurred in the turbine building of reactor No. 2;<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> the authorities subsequently declared the reactor damaged beyond repair, and it was taken offline. Reactor No. 1 was decommissioned in November 1996 as part of a deal between the Ukrainian government and international organizations such as the IAEA to end operations at the plant. On 15 December 2000, then-President <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kuchma" title="Leonid Kuchma">Leonid Kuchma</a> personally turned off reactor No. 3 in an official ceremony, shutting down the entire site.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="No._4_reactor_confinement">No. 4 reactor confinement</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_New_Safe_Confinement" title="Chernobyl New Safe Confinement">Chernobyl New Safe Confinement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NSC-Oct-2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/NSC-Oct-2017.jpg/220px-NSC-Oct-2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/NSC-Oct-2017.jpg/330px-NSC-Oct-2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/NSC-Oct-2017.jpg/440px-NSC-Oct-2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="1730" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_New_Safe_Confinement" title="Chernobyl New Safe Confinement">Chernobyl New Safe Confinement</a> in 2017</figcaption></figure> Soon after the accident, the reactor building was quickly encased by a mammoth concrete sarcophagus. Crane operators worked blindly from inside lead-lined cabins taking instructions from distant radio observers, while gargantuan-sized pieces of concrete were moved to the site on custom-made vehicles. The purpose of the sarcophagus was to stop any further release of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, isolate the exposed core from the weather and provide safety for the continued operations of adjacent reactors one through three.<a href="#cite_note-chornobyl.in.ua-102">[101]</a> The concrete sarcophagus was never intended to last very long, with a lifespan of only 30 years. On 12 February 2013, a 600 m2 (6,500 sq ft) section of the roof of the turbine-building collapsed, adjacent to the sarcophagus, causing a new release of radioactivity and temporary evacuation of the area. At first it was assumed that the roof collapsed because of the weight of snow, however the amount of snow was not exceptional, and the report of a Ukrainian fact-finding panel concluded that the collapse was the result of sloppy repair work and aging of the structure. Experts warned the sarcophagus itself was on the verge of collapse.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> In 1997, the international <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Shelter_Fund" title="Chernobyl Shelter Fund">Chernobyl Shelter Fund</a> was founded to design and build a more permanent cover for the unstable and short-lived sarcophagus. It received €864 million from international donors in 2011 and was managed by the <a href="/wiki/European_Bank_for_Reconstruction_and_Development" title="European Bank for Reconstruction and Development">European Bank for Reconstruction and Development</a> (EBRD).<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> The new shelter was named the <a href="/wiki/New_Safe_Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="New Safe Confinement">New Safe Confinement</a> and construction began in 2010. It is a metal arch 105 metres (344 ft) high and spanning 257 metres (843 ft) built on rails adjacent to the reactor No. 4 building so that it could be slid over the top of the existing sarcophagus. The New Safe Confinement was completed in 2016 and slid into place over the sarcophagus on 29 November.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> Unlike the original sarcophagus, the New Safe Confinement is designed to allow the reactor to be safely dismantled using remotely operated equipment. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waste_management">Waste management</h3></div> Used fuel from units 1–3 was stored in the units' cooling ponds, and in an interim spent fuel storage facility pond, ISF-1, which now holds most of the spent fuel from units 1–3, allowing those reactors to be decommissioned under less restrictive conditions. Approximately 50 of the fuel assemblies from units 1 and 2 were damaged and required special handling. Moving fuel to ISF-1 was thus carried out in three stages: fuel from unit 3 was moved first, then all undamaged fuel from units 1 and 2, and finally the damaged fuel from units 1 and 2. Fuel transfers to ISF-1 were completed in June 2016.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> A need for larger, longer-term <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> management at the site is to be fulfilled by a new facility designated ISF-2. This facility is to serve as dry storage for used fuel assemblies from units 1–3 and other operational wastes, as well as material from decommissioning units 1–3. A contract was signed in 1999 with Areva NP (<a href="/wiki/Framatome" title="Framatome">Framatome</a>) for construction of ISF-2. In 2003, after a significant part of the storage structures had been built, technical deficiencies in the design concept became apparent. In 2007, Areva withdrew and <a href="/wiki/Holtec_International" title="Holtec International">Holtec International</a> was contracted for a new design and construction of ISF-2. The new design was approved in 2010, work started in 2011, and construction was completed in August 2017.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a> ISF-2 is the world's largest nuclear fuel storage facility, expected to hold more than 21,000 fuel assemblies for at least 100 years. The project includes a processing facility able to cut the RBMK fuel assemblies and to place the material in canisters, to be filled with <a href="/wiki/Inert_gas" title="Inert gas">inert gas</a> and welded shut. The canisters are then to be transported to <a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">dry storage vaults</a>, where the fuel containers will be enclosed for up to 100 years. Expected processing capacity is 2,500 fuel assemblies per year.<a href="#cite_note-WNA-Chernobyl-109">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fuel-containing_materials">Fuel-containing materials</h4></div> The radioactive material consists of core fragments, dust, and lava-like "fuel containing materials" (FCM)—also called "<a href="/wiki/Corium_(nuclear_reactor)" title="Corium (nuclear reactor)">corium</a>"—that flowed through the wrecked reactor building before hardening into a <a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">ceramic</a> form. Three different lavas are present in the basement of the reactor building: black, brown, and a <a href="/wiki/Porous" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous">porous</a> ceramic. The lava materials are <a href="/wiki/Silicate_glass" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate glass">silicate glasses</a> with <a href="/wiki/Inclusion_(mineral)" title="Inclusion (mineral)">inclusions</a> of other materials within them. The porous lava is brown lava that dropped into water and thus cooled rapidly. It is unclear how long the ceramic form will retard the release of radioactivity. From 1997 to 2002, a series of published papers suggested that the self-irradiation of the lava would convert all 1,200 tonnes (1,200 long tons; 1,300 short tons) into a submicrometre and mobile powder within a few weeks.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> It has been reported that the degradation of the lava is likely to be a slow, gradual process.<a href="#cite_note-Borovoi2006-111">[110]</a> The same paper states that the loss of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> from the wrecked reactor is only 10 kg (22 lb) per year; this low rate of uranium leaching suggests that the lava is resisting its environment.<a href="#cite_note-Borovoi2006-111">[110]</a> The paper also states that when the shelter is improved, the leaching rate of the lava will decrease.<a href="#cite_note-Borovoi2006-111">[110]</a> As of 2021, some fuel had already degraded significantly. The famous elephant's foot, which originally was so hard that it required the use of an armor piercing <a href="/wiki/AK-47" title="AK-47">AK-47</a> round to remove a chunk, had softened to a texture similar to sand.<a href="#cite_note-:3-112">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Higginbotham-113">[112]</a> Prior to the completion of the New Safe Confinement building, rainwater acted as a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">neutron moderator</a>, triggering increased fission in the remaining materials, risking criticality. <a href="/wiki/Gadolinium_nitrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadolinium nitrate">Gadolinium nitrate</a> solution was used to quench neutrons to slow the fission. Even after completion of the building, fission reactions may be increasing; scientists are working to understand the cause and risks. While neutron activity has declined across most of the destroyed fuel, from 2017 until late 2020 a doubling in neutron density was recorded in the sub-reactor space, before levelling off in early 2021. This indicated increasing levels of fission as water levels dropped, the opposite of what had been expected, and atypical compared to other fuel-containing areas. The fluctuations have led to fears that a self-sustaining reaction could be created, which would likely spread more radioactive dust and debris throughout the New Safe Confinement, making future cleanup even more difficult. Potential solutions include using a robot to drill into the fuel and insert boron carbide control rods.<a href="#cite_note-:3-112">[111]</a> In early 2021, a ChNPP press release stated that the observed increase in neutron densities had leveled off since the beginning of that year. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exclusion_zone">Exclusion zone</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl Exclusion Zone">Chernobyl Exclusion Zone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Map_of_Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone.svg/570px-Map_of_Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone.svg.png" decoding="async" width="570" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Map_of_Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone.svg/855px-Map_of_Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Map_of_Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone.svg/1140px-Map_of_Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1071" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption>A map of the Exclusion Zone</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Checkpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Checkpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG/220px-Checkpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Checkpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG/330px-Checkpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Checkpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG/440px-Checkpoint_ditkatky_chernobyl_zone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl Exclusion Zone">zone of alienation</a> around Chernobyl</figcaption></figure> The Exclusion Zone was originally an area with a radius of 30 kilometres (19 mi) in all directions from the plant, but was subsequently greatly enlarged to include an area measuring approximately 2,600 km2 (1,000 sq mi), officially called the "<a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl Exclusion Zone">zone of alienation</a>". The area has largely reverted to forest and was overrun by wildlife due to the lack of human competition for space and resources.<a href="#cite_note-Telegraph2016-114">[113]</a> Mass media sources have provided generalized estimates for when the Zone could be considered <a href="/wiki/Habitability" title="Habitability">habitable</a> again. These informal estimates have ranged<a href="#cite_note-csmonitor-115">[114]</a> from approximately 300 years<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> to multiples of 20,000 years,<a href="#cite_note-csmonitor-115">[114]</a> referring to the half-life of Plutonium-239 which contaminates the central portion of the Zone. In the years following the disaster, residents known as <a href="/wiki/Samosely" title="Samosely">samosely</a> illegally returned to their abandoned homes. Most people are retired and survive mainly from farming and packages delivered by visitors.<a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> As of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&action=edit">[update]</a>, 187 locals had returned to the zone and were living permanently there.<a href="#cite_note-Telegraph2016-114">[113]</a> In 2011, Ukraine opened the sealed zone around the Chernobyl reactor to tourists.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-Distillations-121">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Digges-122">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forest_fire_concerns">Forest fire concerns</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Polesie_State_Radioecological_Reserve" title="Polesie State Radioecological Reserve">Polesie State Radioecological Reserve</a></div> During the dry season, <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">forest fires</a> are a perennial concern in areas contaminated by radioactive material. Dry conditions and build-up of debris make the forests a ripe breeding ground for wildfires.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> Depending on prevailing atmospheric conditions, smoke from wildfires could potentially spread more radioactive material outside the exclusion zone.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> In Belarus, the <a href="/wiki/Bellesrad" title="Bellesrad">Bellesrad</a> organization is tasked with overseeing <a href="/wiki/Cultivation_of_the_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultivation of the land">food cultivation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forestry management</a> in the area. In April 2020, forest fires spread through 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres) of the exclusion zone, causing increased radiation from the release of caesium-137 and strontium-90 from the ground and biomass. The increase in radioactivity was detectable by the monitoring network but did not pose a threat to human health. The average radiation dose that Kyiv residents received as a result of the fires was estimated to be 1 nSv.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recovery_projects">Recovery projects</h3></div> The Chernobyl Trust Fund was created in 1991 by the United Nations to help victims of the Chernobyl accident.<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> It is administered by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_the_Coordination_of_Humanitarian_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs">United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs</a>, which also manages strategy formulation, resource mobilization, and advocacy efforts.<a href="#cite_note-:1-129">[128]</a> Beginning in 2002, under the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">United Nations Development Programme</a>, the fund shifted its focus from emergency assistance to long-term development.<a href="#cite_note-:0-130">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-129">[128]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Shelter_Fund" title="Chernobyl Shelter Fund">Chernobyl Shelter Fund</a> was established in 1997 at the <a href="/wiki/23rd_G8_summit" title="23rd G8 summit">G8 summit</a> in Denver to finance the Shelter Implementation Plan (SIP). The plan called for transforming the site into an ecologically safe condition through stabilization of the sarcophagus and construction of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_New_Safe_Confinement" title="Chernobyl New Safe Confinement">New Safe Confinement</a> structure. While the original cost estimate for the SIP was US$768 million, the 2006 estimate was $1.2 billion. In 2003, the United Nations Development Programme launched the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Recovery_and_Development_Programme" title="Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme">Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme</a> (CRDP) for the recovery of affected areas.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> The programme was initiated in February 2002 based on the recommendations in the report on Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident. The main goal of the CRDP was supporting the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Ukraine" title="Government of Ukraine">Government of Ukraine</a> in mitigating long-term social, economic, and ecological consequences of the Chernobyl catastrophe. CRDP works in the four most affected Ukrainian areas: <a href="/wiki/Kyivska" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyivska">Kyivska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhytomyr_Oblast" title="Zhytomyr Oblast">Zhytomyrska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chernihiv_Oblast" title="Chernihiv Oblast">Chernihivska</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rivnenska" class="mw-redirect" title="Rivnenska">Rivnenska</a>. More than 18,000 Ukrainian children affected by the disaster have been treated in the <a href="/wiki/Resort_town" title="Resort town">resort town</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tarar%C3%A1" title="Tarará">Tarará</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, since 1990.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> The International Project on the Health Effects of the Chernobyl Accident was created and received US$20 million, mainly from Japan, in the hope of discovering the main cause of health problems due to <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a> radiation. These funds were divided among Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia for investigation of health effects. As there was significant corruption in former Soviet countries, most foreign aid was given to Russia, and no results from the funding were demonstrated. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tourism">Tourism</h3></div> First limited guided tours were begun in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> The 2007 release of the video game <a href="/wiki/S.T.A.L.K.E.R." title="S.T.A.L.K.E.R.">S.T.A.L.K.E.R.</a> increased the site popularity<a href="#cite_note-mettler-134">[133]</a> and tour operators estimated that 40,000 tourists visited the site between 2007 and 2017.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> Between 2017 and 2022, over 350,000 tourists visited the site, hitting the maximum peak of almost 125,000 visitors in 2019, coinciding with the release of HBO's mini-series about the disaster.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> After its release in July 2019, Ukrainian president <a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy" title="Volodymyr Zelenskyy">Volodymyr Zelenskyy</a> announced that the Chernobyl site would become an official tourist attraction. Zelenskyy said, "We must give this territory of Ukraine a new life."<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> Dr. T. Steen, a <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a> teacher at Georgetown's School of Medicine, recommends tourists to wear clothes and shoes they are comfortable with throwing away and to avoid plant life.<a href="#cite_note-mettler-134">[133]</a> Tourism has rebound after COVID in 2021, but the <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a> in early 2022 meant the Chernobyl area saw active fighting and the exclusion zone closed to all visitors. It remains closed to tourism as of summer 2024.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> A parallel "stalker" subculture of illegal visitors to the zone developed, who roam the area for prolonged periods<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> and some hiking into the zone over 100 times<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a> but often without taking appropriate precautions against radiation.<a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Long-term_effects">Long-term effects</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Release_and_spread_of_radioactive_materials">Release and spread of radioactive materials</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects of the Chernobyl disaster</a></div> Although it is difficult to compare the Chernobyl accident with a deliberate <a href="/wiki/Air_burst" title="Air burst">air burst</a> nuclear detonation, it is estimated that Chernobyl released about 400 times more radioactive material than the combined <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>. However, the Chernobyl disaster released only about one-hundredth to one-thousandth of the total radioactivity released during <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">nuclear weapons testing</a> at the height of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, due to varying isotope abundances.<a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> Approximately 100,000 square kilometres (39,000 sq mi) of land was significantly contaminated, with the worst-affected areas in Belarus, Ukraine, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesDecade-145">[144]</a> Lower contamination levels were detected across Europe, except for the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-torch-146">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-RFI_24-147">[146]</a> On 28 April, workers at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant, 1,100 km (680 mi) from Chernobyl, were found with radioactive particles on their clothing. Sweden's elevated radioactivity levels, detected at noon on 28 April, were traced back to the western Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> Meanwhile, Finland also detected rising radiation levels, but a civil service strike delayed the response and publication.<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="margin:auto;"> <caption>Areas of Europe contaminated with <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">137Cs</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Country </th> <th colspan="2">37–185 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">kBq</a>/m2 </th> <th colspan="2">185–555 kBq/m2 </th> <th colspan="2">555–1,480 kBq/m2 </th> <th colspan="2">> 1,480 kBq/m2 </th></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold;"> <th>km2</th> <th>% of country </th> <th>km2</th> <th>% of country </th> <th>km2</th> <th>% of country </th> <th>km2</th> <th>% of country </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Belarus</td> <td>29,900</td> <td>14.4</td> <td>10,200</td> <td>4.9</td> <td>4,200</td> <td>2.0</td> <td>2,200</td> <td>1.1 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Ukraine</td> <td>37,200</td> <td>6.2</td> <td>3,200</td> <td>0.53</td> <td>900</td> <td>0.15</td> <td>600</td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Russia</td> <td>49,800</td> <td>0.3</td> <td>5,700</td> <td>0.03</td> <td>2,100</td> <td>0.01</td> <td>300</td> <td>0.002 </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Sweden</td> <td>12,000</td> <td>2.7</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Finland</td> <td>11,500</td> <td>3.4</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Austria</td> <td>8,600</td> <td>10.3</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Norway</td> <td>5,200</td> <td>1.3</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td> <td>4,800</td> <td>4.3</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td>1,300</td> <td>3.1</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Greece</td> <td>1,200</td> <td>0.9</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></td> <td>300</td> <td>1.5</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;">Italy</td> <td>300</td> <td>0.1</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:right;"> <td style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a></td> <td>60</td> <td>0.2</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Totals </th> <th colspan="2">162,160 km2 </th> <th colspan="2">19,100 km2 </th> <th colspan="2">7,200 km2 </th> <th colspan="2">3,100 km2 </th></tr></tbody></table> Contamination from the Chernobyl accident was scattered irregularly depending on weather conditions, much of it deposited on mountainous regions such as the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Welsh</a> mountains and the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic cooling</a> caused radioactive rainfall. The resulting patches of contamination were often highly localized, and localized water-flows contributed to large variations in radioactivity over small areas. Sweden and <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> also received heavy fallout when the contaminated air collided with a cold front, bringing rain.<a href="#cite_note-GouldFire-151">[150]</a>: 43–44, 78  There was also <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_groundwater_contamination" title="Chernobyl groundwater contamination">groundwater contamination</a>. Rain was deliberately <a href="/wiki/Cloud_seeding" title="Cloud seeding">seeded</a> over 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of Belarus by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Air Force">Soviet Air Force</a> to remove radioactive particles from clouds heading toward highly populated areas. Heavy, black-coloured rain fell on the city of <a href="/wiki/Gomel" title="Gomel">Gomel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> Reports from Soviet and Western scientists indicate that the Belarusian SSR received about 60% of the contamination that fell on the former Soviet Union. However, the 2006 TORCH report stated that up to half of the volatile particles had actually landed outside the former USSR area currently making up Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. An unconnected large area in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Russian SFSR</a> south of <a href="/wiki/Bryansk" title="Bryansk">Bryansk</a> was also contaminated, as were parts of northwestern <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic" title="Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic">Ukrainian SSR</a>. Studies in surrounding countries indicate that more than one million people could have been affected by radiation.<a href="#cite_note-WNA-Chernobyl-109">[108]</a> 2016 data from a long-term monitoring program<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a> showed a decrease in internal <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">radiation exposure</a> of the inhabitants of a region in Belarus close to Gomel. In Western Europe, precautionary measures taken in response to the radiation included banning the importation of certain foods. A 2006 study found contamination was "relatively limited, diminishing from west to east", such that a hunter consuming 40 kilograms of contaminated wild boar in 1997 would be exposed to about one millisievert.<a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relative_isotopic_abundances">Relative isotopic abundances</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Behavior_of_nuclear_fuel_during_a_reactor_accident#Chernobyl_release" title="Behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident">Behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident § Chernobyl release</a></div> The Chernobyl release was characterized by the physical and chemical properties of the radio-isotopes in the core. Particularly dangerous were the highly radioactive <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a>, those with high <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear decay">nuclear decay</a> rates that accumulate in the food chain, such as some of the isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>. Iodine-131 was and caesium-137 remains the two most responsible for the radiation exposure received by the general population.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AirDoseChernobylVector.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/AirDoseChernobylVector.svg/350px-AirDoseChernobylVector.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/AirDoseChernobylVector.svg/525px-AirDoseChernobylVector.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/AirDoseChernobylVector.svg/700px-AirDoseChernobylVector.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Contributions of the various isotopes to the atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">absorbed dose</a> in the contaminated area of Pripyat, from soon after the accident to 27 years after the accident</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Totalexternaldoseratecher.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Totalexternaldoseratecher.png/350px-Totalexternaldoseratecher.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Totalexternaldoseratecher.png/525px-Totalexternaldoseratecher.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Totalexternaldoseratecher.png/700px-Totalexternaldoseratecher.png 2x" data-file-width="911" data-file-height="623" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">Logarithmic scaled</a> graph of the <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">external relative gamma dose</a> for a person in the open near the disaster site. The dose that was calculated is the <a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">relative</a> external gamma dose rate for a person standing in the open. The exact dose to a person in the real world requires a personnel-specific <a href="/wiki/Radiation_dose_reconstruction" title="Radiation dose reconstruction">radiation dose reconstruction</a> analysis and whole body count exams.<a href="#cite_note-nih.gov-155">[154]</a></figcaption></figure> At different times after the accident, different <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> were responsible for the majority of the external dose. The remaining quantity of any radioisotope, and therefore the activity of that isotope, after 7 decay <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-lives</a> have passed, is less than 1% of its initial magnitude,<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> and it continues to reduce beyond 0.78% after 7 half-lives to 0.10% remaining after 10 half-lives have passed and so on.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> Some radionuclides have decay products that are likewise radioactive, which is not accounted for here. The release of radioisotopes from the nuclear fuel was largely controlled by their <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling points</a>, and the majority of the <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> present in the core was retained in the reactor. <ul><li>All of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">krypton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a>, contained within the reactor were released immediately into the atmosphere by the first steam explosion.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a> The atmospheric release of <a href="/wiki/Xenon-133" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenon-133">xenon-133</a>, with a half-life of 5 days, is estimated at 5200 PBq.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a></li> <li>50 to 60% of all core <a href="/wiki/Radioiodine" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioiodine">radioiodine</a> in the reactor, about 1760 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">PBq</a> (1760×1015 becquerels), or about 0.4 kilograms (0.88 lb), was released, as a mixture of <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimed</a> <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapour</a>, solid particles, and <a href="/wiki/Organoiodine_compound" class="mw-redirect" title="Organoiodine compound">organic iodine</a> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a>. Iodine-131 has a half-life of 8 days.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a></li> <li>20 to 40% of all core <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> was released, 85 PBq in all.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> Caesium was released in <a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">aerosol</a> form; caesium-137, along with <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_strontium" title="Isotopes of strontium">isotopes of strontium</a>, are the two primary elements preventing the Chernobyl exclusion zone being re-inhabited.<a href="#cite_note-stanford1-160">[159]</a> 8.5×1016 Bq equals 24 kilograms of caesium-137.<a href="#cite_note-stanford1-160">[159]</a> Cs-137 has a half-life of 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tellurium-132" class="mw-redirect" title="Tellurium-132">Tellurium-132</a>, half-life 78 hours, an estimated 1150 PBq was released.<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">[2]</a></li> <li>An early estimate for total <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> material released to the environment was 3±1.5%; this was later revised to 3.5±0.5%. This corresponds to the atmospheric emission of 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons) of fragmented fuel.<a href="#cite_note-OECD1995-161">[160]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_impact">Environmental impact</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster#Long-term_effects_on_plant_and_animal_health" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects of the Chernobyl disaster § Long-term effects on plant and animal health</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Water_bodies">Water bodies</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chernobyl,_Ukraine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chernobyl%2C_Ukraine.jpg/330px-Chernobyl%2C_Ukraine.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chernobyl%2C_Ukraine.jpg/495px-Chernobyl%2C_Ukraine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Chernobyl%2C_Ukraine.jpg/660px-Chernobyl%2C_Ukraine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Reactor and surrounding area in April 2009</figcaption></figure> The Chernobyl nuclear power plant is located next to the Pripyat River, which feeds into the Dnieper reservoir system, one of the largest surface water systems in Europe, which at the time supplied water to Kiev's 2.4 million residents, and was still in spring flood when the accident occurred.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 60  The radioactive contamination of aquatic systems therefore became a major problem in the immediate aftermath.<a href="#cite_note-smithber05-162">[161]</a> In the most affected areas of Ukraine, levels of radioactivity in drinking water caused concern during the weeks and months after the accident.<a href="#cite_note-smithber05-162">[161]</a> Guidelines for levels of radioiodine in drinking water were temporarily raised to 3,700 <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">Bq</a>/L, allowing most water to be reported as safe.<a href="#cite_note-smithber05-162">[161]</a> Officially it was stated that all contaminants had settled to the bottom "in an insoluble phase" and would not dissolve for 800–1000 years.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 64 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] A year after the accident it was announced that even the water of the Chernobyl plant's cooling pond was within acceptable norms. Despite this, two months after the disaster the Kiev water supply was switched from the Dnieper to the <a href="/wiki/Desna_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Desna River">Desna River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 64–65 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Meanwhile, massive silt traps were constructed, along with a 30-metre (98 ft) deep underground barrier to prevent groundwater from the destroyed reactor entering the Pripyat River.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">[64]</a>: 65–67 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> was not badly affected by the Chernobyl accident since <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> with short half-lives decayed away long before they could affect groundwater supplies, and longer-lived radionuclides such as radiocaesium and radiostrontium were <a href="/wiki/Adsorption" title="Adsorption">adsorbed</a> to surface <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soils</a> before they could transfer to groundwater.<a href="#cite_note-IAEA-163">[162]</a> However, significant transfers of radionuclides to groundwater have occurred from <a href="/wiki/Waste_disposal" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste disposal">waste disposal</a> sites in the 30 km (19 mi) exclusion zone around Chernobyl. Although there is a potential for transfer of radionuclides from these disposal sites off-site, the IAEA Chernobyl Report<a href="#cite_note-IAEA-163">[162]</a> argues that this is not significant in comparison to <a href="/wiki/Washout_(erosion)" title="Washout (erosion)">washout</a> of surface-deposited radioactivity. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg/440px-Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="465" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg/660px-Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg/880px-Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1398" data-file-height="1476" /></a><figcaption>Radiation levels around Chernobyl in 1996</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Bio-accumulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bio-accumulation">Bio-accumulation</a> of radioactivity in fish<a href="#cite_note-kryshev95-164">[163]</a> resulted in concentrations significantly above guideline maximum levels for consumption.<a href="#cite_note-smithber05-162">[161]</a> Guideline maximum levels for radiocaesium in fish vary but are approximately 1000 Bq/kg in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-euregs-165">[164]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Kiev_Reservoir" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiev Reservoir">Kiev Reservoir</a> in Ukraine, concentrations in fish were in the range of 3000 Bq/kg during the early years after the accident.<a href="#cite_note-kryshev95-164">[163]</a> In small <a href="/wiki/Closed_lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed lake">"closed" lakes</a> in Belarus and the Bryansk region of Russia, concentrations in a number of fish species varied from 100 to 60,000 Bq/kg during 1990–1992.<a href="#cite_note-fleishman94-166">[165]</a> The contamination of fish caused short-term concern in parts of the UK and Germany and in the long term in the affected areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia as well as Scandinavia.<a href="#cite_note-smithber05-162">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flora,_fauna,_and_funga">Flora, fauna, and funga</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kiev-UkrainianNationalChernobylMuseum_15.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kiev-UkrainianNationalChernobylMuseum_15.jpg/310px-Kiev-UkrainianNationalChernobylMuseum_15.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kiev-UkrainianNationalChernobylMuseum_15.jpg/465px-Kiev-UkrainianNationalChernobylMuseum_15.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Kiev-UkrainianNationalChernobylMuseum_15.jpg/620px-Kiev-UkrainianNationalChernobylMuseum_15.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Piglet with <a href="/wiki/Dipygus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipygus">dipygus</a> on exhibit at the <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Chernobyl_Museum" title="Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum">Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum</a></figcaption></figure>After the disaster, four square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) of <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a> forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish-brown and died, earning the name "<a href="/wiki/Red_Forest" title="Red Forest">Red Forest</a>".<a href="#cite_note-bbcmulvey-167">[166]</a> Some animals in the worst-hit areas also died or stopped reproducing. Most <a href="/wiki/Domestic_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic animal">domestic animals</a> were removed from the exclusion zone, but horses left on an island in the Pripyat River 6 km (4 mi) from the power plant died when their <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> glands were destroyed by radiation doses of 150–200 Sv.<a href="#cite_note-iaea1991-168">[167]</a> Some cattle on the same island died and those that survived were stunted. The next generation appeared to be normal.<a href="#cite_note-iaea1991-168">[167]</a> The mutation rates for plants and animals have increased by a factor of 20 because of the release of radionuclides from Chernobyl. There is evidence for elevated mortality rates and increased rates of reproductive failure in contaminated areas, consistent with the expected frequency of deaths due to mutations.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> On farms in <a href="/wiki/Narodychi_Raion" title="Narodychi Raion">Narodychi Raion</a> of Ukraine it is claimed that from 1986 to 1990 nearly 350 animals were born with gross deformities; in comparison, only three abnormal births had been registered in the five years prior.<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Subsequent research on microorganisms, while limited, suggests that in the aftermath of the disaster, bacterial and viral specimens exposed to the radiation underwent rapid changes.<a href="#cite_note-Yablokov2009-171">[170]</a> Activations of soil micromycetes have been reported.<a href="#cite_note-Yablokov2009-171">[170]</a> A paper in 1998 reported the discovery of an <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> mutant that was hyper-resistant to a variety of DNA-damaging elements, including x-ray radiation, <a href="/wiki/UV-C" class="mw-redirect" title="UV-C">UV-C</a>, and <a href="/wiki/4-nitroquinoline_1-oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide">4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide</a> (4NQO).<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cladosporium_sphaerospermum" title="Cladosporium sphaerospermum">Cladosporium sphaerospermum</a>, a species of fungus that has thrived in the Chernobyl contaminated area, has been investigated for the purpose of using the fungus' particular melanin to protect against high-radiation environments, such as space travel.<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> The disaster has been described by lawyers, academics and journalists as an example of <a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">ecocide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_food_chain">Human food chain</h4></div> With <a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity#Soil" title="Environmental radioactivity">radiocaesium binding less with humic acid, peaty soils</a> than the known binding "fixation" that occurs on <a href="/wiki/Kaolinite" title="Kaolinite">kaolinite</a>-rich clay soils, many marshy areas of Ukraine had the highest soil to dairy-milk transfer coefficients, of soil activity in ~ 200 kBq/m2 to dairy milk activity in Bq/L, that had ever been reported, with the transfer, from initial land activity into milk activity, ranging from 0.3−2 to 20−2 times that which was on the soil.<a href="#cite_note-nih.gov-155">[154]</a> In 1987, Soviet medical teams conducted some 16,000 <a href="/wiki/Whole-body_counting" title="Whole-body counting">whole-body count</a> examinations on inhabitants in otherwise comparatively lightly contaminated regions with good prospects for recovery. This was to determine the effect of banning local food and using only food imports on the internal body burden of radionuclides in inhabitants. Concurrent agricultural <a href="/wiki/Countermeasure" title="Countermeasure">countermeasures</a> were used when cultivation did occur, to further reduce the soil to human transfer as much as possible. The expected highest body activity was in the first few years, where the unabated ingestion of local food resulted in the transfer of activity from soil to body. After the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>, the now reduced scale initiative to monitor human body activity in these regions of Ukraine, recorded a small and gradual half-decade-long rise in internal committed dose before returning to the previous trend of observing lower body counts each year. This momentary rise is hypothesized to be due to the cessation of the Soviet food imports together with many villagers returning to older dairy food cultivation practices and large increases in wild berry and mushroom foraging.<a href="#cite_note-nih.gov-155">[154]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Forest_Hill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Red_Forest_Hill.jpg/220px-Red_Forest_Hill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Red_Forest_Hill.jpg/330px-Red_Forest_Hill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Red_Forest_Hill.jpg/440px-Red_Forest_Hill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="679" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>After the disaster, four square kilometres (1.5 sq mi) of pine forest directly downwind of the reactor turned reddish-brown and died, earning the name of the "<a href="/wiki/Red_Forest" title="Red Forest">Red Forest</a>", though it soon recovered.<a href="#cite_note-bbcmulvey-167">[166]</a> This photograph was taken years later, in March 2009,<a href="#cite_note-178">[177]</a> after the forest began to grow again, with the lack of foliage at the time of the photograph merely due to the local <a href="/wiki/Winter" title="Winter">winter</a> at the time.<a href="#cite_note-environment-179">[178]</a></figcaption></figure> In a 2007 paper, a robot sent into the No. 4 reactor returned with samples of black, <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Radiotrophic_fungus" title="Radiotrophic fungus">radiotrophic fungi</a> that grow on the reactor's walls.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> Of the 440,350 wild boar killed in the 2010 hunting season in Germany, approximately one thousand were contaminated with levels of radiation above the permitted limit of 600 becquerels of caesium per kilogram, of dry weight, due to residual radioactivity from Chernobyl.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> Because <a href="/wiki/Elaphomyces" title="Elaphomyces">Elaphomyces</a> fungal species <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulate</a> radiocaesium, boars of the <a href="/wiki/Bavarian_Forest" title="Bavarian Forest">Bavarian Forest</a> that consume these "deer truffles" are contaminated at higher levels than their environment's soil.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a> Given that nuclear weapons release a higher 135C/137C ratio than nuclear reactors, the high 135C content in these boars suggests that their radiological contamination can be largely attributed to the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons testing in Ukraine, which peaked during the late 1950s and early 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> In 2015, long-term empirical data showed no evidence of a negative influence of radiation on mammal abundance.<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Precipitation_on_distant_high_ground">Precipitation on distant high ground</h4></div> On high ground, such as mountain ranges, there is increased precipitation due to <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic cooling">adiabatic cooling</a>. This resulted in localized concentrations of contaminants on distant areas; higher in Bq/m2 values to many lowland areas much closer to the source of the plume. The Norwegian Agricultural Authority reported that in 2009, a total of 18,000 livestock in Norway required uncontaminated feed for a period before slaughter, to ensure that their meat had an activity below the government permitted value of <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a> per kilogram deemed suitable for human consumption. This contamination was due to residual radioactivity from Chernobyl in the mountain plants they graze on in the wild during the summer. 1,914 sheep required uncontaminated feed for a time before slaughter during 2012, with these sheep located in only 18 of Norway's municipalities, a decrease from the 35 municipalities in 2011 and the 117 municipalities affected during 1986.<a href="#cite_note-thelocal1-185">[184]</a> The after-effects of Chernobyl on the mountain lamb industry in Norway were expected to be seen for a further 100 years, although the severity of the effects would decline over that period.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> The United Kingdom restricted the movement of sheep from upland areas when radioactive <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> fell across parts of Northern Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and northern England. In the immediate aftermath of the disaster, the movement of a total of 4,225,000 sheep was restricted across a total of 9,700 farms, to prevent contaminated meat entering the human food chain.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2009-187">[186]</a> The number of sheep and farms affected has decreased since 1986. Northern Ireland was released from all restrictions in 2000, and by 2009, 369 farms containing around 190,000 sheep remained under the restrictions in Wales, Cumbria, and northern Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian-2009-187">[186]</a> The restrictions applying in Scotland were lifted in 2010, while those applying to Wales and Cumbria were lifted during 2012, meaning no farms in the UK remain restricted because of Chernobyl.<a href="#cite_note-Indy-Scot-2012-188">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC-June-2012-189">[188]</a> The legislation used to control sheep movement and compensate farmers was revoked during 2012, by the relevant authorities in the UK.<a href="#cite_note-UKFSA-01-190">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_impact">Human impact</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster#Long-term_health_effects" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects of the Chernobyl disaster § Long-term health effects</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG/350px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG" decoding="async" width="350" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG/525px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG/700px-View_of_Chernobyl_taken_from_Pripyat.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2240" data-file-height="1680" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a> lies abandoned with the Chernobyl facility visible in the distance</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:G_radiation-level_scale_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/G_radiation-level_scale_01.png/400px-G_radiation-level_scale_01.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="444" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/G_radiation-level_scale_01.png/600px-G_radiation-level_scale_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/G_radiation-level_scale_01.png/800px-G_radiation-level_scale_01.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1389" /></a><figcaption> Radiation exposure to first responders at Chernobyl in comparison to a range of situations, from normal activities up to nuclear accident. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acute_radiation_effects_and_immediate_aftermath">Acute radiation effects and immediate aftermath</h4></div> The only known causal deaths from the accident involved plant workers and firefighters. The reactor explosion killed two engineers, and 28 others died within three months from <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute radiation syndrome</a> (ARS).<a href="#cite_note-:5-8">[8]</a> Some sources report a total initial fatality of 31,<a href="#cite_note-Hallenbeck_1994_15-191">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-192">[191]</a> including one additional off-site death due to coronary thrombosis attributed to stress.<a href="#cite_note-:5-8">[8]</a> Most serious ARS cases were treated with the assistance of American specialist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Peter_Gale" title="Robert Peter Gale">Robert Peter Gale</a>, who supervised bone marrow transplant procedures, although these were unsuccessful.<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> The fatalities were largely due to wearing dusty, soaked uniforms causing <a href="/wiki/Beta_burns" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta burns">beta burns</a> over large areas of skin.<a href="#cite_note-medmagrad-195">[194]</a> Bacterial infection was a leading cause of death in ARS patients. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Long-term_impact">Long-term impact</h4></div> In the 10 years following the accident, 14 more people who had been initially hospitalized died, mostly from causes unrelated to radiation exposure, with only two deaths resulting from <a href="/wiki/Myelodysplastic_syndrome" title="Myelodysplastic syndrome">myelodysplastic syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-8">[8]</a> Scientific consensus, supported by the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Forum" title="Chernobyl Forum">Chernobyl Forum</a>, suggests no statistically significant increase in solid cancer incidence among rescue workers.<a href="#cite_note-:6-196">[195]</a> However, childhood thyroid cancer increased, with about 4,000 new cases reported by 2002 in contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, largely due to high levels of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_iodine" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive iodine">radioactive iodine</a>. The recovery rate is ~99%, with 15 terminal cases reported.<a href="#cite_note-:6-196">[195]</a> No increase in mutation rates was found among children of liquidators or those living in contaminated areas.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15725606-197">[196]</a> Psychosomatic illness and post-traumatic stress, driven by widespread fear of radiological disease, have had a significant impact, often exacerbating health issues by fostering fatalistic attitudes and harmful behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-:7-198">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-196">[195]</a> By 2000, the number of Ukrainians claiming radiation-related "sufferer" status reached 3.5 million, or 5% of the population, many of whom were resettled from contaminated zones or former Chernobyl workers.<a href="#cite_note-PetrynaLE-99">[98]</a>: 4–5  Increased medical surveillance after the accident led to higher recorded rates of benign conditions and cancers.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesDecade-145">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Effects_of_main_harmful_radionuclides">Effects of main harmful radionuclides</h4></div> The four most harmful radionuclides spread from Chernobyl were <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">iodine-131</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesium-134" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesium-134">caesium-134</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strontium-90" title="Strontium-90">strontium-90</a>, with half-lives of 8 days, 2.07 years, 30.2 years and 28.8 years respectively.<a href="#cite_note-TORCH-199">[198]</a>: 8  The iodine was initially viewed with less alarm than the other isotopes, because of its short half-life, but it is highly volatile and appears to have travelled furthest and caused the most severe health problems.<a href="#cite_note-MarplesDecade-145">[144]</a>: 24  Strontium is the least volatile and of main concern in the areas near Chernobyl.<a href="#cite_note-TORCH-199">[198]</a>: 8  Iodine tends to become concentrated in thyroid and milk glands, leading, among other things, to increased incidence of thyroid cancers. The total ingested dose was largely from iodine and, unlike the other fission products, rapidly found its way from dairy farms to human ingestion.<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> Similarly in dose reconstruction, for those evacuated at different times and from various towns, the inhalation dose was dominated by iodine (40%), along with airborne tellurium (20%) and oxides of rubidium (20%) both as equally secondary, appreciable contributors.<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> Long term hazards such as caesium tends to accumulate in vital organs such as the heart,<a href="#cite_note-KuchinskayaWeWill-202">[201]</a> while strontium accumulates in bones and may be a risk to bone-marrow and <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-TORCH-199">[198]</a>: 8  Radiation is most damaging to cells that are actively dividing. In adult mammals cell division is slow, except in hair follicles, skin, bone marrow and the gastrointestinal tract, which is why vomiting and hair loss are common symptoms of acute radiation sickness.<a href="#cite_note-MycioWormwood-203">[202]</a>: 42  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disputed_investigation">Disputed investigation</h4></div> The mutation rates among animals in the Chernobyl zone have been a topic of ongoing scientific debate, notably regarding the research conducted by Anders Moller and Timothy Mousseau.<a href="#cite_note-ChesserBaker2006-204">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> Their research, which suggests higher mutation rates among wildlife in the Chernobyl zone, has been met with criticism over the reproducibility of their findings and the methodologies used.<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Withdrawn_investigation">Withdrawn investigation</h4></div> In 1996, geneticist Ronald Chesser and Robert Baker published a paper<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a> on the thriving <a href="/wiki/Vole" title="Vole">vole</a> population within the exclusion zone, in which the central conclusion was essentially that "The mutation rate in these animals is hundreds and probably thousands of times greater than normal". This claim occurred after they had done a comparison of the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> of the "Chernobyl voles" with that of a <a href="/wiki/Control_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Control group">control group</a> of voles from outside the region.<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a> The authors discovered they had incorrectly classified the <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of vole and were genetically comparing two different vole species. They issued a retraction in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-ChesserBaker2006-204">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abortions">Abortions</h4></div> Following the accident, journalists encouraged public mistrust of medical professionals.<a href="#cite_note-kasperson160-212">[211]</a> This media-driven framing led to an increase in induced abortions across Europe out of fears of radiation. An estimated 150,000 elective abortions were performed worldwide due to <a href="/wiki/Radiophobia" title="Radiophobia">radiophobia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kasperson160-212">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Knudsen-213">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trichopoulos-214">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid3585500-215">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-216">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> The statistical data excludes Soviet–Ukraine–Belarus abortion rates, which are unavailable. However, in Denmark, about 400 additional abortions were recorded, and in Greece, an increase of 2,500 terminations occurred despite the low radiation dose.<a href="#cite_note-Knudsen-213">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-Trichopoulos-214">[213]</a> No significant evidence of changes in the prevalence of congenital anomalies linked to the accident has been found in Belarus or Ukraine. In Sweden and Finland, studies found no association between radioactivity and congenital malformations.<a href="#cite_note-pmid8516187-218">[217]</a> Larger studies, such as the EUROCAT database, assessed nearly a million births and found no impacts from Chernobyl. Researchers concluded that the widespread fear about the effects on unborn fetuses was not justified.<a href="#cite_note-219">[218]</a> The only robust evidence of negative pregnancy outcomes linked to the accident were the elective abortion effects due to anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-216">[215]</a> In very high doses, radiation can cause pregnancy anomalies, but the malformation of organs appears to be a <a href="/wiki/Deterministic_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic effect">deterministic effect</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Dose%E2%80%93response_relationship" title="Dose–response relationship">threshold dose</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ecolo.org-220">[219]</a> Studies on regions of Ukraine and Belarus suggest that around 50 children exposed in utero during weeks 8 to 25 of gestation may have experienced an increased rate of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a> and lower verbal IQ.<a href="#cite_note-221">[220]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a> fathered children without an increase in developmental anomalies or a significant rise in <a href="/wiki/Germline_mutation" title="Germline mutation">germline mutations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15725606-197">[196]</a> A 2021 study based on whole-genome sequencing of children of liquidators indicated no trans-generational genetic effects.<a href="#cite_note-222">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cancer_assessments">Cancer assessments</h4></div> A report by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> examines the environmental consequences of the accident.<a href="#cite_note-IAEA-163">[162]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a> estimated a global <a href="/wiki/Collective_dose" title="Collective dose">collective dose</a> from the accident equivalent to "21 additional days of world exposure to natural <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a>"; doses were far higher among 530,000 recovery workers, who averaged an extra 50 years of typical natural background radiation exposure.<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNSCEAR_2008_D-224">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNSCEAR_GA-225">[224]</a> Estimates of deaths resulting from the accident vary greatly due to differing methodologies and data. In 1994, thirty-one deaths were <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster-related_deaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl disaster-related deaths">directly attributed to the accident</a>, all among reactor staff and emergency workers.<a href="#cite_note-Hallenbeck_1994_15-191">[190]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Belarus_radioactivity_and_thyroid_cancer.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Belarus_radioactivity_and_thyroid_cancer.png/440px-Belarus_radioactivity_and_thyroid_cancer.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Belarus_radioactivity_and_thyroid_cancer.png/660px-Belarus_radioactivity_and_thyroid_cancer.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Belarus_radioactivity_and_thyroid_cancer.png/880px-Belarus_radioactivity_and_thyroid_cancer.png 2x" data-file-width="889" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">Thyroid cancer</a> incidence in children and adolescents in Belarus<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Adults, ages 19 to 34</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Adolescents, ages 15 to 18</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Children, ages up to 14</div>While widely regarded as having a cause-and-effect relationship, the <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> of Chernobyl with the increase in recorded rates of thyroid cancer is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22175034-226">[225]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Forum" title="Chernobyl Forum">Chernobyl Forum</a> predicts an eventual death toll of up to 4,000 among those exposed to the highest radiation levels (200,000 emergency workers, 116,000 evacuees, and 270,000 residents of the most contaminated areas), including around 50 emergency workers who died shortly after the accident, 15 children who died of <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a>, and a predicted 3,935 deaths from radiation-induced cancer and leukemia.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-227">[226]</a> A 2006 paper in the <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Cancer" title="International Journal of Cancer">International Journal of Cancer</a> estimated that Chernobyl may have caused about 1,000 cases of thyroid cancer and 4,000 cases of other cancers in Europe by 2006. By 2065, models predict 16,000 cases of thyroid cancer and 25,000 cases of other cancers due to the accident.<a href="#cite_note-228">[227]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/Linear_no-threshold_model" title="Linear no-threshold model">The risk projections suggest</a> that by now [2006] Chernobyl may have caused about 1000 cases of thyroid cancer and 4000 cases of other cancers in Europe, representing about 0.01% of all incident cancers since the accident. Models predict that by 2065 about 16,000 cases of thyroid cancer and 25,000 cases of other cancers may be expected due to radiation from the accident, whereas several hundred million cancer cases are expected from other causes.</blockquote> Anti-nuclear groups, such as the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Concerned_Scientists" title="Union of Concerned Scientists">Union of Concerned Scientists</a> (UCS), have publicized estimates suggesting an eventual 50,000 excess cancer cases, resulting in 25,000 cancer deaths worldwide, excluding thyroid cancer.<a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a> These figures are based on a linear no-threshold model, which the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> (ICRP) advises against using for risk projections.<a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a> The 2006 <a href="/wiki/TORCH_report" title="TORCH report">TORCH report</a> estimated 30,000 to 60,000 excess cancer deaths worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-torch-146">[145]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Forum" title="Chernobyl Forum">Chernobyl Forum</a> revealed in 2004 that thyroid cancer among children was one of the main health impacts of the Chernobyl accident, due to ingestion of contaminated dairy products and inhalation of <a href="/wiki/Iodine-131" title="Iodine-131">Iodine-131</a>. More than 4,000 cases of childhood thyroid cancer were reported, but there was no evidence of increased solid cancers or leukemia. The WHO's Radiation Program reported nine deaths out of the 4,000 thyroid cancer cases.<a href="#cite_note-ChernobylsLegacy-231">[230]</a> By 2005, UNSCEAR reported an excess of over 6,000 thyroid cancer cases among those exposed as children or adolescents.<a href="#cite_note-Chernobyl_health_effects-232">[231]</a> Well-differentiated thyroid cancers are generally treatable, with a five-year survival rate of 96% and 92% after 30 years.<a href="#cite_note-233">[232]</a> By 2011, UNSCEAR reported 15 deaths from thyroid cancer.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-11">[11]</a> The IAEA states that there has been no increase in birth defects, solid cancers, or other abnormalities, corroborating UN assessments.<a href="#cite_note-ChernobylsLegacy-231">[230]</a> UNSCEAR noted the possibility of long-term genetic defects, citing a doubling of radiation-induced minisatellite <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> among children born in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-234">[233]</a> However, the risk of thyroid cancer associated with the Chernobyl accident remains high according to published studies.<a href="#cite_note-Bogdanova_T-235">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dinets-236">[235]</a> The German affiliate of the <a href="/wiki/International_Physicians_for_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War" title="International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War">International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War</a> suggests that 10,000 people have been affected by thyroid cancer as of 2006, with 50,000 cases expected in the future.<a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_disorders">Other disorders</h4></div> Fred Mettler, a radiation expert, estimated 9,000 Chernobyl-related cancer deaths worldwide, noting that while small relative to normal cancer risks, the numbers are large in absolute terms.<a href="#cite_note-Mettler-238">[237]</a> The report highlighted the risks to mental health from exaggerated radiation fears, noting that labeling the affected population as "victims" contributed to a sense of helplessness.<a href="#cite_note-ChernobylsLegacy-231">[230]</a> Mettler also commented that 20 years later, the population remained unsure about radiation effects, leading to harmful behaviors.<a href="#cite_note-Mettler-238">[237]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a> (UNSCEAR) has produced assessments of the radiation effects.<a href="#cite_note-UNSCEAR-239">[238]</a> Possibly due to the Chernobyl disaster, an unusually high number of cases of <a href="/wiki/Down_syndrome" title="Down syndrome">Down syndrome</a> were reported in Belarus in January 1987, but there was no subsequent upward trend.<a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Long-term_radiation_deaths">Long-term radiation deaths</h4></div> The potential deaths from the Chernobyl disaster are heavily debated. The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> predicted 4,000 future cancer deaths in surrounding countries,<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization_report_ex-13">[13]</a> based on the <a href="/wiki/Linear_no-threshold_model" title="Linear no-threshold model">Linear no-threshold model</a> (LNT), which assumes that even low doses of radiation increase cancer risk proportionally.<a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a> The Union of Concerned Scientists estimated approximately 27,000 excess cancer deaths worldwide, using the same LNT model.<a href="#cite_note-Union_of_Concerned_Scientists-242">[241]</a> A study by Greenpeace estimated 10,000–200,000 additional deaths in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine from 1990 to 2004.<a href="#cite_note-greenpeace2006-243">[242]</a> The report was criticized for relying on non-peer-reviewed studies, while Gregory Härtl, a WHO spokesman, suggested its conclusions were ideologically motivated.<a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a> The publication <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl:_Consequences_of_the_Catastrophe_for_People_and_the_Environment" title="Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment">Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment</a> claimed 985,000 premature deaths, but was criticized for bias and using unverifiable sources.<a href="#cite_note-Balonov-245">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socio-economic_impact">Socio-economic impact</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0,_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg/220px-%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg/330px-%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg/440px-%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%2C_%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption>Abandoned buildings in Chernobyl</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ukrainian_National_Chornobyl_Museum_resembling_the_reactor_that_suffered_the_catastrophic_failure_(reactor_core_surrounded_by_blue)_(8601829126).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ukrainian_National_Chornobyl_Museum_resembling_the_reactor_that_suffered_the_catastrophic_failure_%28reactor_core_surrounded_by_blue%29_%288601829126%29.jpg/220px-Ukrainian_National_Chornobyl_Museum_resembling_the_reactor_that_suffered_the_catastrophic_failure_%28reactor_core_surrounded_by_blue%29_%288601829126%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ukrainian_National_Chornobyl_Museum_resembling_the_reactor_that_suffered_the_catastrophic_failure_%28reactor_core_surrounded_by_blue%29_%288601829126%29.jpg/330px-Ukrainian_National_Chornobyl_Museum_resembling_the_reactor_that_suffered_the_catastrophic_failure_%28reactor_core_surrounded_by_blue%29_%288601829126%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ukrainian_National_Chornobyl_Museum_resembling_the_reactor_that_suffered_the_catastrophic_failure_%28reactor_core_surrounded_by_blue%29_%288601829126%29.jpg/440px-Ukrainian_National_Chornobyl_Museum_resembling_the_reactor_that_suffered_the_catastrophic_failure_%28reactor_core_surrounded_by_blue%29_%288601829126%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Exposition at <a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Chernobyl_Museum" title="Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum">Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum</a></figcaption></figure> It is difficult to establish the total economic cost of the disaster. According to <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, the Soviet Union spent 18 billion Rbls ($5.9 billion in today's dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-USGDP-246">[245]</a>) on containment and decontamination, virtually bankrupting itself.<a href="#cite_note-GorbachevBoC-247">[246]</a> In 2005, the total cost over 30 years for Belarus was estimated at US$235 billion.<a href="#cite_note-ChernobylsLegacy-231">[230]</a> Gorbachev later wrote that "the nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl...was perhaps the real cause of the collapse of the Soviet Union."<a href="#cite_note-248">[247]</a> Ongoing costs remain significant; in their 2003–2005 report, the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Forum" title="Chernobyl Forum">Chernobyl Forum</a> stated that between five and seven percent of government spending in Ukraine is still related to Chernobyl, while in Belarus, over $13 billion was spent between 1991 and 2003.<a href="#cite_note-ChernobylsLegacy-231">[230]</a> In 2018, Ukraine spent five to seven percent of its national budget on recovery activities.<a href="#cite_note-:0-130">[129]</a> The economic loss is estimated at $235 billion in Belarus.<a href="#cite_note-:0-130">[129]</a> A significant impact was the removal of 784,320 ha (1,938,100 acres) of agricultural land and 694,200 ha (1,715,000 acres) of forest from production. While much has been returned to use, agricultural costs have risen due to the need for special cultivation techniques.<a href="#cite_note-ChernobylsLegacy-231">[230]</a> Politically, the accident was significant for the new Soviet policy of <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ShlyGlasnost-249">[248]</a> and helped forge closer Soviet–US relations at the end of the Cold War.<a href="#cite_note-PetrynaLE-99">[98]</a>: 44–48  The disaster also became a key factor in the dissolution of the Soviet Union and shaped the 'new' <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PetrynaLE-99">[98]</a>: 20–21  Gorbachev stated that "More than anything else, (Chernobyl) opened the possibility of much greater freedom of expression, to the point that the (Soviet) system as we knew it could no longer continue."<a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> Some Ukrainians viewed the Chernobyl disaster as another attempt by Russians to destroy them, comparable to the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[250]</a> Commentators have argued that the Chernobyl disaster was more likely to occur in a <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> country than in a <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> one.<a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a> Soviet power plant administrators were reportedly not empowered to make crucial decisions during the crisis.<a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_debate">Nuclear debate</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">nuclear power phase-out</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">anti-nuclear movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiant_Mayday-Demo_after_CHERNOBYL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Radiant_Mayday-Demo_after_CHERNOBYL.jpg/220px-Radiant_Mayday-Demo_after_CHERNOBYL.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Radiant_Mayday-Demo_after_CHERNOBYL.jpg/330px-Radiant_Mayday-Demo_after_CHERNOBYL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Radiant_Mayday-Demo_after_CHERNOBYL.jpg/440px-Radiant_Mayday-Demo_after_CHERNOBYL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1015" data-file-height="672" /></a><figcaption>Anti-nuclear protest after the Chernobyl disaster on <a href="/wiki/International_Workers%27_Day" title="International Workers' Day">May Day</a>, 1986 in <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">West Berlin</a></figcaption></figure> Because of the distrust many had in the Soviet authorities, which engaged in a cover-up, a great deal of debate about the situation occurred in the <a href="/wiki/First_World" title="First World">First World</a> during the early days of the event. Journalists mistrusted many professionals, and they in turn encouraged the public to mistrust them.<a href="#cite_note-kasperson160-212">[211]</a> The accident raised already heightened concerns about <a href="/wiki/Fission_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission reactor">fission reactors</a> worldwide, and while most concern was focused on those of the same unusual design, hundreds of disparate nuclear reactor proposals, including those under construction at Chernobyl, reactors numbers 5 and 6, were eventually cancelled. With ballooning costs as a result of new <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_safety_system" title="Nuclear reactor safety system">nuclear reactor safety system</a> standards and the legal and political costs in dealing with the increasingly hostile/anxious public opinion, there was a precipitous drop in the rate of new reactor construction after 1986.<a href="#cite_note-254">[253]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti-Atom-Demo_Berlin_Potsdamer_Platz_2011-03-26.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Anti-Atom-Demo_Berlin_Potsdamer_Platz_2011-03-26.jpg/220px-Anti-Atom-Demo_Berlin_Potsdamer_Platz_2011-03-26.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Anti-Atom-Demo_Berlin_Potsdamer_Platz_2011-03-26.jpg/330px-Anti-Atom-Demo_Berlin_Potsdamer_Platz_2011-03-26.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Anti-Atom-Demo_Berlin_Potsdamer_Platz_2011-03-26.jpg/440px-Anti-Atom-Demo_Berlin_Potsdamer_Platz_2011-03-26.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Nuclear power protest in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, 2011</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vert-Jean-Dupuy-1986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vert-Jean-Dupuy-1986.jpg/220px-Vert-Jean-Dupuy-1986.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vert-Jean-Dupuy-1986.jpg/330px-Vert-Jean-Dupuy-1986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Vert-Jean-Dupuy-1986.jpg/440px-Vert-Jean-Dupuy-1986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1824" data-file-height="2544" /></a><figcaption>After Chernobyl, nuclear debate became a topic in galleries and exhibitions. Artwork by French-American <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dupuy_(artist)" title="Jean Dupuy (artist)">Jean Dupuy</a> in 1986 dedicated to Chernobyl disaster.</figcaption></figure> The accident also raised concerns about the cavalier <a href="/wiki/Safety_culture" title="Safety culture">safety culture</a> in the Soviet nuclear power industry, slowing industry growth and forcing the Soviet government to become less secretive about its operating procedures.<a href="#cite_note-Kagarlitsky-255">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-256">[b]</a> The government coverup of the Chernobyl disaster was a catalyst for <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a>, which "paved the way for reforms leading to the Soviet collapse."<a href="#cite_note-257">[255]</a> Numerous structural and construction quality issues, as well as deviations from the original plant design, had been known to the KGB since at least 1973 and passed on to the <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Central Committee</a>, which took no action and <a href="/wiki/Classified_information" title="Classified information">classified</a> the information.<a href="#cite_note-258">[256]</a> In Italy, the Chernobyl accident was reflected in the outcome of the <a href="/wiki/1987_Italian_nuclear_power_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="1987 Italian nuclear power referendum">1987 referendum</a>. As a result, Italy began phasing out its nuclear power plants in 1988, a decision that was effectively <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Italy" title="Nuclear power in Italy">reversed in 2008</a>. A <a href="/wiki/2011_Italian_referendums#Nuclear_power" title="2011 Italian referendums">2011 referendum</a> reiterated Italians' objections to nuclear power, thus abrogating the government's 2008 decision. In Germany, the Chernobyl accident led to the creation of a <a href="/wiki/German_federal_environment_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="German federal environment ministry">federal environment ministry</a>. The German environmental minister was given the authority over reactor safety as well, a responsibility the current minister still holds today. The Chernobyl disaster is also credited with strengthening the <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Germany" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Germany">anti-nuclear movement in Germany</a>, which culminated in the decision to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out#Germany" title="Nuclear power phase-out">end the use of nuclear power</a> made by the 1998–2005 Schröder government.<a href="#cite_note-259">[257]</a> A temporary reversal of this policy ended with the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a>. In direct response to the Chernobyl disaster, a conference to create a <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Early_Notification_of_a_Nuclear_Accident" title="Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident">Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident</a> was called in 1986 by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a>. The resulting treaty has bound members to provide notification of any <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents">nuclear and radiation accidents</a> that occur that could affect other states, along with the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Assistance_in_the_Case_of_a_Nuclear_Accident_or_Radiological_Emergency" title="Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency">Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency</a>. Chernobyl has been used as a case study in research concerning the root causes of such disasters, such as sleep deprivation<a href="#cite_note-260">[258]</a> and mismanagement.<a href="#cite_note-261">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster">Cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster</a></div> The Chernobyl tragedy has inspired many artists across the world to create works of art, animation, video games, theatre and cinema about the disaster. The HBO series <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_(miniseries)" title="Chernobyl (miniseries)">Chernobyl</a> and the book <a href="/wiki/Voices_from_Chernobyl" title="Voices from Chernobyl">Voices from Chernobyl</a> by the Ukrainian-Belarusian writer <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alexievich" title="Svetlana Alexievich">Svetlana Alexievich</a> are two well-known works.<a href="#cite_note-262">[260]</a> The Ukrainian artist Roman Gumanyuk created a series of artworks called "Pripyat Lights, or Chernobyl shadows" that includes 30 oil paintings about the Chernobyl accident, exhibited in 2012–2013.<a href="#cite_note-263">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[262]</a> The video game <a href="/wiki/S.T.A.L.K.E.R.:_Shadow_of_Chernobyl" title="S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl">S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadows of Chernobyl</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/GSC_Game_World" title="GSC Game World">GSC Game World</a> and released by <a href="/wiki/THQ" title="THQ">THQ</a> in 2007, is a first-person shooter set in the <a href="/wiki/Exclusion_zone" title="Exclusion zone">Exclusion zone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-265">[263]</a> A prequel called <a href="/wiki/S.T.A.L.K.E.R.:_Clear_Sky" title="S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Clear Sky">S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Clear Sky</a> was released in 2008 following with a sequel <a href="/wiki/S.T.A.L.K.E.R.:_Call_of_Pripyat" title="S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat">S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Call of Pripyat</a> released in 2010. Finally, the horror film <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Diaries" title="Chernobyl Diaries">Chernobyl Diaries</a> released in 2012 is about six tourists that hire a tour guide to take them to the abandoned city of <a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a> where they discover they are not alone.<a href="#cite_note-266">[264]</a> <a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmakers</a> have created documentaries that examine the aftermath of the disaster over the years. Documentaries like the <a href="/wiki/Oscar-winning" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscar-winning">Oscar-winning</a> <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Heart" title="Chernobyl Heart">Chernobyl Heart</a> released in 2003, explore how radiation affected people living in the area and information about the long-term side effects of radiation exposure.<a href="#cite_note-267">[265]</a> The Babushkas of Chernobyl (2015) is a documentary about three women who decided to return to the exclusion zone after the disaster. In the documentary, the Babushkas show the polluted water, their food from radioactive gardens, and explain how they manage to survive in this exclusion zone despite the radioactive levels.<a href="#cite_note-268">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-269">[267]</a> The documentary The Battle of Chernobyl (2006) shows rare original footage a day before the disaster in the city of Pripyat, then through different methods goes in depth on the chronological events that led to the explosion of the reactor No. 4 and the disaster response.<a href="#cite_note-270">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[269]</a> The critically acclaimed 2019 historical drama television miniseries <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_(miniseries)" title="Chernobyl (miniseries)">Chernobyl</a> revolves around the disaster and the cleanup efforts that followed. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chernobyl" title="Capture of Chernobyl">Capture of Chernobyl</a> – part of the 2022 <a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individual_involvement_in_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Individual involvement in the Chernobyl disaster">Individual involvement in the Chernobyl disaster</a> – People involved in the Chernobyl nuclear accident</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">List of Chernobyl-related articles</a> – Chernobyl disaster related articles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="List of books about the Chernobyl disaster">List of books about the Chernobyl disaster</a> – Continuing list of books about the Chernobyl meltdown</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_industrial_disasters" title="List of industrial disasters">List of industrial disasters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout_effects_on_an_ecosystem" title="Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem">Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem</a> – Effects of radiological fallout on an ecosystem</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequences_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster_in_France" title="Consequences of the Chernobyl disaster in France">Consequences of the Chernobyl disaster in France</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Although most reports on the Chernobyl accident refer to a number of graphite fires, it is highly unlikely that the graphite itself burned. According to the <a href="/wiki/General_Atomics" title="General Atomics">General Atomics</a> website:<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> "It is often incorrectly assumed that the combustion behavior of graphite is similar to that of charcoal and coal. Numerous tests and calculations have shown that it is virtually impossible to burn high-purity, nuclear-grade graphites." On Chernobyl, the same source states: "Graphite played little or no role in the progression or consequences of the accident. The red glow observed during the Chernobyl accident was the expected color of luminescence for graphite at 700°C and not a large-scale graphite fire, as some have incorrectly assumed." Similarly, nuclear physicist Yevgeny Velikhov,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> noted some two weeks after the accident, "Until now the possibility of a catastrophe really did exist: A great quantity of fuel and graphite of the reactor was in an <a href="/wiki/Incandescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescent">incandescent</a> state." That is, all the nuclear-<a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">decay heat</a> that was generated inside the uranium fuel (heat that would normally be extracted by back-up coolant pumps, in an undamaged reactor) was instead responsible for making the fuel itself and any graphite in contact with it, glow red-hot. This is contrary to the often-cited interpretation, which is that the graphite was red-hot chiefly because it was chemically <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizing">oxidizing</a> with the air. </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> "No one believed the first newspaper reports, which patently understated the scale of the catastrophe and often contradicted one another. The confidence of readers was re-established only after the press was allowed to examine the events in detail without the original censorship restrictions. The policy of openness (<a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a>) and 'uncompromising criticism' of outmoded arrangements had been proclaimed at the 27th Congress (of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of Soviet Union">Communist Party of Soviet Union</a>), but it was only in the tragic days following the Chernobyl disaster that glasnost began to change from an official slogan into an everyday practice. The truth about Chernobyl that eventually hit the newspapers opened the way to a more truthful examination of other social problems. More and more articles were written about drug abuse, crime, corruption and the mistakes of leaders of various ranks. A wave of 'bad news' swept over the readers in 1986–87, shaking the consciousness of society. Many were horrified to find out about the numerous calamities of which they had previously had no idea. It often seemed to people that there were many more outrages in the epoch of <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">perestroika</a> than before although, in fact, they had simply not been informed about them previously." Kagarlitsky 1989, pp. 333–334. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chnpp.gov.ua/en/about/history-of-the-chnpp/accident-of-1986">"Accident of 1986"</a>. Chornobyl NPP. Retrieved 14 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chornobyl+NPP&rft.atitle=Accident+of+1986&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchnpp.gov.ua%2Fen%2Fabout%2Fhistory-of-the-chnpp%2Faccident-of-1986&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_2-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf">"Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact, 2002 update; Chapter II – The release, dispersion and deposition of radionuclides"</a> (PDF). OECD-NEA. 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150622010856/https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chernobyl%3A+Assessment+of+Radiological+and+Health+Impact%2C+2002+update%3B+Chapter+II+%E2%80%93+The+release%2C+dispersion+and+deposition+of+radionuclides&rft.pub=OECD-NEA&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-nea.org%2Frp%2Freports%2F2003%2Fnea3508-chernobyl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/areas-of-work/chernobyl.html">"The Chornobyl Accident"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation</a>. Retrieved 19 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Scientific+Committee+on+the+Effects+of+Atomic+Radiation&rft.atitle=The+Chornobyl+Accident&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unscear.org%2Funscear%2Fen%2Fareas-of-work%2Fchernobyl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinhauserBrandlJohnson2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Steinhauser, Georg; Brandl, Alexander; Johnson, Thomas E. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004896971301173X">"Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents: A review of the environmental impacts"</a>. Science of the Total Environment. 470–471: 800–817. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ScTEn.470..800S">2014ScTEn.470..800S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2013.10.029">10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.10.029</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24189103">24189103</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+of+the+Total+Environment&rft.atitle=Comparison+of+the+Chernobyl+and+Fukushima+nuclear+accidents%3A+A+review+of+the+environmental+impacts&rft.volume=470-471&rft.pages=800-817&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24189103&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.scitotenv.2013.10.029&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014ScTEn.470..800S&rft.aulast=Steinhauser&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft.au=Brandl%2C+Alexander&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Thomas+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS004896971301173X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSametSeo2016" class="citation report cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_M._Samet" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan M. Samet">Samet, Jonathan M.</a>; Seo, Joann (21 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalhealth.usc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/2016_chernobyl_costs_report.pdf">The Financial Costs of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Disaster: A Review of the Literature</a> (PDF) (Report). USC Institute on Inequalities in Global Health. pp. 14–15. Retrieved 8 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Financial+Costs+of+the+Chernobyl+Nuclear+Power+Plant+Disaster%3A+A+Review+of+the+Literature&rft.pages=14-15&rft.pub=USC+Institute+on+Inequalities+in+Global+Health&rft.date=2016-04-21&rft.aulast=Samet&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Seo%2C+Joann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobalhealth.usc.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F01%2F2016_chernobyl_costs_report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCall2016" class="citation journal cs1">McCall, Chris (April 2016). "Chernobyl disaster 30 years on: lessons not learned". The Lancet. 387 (10029): 1707–1708. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2816%2930304-x">10.1016/s0140-6736(16)30304-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0140-6736">0140-6736</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27116266">27116266</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39494685">39494685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+disaster+30+years+on%3A+lessons+not+learned&rft.volume=387&rft.issue=10029&rft.pages=1707-1708&rft.date=2016-04&rft.issn=0140-6736&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39494685%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27116266&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0140-6736%2816%2930304-x&rft.aulast=McCall&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nuclear_Disasters_pp_55-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nuclear_Disasters_pp_55_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nuclear_Disasters_pp_55_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteadmanHodgkinson1990" class="citation book cs1">Steadman, Philip; Hodgkinson, Simon (1990). Nuclear Disasters & The Built Environment: A Report to the Royal Institute. Butterworth Architecture. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-40850-061-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-40850-061-6"><bdi>978-0-40850-061-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Disasters+%26+The+Built+Environment%3A+A+Report+to+the+Royal+Institute&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Butterworth+Architecture&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-40850-061-6&rft.aulast=Steadman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft.au=Hodgkinson%2C+Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_8-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWagemakerGuskovaBebeshkoGriffiths1996" class="citation journal cs1">Wagemaker, G.; Guskova, A. K.; Bebeshko, V. G.; Griffiths, N. M.; Krishenko, N. A. (1996). "Clinically Observed Effects in Individuals Exposed to Radiation as a Result of the Chernobyl Accident". One Decade After Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of the Accident, Proceedings of an International Conference, Vienna.: 173–198.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=One+Decade+After+Chernobyl%3A+Summing+up+the+Consequences+of+the+Accident%2C+Proceedings+of+an+International+Conference%2C+Vienna.&rft.atitle=Clinically+Observed+Effects+in+Individuals+Exposed+to+Radiation+as+a+Result+of+the+Chernobyl+Accident&rft.pages=173-198&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Wagemaker&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Guskova%2C+A.+K.&rft.au=Bebeshko%2C+V.+G.&rft.au=Griffiths%2C+N.+M.&rft.au=Krishenko%2C+N.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZohuriMcDaniel2019" class="citation book cs1">Zohuri, Bahman; McDaniel, Patrick (2019). Thermodynamics in Nuclear Power Plant Systems (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 597. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-93918-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-93918-6"><bdi>978-3-319-93918-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thermodynamics+in+Nuclear+Power+Plant+Systems&rft.pages=597&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-3-319-93918-6&rft.aulast=Zohuri&rft.aufirst=Bahman&rft.au=McDaniel%2C+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident">"Chernobyl Accident 1986 – World Nuclear Association"</a>. world-nuclear.org. 26 April 2024. Retrieved 9 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=world-nuclear.org&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Accident+1986+%E2%80%93+World+Nuclear+Association&rft.date=2024-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworld-nuclear.org%2Finformation-library%2Fsafety-and-security%2Fsafety-of-plants%2Fchernobyl-accident&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO2012-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2012_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO2012_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/20110423_FAQs_Chernobyl.pdf">"Chernobyl 25th anniversary – Frequently Asked Questions"</a> (PDF). World Health Organization. 23 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120417011209/http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/chernobyl/20110423_FAQs_Chernobyl.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+25th+anniversary+%E2%80%93+Frequently+Asked+Questions&rft.date=2011-04-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fionizing_radiation%2Fchernobyl%2F20110423_FAQs_Chernobyl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html">"UNSCEAR assessments of the Chernobyl accident"</a>. unscear.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513235907/http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unscear.org&rft.atitle=UNSCEAR+assessments+of+the+Chernobyl+accident&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unscear.org%2Funscear%2Fen%2Fchernobyl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-World_Health_Organization_report_ex-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_report_ex_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-World_Health_Organization_report_ex_13-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110404181327/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr20/en/index.html">"World Health Organization report explains the health impacts of the world's worst-ever civil nuclear accident"</a>. World Health Organization. 26 April 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2006/pr20/en/index.html">the original</a> on 4 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=World+Health+Organization+report+explains+the+health+impacts+of+the+world%27s+worst-ever+civil+nuclear+accident&rft.date=2006-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fmediacentre%2Fnews%2Freleases%2F2006%2Fpr20%2Fen%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121005150746/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/chornobyl-nuclear-power-plant-site-to-be-cleared-b-56391.html">"Chernobyl nuclear power plant site to be cleared by 2065"</a>. Kyiv Post. 3 January 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/56391/">the original</a> on 5 October 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kyiv+Post&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+nuclear+power+plant+site+to+be+cleared+by+2065&rft.date=2010-01-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kyivpost.com%2Fnews%2Fnation%2Fdetail%2F56391%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRagheb2011" class="citation web cs1">Ragheb, M. (22 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130514074247/http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/~ernesto/F2011/EP/MaterialsforStudents/Petty/Ragheb-Ch8-2011.PDF">"Decay Heat Generation in Fission Reactors"</a> (PDF). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/~ernesto/F2011/EP/MaterialsforStudents/Petty/Ragheb-Ch8-2011.PDF">the original</a> (PDF) on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 26 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Illinois+at+Urbana-Champaign&rft.atitle=Decay+Heat+Generation+in+Fission+Reactors&rft.date=2011-03-22&rft.aulast=Ragheb&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ewp.rpi.edu%2Fhartford%2F~ernesto%2FF2011%2FEP%2FMaterialsforStudents%2FPetty%2FRagheb-Ch8-2011.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140319145623/http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/06/f2/h1019v1.pdf#page=85.5">"DOE Fundamentals Handbook, Nuclear physics and reactor theory"</a> (PDF). United States Department of Energy. January 1996. p. 61. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/06/f2/h1019v1.pdf#page=85.5">the original</a> (PDF) on 19 March 2014. Retrieved 3 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DOE+Fundamentals+Handbook%2C+Nuclear+physics+and+reactor+theory&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=United+States+Department+of+Energy&rft.date=1996-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenergy.gov%2Fsites%2Fprod%2Ffiles%2F2013%2F06%2Ff2%2Fh1019v1.pdf%23page%3D85.5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr0800/">"Standard Review Plan for the Review of Safety Analysis Reports for Nuclear Power Plants: LWR Edition (NUREG-0800)"</a>. United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission. May 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100619163526/http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/staff/sr0800/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2010. Retrieved 2 June 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Nuclear+Regulatory+Commission&rft.atitle=Standard+Review+Plan+for+the+Review+of+Safety+Analysis+Reports+for+Nuclear+Power+Plants%3A+LWR+Edition+%28NUREG-0800%29&rft.date=2010-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Freading-rm%2Fdoc-collections%2Fnuregs%2Fstaff%2Fsr0800%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MedvedevZ-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevZ_18-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Zhores_A._Medvedev" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhores A. Medvedev">Medvedev, Zhores A.</a> (1990). The Legacy of Chernobyl (First American ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30814-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30814-3"><bdi>978-0-393-30814-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Chernobyl&rft.edition=First+American&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30814-3&rft.aulast=Medvedev&rft.aufirst=Zhores+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDmitriev2013" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dmitriev, Viktor (30 November 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://accidont.ru/rotor.html">"Turbogenerator Rundown"</a>. Причины Чернобыльской аварии известны (in Russian). N/A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211003020646/http://accidont.ru/rotor.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 October 2021. Retrieved 19 September 2021. <q>На АЭС с реакторами РБМК-1000 используется выбег главных циркуляционных насосов (ГЦН) как самозащита при внезапном исчезновении электропитания собственных нужд (СН). Пока не включится резервное питание, циркуляция может осуществляться за счет выбега. С этой целью для увеличения продолжительности выбега, на валу электродвигателя –привода ГЦН установлен маховик с достаточно большой маховой массой.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B&rft.atitle=Turbogenerator+Rundown&rft.date=2013-11-30&rft.aulast=Dmitriev&rft.aufirst=Viktor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faccidont.ru%2Frotor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reactors.narod.ru/rbmk/08_mcp.htm">"Main Circulating Pumps"</a>. Справочник "Функционирование АЭС (на примере РБМК-1000)" (in Russian). N/A. 19 September 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210920212739/http://reactors.narod.ru/rbmk/08_mcp.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 19 September 2021. <q>Для увеличения времени выбега на валу электродвигателя установлен маховик.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA+%22%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1+%28%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5+%D0%A0%D0%91%D0%9C%D0%9A-1000%29%22&rft.atitle=Main+Circulating+Pumps&rft.date=2021-09-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freactors.narod.ru%2Frbmk%2F08_mcp.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-insag7-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-insag7_21-25">z</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub913e_web.pdf">"INSAG-7: The Chernobyl Accident: Updating of INSAG-1"</a> (PDF). IAEA. 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181020210817/https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub913e_web.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IAEA&rft.atitle=INSAG-7%3A+The+Chernobyl+Accident%3A+Updating+of+INSAG-1&rft.date=1992&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2FMTCD%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FPub913e_web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NV_Karpan:_312–13-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NV_Karpan:_312–13_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NV_Karpan:_312–13_22-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKarpan2006">Karpan 2006</a>, pp. 312–313. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDyatlov2003">Dyatlov 2003</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-Karpan44-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Karpan44_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karpan44_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Karpan44_24-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarpan2006" class="citation book cs1">Karpan, N. V. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200401174807/http://www.physiciansofchernobyl.org.ua/rus/books/Karpan.html">"Who exploded the Chernobyl NPP, Chronology of events before the accident"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physiciansofchernobyl.org.ua/rus/books/Karpan.html">Chernobyl. Vengeance of the peaceful atom (in Russian)</a>. Dnepropetrovsk: IKK "Balance Club". <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-966-8135-21-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-966-8135-21-7"><bdi>978-966-8135-21-7</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physiciansofchernobyl.org.ua/rus/books/Karpan/44.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Who+exploded+the+Chernobyl+NPP%2C+Chronology+of+events+before+the+accident&rft.btitle=Chernobyl.+Vengeance+of+the+peaceful+atom+%28in+Russian%29&rft.place=Dnepropetrovsk&rft.pub=IKK+%22Balance+Club%22&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-966-8135-21-7&rft.aulast=Karpan&rft.aufirst=N.+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physiciansofchernobyl.org.ua%2Frus%2Fbooks%2FKarpan%2F44.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rrc2.narod.ru/book/app7.html"><bdi lang="ru">Рабочая Программа: Испытаний Турбогенератора № 8 Чернобыльской Аэс В Режимах Совместного Выбега С Нагрузкой Собственных Нужд</bdi></a> [Work Program: Tests of the Turbogenerator No. 8 of the Chernobyl AESP in Run-Off Modes With the Load of Own Needs]. rrc2.narod.ru (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181105215345/http://rrc2.narod.ru/book/app7.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rrc2.narod.ru&rft.atitle=%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%3A+%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0+%E2%84%96+8+%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%90%D1%8D%D1%81+%D0%92+%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%92%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0+%D0%A1+%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frrc2.narod.ru%2Fbook%2Fapp7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nf-26"><a href="#cite_ref-nf_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110714210818/http://nuclearfissionary.com/2010/03/03/what-happened-at-chernobyl/">"What Happened at Chernobyl?"</a>. Nuclear Fissionary. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nuclearfissionary.com/2010/03/03/what-happened-at-chernobyl/">the original</a> on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Fissionary&rft.atitle=What+Happened+at+Chernobyl%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnuclearfissionary.com%2F2010%2F03%2F03%2Fwhat-happened-at-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDyatlov2003">Dyatlov 2003</a>, p. 31 </li> <li id="cite_note-OECD02-Ch1-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch1_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch1_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf">"Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact, 2002 update; Chapter I – The site and accident sequence"</a> (PDF). OECD-NEA. 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150622010856/https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OECD-NEA&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%3A+Assessment+of+Radiological+and+Health+Impact%2C+2002+update%3B+Chapter+I+%E2%80%93+The+site+and+accident+sequence&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-nea.org%2Frp%2Freports%2F2003%2Fnea3508-chernobyl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physiciansofchernobyl.org.ua/rus/books/Karpan.html">"N. V. Karpan"</a>. Physicians of Chernobyl Association (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227033355/http://www.physiciansofchernobyl.org.ua/rus/books/Karpan.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physicians+of+Chernobyl+Association&rft.atitle=N.+V.+Karpan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physiciansofchernobyl.org.ua%2Frus%2Fbooks%2FKarpan.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHjelmgaard2016" class="citation web cs1">Hjelmgaard, Kim (17 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/04/17/chernobyl-timeline-disaster-30th-anniversary/82899108/">"Chernobyl: Timeline of a nuclear nightmare"</a>. USA Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190626180550/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/04/17/chernobyl-timeline-disaster-30th-anniversary/82899108/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%3A+Timeline+of+a+nuclear+nightmare&rft.date=2016-04-17&rft.aulast=Hjelmgaard&rft.aufirst=Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2Fworld%2F2016%2F04%2F17%2Fchernobyl-timeline-disaster-30th-anniversary%2F82899108%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://interestingengineering.com/chernobyl-a-timeline-of-the-worst-nuclear-accident-in-history">"Chernobyl – A Timeline of The Worst Nuclear Accident in History"</a>. interestingengineering.com. 11 May 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190626180547/https://interestingengineering.com/chernobyl-a-timeline-of-the-worst-nuclear-accident-in-history">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=interestingengineering.com&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+%E2%80%93+A+Timeline+of+The+Worst+Nuclear+Accident+in+History&rft.date=2019-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finterestingengineering.com%2Fchernobyl-a-timeline-of-the-worst-nuclear-accident-in-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-32"><a href="#cite_ref-auto_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDyatlov2003">Dyatlov 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDyatlov2003">Dyatlov 2003</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyatlov" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Dyatlov" title="Anatoly Dyatlov">Dyatlov, Anatoly</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rrc2.narod.ru/book/gl4.html">"4"</a>. Chernobyl. How did it happen? (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060516131842/http://rrc2.narod.ru/book/gl4.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2006. Retrieved 5 May 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=4&rft.btitle=Chernobyl.+How+did+it+happen%3F&rft.aulast=Dyatlov&rft.aufirst=Anatoly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frrc2.narod.ru%2Fbook%2Fgl4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="higginbotham" class="citation book cs1">Higginbotham, Adam (2019). <a href="/wiki/Midnight_in_Chernobyl" title="Midnight in Chernobyl">Midnight in Chernobyl: the untold story of the world's greatest nuclear disaster</a> (First Simon & Schuster hardcover ed.). Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-3464-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5011-3464-7"><bdi>978-1-5011-3464-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Midnight+in+Chernobyl%3A+the+untold+story+of+the+world%27s+greatest+nuclear+disaster&rft.edition=First+Simon+%26+Schuster+hardcover&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-5011-3464-7&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamovCherkashov2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Adamov, E. O.; Cherkashov, Yu. M.; et al. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://accidont.ru/book.html">Channel Nuclear Power Reactor RBMK</a> (in Russian) (Hardcover ed.). Moscow, Russia: GUP NIKIET. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-98706-018-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-98706-018-6"><bdi>978-5-98706-018-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090802042756/http://accidont.ru/book.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 August 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Channel+Nuclear+Power+Reactor+RBMK&rft.place=Moscow%2C+Russia&rft.edition=Hardcover&rft.pub=GUP+NIKIET&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-5-98706-018-6&rft.aulast=Adamov&rft.aufirst=E.+O.&rft.au=Cherkashov%2C+Yu.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faccidont.ru%2Fbook.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKostin2011" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Igor_Kostin" title="Igor Kostin">Kostin, Igor</a> (26 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2011/apr/26/chernobyl-nuclear-disaster-in-pictures">"Chernobyl nuclear disaster – in pictures"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108184910/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2011/apr/26/chernobyl-nuclear-disaster-in-pictures">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+nuclear+disaster+%E2%80%93+in+pictures&rft.date=2011-04-26&rft.aulast=Kostin&rft.aufirst=Igor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2Fgallery%2F2011%2Fapr%2F26%2Fchernobyl-nuclear-disaster-in-pictures&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reactors.narod.ru/pub/chern_2/chern_2.htm">"Chernobyl as it was"</a>. narod.ru (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060517063327/http://www.reactors.narod.ru/pub/chern_2/chern_2.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2006. Retrieved 29 April 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=narod.ru&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+as+it+was&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reactors.narod.ru%2Fpub%2Fchern_2%2Fchern_2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-interestingengineering.com-39"><a href="#cite_ref-interestingengineering.com_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWendorf2019" class="citation web cs1">Wendorf, Marcia (11 May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://interestingengineering.com/chernobyl-a-timeline-of-the-worst-nuclear-accident-in-history">"Chernobyl – A Timeline of The Worst Nuclear Accident in History"</a>. Interesting Engineering. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190626180547/https://interestingengineering.com/chernobyl-a-timeline-of-the-worst-nuclear-accident-in-history">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Interesting+Engineering&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+%E2%80%93+A+Timeline+of+The+Worst+Nuclear+Accident+in+History&rft.date=2019-05-11&rft.aulast=Wendorf&rft.aufirst=Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Finterestingengineering.com%2Fchernobyl-a-timeline-of-the-worst-nuclear-accident-in-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavletbaev1995" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Davletbaev, R. I. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://accidont.ru/Davlet.html">Last shift Chernobyl. Ten years later. Inevitability or chance?</a> (in Russian). Moscow, Russia: Energoatomizdat. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-283-03618-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-283-03618-2"><bdi>978-5-283-03618-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091224094453/http://accidont.ru/Davlet.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2009. Retrieved 30 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Last+shift+Chernobyl.+Ten+years+later.+Inevitability+or+chance%3F&rft.place=Moscow%2C+Russia&rft.pub=Energoatomizdat&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-5-283-03618-2&rft.aulast=Davletbaev&rft.aufirst=R.+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faccidont.ru%2FDavlet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120717102758/http://gt-mhr.ga.com/safety.php">"Graphites"</a>. General Atomics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gt-mhr.ga.com/safety.php">the original</a> on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=General+Atomics&rft.atitle=Graphites&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgt-mhr.ga.com%2Fsafety.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulvey2006" class="citation web cs1">Mulvey, Stephen (18 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4918742.stm">"The Chernobyl nightmare revisited"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108185240/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4918742.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=The+Chernobyl+nightmare+revisited&rft.date=2006-04-18&rft.aulast=Mulvey&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F4918742.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeGeerNuclearJet-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeGeerNuclearJet_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeGeerNuclearJet_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeGeerNuclearJet_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_GeerPerssonRodhe2017" class="citation journal cs1">De Geer, Lars-Erik; Persson, Christer; Rodhe, Henning (November 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168987/FULLTEXT01">"A Nuclear Jet at Chernobyl Around 21:23:45 UTC on April 25, 1986"</a>. Nuclear Technology. 201: 11–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00295450.2017.1384269">10.1080/00295450.2017.1384269</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180721042656/http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1168987/FULLTEXT01">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2018. Retrieved 20 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Technology&rft.atitle=A+Nuclear+Jet+at+Chernobyl+Around+21%3A23%3A45+UTC+on+April+25%2C+1986&rft.volume=201&rft.pages=11-22&rft.date=2017-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00295450.2017.1384269&rft.aulast=De+Geer&rft.aufirst=Lars-Erik&rft.au=Persson%2C+Christer&rft.au=Rodhe%2C+Henning&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsu.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A1168987%2FFULLTEXT01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyer-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Meyer_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer2007" class="citation magazine cs1">Meyer, C. M. (March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131211073343/http://www.eepublishers.co.za/images/upload/Meyer%20Chernobyl%205.pdf">"Chernobyl: what happened and why?"</a> (PDF). Energize. Muldersdrift, South Africa. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1818-2127">1818-2127</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eepublishers.co.za/images/upload/Meyer%20Chernobyl%205.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 11 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energize&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%3A+what+happened+and+why%3F&rft.pages=41&rft.date=2007-03&rft.issn=1818-2127&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=C.+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eepublishers.co.za%2Fimages%2Fupload%2FMeyer%2520Chernobyl%25205.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bond-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Bond_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBond2004" class="citation magazine cs1">Bond, Michael (21 August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18324615-300-cheating-chernobyl/">"Cheating Chernobyl"</a>. New Scientist. Vol. 183, no. 2461. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0262-4079">0262-4079</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210805065004/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18324615-300-cheating-chernobyl/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2021. Retrieved 5 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Cheating+Chernobyl&rft.volume=183&rft.issue=2461&rft.pages=46&rft.date=2004-08-21&rft.issn=0262-4079&rft.aulast=Bond&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg18324615-300-cheating-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChecherov1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Checherov, K. P. (25–27 November 1998). Development of ideas about reasons and processes of emergency on the 4th unit of Chernobyl NPP 26.04.1986 (in Russian). Slavutich, Ukraine: International conference "Shelter-98".</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Development+of+ideas+about+reasons+and+processes+of+emergency+on+the+4th+unit+of+Chernobyl+NPP+26.04.1986&rft.place=Slavutich%2C+Ukraine&rft.pub=International+conference+%22Shelter-98%22&rft.date=1998-11-25%2F1998-11-27&rft.aulast=Checherov&rft.aufirst=K.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pakhomov2009-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pakhomov2009_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pakhomov2009_48-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pakhomov2009_48-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pakhomov2009_48-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPakhomovDubasov2009" class="citation journal cs1">Pakhomov, Sergey A.; Dubasov, Yuri V. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00024-009-0029-9">"Estimation of Explosion Energy Yield at Chernobyl NPP Accident"</a>. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 167 (4–5): 575. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PApGe.167..575P">2010PApGe.167..575P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00024-009-0029-9">10.1007/s00024-009-0029-9</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+and+Applied+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Estimation+of+Explosion+Energy+Yield+at+Chernobyl+NPP+Accident&rft.volume=167&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=575&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00024-009-0029-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PApGe.167..575P&rft.aulast=Pakhomov&rft.aufirst=Sergey+A.&rft.au=Dubasov%2C+Yuri+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs00024-009-0029-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeGeer-49"><a href="#cite_ref-DeGeer_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2017-11-theory-rewrites-moments-chernobyl-disaster.html">"New theory rewrites opening moments of Chernobyl disaster"</a>. Taylor and Francis. 17 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190710232127/https://phys.org/news/2017-11-theory-rewrites-moments-chernobyl-disaster.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 10 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=New+theory+rewrites+opening+moments+of+Chernobyl+disaster&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2017-11-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2017-11-theory-rewrites-moments-chernobyl-disaster.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sci-news.com/physics/new-study-first-seconds-chernobyl-accident-05452.html">"New Study Rewrites First Seconds of Chernobyl Accident"</a>. Sci News. 21 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141921/http://www.sci-news.com/physics/new-study-first-seconds-chernobyl-accident-05452.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sci+News&rft.atitle=New+Study+Rewrites+First+Seconds+of+Chernobyl+Accident&rft.date=2017-11-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sci-news.com%2Fphysics%2Fnew-study-first-seconds-chernobyl-accident-05452.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Embury-Dennis-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Embury-Dennis_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmbury-Dennis" class="citation news cs1">Embury-Dennis, Tom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/chernobyl-disaster-cause-scientists-wrong-nuclear-power-plant-accident-ukraine-study-a8067026.html">"Scientists might be wrong about cause of Chernobyl disaster, new study claims fresh evidence points to initial nuclear explosion rather than steam blast"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171121164613/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/chernobyl-disaster-cause-scientists-wrong-nuclear-power-plant-accident-ukraine-study-a8067026.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Scientists+might+be+wrong+about+cause+of+Chernobyl+disaster%2C+new+study+claims+fresh+evidence+points+to+initial+nuclear+explosion+rather+than+steam+blast&rft.aulast=Embury-Dennis&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Fchernobyl-disaster-cause-scientists-wrong-nuclear-power-plant-accident-ukraine-study-a8067026.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150621122802/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/videos/meltdown-in-chernobyl/">"Meltdown in Chernobyl (Video)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Channel">National Geographic Channel</a>. 10 August 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/videos/meltdown-in-chernobyl/">the original</a> on 21 June 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Channel&rft.atitle=Meltdown+in+Chernobyl+%28Video%29&rft.date=2011-08-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchannel.nationalgeographic.com%2Fvideos%2Fmeltdown-in-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShcherbak1987" class="citation news cs1">Shcherbak, Y. (1987). Medvedev, G. (ed.). "Chernobyl". Vol. 6. Yunost. p. 44.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chernobyl&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=44&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Shcherbak&rft.aufirst=Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nuclruss-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nuclruss_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nuclruss_54-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham2006" class="citation news cs1">Higginbotham, Adam (26 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/mar/26/nuclear.russia">"Chernobyl 20 years on"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Observer" title="The Observer">The Observer</a>. London, England. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130830011011/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/mar/26/nuclear.russia">Archived</a> from the original on 30 August 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observer&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+20+years+on&rft.date=2006-03-26&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2006%2Fmar%2F26%2Fnuclear.russia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCContaining-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBCContaining_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBCContaining_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBCContaining_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1997/chernobyl/33005.stm">"Special Report: 1997: Chernobyl: Containing Chernobyl?"</a>. BBC News. 21 November 1997. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110319223944/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1997/chernobyl/33005.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Special+Report%3A+1997%3A+Chernobyl%3A+Containing+Chernobyl%3F&rft.date=1997-11-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fspecial_report%2F1997%2Fchernobyl%2F33005.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKenna2016" class="citation web cs1">McKenna, James T. (26 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rotorandwing.com/2016/04/26/chernobyl-anniversary-recalls-helo-pilots-bravery/">"Chernobyl Anniversary Recalls Helo Pilots' Bravery"</a>. Rotor & Wing International. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180705093114/http://www.rotorandwing.com/2016/04/26/chernobyl-anniversary-recalls-helo-pilots-bravery/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 July 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Rotor+%26+Wing+International&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Anniversary+Recalls+Helo+Pilots%27+Bravery&rft.date=2016-04-26&rft.aulast=McKenna&rft.aufirst=James+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rotorandwing.com%2F2016%2F04%2F26%2Fchernobyl-anniversary-recalls-helo-pilots-bravery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-zeilig22-57"><a href="#cite_ref-zeilig22_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZeilig1995" class="citation journal cs1">Zeilig, Martin (August–September 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516101332/http://www.mphpa.org/classic/FH/LA/Louis_Slotin_1.htm">"Louis Slotin And 'The Invisible Killer'"</a>. The Beaver. 75 (4): 20–27. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mphpa.org/classic/FH/LA/Louis_Slotin_1.htm">the original</a> on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 28 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Beaver&rft.atitle=Louis+Slotin+And+%27The+Invisible+Killer%27&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=20-27&rft.date=1995-08%2F1995-09&rft.aulast=Zeilig&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mphpa.org%2Fclassic%2FFH%2FLA%2FLouis_Slotin_1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MedvedevG-58"><a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevG_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev1989" class="citation book cs1">Medvedev, Grigori (1989). <a href="/wiki/The_Truth_About_Chernobyl" title="The Truth About Chernobyl">The Truth About Chernobyl</a> (Hardcover. First American edition published by Basic Books in 1991 ed.). VAAP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-226-04031-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-226-04031-2"><bdi>978-2-226-04031-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Truth+About+Chernobyl&rft.edition=Hardcover.+First+American+edition+published+by+Basic+Books+in+1991&rft.pub=VAAP&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-2-226-04031-2&rft.aulast=Medvedev&rft.aufirst=Grigori&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MedvedevGweb-59"><a href="#cite_ref-MedvedevGweb_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev" class="citation web cs1">Medvedev, Grigori. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a335076.pdf">"The Truth About Chernobyl"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190705081449/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a335076.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 5 July 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Truth+About+Chernobyl&rft.aulast=Medvedev&rft.aufirst=Grigori&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapps.dtic.mil%2Fdtic%2Ftr%2Ffulltext%2Fu2%2Fa335076.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> "History of the International Atomic Energy Agency", IAEA, Vienna (1997). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timetravel.mementoweb.org/memento/2011/http://www.insc.anl.gov/neisb/neisb4/NEISB_3.3.A1.html">"Chernobyl (Chornobyl) Nuclear Power Plant"</a>. NEI Source Book (4th ed.). Nuclear Energy Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.insc.anl.gov/neisb/neisb4/NEISB_3.3.A1.html">the original</a> on 2 July 2016. Retrieved 31 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+%28Chornobyl%29+Nuclear+Power+Plant&rft.btitle=NEI+Source+Book&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Nuclear+Energy+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.insc.anl.gov%2Fneisb%2Fneisb4%2FNEISB_3.3.A1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TimeDisaster-62"><a href="#cite_ref-TimeDisaster_62-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Disasters that Shook the World. New York: Time Home Entertainment. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60320-247-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60320-247-3"><bdi>978-1-60320-247-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disasters+that+Shook+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Time+Home+Entertainment&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-60320-247-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-shevchenko-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-shevchenko_63-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160426221138/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2011/04/25/36971/"><bdi lang="uk">Валентина Шевченко: 'Провести демонстрацію 1 травня 1986–го наказали з Москви'</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/Ukrayinska_Pravda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ukrayinska Pravda">Istorychna Pravda</a> (in Ukrainian). 25 April 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/2011/04/25/36971/">the original</a> on 26 April 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Istorychna+Pravda&rft.atitle=%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%A8%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE%3A+%27%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8E+1+%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F+1986%E2%80%93%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8+%D0%B7+%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B8%27&rft.date=2011-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.istpravda.com.ua%2Farticles%2F2011%2F04%2F25%2F36971%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pripyat_evacuation_announcement-64"><a href="#cite_ref-pripyat_evacuation_announcement_64-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1">Sahota, M. (dir).; Smith, A. (nar).; Lanning, G. (prod).; Joyce, C. (ed). (17 August 2004). "Meltdown in Chernobyl". <a href="/wiki/Seconds_From_Disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Seconds From Disaster">Seconds From Disaster</a>. Season 1. Episode 7. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Channel">National Geographic Channel</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seconds+From+Disaster&rft.series=Season+1.+Episode+7&rft.date=2004-08-17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MarplesSocialImpact-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesSocialImpact_65-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarples1988" class="citation book cs1">Marples, David R. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialimpactof00marp">The Social Impact of the Chernobyl Disaster</a>. New York: St Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312024321" title="Special:BookSources/9780312024321"><bdi>9780312024321</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Impact+of+the+Chernobyl+Disaster&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780312024321&rft.aulast=Marples&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialimpactof00marp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/newsline/chernobylreport.pdf">"Table 2.2 Number of people affected by the Chernobyl accident (to December 2000)"</a> (PDF). The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident. UNDP and UNICEF. 22 January 2002. p. 32. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170201120932/https://www.unicef.org/newsline/chernobylreport.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Human+Consequences+of+the+Chernobyl+Nuclear+Accident&rft.atitle=Table+2.2+Number+of+people+affected+by+the+Chernobyl+accident+%28to+December+2000%29&rft.pages=32&rft.date=2002-01-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicef.org%2Fnewsline%2Fchernobylreport.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/newsline/chernobylreport.pdf">"Table 5.3: Evacuated and resettled people"</a> (PDF). The Human Consequences of the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident. UNDP and UNICEF. 22 January 2002. p. 66. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170201120932/https://www.unicef.org/newsline/chernobylreport.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Human+Consequences+of+the+Chernobyl+Nuclear+Accident&rft.atitle=Table+5.3%3A+Evacuated+and+resettled+people&rft.pages=66&rft.date=2002-01-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicef.org%2Fnewsline%2Fchernobylreport.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/living-with-catastrophe-1524915.html">"LIVING WITH CATASTROPHE"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. 10 December 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190423140441/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/living-with-catastrophe-1524915.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 8 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=LIVING+WITH+CATASTROPHE&rft.date=1995-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Farts-entertainment%2Fliving-with-catastrophe-1524915.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sveriges-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sveriges_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sveriges_69-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=4468603">"25 years after Chernobyl, how Sweden found out"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sveriges_Radio" title="Sveriges Radio">Sveriges Radio</a>. 22 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181109070828/https://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=2054&artikel=4468603">Archived</a> from the original on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sveriges+Radio&rft.atitle=25+years+after+Chernobyl%2C+how+Sweden+found+out&rft.date=2011-04-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsverigesradio.se%2Fsida%2Fartikel.aspx%3Fprogramid%3D2054%26artikel%3D4468603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-schmemann19860429-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-schmemann19860429_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-schmemann19860429_70-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmemann1986" class="citation news cs1">Schmemann, Serge (29 April 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0426.html">"Soviet Announces Nuclear Accident at Electric Plant"</a>. The New York Times. p. A1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140427011434/http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0426.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2014. Retrieved 26 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Soviet+Announces+Nuclear+Accident+at+Electric+Plant&rft.pages=A1&rft.date=1986-04-29&rft.aulast=Schmemann&rft.aufirst=Serge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flearning%2Fgeneral%2Fonthisday%2Fbig%2F0426.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaverstock2011" class="citation journal cs1">Baverstock, K. (26 April 2011). "Chernobyl 25 years on". BMJ. 342 (apr26 1): d2443. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.d2443">10.1136/bmj.d2443</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0959-8138">0959-8138</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21521731">21521731</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12917536">12917536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+25+years+on&rft.volume=342&rft.issue=apr26+1&rft.pages=d2443&rft.date=2011-04-26&rft.issn=0959-8138&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12917536%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21521731&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.d2443&rft.aulast=Baverstock&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GalleryTimeline-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GalleryTimeline_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GalleryTimeline_72-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chernobylgallery.com/chernobyl-disaster/timeline/">"Timeline: A chronology of events surrounding the Chernobyl nuclear disaster"</a>. The Chernobyl Gallery. 15 February 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150318013918/http://chernobylgallery.com/chernobyl-disaster/timeline/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 March 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2018. <q>28 April – Monday 09:30 – Staff at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant, Sweden, detect a dangerous surge in radioactivity. Initially picked up when a routine check reveals that the soles shoes worn by a radiological safety engineer at the plant were radioactive. [28 April – Monday] 21:02 – Moscow TV news announce that an accident has occurred at the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant.[...] [28 April – Monday] 23:00 – A Danish nuclear research laboratory announces that an MCA (maximum credible accident) has occurred in the Chernobyl nuclear reactor. They mention a complete meltdown of one of the reactors and that all radioactivity has been released.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Chernobyl+Gallery&rft.atitle=Timeline%3A+A+chronology+of+events+surrounding+the+Chernobyl+nuclear+disaster&rft.date=2013-02-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchernobylgallery.com%2Fchernobyl-disaster%2Ftimeline%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vremya-73"><a href="#cite_ref-vremya_73-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sC7n_QgJRks">Video footage of Chernobyl disaster on 28 April</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a> (in Russian). </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.istpravda.com.ua/videos/2011/04/25/36966/">"1986: американський ТБ-сюжет про Чорнобиль. Порівняйте з радянським"</a>. Історична правда (in Ukrainian). 25 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110502133614/http://www.istpravda.com.ua/videos/2011/04/25/36966/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B0&rft.atitle=1986%3A+%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%A2%D0%91-%D1%81%D1%8E%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%82+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE+%D0%A7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C.+%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B5+%D0%B7+%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BC&rft.date=2011-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.istpravda.com.ua%2Fvideos%2F2011%2F04%2F25%2F36966%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lava1-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lava1_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lava1_75-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogatovBorovoiLagunenkoPazukhin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bogatov, S. A.; Borovoi, A. A.; Lagunenko, A. S.; Pazukhin, E. M.; Strizhov, V. F.; Khvoshchinskii, V. A. (2009). "Formation and spread of Chernobyl lavas". Radiochemistry. 50 (6): 650–654. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1066362208050131">10.1134/S1066362208050131</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:95752280">95752280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radiochemistry&rft.atitle=Formation+and+spread+of+Chernobyl+lavas&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=650-654&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS1066362208050131&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A95752280%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bogatov&rft.aufirst=S.+A.&rft.au=Borovoi%2C+A.+A.&rft.au=Lagunenko%2C+A.+S.&rft.au=Pazukhin%2C+E.+M.&rft.au=Strizhov%2C+V.+F.&rft.au=Khvoshchinskii%2C+V.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lava2-76"><a href="#cite_ref-lava2_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetrovUdalovSubrtBakardjieva2009" class="citation journal cs1">Petrov, Yu. B.; Udalov, Yu. P.; Subrt, J.; Bakardjieva, S.; Sazavsky, P.; Kiselova, M.; Selucky, P.; Bezdicka, P.; Jorneau, C.; Piluso, P. (2009). "Behavior of melts in the UO2-SiO2 system in the liquid-liquid phase separation region". Glass Physics and Chemistry. 35 (2): 199–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS1087659609020126">10.1134/S1087659609020126</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:135616447">135616447</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Glass+Physics+and+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Behavior+of+melts+in+the+UO2-SiO2+system+in+the+liquid-liquid+phase+separation+region&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=199-204&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS1087659609020126&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A135616447%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Petrov&rft.aufirst=Yu.+B.&rft.au=Udalov%2C+Yu.+P.&rft.au=Subrt%2C+J.&rft.au=Bakardjieva%2C+S.&rft.au=Sazavsky%2C+P.&rft.au=Kiselova%2C+M.&rft.au=Selucky%2C+P.&rft.au=Bezdicka%2C+P.&rft.au=Jorneau%2C+C.&rft.au=Piluso%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lava3-77"><a href="#cite_ref-lava3_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJourneauBoccaccioJégouPiluso2001" class="citation news cs1">Journeau, Christophe; Boccaccio, Eric; Jégou, Claude; Piluso, Pascal; Cognet, Gérard (2001). "Flow and Solidification of Corium in the VULCANO Facility". Engineering case studies online. Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.689.108">10.1.1.689.108</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/884784975">884784975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Flow+and+Solidification+of+Corium+in+the+VULCANO+Facility&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.689.108%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F884784975&rft.aulast=Journeau&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rft.au=Boccaccio%2C+Eric&rft.au=J%C3%A9gou%2C+Claude&rft.au=Piluso%2C+Pascal&rft.au=Cognet%2C+G%C3%A9rard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMedvedev1990" class="citation book cs1">Medvedev, Z. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/legacyofchernoby00medv">The Legacy of Chernobyl</a>. W. W. Norton & Company Incorporated. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/legacyofchernoby00medv/page/58">58–59</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30814-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-30814-3"><bdi>978-0-393-30814-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Chernobyl&rft.pages=58-59&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company+Incorporated&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-393-30814-3&rft.aulast=Medvedev&rft.aufirst=Z.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flegacyofchernoby00medv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChecherov2006" class="citation journal cs1">Checherov, Konstantin (2006). "The Unpeaceful Atom of Chernobyl". Person (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Person&rft.atitle=The+Unpeaceful+Atom+of+Chernobyl&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Checherov&rft.aufirst=Konstantin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kramer-80"><a href="#cite_ref-kramer_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2016" class="citation web cs1">Kramer, Sarah (26 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.businessinsider.com/chernobyl-volunteers-divers-nuclear-mission-2016-4">"The amazing true story behind the Chernobyl 'suicide squad' that helped save Europe"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Business_Insider" title="Business Insider">Business Insider</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161009180156/http://www.businessinsider.com/chernobyl-volunteers-divers-nuclear-mission-2016-4">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Business+Insider&rft.atitle=The+amazing+true+story+behind+the+Chernobyl+%27suicide+squad%27+that+helped+save+Europe&rft.date=2016-04-26&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.businessinsider.com%2Fchernobyl-volunteers-divers-nuclear-mission-2016-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mkru-81"><a href="#cite_ref-mkru_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamodelova2011" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Samodelova, Svetlana (25 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mk.ru/politics/sng/2011/04/25/584047-belyie-pyatna-chernobyilya.html"><bdi lang="ru">Белые пятна Чернобыля</bdi></a>. Московский комсомолец (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161009160659/http://www.mk.ru/politics/sng/2011/04/25/584047-belyie-pyatna-chernobyilya.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%86&rft.atitle=%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8F&rft.date=2011-04-25&rft.aulast=Samodelova&rft.aufirst=Svetlana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mk.ru%2Fpolitics%2Fsng%2F2011%2F04%2F25%2F584047-belyie-pyatna-chernobyilya.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-divers2-82"><a href="#cite_ref-divers2_82-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/bfb4a0cf2479ee940116c74141e8a332">"Soviets Report Heroic Acts at Chernobyl Reactor With AM Chernobyl Nuclear Bjt"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. 15 May 1986. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140429204527/http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1986/Soviet-Press-Reports-Heroic-Acts-at-Chernobyl-Reactor-With-AM-Chernobyl-Nuclear-Bjt/id-bfb4a0cf2479ee940116c74141e8a332">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 26 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press&rft.atitle=Soviets+Report+Heroic+Acts+at+Chernobyl+Reactor+With+AM+Chernobyl+Nuclear+Bjt&rft.date=1986-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Fbfb4a0cf2479ee940116c74141e8a332&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhukovskyItkinChernenko1986" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhukovsky, Vladimir; Itkin, Vladimir; Chernenko, Lev (16 May 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myslenedrevo.com.ua/uk/Sci/HistSources/Chornobyl/1986/05/16/ChernobylAdresMuzhestva.html"><bdi lang="ru">Чернобыль: адрес мужества</bdi></a> [Chernobyl: the address of courage]. <a href="/wiki/Telegraph_Agency_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union">TASS</a> (in Russian). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108224502/https://www.myslenedrevo.com.ua/uk/Sci/HistSources/Chornobyl/1986/05/16/ChernobylAdresMuzhestva.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 5 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=TASS&rft.atitle=%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%3A+%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81+%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.date=1986-05-16&rft.aulast=Zhukovsky&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft.au=Itkin%2C+Vladimir&rft.au=Chernenko%2C+Lev&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myslenedrevo.com.ua%2Fuk%2FSci%2FHistSources%2FChornobyl%2F1986%2F05%2F16%2FChernobylAdresMuzhestva.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chernobyl_1986,_p.178-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Chernobyl_1986,_p.178_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkes1986" class="citation book cs1">Hawkes, Nigel; et al. (1986). Chernobyl: The End of the Nuclear Dream. London, England: Pan Books. p. 178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-29743-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-29743-1"><bdi>978-0-330-29743-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chernobyl%3A+The+End+of+the+Nuclear+Dream&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Pan+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-330-29743-1&rft.aulast=Hawkes&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190514115713/https://www.ukrinform.ru/rubric-society/2449795-prezident-vrucil-nagrady-geroamlikvidatoram-i-rabotnikam-caes.html"><bdi lang="ru">Президент Петр Порошенко вручил государственные награды работникам Чернобыльской атомной электростанции и ликвидаторам последствий аварии на ЧАЭС.</bdi></a> [President Petro Poroshenko presented state awards to employees of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and the liquidators of the consequences of the Chernobyl NPP accident.] (in Russian). Archived from the original on 14 May 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82+%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80+%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE+%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B+%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC+%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%B8+%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ukrinform.ru%2Frubric-society%2F2449795-prezident-vrucil-nagrady-geroamlikvidatoram-i-rabotnikam-caes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108224413/http://www.souzchernobyl.org/?id=2440"><bdi lang="ru">Воспоминания старшего инженера-механика реакторного цеха №2 Алексея Ананенка</bdi></a> [Memoirs of the senior engineer-mechanic of reactor shop №2 Alexey Ananenko]. Exposing the Chornobyl Myths (in Russian). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.souzchernobyl.org/?id=2440">the original</a> on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Exposing+the+Chornobyl+Myths&rft.atitle=%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0-%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%B0+%E2%84%962+%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%8F+%D0%90%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.souzchernobyl.org%2F%3Fid%3D2440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSich1994" class="citation techreport cs1">Sich, A. R. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/10153756#page=6">The Chernobyl Accident</a> (Technical report). Vol. 35. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 13. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220225015921/https://www.osti.gov/biblio/10153756#page=6">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Chernobyl+Accident&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+National+Laboratory&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Sich&rft.aufirst=A.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.osti.gov%2Fbiblio%2F10153756%23page%3D6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnett2011" class="citation web cs1">Burnett, Tom (28 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hawaiinewsdaily.com/2011/03/when-the-fukushima-meltdown-hits-groundwater">"When the Fukushima Meltdown Hits Groundwater"</a>. Hawai'i News Daily. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120511134329/http://hawaiinewsdaily.com/2011/03/when-the-fukushima-meltdown-hits-groundwater/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hawai%27i+News+Daily&rft.atitle=When+the+Fukushima+Meltdown+Hits+Groundwater&rft.date=2011-03-28&rft.aulast=Burnett&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhawaiinewsdaily.com%2F2011%2F03%2Fwhen-the-fukushima-meltdown-hits-groundwater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/catch-falling-core-lessons-chernobyl-russian-nuclear-industry">"To Catch a Falling Core: Lessons of Chernobyl for Russian Nuclear Industry"</a>. Pulitzer Center. 18 September 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190629031621/https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/catch-falling-core-lessons-chernobyl-russian-nuclear-industry">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pulitzer+Center&rft.atitle=To+Catch+a+Falling+Core%3A+Lessons+of+Chernobyl+for+Russian+Nuclear+Industry&rft.date=2012-09-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpulitzercenter.org%2Freporting%2Fcatch-falling-core-lessons-chernobyl-russian-nuclear-industry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2011" class="citation news cs1">Kramer, Andrew E. (22 March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/23/business/energy-environment/23chernobyl.html">"After Chernobyl, Russia's Nuclear Industry Emphasizes Reactor Safety"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190629033119/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/23/business/energy-environment/23chernobyl.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2019. Retrieved 29 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=After+Chernobyl%2C+Russia%27s+Nuclear+Industry+Emphasizes+Reactor+Safety&rft.date=2011-03-22&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Andrew+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F03%2F23%2Fbusiness%2Fenergy-environment%2F23chernobyl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-robotsroof-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-robotsroof_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-robotsroof_91-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-robotsroof_91-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-robotsroof_91-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2019" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, Christopher (January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.the-scientist.com/news/soviet-official-admits-that-robots-couldnt-handle-chernobyl-cleanup-61583">"Soviet Official Admits That Robots Couldn't Handle Chernobyl Cleanup"</a>. The Scientist. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190410204859/https://www.the-scientist.com/news/soviet-official-admits-that-robots-couldnt-handle-chernobyl-cleanup-61583">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Scientist&rft.atitle=Soviet+Official+Admits+That+Robots+Couldn%27t+Handle+Chernobyl+Cleanup&rft.date=2019-01&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-scientist.com%2Fnews%2Fsoviet-official-admits-that-robots-couldnt-handle-chernobyl-cleanup-61583&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://decider.com/2019/05/30/chernobyl-joker-robot-episode-4/">"The Real Story Behind Chernobyl's Joker Robot is Even Sadder Than on the Show"</a>. 30 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Real+Story+Behind+Chernobyl%27s+Joker+Robot+is+Even+Sadder+Than+on+the+Show&rft.date=2019-05-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdecider.com%2F2019%2F05%2F30%2Fchernobyl-joker-robot-episode-4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NatGeo-93"><a href="#cite_ref-NatGeo_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1987" class="citation magazine cs1">Edwards, Mike W. (May 1987). "Chernobyl – One Year After". <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a>. Vol. 171, no. 5. p. 645. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-9358">0027-9358</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643483454">643483454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+%E2%80%93+One+Year+After&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=645&rft.date=1987-05&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F643483454&rft.issn=0027-9358&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Mike+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Ebel, Robert E.; Center for Strategic and International Studies (1994). Chernobyl and its aftermath: a chronology of events (1994 ed.). CSIS. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89206-302-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89206-302-4">978-0-89206-302-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2013" class="citation magazine cs1">Hill, Kyle (4 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nautil.us/blog/chernobyls-hot-mess-the-elephants-foot-is-still-lethal">"Chernobyl's Hot Mess, 'the Elephant's Foot', Is Still Lethal"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nautilus_(science_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nautilus (science magazine)">Nautilus</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181115173340/http://nautil.us/blog/chernobyls-hot-mess-the-elephants-foot-is-still-lethal">Archived</a> from the original on 15 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nautilus&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%27s+Hot+Mess%2C+%27the+Elephant%27s+Foot%27%2C+Is+Still+Lethal&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnautil.us%2Fblog%2Fchernobyls-hot-mess-the-elephants-foot-is-still-lethal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelyaev" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Belyaev, I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/belyaev_chernobyl-vahta-smerti_2009/p58/?hl=%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B0">"Чернобыль – вахта смерти"</a> [Chernobyl – Watch of Death]. Biblioatom (in Russian). Rosatom. Retrieved 18 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biblioatom&rft.atitle=%D0%A7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8C+%E2%80%93+%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%82%D0%B0+%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B8&rft.aulast=Belyaev&rft.aufirst=I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felib.biblioatom.ru%2Ftext%2Fbelyaev_chernobyl-vahta-smerti_2009%2Fp58%2F%3Fhl%3D%25D0%25B1%25D0%25B0%25D1%2580%25D0%25B4%25D0%25B0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/06/in_pictures_chernobyl0s_silent_graveyards_/html/1.stm">"Chernobyl's silent graveyards"</a>. BBC News. 20 April 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181105043521/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/pop_ups/06/in_pictures_chernobyl0s_silent_graveyards_/html/1.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%27s+silent+graveyards&rft.date=2006-04-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fshared%2Fspl%2Fhi%2Fpop_ups%2F06%2Fin_pictures_chernobyl0s_silent_graveyards_%2Fhtml%2F1.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://collectinghistory.net/chernobyl/index.html">"Medal for Service at the Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster"</a>. CollectingHistory.net. 26 April 1986. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130905161244/http://collectinghistory.net/chernobyl/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CollectingHistory.net&rft.atitle=Medal+for+Service+at+the+Chernobyl+Nuclear+Disaster&rft.date=1986-04-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcollectinghistory.net%2Fchernobyl%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PetrynaLE-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PetrynaLE_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PetrynaLE_99-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PetrynaLE_99-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PetrynaLE_99-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetryna2002" class="citation book cs1">Petryna, Adriana (2002). Life Exposed: Biological Citizens After Chernobyl. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+Exposed%3A+Biological+Citizens+After+Chernobyl&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Petryna&rft.aufirst=Adriana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gen-comm/info-notices/1993/in93071.html">"Information Notice No. 93–71: Fire At Chernobyl Unit 2"</a>. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 13 September 1993. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112040027/http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/gen-comm/info-notices/1993/in93071.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nuclear+Regulatory+Commission&rft.atitle=Information+Notice+No.+93%E2%80%9371%3A+Fire+At+Chernobyl+Unit+2&rft.date=1993-09-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrc.gov%2Freading-rm%2Fdoc-collections%2Fgen-comm%2Finfo-notices%2F1993%2Fin93071.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pris.iaea.org/pris/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=575">"Chernobyl-3"</a>. IAEA Power Reactor Information System. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108230003/https://pris.iaea.org/pris/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=575">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IAEA+Power+Reactor+Information+System&rft.atitle=Chernobyl-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpris.iaea.org%2Fpris%2FCountryStatistics%2FReactorDetails.aspx%3Fcurrent%3D575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> Site polled in May 2008 reports shutdown for units 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively at 30 November 1996, 11 October 1991, 15 December 2000 and 26 April 1986. </li> <li id="cite_note-chornobyl.in.ua-102"><a href="#cite_ref-chornobyl.in.ua_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chornobyl.in.ua/en/shelter.htm">""Shelter" object"</a>. Chernobyl, Pripyat, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant and the exclusion zone. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722200757/http://www.chornobyl.in.ua/en/shelter.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2012. <q>The bulk of work that had been implemented in order to eliminate the consequences of the accident and minimalize the escape of radionuclides into the environment was to construct a protective shell over the destroyed reactor at Chernobyl.[...] work on the construction of a protective shell was the most important, extremely dangerous and risky. The protective shell, which was named the «Shelter» object, was created in a very short period of time—six months. [...] Construction of the "Shelter" object began after mid-May 1986. The State Commission decided on the long-term conservation of the fourth unit of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in order to prevent the release of radionuclides into the environment and to reduce the influence of penetrating radiation at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant site.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chernobyl%2C+Pripyat%2C+the+Chernobyl+nuclear+power+plant+and+the+exclusion+zone&rft.atitle=%22Shelter%22+object&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chornobyl.in.ua%2Fen%2Fshelter.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130429110724/http://mainichi.jp/english/english/newsselect/news/20130425p2a00m0na017000c.html">"Collapse of Chernobyl nuke plant building attributed to sloppy repair work, aging"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mainichi_Shimbun" title="Mainichi Shimbun">Mainichi Shimbun</a>. 25 April 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mainichi.jp/english/english/newsselect/news/20130425p2a00m0na017000c.html">the original</a> on 29 April 2013. Retrieved 26 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mainichi+Shimbun&rft.atitle=Collapse+of+Chernobyl+nuke+plant+building+attributed+to+sloppy+repair+work%2C+aging&rft.date=2013-04-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmainichi.jp%2Fenglish%2Fenglish%2Fnewsselect%2Fnews%2F20130425p2a00m0na017000c.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21449760">"Ukraine: Chernobyl nuclear roof collapse 'no danger'"</a>. BBC News. 13 February 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160112183342/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21449760">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Ukraine%3A+Chernobyl+nuclear+roof+collapse+%27no+danger%27&rft.date=2013-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-21449760&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx">"Chernobyl | Chernobyl Accident | Chernobyl Disaster – World Nuclear Association"</a>. world-nuclear.org. Retrieved 18 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=world-nuclear.org&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+%7C+Chernobyl+Accident+%7C+Chernobyl+Disaster+%E2%80%93+World+Nuclear+Association&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworld-nuclear.org%2Finformation-library%2Fsafety-and-security%2Fsafety-of-plants%2Fchernobyl-accident.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalker2016" class="citation news cs1">Walker, Shaun (29 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/29/chernobyl-nuclear-disaster-site-covered-with-shelter-prevent-radiation-leaks-ukraine">"Chernobyl disaster site enclosed by shelter to prevent radiation leaks"</a>. The Guardian. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161222104254/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/29/chernobyl-nuclear-disaster-site-covered-with-shelter-prevent-radiation-leaks-ukraine">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+disaster+site+enclosed+by+shelter+to+prevent+radiation+leaks&rft.date=2016-11-29&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Shaun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2016%2Fnov%2F29%2Fchernobyl-nuclear-disaster-site-covered-with-shelter-prevent-radiation-leaks-ukraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Chernobyl-units-1-3-now-clear-of-damaged-fuel">"Chernobyl units 1–3 now clear of damaged fuel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Nuclear_Association" title="World Nuclear Association">World Nuclear News</a>. 7 June 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190630223325/http://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Chernobyl-units-1-3-now-clear-of-damaged-fuel">Archived</a> from the original on 30 June 2019. Retrieved 30 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Nuclear+News&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+units+1%E2%80%933+now+clear+of+damaged+fuel&rft.date=2016-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworld-nuclear-news.org%2FArticles%2FChernobyl-units-1-3-now-clear-of-damaged-fuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Holtec-clear-to-start-testing-ISF2-at-Chernobyl">"Holtec clear to start testing ISF2 at Chernobyl"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Nuclear_Association" title="World Nuclear Association">World Nuclear News</a>. 4 August 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190918070303/http://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Holtec-clear-to-start-testing-ISF2-at-Chernobyl">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Nuclear+News&rft.atitle=Holtec+clear+to+start+testing+ISF2+at+Chernobyl&rft.date=2017-08-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworld-nuclear-news.org%2FArticles%2FHoltec-clear-to-start-testing-ISF2-at-Chernobyl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WNA-Chernobyl-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WNA-Chernobyl_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WNA-Chernobyl_109-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://world-nuclear.org/info/Safety-and-Security/Safety-of-Plants/Chernobyl-Accident/">"Chernobyl Accident 1986"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Nuclear_Association" title="World Nuclear Association">World Nuclear Association</a>. April 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150420143903/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident/">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Nuclear+Association&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Accident+1986&rft.date=2015-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworld-nuclear.org%2Finfo%2FSafety-and-Security%2FSafety-of-Plants%2FChernobyl-Accident%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaryakhtarGoncharZhidkovZhidkov2002" class="citation journal cs1">Baryakhtar, V.; Gonchar, V.; Zhidkov, A.; Zhidkov, V. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icmp.lviv.ua/journal/zbirnyk.31/005/art05.pdf">"Radiation damages and self-sputtering of high-radioactive dielectrics: spontaneous emission of submicronic dust particles"</a> (PDF). Condensed Matter Physics. 5 (3{31}): 449–471. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002CMPh....5..449B">2002CMPh....5..449B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5488%2Fcmp.5.3.449">10.5488/cmp.5.3.449</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131101175848/http://www.icmp.lviv.ua/journal/zbirnyk.31/005/art05.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2013. Retrieved 30 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Condensed+Matter+Physics&rft.atitle=Radiation+damages+and+self-sputtering+of+high-radioactive+dielectrics%3A+spontaneous+emission+of+submicronic+dust+particles&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3%7B31%7D&rft.pages=449-471&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5488%2Fcmp.5.3.449&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002CMPh....5..449B&rft.aulast=Baryakhtar&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Gonchar%2C+V.&rft.au=Zhidkov%2C+A.&rft.au=Zhidkov%2C+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icmp.lviv.ua%2Fjournal%2Fzbirnyk.31%2F005%2Fart05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Borovoi2006-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Borovoi2006_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borovoi2006_111-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Borovoi2006_111-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorovoi2006" class="citation journal cs1">Borovoi, A. A. (2006). "Nuclear fuel in the shelter". Atomic Energy. 100 (4): 249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10512-006-0079-3">10.1007/s10512-006-0079-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97015862">97015862</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atomic+Energy&rft.atitle=Nuclear+fuel+in+the+shelter&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=249&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10512-006-0079-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A97015862%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Borovoi&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_112-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2021" class="citation news cs1">Stone, Richard (5 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/nuclear-reactions-reawaken-chernobyl-reactor">"'It's like the embers in a barbecue pit.' Nuclear reactions are smoldering again at Chernobyl"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210510004508/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2021/05/nuclear-reactions-reawaken-chernobyl-reactor">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=%27It%27s+like+the+embers+in+a+barbecue+pit.%27+Nuclear+reactions+are+smoldering+again+at+Chernobyl&rft.date=2021-05-05&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fcontent%2Farticle%2Fnuclear-reactions-reawaken-chernobyl-reactor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Higginbotham-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Higginbotham_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHigginbotham2019" class="citation book cs1">Higginbotham, Adam (2019). <a href="/wiki/Midnight_in_Chernobyl" title="Midnight in Chernobyl">Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World's Greatest Nuclear Disaster</a>. Random House. p. 340. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4735-4082-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4735-4082-8"><bdi>978-1-4735-4082-8</bdi></a>. <q>The substance proved too hard for a drill mounted on a motorized trolley, ... Finally, a police marksman arrived and shot a fragment of the surface away with a rifle. The sample revealed that the Elephant's Foot was a solidified mass of silicon dioxide, titanium, zirconium, magnesium, and uranium ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Midnight+in+Chernobyl%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+the+World%27s+Greatest+Nuclear+Disaster&rft.pages=340&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-4735-4082-8&rft.aulast=Higginbotham&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Telegraph2016-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Telegraph2016_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Telegraph2016_114-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliphant2016" class="citation news cs1">Oliphant, Roland (24 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/23/wildlife-returns-to-radioactive-wasteland-of-chernobyl/">"30 years after Chernobyl disaster, wildlife is flourishing in radioactive wasteland"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160427011132/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/23/wildlife-returns-to-radioactive-wasteland-of-chernobyl/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=30+years+after+Chernobyl+disaster%2C+wildlife+is+flourishing+in+radioactive+wasteland&rft.date=2016-04-24&rft.aulast=Oliphant&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2016%2F04%2F23%2Fwildlife-returns-to-radioactive-wasteland-of-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-csmonitor-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-csmonitor_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-csmonitor_115-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Global-News/2016/0424/Chernobyl-will-be-unhabitable-for-at-least-3-000-years-say-nuclear-experts">"Chernobyl will be unhabitable for at least 3,000 years, say nuclear experts"</a>. Christian Science Monitor. 24 April 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200426171834/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Global-News/2016/0424/Chernobyl-will-be-unhabitable-for-at-least-3-000-years-say-nuclear-experts">Archived</a> from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+will+be+unhabitable+for+at+least+3%2C000+years%2C+say+nuclear+experts&rft.date=2016-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2FWorld%2FGlobal-News%2F2016%2F0424%2FChernobyl-will-be-unhabitable-for-at-least-3-000-years-say-nuclear-experts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> ,<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/chornobyl-by-the-numbers-1.1097000">"Chornobyl by the numbers"</a>. CBC. 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200917161615/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/chornobyl-by-the-numbers-1.1097000">Archived</a> from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CBC&rft.atitle=Chornobyl+by+the+numbers&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fchornobyl-by-the-numbers-1.1097000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-04-23/living-in-the-shadows-of-chernobyl/7342368">"What life is like in the shadows of Chernobyl"</a>. ABC News. 23 April 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=What+life+is+like+in+the+shadows+of+Chernobyl&rft.date=2016-04-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2016-04-23%2Fliving-in-the-shadows-of-chernobyl%2F7342368&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner2022" class="citation web cs1">Turner, Ben (3 February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/chernobyl-exclusion-zone">"What is the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone?"</a>. livescience.com. Retrieved 1 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=livescience.com&rft.atitle=What+is+the+Chernobyl+Exclusion+Zone%3F&rft.date=2022-02-03&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2Fchernobyl-exclusion-zone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/world/ukraine-to-open-chernobyl-area-to-tourists-in-2011/">"Ukraine to Open Chernobyl Area to Tourists in 2011"</a>. Fox News. Associated Press. 13 December 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120308011104/http://www.foxnews.com/world/2010/12/13/ukraine-open-chernobyl-area-tourists-1172479551/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fox+News&rft.atitle=Ukraine+to+Open+Chernobyl+Area+to+Tourists+in+2011&rft.date=2010-12-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fworld%2Fukraine-to-open-chernobyl-area-to-tourists-in-2011%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430053527/http://www.travelsnitch.org/categories/features/tours-of-chernobyl-sealed-zone-officially-begin/">"Tours of Chernobyl sealed zone officially begin"</a>. TravelSnitch. 18 March 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.travelsnitch.org/categories/features/tours-of-chernobyl-sealed-zone-officially-begin/">the original</a> on 30 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TravelSnitch&rft.atitle=Tours+of+Chernobyl+sealed+zone+officially+begin&rft.date=2011-03-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.travelsnitch.org%2Fcategories%2Ffeatures%2Ftours-of-chernobyl-sealed-zone-officially-begin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Distillations-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Distillations_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyle2017" class="citation magazine cs1">Boyle, Rebecca (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/greetings-from-isotopia">"Greetings from Isotopia"</a>. Distillations. Vol. 3, no. 3. pp. 26–35. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180615004504/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/greetings-from-isotopia">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Distillations&rft.atitle=Greetings+from+Isotopia&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=26-35&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Boyle&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fmagazine%2Fgreetings-from-isotopia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Digges-122"><a href="#cite_ref-Digges_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDigges2006" class="citation news cs1">Digges, Charles (4 October 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bellona.org/news/nuclear-issues/accidents-and-incidents/2006-10-reflections-of-a-chernobyl-liquidator-the-way-it-was-and-the-way-it-will-be">"Reflections of a Chernobyl liquidator – the way it was and the way it will be"</a>. Bellona. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180620181614/http://bellona.org/news/nuclear-issues/accidents-and-incidents/2006-10-reflections-of-a-chernobyl-liquidator-the-way-it-was-and-the-way-it-will-be">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bellona&rft.atitle=Reflections+of+a+Chernobyl+liquidator+%E2%80%93+the+way+it+was+and+the+way+it+will+be&rft.date=2006-10-04&rft.aulast=Digges&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbellona.org%2Fnews%2Fnuclear-issues%2Faccidents-and-incidents%2F2006-10-reflections-of-a-chernobyl-liquidator-the-way-it-was-and-the-way-it-will-be&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvangeliouBalkanskiCozicHao2014" class="citation journal cs1">Evangeliou, Nikolaos; Balkanski, Yves; Cozic, Anne; Hao, Wei Min; Møller, Anders Pape (December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envint.2014.08.012">"Wildfires in Chernobyl-contaminated forests and risks to the population and the environment: A new nuclear disaster about to happen?"</a>. Environment International. 73: 346–358. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EnInt..73..346E">2014EnInt..73..346E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envint.2014.08.012">10.1016/j.envint.2014.08.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0160-4120">0160-4120</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25222299">25222299</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environment+International&rft.atitle=Wildfires+in+Chernobyl-contaminated+forests+and+risks+to+the+population+and+the+environment%3A+A+new+nuclear+disaster+about+to+happen%3F&rft.volume=73&rft.pages=346-358&rft.date=2014-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.envint.2014.08.012&rft.issn=0160-4120&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25222299&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2014EnInt..73..346E&rft.aulast=Evangeliou&rft.aufirst=Nikolaos&rft.au=Balkanski%2C+Yves&rft.au=Cozic%2C+Anne&rft.au=Hao%2C+Wei+Min&rft.au=M%C3%B8ller%2C+Anders+Pape&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.envint.2014.08.012&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2012" class="citation web cs1">Evans, Patrick (7 July 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18721292">"Chernobyl's radioactive trees and the forest fire risk"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181017170142/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18721292">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%27s+radioactive+trees+and+the+forest+fire+risk&rft.date=2012-07-07&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-18721292&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNuwer2014" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Nuwer" title="Rachel Nuwer">Nuwer, Rachel</a> (14 March 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/forests-around-chernobyl-arent-decaying-properly-180950075/">"Forests Around Chernobyl Aren't Decaying Properly"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190102034531/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/forests-around-chernobyl-arent-decaying-properly-180950075/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2019. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=Forests+Around+Chernobyl+Aren%27t+Decaying+Properly&rft.date=2014-03-14&rft.aulast=Nuwer&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fscience-nature%2Fforests-around-chernobyl-arent-decaying-properly-180950075%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irsn.fr/EN/newsroom/News/Documents/IRSN_Information-Report_Fires-in-Ukraine-in-the-Exclusion-Zone-around-chernobyl-NPP_15042020.pdf">"Fires in Ukraine in the exclusion zone around the Chernobyl power plant"</a> (PDF). IRNS. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200419041110/https://www.irsn.fr/EN/newsroom/News/Documents/IRSN_Information-Report_Fires-in-Ukraine-in-the-Exclusion-Zone-around-chernobyl-NPP_15042020.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IRNS&rft.atitle=Fires+in+Ukraine+in+the+exclusion+zone+around+the+Chernobyl+power+plant&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irsn.fr%2FEN%2Fnewsroom%2FNews%2FDocuments%2FIRSN_Information-Report_Fires-in-Ukraine-in-the-Exclusion-Zone-around-chernobyl-NPP_15042020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-sees-no-radiation-related-risk-from-fires-in-chornobyl-exclusion-zone">"IAEA Sees No Radiation-Related Risk from Fires in Chornobyl Exclusion Zone"</a>. www.iaea.org. 24 April 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200501033533/https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/pressreleases/iaea-sees-no-radiation-related-risk-from-fires-in-chornobyl-exclusion-zone">Archived</a> from the original on 1 May 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iaea.org&rft.atitle=IAEA+Sees+No+Radiation-Related+Risk+from+Fires+in+Chornobyl+Exclusion+Zone&rft.date=2020-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Fnewscenter%2Fpressreleases%2Fiaea-sees-no-radiation-related-risk-from-fires-in-chornobyl-exclusion-zone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossette1995" class="citation news cs1">Crossette, Barbara (29 November 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/29/world/chernobyl-trust-fund-depleted-as-problems-of-victims-grow.html">"Chernobyl Trust Fund Depleted as Problems of Victims Grow"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190428013532/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/11/29/world/chernobyl-trust-fund-depleted-as-problems-of-victims-grow.html">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Trust+Fund+Depleted+as+Problems+of+Victims+Grow&rft.date=1995-11-29&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Crossette&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1995%2F11%2F29%2Fworld%2Fchernobyl-trust-fund-depleted-as-problems-of-victims-grow.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_129-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chernobyl.undp.org/english/history.shtml">"History of the United Nations and Chernobyl"</a>. The United Nations and Chernobyl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170719203953/http://chernobyl.undp.org/english/history.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2017. Retrieved 28 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+United+Nations+and+Chernobyl&rft.atitle=History+of+the+United+Nations+and+Chernobyl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchernobyl.undp.org%2Fenglish%2Fhistory.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_130-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_130-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/04/1037451">"Chernobyl nuclear disaster-affected areas spring to life, 33 years on"</a>. UN News. 26 April 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190428013533/https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/04/1037451">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 28 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UN+News&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+nuclear+disaster-affected+areas+spring+to+life%2C+33+years+on&rft.date=2019-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fstory%2F2019%2F04%2F1037451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070704002250/http://www.undp.org.ua/?page=projects&projects=14">"CRDP: Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme"</a>. United Nations Development Programme. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.undp.org.ua/?page=projects&projects=14">the original</a> on 4 July 2007. Retrieved 31 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Development+Programme&rft.atitle=CRDP%3A+Chernobyl+Recovery+and+Development+Programme&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.undp.org.ua%2F%3Fpage%3Dprojects%26projects%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchipani2009" class="citation news cs1">Schipani, Andres (2 July 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/02/cuba-chernobyl-health-children">"Revolutionary care: Castro's doctors give hope to the children of Chernobyl"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190626180551/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/02/cuba-chernobyl-health-children">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 15 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revolutionary+care%3A+Castro%27s+doctors+give+hope+to+the+children+of+Chernobyl&rft.date=2009-07-02&rft.aulast=Schipani&rft.aufirst=Andres&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2009%2Fjul%2F02%2Fcuba-chernobyl-health-children&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstone2005" class="citation news cs1">Johnstone, Sarah (23 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2005/oct/23/ukraine.darktourism.observerescapesection">"Strange and unsettling: my day trip to Chernobyl"</a>. The Observer – via The Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Observer&rft.atitle=Strange+and+unsettling%3A+my+day+trip+to+Chernobyl&rft.date=2005-10-23&rft.aulast=Johnstone&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftravel%2F2005%2Foct%2F23%2Fukraine.darktourism.observerescapesection&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mettler-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mettler_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mettler_134-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMettler2019" class="citation news cs1">Mettler, Katie (12 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/travel/2019/07/12/ukraine-wants-chernobyl-be-tourist-trap-scientists-warn-dont-kick-up-dust/">"Ukraine wants Chernobyl to be a tourist trap. But scientists warn: Don't kick up the dust"</a>. The Washington Post. Retrieved 3 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Ukraine+wants+Chernobyl+to+be+a+tourist+trap.+But+scientists+warn%3A+Don%27t+kick+up+the+dust&rft.date=2019-07-12&rft.aulast=Mettler&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Ftravel%2F2019%2F07%2F12%2Fukraine-wants-chernobyl-be-tourist-trap-scientists-warn-dont-kick-up-dust%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraves" class="citation web cs1">Graves, LeAnne. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thenational.shorthandstories.com/chernobyl-a-dark-tourist-attraction-v1/">"Chernobyl: a disaster turned into a dark tourist attraction"</a>. chernobyl.thenational.ae.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=chernobyl.thenational.ae&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%3A+a+disaster+turned+into+a+dark+tourist+attraction&rft.aulast=Graves&rft.aufirst=LeAnne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthenational.shorthandstories.com%2Fchernobyl-a-dark-tourist-attraction-v1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1231428/number-of-tourists-in-chernobyl-exclusion-zone/">"Number of Chernobyl Exclusion Zone visitors"</a>. Statista.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Statista&rft.atitle=Number+of+Chernobyl+Exclusion+Zone+visitors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statista.com%2Fstatistics%2F1231428%2Fnumber-of-tourists-in-chernobyl-exclusion-zone%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.facebook.com/cotiz.org.ua/posts/236511471994731">"Facebook"</a>. www.facebook.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.facebook.com&rft.atitle=Facebook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.facebook.com%2Fcotiz.org.ua%2Fposts%2F236511471994731&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuyKolirin2019" class="citation web cs1">Guy, Lianne; Kolirin, Jack (11 July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/chernobyl-tourist-attraction-intl-scli/index.html">"Chernobyl to become official tourist attraction, Ukraine says"</a>. CNN. Retrieved 29 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+to+become+official+tourist+attraction%2C+Ukraine+says&rft.date=2019-07-11&rft.aulast=Guy&rft.aufirst=Lianne&rft.au=Kolirin%2C+Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2Ftravel%2Farticle%2Fchernobyl-tourist-attraction-intl-scli%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48943814">"Chernobyl to become 'official tourist attraction'"</a>. BBC News. 10 July 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191212141728/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48943814">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+to+become+%27official+tourist+attraction%27&rft.date=2019-07-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-48943814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVlasovaGigova2024" class="citation web cs1">Vlasova, Svitlana; Gigova, Radina (26 June 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edition.cnn.com/travel/ukraine-kyiv-tourists-chernobyl-conflict/index.html">"Chernobyl once brought tourists to Ukraine. They're still coming but now to see scars of different terror"</a>. CNN.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+once+brought+tourists+to+Ukraine.+They%27re+still+coming+but+now+to+see+scars+of+different+terror&rft.date=2024-06-26&rft.aulast=Vlasova&rft.aufirst=Svitlana&rft.au=Gigova%2C+Radina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2Ftravel%2Fukraine-kyiv-tourists-chernobyl-conflict%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Morris, Holly (26 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2014/09/the-stalkers-inside-the-youth-subculture-that-explores-chernobyls-dead-zone.html">"The Stalkers"</a>. Slate – via slate.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=The+Stalkers&rft.date=2014-09-26&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Holly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fslate.com%2Fnews-and-politics%2F2014%2F09%2Fthe-stalkers-inside-the-youth-subculture-that-explores-chernobyls-dead-zone.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.new-east-archive.org/features/show/10946/into-the-zone-4-days-inside-chernobyls-secretive-stalker-subculture">"Into the Zone: 4 days inside Chernobyl's secretive 'stalker' subculture — New East Digital Archive"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Into+the+Zone%3A+4+days+inside+Chernobyl%27s+secretive+%27stalker%27+subculture+%E2%80%94+New+East+Digital+Archive&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.new-east-archive.org%2Ffeatures%2Fshow%2F10946%2Finto-the-zone-4-days-inside-chernobyls-secretive-stalker-subculture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/exclusion-zone-chernobyl-ukraine">"See Photos Taken on Illegal Visits to Chernobyl's Dead Zone"</a>. Travel. 22 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Travel&rft.atitle=See+Photos+Taken+on+Illegal+Visits+to+Chernobyl%27s+Dead+Zone&rft.date=2017-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Ftravel%2Farticle%2Fexclusion-zone-chernobyl-ukraine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805035908/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Chernoten/facts.html">"Facts: The accident was by far the most devastating in the history of nuclear power"</a>. International Atomic Energy Agency. 21 September 1997. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Chernoten/facts.html">the original</a> on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.atitle=Facts%3A+The+accident+was+by+far+the+most+devastating+in+the+history+of+nuclear+power&rft.date=1997-09-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2FPublications%2FBooklets%2FChernoten%2Ffacts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MarplesDecade-145">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesDecade_145-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesDecade_145-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MarplesDecade_145-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarples1996" class="citation journal cs1">Marples, David R. (May–June 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xAwAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA20">"The Decade of Despair"</a>. The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 52 (3): 20–31. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996BuAtS..52c..20M">1996BuAtS..52c..20M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00963402.1996.11456623">10.1080/00963402.1996.11456623</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427033605/https://books.google.com/books?id=xAwAAAAAMBAJ&lpg=PA20&pg=PA20">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 25 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=The+Decade+of+Despair&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=20-31&rft.date=1996-05%2F1996-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00963402.1996.11456623&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996BuAtS..52c..20M&rft.aulast=Marples&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxAwAAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-torch-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-torch_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-torch_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEuropean_Greens_and_UK_scientists_Ian_Fairlie_PhD_and_David_Sumner2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/European_Greens" class="mw-redirect" title="European Greens">European Greens</a> and UK scientists <a href="/wiki/Ian_Fairlie" title="Ian Fairlie">Ian Fairlie</a> PhD and David Sumner (April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chernobylreport.org/?p=summary">"Torch: The Other Report On Chernobyl – executive summary"</a>. Chernobylreport.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110910013949/http://www.chernobylreport.org/?p=summary">Archived</a> from the original on 10 September 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chernobylreport.org&rft.atitle=Torch%3A+The+Other+Report+On+Chernobyl+%E2%80%93+executive+summary&rft.date=2006-04&rft.au=European+Greens+and+UK+scientists+Ian+Fairlie+PhD+and+David+Sumner&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chernobylreport.org%2F%3Fp%3Dsummary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RFI_24-147"><a href="#cite_ref-RFI_24_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/076/article_43250.asp">"Tchernobyl, 20 ans après"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Radio_France_Internationale" title="Radio France Internationale">RFI</a> (in French). 24 April 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060430063029/http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/076/article_43250.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2006. Retrieved 24 April 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RFI&rft.atitle=Tchernobyl%2C+20+ans+apr%C3%A8s&rft.date=2006-04-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rfi.fr%2Factufr%2Farticles%2F076%2Farticle_43250.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMould2000" class="citation book cs1">Mould, Richard Francis (2000). Chernobyl Record: The Definitive History of the Chernobyl Catastrophe. CRC Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0670-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7503-0670-6"><bdi>978-0-7503-0670-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chernobyl+Record%3A+The+Definitive+History+of+the+Chernobyl+Catastrophe&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7503-0670-6&rft.aulast=Mould&rft.aufirst=Richard+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIkäheimonen" class="citation book cs1">Ikäheimonen, T. K. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070808223651/http://www.stuk.fi/julkaisut/stuk-a/stuk-a217-s.1-198.pdf">Ympäristön Radioaktiivisuus Suomessa – 20 Vuotta Tshernobylista</a> [Environmental Radioactivity in Finland – 20 Years from Chernobyl] (PDF). Säteilyturvakeskus Stralsäkerhetscentralen (STUK, Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stuk.fi/julkaisut/stuk-a/stuk-a217-s.1-198.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 8 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ymp%C3%A4rist%C3%B6n+Radioaktiivisuus+Suomessa+%E2%80%93+20+Vuotta+Tshernobylista&rft.pub=S%C3%A4teilyturvakeskus+Strals%C3%A4kerhetscentralen+%28STUK%2C+Radiation+and+Nuclear+Safety+Authority%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stuk.fi%2Fjulkaisut%2Fstuk-a%2Fstuk-a217-s.1-198.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1239_web.pdf">"3.1.5. Deposition of radionuclides on soil surfaces"</a> (PDF). Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience, Report of the Chernobyl Forum Expert Group 'Environment'. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 2006. pp. 23–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-0-114705-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-0-114705-9"><bdi>978-92-0-114705-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110409033554/http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1239_web.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.1.5.+Deposition+of+radionuclides+on+soil+surfaces&rft.btitle=Environmental+Consequences+of+the+Chernobyl+Accident+and+their+Remediation%3A+Twenty+Years+of+Experience%2C+Report+of+the+Chernobyl+Forum+Expert+Group+%27Environment%27&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pages=23-25&rft.pub=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency+%28IAEA%29&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-92-0-114705-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2FMTCD%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FPub1239_web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GouldFire-151"><a href="#cite_ref-GouldFire_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould1990" class="citation book cs1">Gould, Peter (1990). Fire In the Rain: The Dramatic Consequences of Chernobyl. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fire+In+the+Rain%3A+The+Dramatic+Consequences+of+Chernobyl&rft.place=Baltimore%2C+Maryland&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray2007" class="citation news cs1">Gray, Richard (22 April 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1549366/How-we-made-the-Chernobyl-rain.html">"How we made the Chernobyl rain"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. London, England. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091118194620/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1549366/How-we-made-the-Chernobyl-rain.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 November 2009. Retrieved 27 November 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=How+we+made+the+Chernobyl+rain&rft.date=2007-04-22&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2F1549366%2FHow-we-made-the-Chernobyl-rain.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZoriyDederichsPillathHeuel-Fabianek2016" class="citation web cs1">Zoriy, Pedro; Dederichs, Herbert; Pillath, Jürgen; Heuel-Fabianek, Burkhard; Hill, Peter; Lennartz, Reinhard (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wwwzb1.fz-juelich.de/verlagextern1/redirect.asp?id_schriften=48598&URL_DMS=http://dmssrv.zb.kfa-juelich.de/w2p2/autologin1.asp?action=ExpDownload&Path=%5CPublic%20FZJ%5CPublikationen%5CSchriftenreihen%5CEnergie_Umwelt_342.pdf&online=online&">"Long-term monitoring of radiation exposure of the population in radioactively contaminated areas of Belarus – The Korma Report II (1998–2015)"</a>. Schriften des Forschungszentrums Jülich: Reihe Energie & Umwelt / Energy & Environment. Forschungszentrum Jülich, Zentralbibliothek, Verlag. Retrieved 21 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Schriften+des+Forschungszentrums+J%C3%BClich%3A+Reihe+Energie+%26+Umwelt+%2F+Energy+%26+Environment&rft.atitle=Long-term+monitoring+of+radiation+exposure+of+the+population+in+radioactively+contaminated+areas+of+Belarus+%E2%80%93+The+Korma+Report+II+%281998%E2%80%932015%29&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Zoriy&rft.aufirst=Pedro&rft.au=Dederichs%2C+Herbert&rft.au=Pillath%2C+J%C3%BCrgen&rft.au=Heuel-Fabianek%2C+Burkhard&rft.au=Hill%2C+Peter&rft.au=Lennartz%2C+Reinhard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwwwzb1.fz-juelich.de%2Fverlagextern1%2Fredirect.asp%3Fid_schriften%3D48598%26URL_DMS%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fdmssrv.zb.kfa-juelich.de%2Fw2p2%2Fautologin1.asp%3Faction%3DExpDownload%26Path%3D%255CPublic%2520FZJ%255CPublikationen%255CSchriftenreihen%255CEnergie_Umwelt_342.pdf%26online%3Donline%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101228021056/http://www.sfen.org/fr/themes/tchernobyl.pdf">"Nouveau regard sur Tchernobyl: L'impact sur la santé et l'environnement"</a> [A new look at Chernobyl: The impact on health and the environment] (PDF). Extrait de la Revue Générale Nucléaire [Excerpt of the General Nuclear Review] (in French). Société française d'énergie nucléaire: 7. March–April 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfen.org/fr/themes/tchernobyl.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 28 December 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Extrait+de+la+Revue+G%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale+Nucl%C3%A9aire&rft.atitle=Nouveau+regard+sur+Tchernobyl%3A+L%27impact+sur+la+sant%C3%A9+et+l%27environnement&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2006-03%2F2006-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfen.org%2Ffr%2Fthemes%2Ftchernobyl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nih.gov-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nih.gov_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nih.gov_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nih.gov_155-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZamostianMoysichMahoneyMcCarthy2002" class="citation journal cs1">Zamostian, P.; Moysich, K. B.; Mahoney, M. C.; McCarthy, P.; Bondar, A.; Noschenko, A. G.; Michalek, A. M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC149393">"Influence of various factors on individual radiation exposure from the chernobyl disaster"</a>. Environmental Health. 1 (1): 4. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002EnvHe...1....4Z">2002EnvHe...1....4Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1476-069X-1-4">10.1186/1476-069X-1-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC149393">149393</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12495449">12495449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health&rft.atitle=Influence+of+various+factors+on+individual+radiation+exposure+from+the+chernobyl+disaster&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC149393%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12495449&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1476-069X-1-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002EnvHe...1....4Z&rft.aulast=Zamostian&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Moysich%2C+K.+B.&rft.au=Mahoney%2C+M.+C.&rft.au=McCarthy%2C+P.&rft.au=Bondar%2C+A.&rft.au=Noschenko%2C+A.+G.&rft.au=Michalek%2C+A.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC149393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628183818/http://www.srp-uk.org/resources/rules-of-thumb-a-practical-hints">"Rules of Thumb & Practical Hints"</a>. Society for Radiological Protection. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.srp-uk.org/resources/rules-of-thumb-a-practical-hints">the original</a> on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 12 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Society+for+Radiological+Protection&rft.atitle=Rules+of+Thumb+%26+Practical+Hints&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.srp-uk.org%2Fresources%2Frules-of-thumb-a-practical-hints&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130830080624/http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/isotopes/radioactive_decay3.html">"Halflife"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder" title="University of Colorado Boulder">University of Colorado Boulder</a>. 20 September 1999. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/isotopes/radioactive_decay3.html">the original</a> on 30 August 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Colorado+Boulder&rft.atitle=Halflife&rft.date=1999-09-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2Fphysics%2F2000%2Fisotopes%2Fradioactive_decay3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyle" class="citation web cs1">Lyle, Ken. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/howtosolveit/Nuclear/Half_Life.htm">"Mathematical half life decay rate equations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213526/http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/howtosolveit/Nuclear/Half_Life.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Purdue+University&rft.atitle=Mathematical+half+life+decay+rate+equations&rft.aulast=Lyle&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chem.purdue.edu%2Fgchelp%2Fhowtosolveit%2FNuclear%2FHalf_Life.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110819093109/http://www.zamg.ac.at/aktuell/index.php?seite=1&artikel=ZAMG_2011-03-24GMT11:24">"Unfall im japanischen Kernkraftwerk Fukushima"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Central_Institution_for_Meteorology_and_Geodynamics" title="Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics">Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics</a> (in German). 24 March 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zamg.ac.at/aktuell/index.php?seite=1&artikel=ZAMG_2011-03-24GMT11:24">the original</a> on 19 August 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Central+Institution+for+Meteorology+and+Geodynamics&rft.atitle=Unfall+im+japanischen+Kernkraftwerk+Fukushima&rft.date=2011-03-24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zamg.ac.at%2Faktuell%2Findex.php%3Fseite%3D1%26artikel%3DZAMG_2011-03-24GMT11%3A24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stanford1-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stanford1_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stanford1_160-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWessells2012" class="citation web cs1">Wessells, Colin (20 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/wessells1/">"Cesium-137: A Deadly Hazard"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131030013102/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph241/wessells1/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2013. Retrieved 13 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+University&rft.atitle=Cesium-137%3A+A+Deadly+Hazard&rft.date=2012-03-20&rft.aulast=Wessells&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flarge.stanford.edu%2Fcourses%2F2012%2Fph241%2Fwessells1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OECD1995-161"><a href="#cite_ref-OECD1995_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/chernobyl-1995.pdf">"Chernobyl, Ten Years On: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact"</a> (PDF). OECD-NEA. 1995. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150622010906/https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/chernobyl/chernobyl-1995.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OECD-NEA&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%2C+Ten+Years+On%3A+Assessment+of+Radiological+and+Health+Impact&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-nea.org%2Frp%2Fchernobyl%2Fchernobyl-1995.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-smithber05-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-smithber05_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smithber05_162-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smithber05_162-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smithber05_162-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-smithber05_162-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithBeresford2005" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Jim T.; Beresford, Nicholas A. (2005). Chernobyl: Catastrophe and Consequences. Berlin, Germany: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23866-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-23866-9"><bdi>978-3-540-23866-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chernobyl%3A+Catastrophe+and+Consequences&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-540-23866-9&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jim+T.&rft.au=Beresford%2C+Nicholas+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IAEA-163">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IAEA_163-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IAEA_163-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IAEA_163-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1239_web.pdf">Environmental consequences of the Chernobyl accident and their remediation: Twenty years of experience. Report of the Chernobyl Forum Expert Group 'Environment'</a> (PDF). Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. 2006. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-0-114705-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-0-114705-9"><bdi>978-92-0-114705-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110409033554/http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1239_web.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 April 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+consequences+of+the+Chernobyl+accident+and+their+remediation%3A+Twenty+years+of+experience.+Report+of+the+Chernobyl+Forum+Expert+Group+%27Environment%27&rft.place=Vienna%2C+Austria&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-92-0-114705-9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2FMTCD%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FPub1239_web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kryshev95-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kryshev95_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kryshev95_164-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKryshev1995" class="citation journal cs1">Kryshev, I. I. (1995). "Radioactive contamination of aquatic ecosystems following the Chernobyl accident". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 27 (3): 207–219. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995JEnvR..27..207K">1995JEnvR..27..207K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0265-931X%2894%2900042-U">10.1016/0265-931X(94)00042-U</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Radioactivity&rft.atitle=Radioactive+contamination+of+aquatic+ecosystems+following+the+Chernobyl+accident&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=207-219&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0265-931X%2894%2900042-U&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995JEnvR..27..207K&rft.aulast=Kryshev&rft.aufirst=I.+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-euregs-165"><a href="#cite_ref-euregs_165-0">^</a> EURATOM Council Regulations No. 3958/87, No. 994/89, No. 2218/89, No. 770/90. </li> <li id="cite_note-fleishman94-166"><a href="#cite_ref-fleishman94_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleishmanNikiforovSaulusKomov1994" class="citation journal cs1">Fleishman, David G.; Nikiforov, Vladimir A.; Saulus, Agnes A.; Komov, Victor T. (1994). "137Cs in fish of some lakes and rivers of the Bryansk region and north-west Russia in 1990–1992". Journal of Environmental Radioactivity. 24 (2): 145–158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0265-931X%2894%2990050-7">10.1016/0265-931X(94)90050-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Radioactivity&rft.atitle=137Cs+in+fish+of+some+lakes+and+rivers+of+the+Bryansk+region+and+north-west+Russia+in+1990%E2%80%931992&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=145-158&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0265-931X%2894%2990050-7&rft.aulast=Fleishman&rft.aufirst=David+G.&rft.au=Nikiforov%2C+Vladimir+A.&rft.au=Saulus%2C+Agnes+A.&rft.au=Komov%2C+Victor+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbcmulvey-167">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbcmulvey_167-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbcmulvey_167-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulvey2006" class="citation web cs1">Mulvey, Stephen (20 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4923342.stm">"Wildlife defies Chernobyl radiation"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171105054818/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4923342.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Wildlife+defies+Chernobyl+radiation&rft.date=2006-04-20&rft.aulast=Mulvey&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Feurope%2F4923342.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-iaea1991-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iaea1991_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-iaea1991_168-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The International Chernobyl Project: Technical Report. Vienna, Austria: IAEA. 1991. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-20129-191-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-20129-191-2"><bdi>978-9-20129-191-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Chernobyl+Project%3A+Technical+Report&rft.place=Vienna%2C+Austria&rft.pub=IAEA&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-9-20129-191-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMøllerMousseau2011" class="citation journal cs1">Møller, A. P.; Mousseau, T. A. (1 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632071100317X">"Conservation consequences of Chernobyl and other nuclear accidents"</a>. Biological Conservation. 144 (12): 2787–2798. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011BCons.144.2787M">2011BCons.144.2787M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2011.08.009">10.1016/j.biocon.2011.08.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3207">0006-3207</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4110805">4110805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biological+Conservation&rft.atitle=Conservation+consequences+of+Chernobyl+and+other+nuclear+accidents&rft.volume=144&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2787-2798&rft.date=2011-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2011.08.009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4110805%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0006-3207&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011BCons.144.2787M&rft.aulast=M%C3%B8ller&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rft.au=Mousseau%2C+T.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS000632071100317X&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeigeltScherb2004" class="citation journal cs1">Weigelt, E.; Scherb, H. (2004). "Spaltgeburtenrate in Bayern vor und nach dem Reaktorunfall in Tschernobyl". Mund-, Kiefer- und Gesichtschirurgie. 8 (2): 106–110. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10006-004-0524-1">10.1007/s10006-004-0524-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15045533">15045533</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26313953">26313953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mund-%2C+Kiefer-+und+Gesichtschirurgie&rft.atitle=Spaltgeburtenrate+in+Bayern+vor+und+nach+dem+Reaktorunfall+in+Tschernobyl&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=106-110&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26313953%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15045533&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10006-004-0524-1&rft.aulast=Weigelt&rft.aufirst=E.&rft.au=Scherb%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yablokov2009-171">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yablokov2009_171-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yablokov2009_171-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYablokovNesterenkoNesterenko2009" class="citation journal cs1">Yablokov, Alexey V.; Nesterenko, Vassily B.; Nesterenko, Alexey V. (21 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04830.x">"Chapter III. Consequences of the Chernobyl Catastrophe for the Environment"</a>. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1181 (1): 221–286. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009NYASA1181..221Y">2009NYASA1181..221Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2009.04830.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04830.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20002049">20002049</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2831227">2831227</a> – via Wiley Online Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Chapter+III.+Consequences+of+the+Chernobyl+Catastrophe+for+the+Environment&rft.volume=1181&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=221-286&rft.date=2009-09-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2009.04830.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2831227%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20002049&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009NYASA1181..221Y&rft.aulast=Yablokov&rft.aufirst=Alexey+V.&rft.au=Nesterenko%2C+Vassily+B.&rft.au=Nesterenko%2C+Alexey+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.2009.04830.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Zavilgelsky GB, Abilev SK, Sukhodolets SS, Ahmad SI. Isolation and analysis of UV and radio-resistant bacteria from Chernobyl. J Photochem Photobiol B, May 1998: vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 152–157. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/scientists-study-chernobyl-fungus-as-protection-against-space-radiation/5524225.html">"Voice of America. "Scientists Study Chernobyl Fungus as Protection against Space Radiation." Online resource, last updated August 2020. Retrieved June 2021"</a>. 2 August 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220305100444/https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/scientists-study-chernobyl-fungus-as-protection-against-space-radiation/5524225.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Voice+of+America.+%22Scientists+Study+Chernobyl+Fungus+as+Protection+against+Space+Radiation.%22+Online+resource%2C+last+updated+August+2020.+Retrieved+June+2021.&rft.date=2020-08-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearningenglish.voanews.com%2Fa%2Fscientists-study-chernobyl-fungus-as-protection-against-space-radiation%2F5524225.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRybacki2021" class="citation web cs1">Rybacki, Josef (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lawgazette.co.uk/practice-points/establishing-the-crime-of-ecocide/5107209.article">"Establishing the crime of 'ecocide'"</a>. Law Gazette. Retrieved 21 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Law+Gazette&rft.atitle=Establishing+the+crime+of+%27ecocide%27&rft.date=2021-02&rft.aulast=Rybacki&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lawgazette.co.uk%2Fpractice-points%2Festablishing-the-crime-of-ecocide%2F5107209.article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrogh1994" class="citation web cs1">Krogh, Peter F. (Peter Frederic) (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552539">"Ecocide : a Soviet legacy"</a>. Great Decisions 1994. Retrieved 21 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Great+Decisions+1994&rft.atitle=Ecocide+%3A+a+Soviet+legacy&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Krogh&rft.aufirst=Peter+F.+%28Peter+Frederic%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.library.georgetown.edu%2Fhandle%2F10822%2F552539&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cirsd.org/en/expert-analysis?slug=ecocide-%E2%80%93-the-genocide-of-the-21st-century-eastern-european-perspective">"Ecocide – the genocide of the 21st century? Eastern European perspective"</a>. CIRSD. Retrieved 21 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CIRSD&rft.atitle=Ecocide+%E2%80%93+the+genocide+of+the+21st+century%3F+Eastern+European+perspective&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cirsd.org%2Fen%2Fexpert-analysis%3Fslug%3Decocide-%25E2%2580%2593-the-genocide-of-the-21st-century-eastern-european-perspective&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeshbachFriendly1992" class="citation book cs1">Feshbach, Murray; Friendly, Alfred (1992). Ecocide in the USSR: health and nature under siege. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01664-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-01664-8"><bdi>978-0-465-01664-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ecocide+in+the+USSR%3A+health+and+nature+under+siege&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-465-01664-8&rft.aulast=Feshbach&rft.aufirst=Murray&rft.au=Friendly%2C+Alfred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuess2009" class="citation web cs1">Suess, Timm (March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180917034354/http://timmsuess.com/projects/chernobyl-journal/">"Chernobyl journal"</a>. timmsuess.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://timmsuess.com/projects/chernobyl-journal/">the original</a> on 17 September 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=timmsuess.com&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+journal&rft.date=2009-03&rft.aulast=Suess&rft.aufirst=Timm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftimmsuess.com%2Fprojects%2Fchernobyl-journal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-environment-179"><a href="#cite_ref-environment_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerChesser2000" class="citation journal cs1">Baker, Robert J.; Chesser, Ronald K. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/chornobyl/wildlifepreserve.htm">"The Chernobyl nuclear disaster and subsequent creation of a wildlife preserve"</a>. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 19 (5): 1231–1232. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000EnvTC..19.1231B">2000EnvTC..19.1231B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fetc.5620190501">10.1002/etc.5620190501</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17795690">17795690</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180930055813/http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/chornobyl/wildlifepreserve.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018 – via Natural Science Research Laboratory.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Toxicology+and+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+Chernobyl+nuclear+disaster+and+subsequent+creation+of+a+wildlife+preserve&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1231-1232&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17795690%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fetc.5620190501&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000EnvTC..19.1231B&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Chesser%2C+Ronald+K.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsrl.ttu.edu%2Fchornobyl%2Fwildlifepreserve.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108224505/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070522210932.htm">"'Radiation-Eating' Fungi Finding Could Trigger Recalculation Of Earth's Energy Balance And Help Feed Astronauts"</a>. Science Daily. 23 May 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070522210932.htm">the original</a> on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=%27Radiation-Eating%27+Fungi+Finding+Could+Trigger+Recalculation+Of+Earth%27s+Energy+Balance+And+Help+Feed+Astronauts&rft.date=2007-05-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2007%2F05%2F070522210932.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.welt.de/wissenschaft/article12874184/Deutsche-Wildschweine-immer-noch-verstrahlt.html">"25 Jahre Tschernobyl: Deutsche Wildschweine immer noch verstrahlt"</a> [25 years of Chernobyl: German wild boars still contaminated]. <a href="/wiki/Die_Welt" title="Die Welt">Die Welt</a> (in German). 18 March 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110831151558/http://www.welt.de/wissenschaft/article12874184/Deutsche-Wildschweine-immer-noch-verstrahlt.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Welt&rft.atitle=25+Jahre+Tschernobyl%3A+Deutsche+Wildschweine+immer+noch+verstrahlt&rft.date=2011-03-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.welt.de%2Fwissenschaft%2Farticle12874184%2FDeutsche-Wildschweine-immer-noch-verstrahlt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinerFielitz2009" class="citation journal cs1">Steiner, M.; Fielitz, U. (6 June 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.radioprotection.org/articles/radiopro/abs/2009/05/radiopro44108/radiopro44108.html">"Deer Truffles – The Dominant Source of Radiocaesium Contamination of Wild Boar"</a>. Radioprotection. 44 (5): 585–588. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fradiopro%2F20095108">10.1051/radiopro/20095108</a> – via <a href="/wiki/EDP_Sciences" title="EDP Sciences">EDP Sciences</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Radioprotection&rft.atitle=Deer+Truffles+%E2%80%93+The+Dominant+Source+of+Radiocaesium+Contamination+of+Wild+Boar&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=585-588&rft.date=2009-06-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fradiopro%2F20095108&rft.aulast=Steiner&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Fielitz%2C+U.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.radioprotection.org%2Farticles%2Fradiopro%2Fabs%2F2009%2F05%2Fradiopro44108%2Fradiopro44108.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStägerZokSchillerFeng2023" class="citation journal cs1">Stäger, Felix; Zok, Dorian; Schiller, Anna-Katharina; Feng, Bin; Steinhauser, Georg (30 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10501199">"Disproportionately High Contributions of 60 Year Old Weapons-137Cs Explain the Persistence of Radioactive Contamination in Bavarian Wild Boars"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Science_%26_Technology" title="Environmental Science & Technology">Environmental Science & Technology</a>. 57 (36): 13601–13611. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023EnST...5713601S">2023EnST...5713601S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.est.3c03565">10.1021/acs.est.3c03565</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10501199">10501199</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37646445">37646445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Science+%26+Technology&rft.atitle=Disproportionately+High+Contributions+of+60+Year+Old+Weapons-137Cs+Explain+the+Persistence+of+Radioactive+Contamination+in+Bavarian+Wild+Boars&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=36&rft.pages=13601-13611&rft.date=2023-08-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10501199%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37646445&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facs.est.3c03565&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023EnST...5713601S&rft.aulast=St%C3%A4ger&rft.aufirst=Felix&rft.au=Zok%2C+Dorian&rft.au=Schiller%2C+Anna-Katharina&rft.au=Feng%2C+Bin&rft.au=Steinhauser%2C+Georg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10501199&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeryabinaKuchmelNagorskayaHinton2015" class="citation journal cs1">Deryabina, T. G.; Kuchmel, S. V.; Nagorskaya, L. L.; Hinton, T. G.; Beasley, J. C.; Lerebours, A.; Smith, J. T. (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2015.08.017">"Long-term census data reveal abundant wildlife populations at Chernobyl"</a>. Current Biology. 25 (19): R824–R826. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015CBio...25.R824D">2015CBio...25.R824D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2015.08.017">10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26439334">26439334</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Long-term+census+data+reveal+abundant+wildlife+populations+at+Chernobyl&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=R824-R826&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26439334&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2015.08.017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015CBio...25.R824D&rft.aulast=Deryabina&rft.aufirst=T.+G.&rft.au=Kuchmel%2C+S.+V.&rft.au=Nagorskaya%2C+L.+L.&rft.au=Hinton%2C+T.+G.&rft.au=Beasley%2C+J.+C.&rft.au=Lerebours%2C+A.&rft.au=Smith%2C+J.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2015.08.017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-thelocal1-185"><a href="#cite_ref-thelocal1_185-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrange2013" class="citation news cs1">Orange, Richard (23 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelocal.no/20130923/chernobyl-radiation-in-norway-sheep-hits-new-low">"Record low number of radioactive sheep"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Local" title="The Local">The Local</a>. Norway. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103130842/http://www.thelocal.no/20130923/chernobyl-radiation-in-norway-sheep-hits-new-low">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Local&rft.atitle=Record+low+number+of+radioactive+sheep&rft.date=2013-09-23&rft.aulast=Orange&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelocal.no%2F20130923%2Fchernobyl-radiation-in-norway-sheep-hits-new-low&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103080938/https://www.slf.dep.no/no/erstatning/palegg-og-restriksjoner/radioaktivitet/fortsatt-nedforing-etter-radioaktivitet-i-dyr-som-har-v%C3%A6rt-p%C3%A5-utmarksbeite">"Fortsatt nedforing etter radioaktivitet i dyr som har vært på utmarksbeite"</a>. Statens landbruksforvaltning (in Norwegian). 30 June 2010. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.slf.dep.no/no/erstatning/palegg-og-restriksjoner/radioaktivitet/fortsatt-nedforing-etter-radioaktivitet-i-dyr-som-har-v%C3%A6rt-p%C3%A5-utmarksbeite">the original</a> on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Statens+landbruksforvaltning&rft.atitle=Fortsatt+nedforing+etter+radioaktivitet+i+dyr+som+har+v%C3%A6rt+p%C3%A5+utmarksbeite&rft.date=2010-06-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.slf.dep.no%2Fno%2Ferstatning%2Fpalegg-og-restriksjoner%2Fradioaktivitet%2Ffortsatt-nedforing-etter-radioaktivitet-i-dyr-som-har-v%25C3%25A6rt-p%25C3%25A5-utmarksbeite&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian-2009-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian-2009_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian-2009_187-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacalisterCarter2009" class="citation news cs1">Macalister, Terry; Carter, Helen (12 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/12/farmers-restricted-chernobyl-disaster">"Britain's farmers still restricted by Chernobyl nuclear fallout"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102095940/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/may/12/farmers-restricted-chernobyl-disaster">Archived</a> from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Britain%27s+farmers+still+restricted+by+Chernobyl+nuclear+fallout&rft.date=2009-05-12&rft.aulast=Macalister&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft.au=Carter%2C+Helen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2009%2Fmay%2F12%2Ffarmers-restricted-chernobyl-disaster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Indy-Scot-2012-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Indy-Scot-2012_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawlinsonHovenden2010" class="citation news cs1">Rawlinson, Kevin; Hovenden, Rachel (7 July 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/scottish-sheep-farms-finally-free-of-chernobyl-fallout-2020059.html">"Scottish sheep farms finally free of Chernobyl fallout"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131216193052/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/scottish-sheep-farms-finally-free-of-chernobyl-fallout-2020059.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Scottish+sheep+farms+finally+free+of+Chernobyl+fallout&rft.date=2010-07-07&rft.aulast=Rawlinson&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft.au=Hovenden%2C+Rachel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fscience%2Fscottish-sheep-farms-finally-free-of-chernobyl-fallout-2020059.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-June-2012-189"><a href="#cite_ref-BBC-June-2012_189-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cumbria-18299228">"Post-Chernobyl disaster sheep controls lifted on last UK farms"</a>. BBC News. 1 June 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131220173331/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cumbria-18299228">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Post-Chernobyl+disaster+sheep+controls+lifted+on+last+UK+farms&rft.date=2012-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-cumbria-18299228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UKFSA-01-190"><a href="#cite_ref-UKFSA-01_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/news/2012/nov/chernobyl">"Welsh sheep controls revoked"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency" title="Food Standards Agency">Food Standards Agency</a>. 29 November 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131103142059/http://www.food.gov.uk/news-updates/news/2012/nov/chernobyl">Archived</a> from the original on 3 November 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Food+Standards+Agency&rft.atitle=Welsh+sheep+controls+revoked&rft.date=2012-11-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.food.gov.uk%2Fnews-updates%2Fnews%2F2012%2Fnov%2Fchernobyl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hallenbeck_1994_15-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hallenbeck_1994_15_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hallenbeck_1994_15_191-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallenbeck1994" class="citation book cs1">Hallenbeck, William H. (1994). Radiation Protection. CRC Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87371-996-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87371-996-4"><bdi>978-0-87371-996-4</bdi></a>. <q>Reported thus far are 237 cases of acute radiation sickness and 31 deaths.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radiation+Protection&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-87371-996-4&rft.aulast=Hallenbeck&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-192"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_192-0">^</a> Mould (2000), p. 29. "The number of deaths in the first three months were 31." </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuskova2012" class="citation journal cs1">Guskova, A. K. (2012). "Medical consequences of the Chernobyl accident: Aftermath and unsolved problems". Atomic Energy. 113 (2): 135–142. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10512-012-9607-5">10.1007/s10512-012-9607-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:95291429">95291429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atomic+Energy&rft.atitle=Medical+consequences+of+the+Chernobyl+accident%3A+Aftermath+and+unsolved+problems&rft.volume=113&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=135-142&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10512-012-9607-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A95291429%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guskova&rft.aufirst=A.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLax1986" class="citation news cs1">Lax, Eric (13 July 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/13/magazine/the-chernobyl-doctor.html">"The Chernobyl Doctor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. p. 22. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190702171033/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/07/13/magazine/the-chernobyl-doctor.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 22 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Chernobyl+Doctor&rft.pages=22&rft.date=1986-07-13&rft.aulast=Lax&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1986%2F07%2F13%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-chernobyl-doctor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-medmagrad-195"><a href="#cite_ref-medmagrad_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGusevGuskovaMettler2001" class="citation book cs1">Gusev, Igor A.; Guskova, Angelina Konstantinovna; Mettler, Fred Albert (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-k5h07NkFcC&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA77">Medical management of radiation accidents</a>. CRC Press. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-7004-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-7004-5"><bdi>978-0-8493-7004-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210829024249/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y-k5h07NkFcC&q=%22beta+burns%22&pg=PA77">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2021. Retrieved 25 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medical+management+of+radiation+accidents&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8493-7004-5&rft.aulast=Gusev&rft.aufirst=Igor+A.&rft.au=Guskova%2C+Angelina+Konstantinovna&rft.au=Mettler%2C+Fred+Albert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY-k5h07NkFcC%26q%3D%2522beta%2Bburns%2522%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_196-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_196-2">c</a> International Atomic Energy Agency, Chernobyl's Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts and Recommendations to the Governments of Belarus, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine, The Chernobyl Forum: 2003–2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid15725606-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid15725606_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid15725606_197-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFuritsuRyoYeliseevaThuy2005" class="citation journal cs1">Furitsu, Katsumi; Ryo, Haruko; Yeliseeva, Klaudiya G.; Thuy, Le Thi Thanh; Kawabata, Hiroaki; Krupnova, Evelina V.; Trusova, Valentina D.; Rzheutsky, Valery A.; Nakajima, Hiroo; Kartel, Nikolai; Nomura, Taisei (2005). "Microsatellite mutations show no increases in the children of the Chernobyl liquidators". Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis. 581 (1–2): 69–82. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MRGTE.581...69F">2005MRGTE.581...69F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mrgentox.2004.11.002">10.1016/j.mrgentox.2004.11.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15725606">15725606</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mutation+Research%2FGenetic+Toxicology+and+Environmental+Mutagenesis&rft.atitle=Microsatellite+mutations+show+no+increases+in+the+children+of+the+Chernobyl+liquidators&rft.volume=581&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=69-82&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15725606&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mrgentox.2004.11.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005MRGTE.581...69F&rft.aulast=Furitsu&rft.aufirst=Katsumi&rft.au=Ryo%2C+Haruko&rft.au=Yeliseeva%2C+Klaudiya+G.&rft.au=Thuy%2C+Le+Thi+Thanh&rft.au=Kawabata%2C+Hiroaki&rft.au=Krupnova%2C+Evelina+V.&rft.au=Trusova%2C+Valentina+D.&rft.au=Rzheutsky%2C+Valery+A.&rft.au=Nakajima%2C+Hiroo&rft.au=Kartel%2C+Nikolai&rft.au=Nomura%2C+Taisei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-198"><a href="#cite_ref-:7_198-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee1996" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, T. R. (1996). "ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS REACTIONS FOLLOWING THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT". One Decade After Chernobyl: Summing up the Consequences of the Accident, Proceedings of an International Conference, Vienna: 283–310.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=One+Decade+After+Chernobyl%3A+Summing+up+the+Consequences+of+the+Accident%2C+Proceedings+of+an+International+Conference%2C+Vienna&rft.atitle=ENVIRONMENTAL+STRESS+REACTIONS+FOLLOWING+THE+CHERNOBYL+ACCIDENT&rft.pages=283-310&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=T.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TORCH-199">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TORCH_199-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TORCH_199-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-TORCH_199-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFairlieSumner2006" class="citation book cs1">Fairlie, Ian; Sumner, David (2006). The Other Report on Chernobyl (TORCH). Berlin, Germany: The European Greens.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Report+on+Chernobyl+%28TORCH%29&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany&rft.pub=The+European+Greens&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Fairlie&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Sumner%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPröhlMückLikhtarevKovgan2002" class="citation journal cs1">Pröhl, Gerhard; Mück, Konrad; Likhtarev, Ilya; Kovgan, Lina; Golikov, Vladislav (February 2002). "Reconstruction of the ingestion doses received by the population evacuated from the settlements in the 30-km zone around the Chernobyl reactor". Health Physics. 82 (2): 173–181. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00004032-200202000-00004">10.1097/00004032-200202000-00004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11797892">11797892</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44929090">44929090</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Physics&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+of+the+ingestion+doses+received+by+the+population+evacuated+from+the+settlements+in+the+30-km+zone+around+the+Chernobyl+reactor&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=173-181&rft.date=2002-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44929090%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11797892&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00004032-200202000-00004&rft.aulast=Pr%C3%B6hl&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rft.au=M%C3%BCck%2C+Konrad&rft.au=Likhtarev%2C+Ilya&rft.au=Kovgan%2C+Lina&rft.au=Golikov%2C+Vladislav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMückPröhlLikhtarevKovgan2002" class="citation journal cs1">Mück, Konrad; Pröhl, Gerhard; Likhtarev, Ilya; Kovgan, Lina; Golikov, Vladislav; Zeger, Johann (February 2002). "Reconstruction of the inhalation dose in the 30-km zone after the Chernobyl accident". Health Physics. 82 (2): 157–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00004032-200202000-00003">10.1097/00004032-200202000-00003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11797891">11797891</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:31580079">31580079</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Physics&rft.atitle=Reconstruction+of+the+inhalation+dose+in+the+30-km+zone+after+the+Chernobyl+accident&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=157-172&rft.date=2002-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A31580079%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11797891&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00004032-200202000-00003&rft.aulast=M%C3%BCck&rft.aufirst=Konrad&rft.au=Pr%C3%B6hl%2C+Gerhard&rft.au=Likhtarev%2C+Ilya&rft.au=Kovgan%2C+Lina&rft.au=Golikov%2C+Vladislav&rft.au=Zeger%2C+Johann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KuchinskayaWeWill-202"><a href="#cite_ref-KuchinskayaWeWill_202-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuchinskaya2007" class="citation thesis cs1">Kuchinskaya, Olga (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9fb6527b">'We will die and become science': the production of invisibility and public knowledge about Chernobyl radiation effects in Belarus</a> (PhD Thesis). University of California San Diego. p. 133. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150715075426/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9fb6527b">Archived</a> from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 14 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=%27We+will+die+and+become+science%27%3A+the+production+of+invisibility+and+public+knowledge+about+Chernobyl+radiation+effects+in+Belarus&rft.inst=University+of+California+San+Diego&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Kuchinskaya&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F9fb6527b&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MycioWormwood-203"><a href="#cite_ref-MycioWormwood_203-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMycio2005" class="citation book cs1">Mycio, Mary (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wormwoodforest00mary">Wormwood Forest: A Natural History of Chernobyl</a>. Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-30910-309-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-30910-309-1"><bdi>978-0-30910-309-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wormwood+Forest%3A+A+Natural+History+of+Chernobyl&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-30910-309-1&rft.aulast=Mycio&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwormwoodforest00mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChesserBaker2006-204">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChesserBaker2006_204-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChesserBaker2006_204-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChesserBaker2006" class="citation magazine cs1">Chesser, Ronald K.; Baker, Robert J. (2006). "Growing Up with Chernobyl: Working in a radioactive zone, two scientists learn tough lessons about politics, bias and the challenges of doing good science". American Scientist. Vol. 94, no. 6. pp. 542–549. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2006.62.1011">10.1511/2006.62.1011</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27858869">27858869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=Growing+Up+with+Chernobyl%3A+Working+in+a+radioactive+zone%2C+two+scientists+learn+tough+lessons+about+politics%2C+bias+and+the+challenges+of+doing+good+science&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=542-549&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1511%2F2006.62.1011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27858869%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chesser&rft.aufirst=Ronald+K.&rft.au=Baker%2C+Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMycio2013" class="citation web cs1">Mycio, Mary (21 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/nuclear_power/2013/01/wildlife_in_chernobyl_debate_over_mutations_and_populations_of_plants_and.html">"Do Animals in Chernobyl's Fallout Zone Glow? The scientific debate about Europe's unlikeliest wildlife sanctuary"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170731205133/http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/nuclear_power/2013/01/wildlife_in_chernobyl_debate_over_mutations_and_populations_of_plants_and.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=Do+Animals+in+Chernobyl%27s+Fallout+Zone+Glow%3F+The+scientific+debate+about+Europe%27s+unlikeliest+wildlife+sanctuary&rft.date=2013-01-21&rft.aulast=Mycio&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Farticles%2Fhealth_and_science%2Fnuclear_power%2F2013%2F01%2Fwildlife_in_chernobyl_debate_over_mutations_and_populations_of_plants_and.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDobrzyńskiFornalskiFeinendegen2015" class="citation journal cs1">Dobrzyński, Ludwik; Fornalski, Krzysztof W; Feinendegen, Ludwig E (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4674188">"Cancer Mortality Among People Living in Areas With Various Levels of Natural Background Radiation"</a>. Dose-Response. 13 (3): 155932581559239. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1559325815592391">10.1177/1559325815592391</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4674188">4674188</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26674931">26674931</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dose-Response&rft.atitle=Cancer+Mortality+Among+People+Living+in+Areas+With+Various+Levels+of+Natural+Background+Radiation&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=155932581559239&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4674188%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26674931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1559325815592391&rft.aulast=Dobrzy%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Ludwik&rft.au=Fornalski%2C+Krzysztof+W&rft.au=Feinendegen%2C+Ludwig+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4674188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeresfordCopplestone2011" class="citation journal cs1">Beresford, Nicholas A; Copplestone, David (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fieam.238">"Effects of ionizing radiation on wildlife: What knowledge have we gained between the Chernobyl and Fukushima accidents?"</a>. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management. 7 (3): 371–373. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011IEAM....7..371B">2011IEAM....7..371B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fieam.238">10.1002/ieam.238</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21608117">21608117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrated+Environmental+Assessment+and+Management&rft.atitle=Effects+of+ionizing+radiation+on+wildlife%3A+What+knowledge+have+we+gained+between+the+Chernobyl+and+Fukushima+accidents%3F&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=371-373&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21608117&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fieam.238&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011IEAM....7..371B&rft.aulast=Beresford&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+A&rft.au=Copplestone%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fieam.238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkerVan_Den_BusscheWrightWiggins1996" class="citation journal cs1">Barker, Robert J.; Van Den Bussche, Ronald A.; Wright, Amanda J.; Wiggins, Lara E.; Hamilton, Meredith J.; Reat, Erin P.; Smith, Micheal H.; Lomakin, Micheal D.; Chesser, Ronald K. (April 1996). "High levels of genetic change in rodents of Chernobyl". Nature. 380 (6576): 707–708. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Natur.380..707B">1996Natur.380..707B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F380707a0">10.1038/380707a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8614463">8614463</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4351740">4351740</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=High+levels+of+genetic+change+in+rodents+of+Chernobyl&rft.volume=380&rft.issue=6576&rft.pages=707-708&rft.date=1996-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F380707a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4351740%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8614463&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1996Natur.380..707B&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Van+Den+Bussche%2C+Ronald+A.&rft.au=Wright%2C+Amanda+J.&rft.au=Wiggins%2C+Lara+E.&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Meredith+J.&rft.au=Reat%2C+Erin+P.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Micheal+H.&rft.au=Lomakin%2C+Micheal+D.&rft.au=Chesser%2C+Ronald+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> (Retracted, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F36382">10.1038/36382</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9363899">9363899</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrady1996" class="citation news cs1">Grady, Denise (7 May 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1996/05/07/science/chernobyl-s-voles-live-but-mutations-surge.html">"Chernobyl's Voles Live But Mutations Surge"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108184928/https://www.nytimes.com/1996/05/07/science/chernobyl-s-voles-live-but-mutations-surge.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%27s+Voles+Live+But+Mutations+Surge&rft.date=1996-05-07&rft.aulast=Grady&rft.aufirst=Denise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1996%2F05%2F07%2Fscience%2Fchernobyl-s-voles-live-but-mutations-surge.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/chornobyl/publications.htm">"Publications on Chornobyl"</a>. Texas Tech University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171114040355/http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/chornobyl/publications.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 November 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Texas+Tech+University&rft.atitle=Publications+on+Chornobyl&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsrl.ttu.edu%2Fchornobyl%2Fpublications.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakerVan_Den_BusscheWrightWiggins1997" class="citation journal cs1">Baker, Robert J.; Van Den Bussche, Ronald A.; Wright, Amanda J.; Wiggins, Lara E.; Hamilton, Meredith J.; Reat, Erin P.; Smith, Michael H.; Lomakin, Michael D.; Chesser, Ronald K. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F36384">"Retraction Note to: High levels of genetic change in rodents of Chernobyl"</a>. Nature. 390 (6655): 100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F36384">10.1038/36384</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9363899">9363899</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4392597">4392597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Retraction+Note+to%3A+High+levels+of+genetic+change+in+rodents+of+Chernobyl&rft.volume=390&rft.issue=6655&rft.pages=100&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4392597%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9363899&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F36384&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft.au=Van+Den+Bussche%2C+Ronald+A.&rft.au=Wright%2C+Amanda+J.&rft.au=Wiggins%2C+Lara+E.&rft.au=Hamilton%2C+Meredith+J.&rft.au=Reat%2C+Erin+P.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Michael+H.&rft.au=Lomakin%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Chesser%2C+Ronald+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F36384&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kasperson160-212">^ <a href="#cite_ref-kasperson160_212-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kasperson160_212-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-kasperson160_212-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaspersonStallen1991" class="citation book cs1">Kasperson, Roger E.; Stallen, Pieter Jan M. (1991). Communicating Risks to the Public: International Perspectives. Berlin, Germany: Springer Science and Media. pp. 160–162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-0601-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-0601-6"><bdi>978-0-7923-0601-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Communicating+Risks+to+the+Public%3A+International+Perspectives&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany&rft.pages=160-162&rft.pub=Springer+Science+and+Media&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-0601-6&rft.aulast=Kasperson&rft.aufirst=Roger+E.&rft.au=Stallen%2C+Pieter+Jan+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knudsen-213">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Knudsen_213-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Knudsen_213-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnudsen1991" class="citation journal cs1">Knudsen, L. B. (1991). "Legally-induced abortions in Denmark after Chernobyl". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 45 (6): 229–231. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0753-3322%2891%2990022-L">10.1016/0753-3322(91)90022-L</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1912378">1912378</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biomedicine+%26+Pharmacotherapy&rft.atitle=Legally-induced+abortions+in+Denmark+after+Chernobyl&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=229-231&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0753-3322%2891%2990022-L&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1912378&rft.aulast=Knudsen&rft.aufirst=L.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trichopoulos-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trichopoulos_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trichopoulos_214-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrichopoulosZavitsanosKoutisDrogari1987" class="citation journal cs1">Trichopoulos, D.; Zavitsanos, X.; Koutis, C.; Drogari, P.; Proukakis, C.; Petridou, E. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1248180">"The victims of Chernobyl in Greece: Induced abortions after the accident"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BMJ" class="mw-redirect" title="BMJ">BMJ</a>. 295 (6606): 1100. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.295.6606.1100">10.1136/bmj.295.6606.1100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1248180">1248180</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3120899">3120899</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=The+victims+of+Chernobyl+in+Greece%3A+Induced+abortions+after+the+accident&rft.volume=295&rft.issue=6606&rft.pages=1100&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1248180%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3120899&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.295.6606.1100&rft.aulast=Trichopoulos&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Zavitsanos%2C+X.&rft.au=Koutis%2C+C.&rft.au=Drogari%2C+P.&rft.au=Proukakis%2C+C.&rft.au=Petridou%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1248180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid3585500-215"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid3585500_215-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKetchum1987" class="citation journal cs1">Ketchum, Linda E. (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jnm.snmjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3585500">"Lessons of Chernobyl: SNM Members Try to Decontaminate World Threatened by Fallout"</a>. Journal of Nuclear Medicine. 28 (6): 933–942. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3585500">3585500</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220305100443/https://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/28/6/933.long">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 26 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Nuclear+Medicine&rft.atitle=Lessons+of+Chernobyl%3A+SNM+Members+Try+to+Decontaminate+World+Threatened+by+Fallout&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=933-942&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3585500&rft.aulast=Ketchum&rft.aufirst=Linda+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjnm.snmjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fpmidlookup%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D3585500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-216">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_216-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_216-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2011/03/16/134585523/Chernobyls-Hot-Zone-Holds-Some-Surprises">"Chernobyl's Hot Zone Holds Some Surprises"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NPR" title="NPR">NPR</a>. 16 March 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181108184718/https://www.npr.org/2011/03/16/134585523/Chernobyls-Hot-Zone-Holds-Some-Surprises">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%27s+Hot+Zone+Holds+Some+Surprises&rft.date=2011-03-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2011%2F03%2F16%2F134585523%2FChernobyls-Hot-Zone-Holds-Some-Surprises&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCedervall2010" class="citation web cs1">Cedervall, Bjorn (10 March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://health.phys.iit.edu/archives/2010-March/028156.html">"Chernobyl-related abortions"</a>. RadSafe. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161217112841/http://health.phys.iit.edu/archives/2010-March/028156.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 December 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RadSafe&rft.atitle=Chernobyl-related+abortions&rft.date=2010-03-10&rft.aulast=Cedervall&rft.aufirst=Bjorn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhealth.phys.iit.edu%2Farchives%2F2010-March%2F028156.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid8516187-218"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid8516187_218-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle1993" class="citation journal cs1">Little, J. (1993). "The Chernobyl accident, congenital anomalies and other reproductive outcomes". Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology. 7 (2): 121–151. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-3016.1993.tb00388.x">10.1111/j.1365-3016.1993.tb00388.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8516187">8516187</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paediatric+and+Perinatal+Epidemiology&rft.atitle=The+Chernobyl+accident%2C+congenital+anomalies+and+other+reproductive+outcomes&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=121-151&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1365-3016.1993.tb00388.x&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8516187&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDolkNichols1999" class="citation journal cs1">Dolk, H.; Nichols, R. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2F28.5.941">"Evaluation of the impact of Chernobyl on the prevalence of congenital anomalies in 16 regions of Europe. EUROCAT Working Group"</a>. International Journal of Epidemiology. 28 (5): 941–948. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fije%2F28.5.941">10.1093/ije/28.5.941</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10597995">10597995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Epidemiology&rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+the+impact+of+Chernobyl+on+the+prevalence+of+congenital+anomalies+in+16+regions+of+Europe.+EUROCAT+Working+Group&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=941-948&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fije%2F28.5.941&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10597995&rft.aulast=Dolk&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Nichols%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fije%252F28.5.941&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ecolo.org-220"><a href="#cite_ref-ecolo.org_220-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastronovo1999" class="citation journal cs1">Castronovo, Frank P. (1999). "Teratogen update: Radiation and chernobyl". Teratology. 60 (2): 100–106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28sici%291096-9926%28199908%2960%3A2%3C100%3A%3Aaid-tera14%3E3.3.co%3B2-8">10.1002/(sici)1096-9926(199908)60:2<100::aid-tera14>3.3.co;2-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10440782">10440782</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Teratology&rft.atitle=Teratogen+update%3A+Radiation+and+chernobyl&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=100-106&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F%28sici%291096-9926%28199908%2960%3A2%3C100%3A%3Aaid-tera14%3E3.3.co%3B2-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10440782&rft.aulast=Castronovo&rft.aufirst=Frank+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerreetVerslegersQuintensBaatout2016" class="citation journal cs1">Verreet, Tine; Verslegers, Mieke; Quintens, Roel; Baatout, Sarah; Benotmane, Mohammed A (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4921147">"Current Evidence for Developmental, Structural, and Functional Brain Defects following Prenatal Radiation Exposure"</a>. Neural Plasticity. 2016: 1–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2016%2F1243527">10.1155/2016/1243527</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4921147">4921147</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27382490">27382490</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neural+Plasticity&rft.atitle=Current+Evidence+for+Developmental%2C+Structural%2C+and+Functional+Brain+Defects+following+Prenatal+Radiation+Exposure&rft.volume=2016&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4921147%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27382490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2016%2F1243527&rft.aulast=Verreet&rft.aufirst=Tine&rft.au=Verslegers%2C+Mieke&rft.au=Quintens%2C+Roel&rft.au=Baatout%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Benotmane%2C+Mohammed+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4921147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeagerMachielaKothiyalDean2021" class="citation journal cs1">Yeager, Meredith; Machiela, Mitchell J.; Kothiyal, Prachi; Dean, Michael; Bodelon, Clara; Suman, Shalabh; Wang, Mingyi; Mirabello, Lisa; Nelson, Chase W.; Zhou, Weiyin; Palmer, Cameron (14 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9398532">"Lack of transgenerational effects of ionizing radiation exposure from the Chernobyl accident"</a>. Science. 372 (6543): 725–729. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Sci...372..725Y">2021Sci...372..725Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abg2365">10.1126/science.abg2365</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9398532">9398532</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33888597">33888597</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233371673">233371673</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Lack+of+transgenerational+effects+of+ionizing+radiation+exposure+from+the+Chernobyl+accident&rft.volume=372&rft.issue=6543&rft.pages=725-729&rft.date=2021-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9398532%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A233371673%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Sci...372..725Y&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abg2365&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33888597&rft.aulast=Yeager&rft.aufirst=Meredith&rft.au=Machiela%2C+Mitchell+J.&rft.au=Kothiyal%2C+Prachi&rft.au=Dean%2C+Michael&rft.au=Bodelon%2C+Clara&rft.au=Suman%2C+Shalabh&rft.au=Wang%2C+Mingyi&rft.au=Mirabello%2C+Lisa&rft.au=Nelson%2C+Chase+W.&rft.au=Zhou%2C+Weiyin&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Cameron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9398532&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130830073635/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull383/boxp6.html">"Assessing the Chernobyl Consequences"</a>. International Atomic Energy Agency. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull383/boxp6.html">the original</a> on 30 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft.atitle=Assessing+the+Chernobyl+Consequences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2FPublications%2FMagazines%2FBulletin%2FBull383%2Fboxp6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNSCEAR_2008_D-224"><a href="#cite_ref-UNSCEAR_2008_D_224-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_D.pdf">"UNSCEAR 2008 Report to the General Assembly, Annex D"</a> (PDF). United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110804232629/http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_D.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Scientific+Committee+on+the+Effects+of+Atomic+Radiation&rft.atitle=UNSCEAR+2008+Report+to+the+General+Assembly%2C+Annex+D&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unscear.org%2Fdocs%2Freports%2F2008%2F11-80076_Report_2008_Annex_D.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNSCEAR_GA-225"><a href="#cite_ref-UNSCEAR_GA_225-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf">"UNSCEAR 2008 Report to the General Assembly"</a> (PDF). United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120503203201/http://www.unscear.org/docs/reports/2008/09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Scientific+Committee+on+the+Effects+of+Atomic+Radiation&rft.atitle=UNSCEAR+2008+Report+to+the+General+Assembly&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unscear.org%2Fdocs%2Freports%2F2008%2F09-86753_Report_2008_GA_Report_corr2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid22175034-226"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid22175034_226-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJargin2012" class="citation journal cs1">Jargin, Sergei V. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3235888">"On the RET Rearrangements in Chernobyl-Related Thyroid Cancer"</a>. Journal of Thyroid Research. 2012: 373879. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2012%2F373879">10.1155/2012/373879</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3235888">3235888</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22175034">22175034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Thyroid+Research&rft.atitle=On+the+RET+Rearrangements+in+Chernobyl-Related+Thyroid+Cancer&rft.volume=2012&rft.pages=373879&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3235888%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22175034&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2012%2F373879&rft.aulast=Jargin&rft.aufirst=Sergei+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3235888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-who.int-227"><a href="#cite_ref-who.int_227-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr38/en/">"Chernobyl: the true scale of the accident"</a>. World Health Organization. 5 September 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180225095828/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr38/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%3A+the+true+scale+of+the+accident&rft.date=2005-09-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fmediacentre%2Fnews%2Freleases%2F2005%2Fpr38%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCardisKrewskiBoniolDrozdovitch2006" class="citation journal cs1">Cardis, Elisabeth; Krewski, Daniel; Boniol, Mathieu; Drozdovitch, Vladimir; Darby, Sarah C.; <a href="/wiki/Ethel_Gilbert" title="Ethel Gilbert">Gilbert, Ethel S.</a>; Akiba, Suminori; Benichou, Jacques; Ferlay, Jacques; Gandini, Sara; Hill, Catherine; Howe, Geoffrey; Kesminiene, Ausrele; Moser, Mirjana; Sanchez, Marie; Storm, Hans; Voisin, Laurent; Boyle, Peter (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fijc.22037">"Estimates of the cancer burden in Europe from radioactive fallout from the Chernobyl accident"</a>. International Journal of Cancer. 119 (6): 1224–1235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fijc.22037">10.1002/ijc.22037</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16628547">16628547</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:37694075">37694075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Cancer&rft.atitle=Estimates+of+the+cancer+burden+in+Europe+from+radioactive+fallout+from+the+Chernobyl+accident&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1224-1235&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A37694075%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16628547&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fijc.22037&rft.aulast=Cardis&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft.au=Krewski%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Boniol%2C+Mathieu&rft.au=Drozdovitch%2C+Vladimir&rft.au=Darby%2C+Sarah+C.&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Ethel+S.&rft.au=Akiba%2C+Suminori&rft.au=Benichou%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Ferlay%2C+Jacques&rft.au=Gandini%2C+Sara&rft.au=Hill%2C+Catherine&rft.au=Howe%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Kesminiene%2C+Ausrele&rft.au=Moser%2C+Mirjana&rft.au=Sanchez%2C+Marie&rft.au=Storm%2C+Hans&rft.au=Voisin%2C+Laurent&rft.au=Boyle%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fijc.22037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110602031829/http://www.ucsusa.org/news/press_release/chernobyl-cancer-death-toll-0536.html">"Chernobyl Cancer Death Toll Estimate More Than Six Times Higher Than the 4000 Frequently Cited, According to a New UCS Analysis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Concerned_Scientists" title="Union of Concerned Scientists">Union of Concerned Scientists</a>. 22 April 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucsusa.org/news/press_release/chernobyl-cancer-death-toll-0536.html">the original</a> on 2 June 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2018. <q>The UCS analysis is based on radiological data provided by UNSCEAR, and is consistent with the findings of the Chernobyl Forum and other researchers.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Union+of+Concerned+Scientists&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Cancer+Death+Toll+Estimate+More+Than+Six+Times+Higher+Than+the+4000+Frequently+Cited%2C+According+to+a+New+UCS+Analysis&rft.date=2011-04-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucsusa.org%2Fnews%2Fpress_release%2Fchernobyl-cancer-death-toll-0536.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález2014" class="citation book cs1">González, Abel J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/46/092/46092732.pdf">"Imputability of Health Effects to Low-Dose Radiation Exposure Situations"</a> (PDF). Nuclear Law in Progress. Buenos Aires: XXI AIDN/INLA Congress. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161016193141/http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/46/092/46092732.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 16 October 2016. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imputability+of+Health+Effects+to+Low-Dose+Radiation+Exposure+Situations&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Law+in+Progress&rft.place=Buenos+Aires&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=XXI+AIDN%2FINLA+Congress&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Abel+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Finis%2Fcollection%2FNCLCollectionStore%2F_Public%2F46%2F092%2F46092732.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChernobylsLegacy-231">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChernobylsLegacy_231-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChernobylsLegacy_231-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChernobylsLegacy_231-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChernobylsLegacy_231-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChernobylsLegacy_231-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChernobylsLegacy_231-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100215212227/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Chernobyl/chernobyl.pdf">"Chernobyl's Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts"</a> (PDF). Chernobyl Forum. IAEA. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Booklets/Chernobyl/chernobyl.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 15 February 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chernobyl+Forum&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%27s+Legacy%3A+Health%2C+Environmental+and+Socio-Economic+Impacts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2FPublications%2FBooklets%2FChernobyl%2Fchernobyl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chernobyl_health_effects-232"><a href="#cite_ref-Chernobyl_health_effects_232-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html#Health">"Chernobyl health effects"</a>. UNSCEAR.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513235907/http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html#Health">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNSCEAR.org&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+health+effects&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unscear.org%2Funscear%2Fen%2Fchernobyl.html%23Health&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenthal2005" class="citation news cs1">Rosenthal, Elisabeth (6 September 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/06/international/europe/06chernobyl.html">"Experts find reduced effects of Chernobyl"</a>. The New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130617213858/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/06/international/europe/06chernobyl.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Experts+find+reduced+effects+of+Chernobyl&rft.date=2005-09-06&rft.aulast=Rosenthal&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F09%2F06%2Finternational%2Feurope%2F06chernobyl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/docs/chernobylherd.pdf">"Excerpt from UNSCEAR 2001 Report Annex – Hereditary effects of radiation"</a> (PDF). UNSCEAR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110807025805/http://www.unscear.org/docs/chernobylherd.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNSCEAR&rft.atitle=Excerpt+from+UNSCEAR+2001+Report+Annex+%E2%80%93+Hereditary+effects+of+radiation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unscear.org%2Fdocs%2Fchernobylherd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bogdanova_T-235"><a href="#cite_ref-Bogdanova_T_235-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogdanovaZurnadzhyGreenebaumMcConnell2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bogdanova, Tetyana I.; Zurnadzhy, Ludmyla Y.; Greenebaum, Ellen; McConnell, Robert J.; Robbins, Jacob; Epstein, Ovsiy V.; Olijnyk, Valery A.; Hatch, Maureen; Zablotska, Lydia B.; Tronko, Mykola D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2983485">"A cohort study of thyroid cancer and other thyroid diseases after the Chornobyl accident"</a>. Cancer. 107 (11): 2559–2566. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcncr.22321">10.1002/cncr.22321</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2983485">2983485</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17083123">17083123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cancer&rft.atitle=A+cohort+study+of+thyroid+cancer+and+other+thyroid+diseases+after+the+Chornobyl+accident&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2559-2566&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2983485%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17083123&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcncr.22321&rft.aulast=Bogdanova&rft.aufirst=Tetyana+I.&rft.au=Zurnadzhy%2C+Ludmyla+Y.&rft.au=Greenebaum%2C+Ellen&rft.au=McConnell%2C+Robert+J.&rft.au=Robbins%2C+Jacob&rft.au=Epstein%2C+Ovsiy+V.&rft.au=Olijnyk%2C+Valery+A.&rft.au=Hatch%2C+Maureen&rft.au=Zablotska%2C+Lydia+B.&rft.au=Tronko%2C+Mykola+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2983485&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dinets-236"><a href="#cite_ref-Dinets_236-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDinetsHulchiySofiadisGhaderi2012" class="citation journal cs1">Dinets, A.; Hulchiy, M.; Sofiadis, A.; Ghaderi, M.; Hoog, A.; Larsson, C.; Zedenius, J. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361791">"Clinical, genetic, and immunohistochemical characterization of 70 Ukrainian adult cases with post-Chornobyl papillary thyroid carcinoma"</a>. European Journal of Endocrinology. 166 (6): 1049–1060. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1530%2FEJE-12-0144">10.1530/EJE-12-0144</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3361791">3361791</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22457234">22457234</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Endocrinology&rft.atitle=Clinical%2C+genetic%2C+and+immunohistochemical+characterization+of+70+Ukrainian+adult+cases+with+post-Chornobyl+papillary+thyroid+carcinoma&rft.volume=166&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1049-1060&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3361791%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22457234&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1530%2FEJE-12-0144&rft.aulast=Dinets&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Hulchiy%2C+M.&rft.au=Sofiadis%2C+A.&rft.au=Ghaderi%2C+M.&rft.au=Hoog%2C+A.&rft.au=Larsson%2C+C.&rft.au=Zedenius%2C+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3361791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120629110109/http://www.ippnw-students.org/chernobyl/research.html">"20 years after Chernobyl, The ongoing health effects"</a>. <a href="/wiki/IPPNW" class="mw-redirect" title="IPPNW">IPPNW</a>. April 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ippnw-students.org/chernobyl/research.html">the original</a> on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 24 April 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IPPNW&rft.atitle=20+years+after+Chernobyl%2C+The+ongoing+health+effects&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ippnw-students.org%2Fchernobyl%2Fresearch.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mettler-238">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mettler_238-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mettler_238-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMettler" class="citation journal cs1">Mettler, Fred. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110805035918/http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull472/htmls/chernobyls_legacy2.html">"Chernobyl's Legacy"</a>. IAEA Bulletin. 47 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/Bull472/htmls/chernobyls_legacy2.html">the original</a> on 5 August 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IAEA+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Chernobyl%27s+Legacy&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.aulast=Mettler&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2FPublications%2FMagazines%2FBulletin%2FBull472%2Fhtmls%2Fchernobyls_legacy2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNSCEAR-239"><a href="#cite_ref-UNSCEAR_239-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html">"UNSCEAR assessment of the Chernobyl accident"</a>. United Nations Scientific Committee of the Effects of Atomic Radiation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110513235907/http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/chernobyl.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Scientific+Committee+of+the+Effects+of+Atomic+Radiation&rft.atitle=UNSCEAR+assessment+of+the+Chernobyl+accident&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unscear.org%2Funscear%2Fen%2Fchernobyl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZatsepinVergerRobert-GnansiaGagnière2007" class="citation journal cs1">Zatsepin, I.; Verger, P.; Robert-Gnansia, E.; Gagnière, B.; Tirmarche, M.; Khmel, R.; Babicheva, I.; Lazjuk, G. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17706919/">"Down syndrome time-clustering in January 1987 in Belarus: link with the Chernobyl accident?"</a>. Reproductive Toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.). 24 (3–4): 289–295. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007RepTx..24..289Z">2007RepTx..24..289Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.reprotox.2007.06.003">10.1016/j.reprotox.2007.06.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17706919">17706919</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230515000000/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17706919/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 7 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reproductive+Toxicology+%28Elmsford%2C+N.Y.%29&rft.atitle=Down+syndrome+time-clustering+in+January+1987+in+Belarus%3A+link+with+the+Chernobyl+accident%3F&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=289-295&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17706919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.reprotox.2007.06.003&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007RepTx..24..289Z&rft.aulast=Zatsepin&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Verger%2C+P.&rft.au=Robert-Gnansia%2C+E.&rft.au=Gagni%C3%A8re%2C+B.&rft.au=Tirmarche%2C+M.&rft.au=Khmel%2C+R.&rft.au=Babicheva%2C+I.&rft.au=Lazjuk%2C+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2F17706919%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerrington_De_GonzálezMaheshKimBhargavan2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amy_Berrington_de_Gonz%C3%A1lez" title="Amy Berrington de González">Berrington De González, Amy</a>; Mahesh, M; Kim, KP; Bhargavan, M; Lewis, R; Mettler, F; Land, C (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6276814">"Projected Cancer Risks from Computed Tomographic Scans Performed in the United States in 2007"</a>. Archives of Internal Medicine. 169 (22): 2071–2077. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Farchinternmed.2009.440">10.1001/archinternmed.2009.440</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6276814">6276814</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20008689">20008689</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Internal+Medicine&rft.atitle=Projected+Cancer+Risks+from+Computed+Tomographic+Scans+Performed+in+the+United+States+in+2007&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=2071-2077&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6276814%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20008689&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Farchinternmed.2009.440&rft.aulast=Berrington+De+Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft.au=Mahesh%2C+M&rft.au=Kim%2C+KP&rft.au=Bhargavan%2C+M&rft.au=Lewis%2C+R&rft.au=Mettler%2C+F&rft.au=Land%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6276814&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Union_of_Concerned_Scientists-242"><a href="#cite_ref-Union_of_Concerned_Scientists_242-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGronlund2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lisbeth_Gronlund" title="Lisbeth Gronlund">Gronlund, Lisbeth</a> (17 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://allthingsnuclear.org/post/4704112149/how-many-cancers-did-chernobyl-really-cause-updated">"How Many Cancers Did Chernobyl Really Cause?"</a>. Union of Concerned Scientists. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110421041043/http://allthingsnuclear.org/post/4704112149/how-many-cancers-did-chernobyl-really-cause-updated">Archived</a> from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Union+of+Concerned+Scientists&rft.atitle=How+Many+Cancers+Did+Chernobyl+Really+Cause%3F&rft.date=2011-04-17&rft.aulast=Gronlund&rft.aufirst=Lisbeth&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fallthingsnuclear.org%2Fpost%2F4704112149%2Fhow-many-cancers-did-chernobyl-really-cause-updated&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-greenpeace2006-243"><a href="#cite_ref-greenpeace2006_243-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/planet-2/report/2006/4/chernobylhealthreport.pdf">"The Chernobyl Catastrophe. Consequences on Human Health"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110322033230/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/Global/international/planet-2/report/2006/4/chernobylhealthreport.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Greenpeace&rft.atitle=The+Chernobyl+Catastrophe.+Consequences+on+Human+Health&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenpeace.org%2Finternational%2FGlobal%2Finternational%2Fplanet-2%2Freport%2F2006%2F4%2Fchernobylhealthreport.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawleySchmitt2006" class="citation news cs1">Hawley, Charles; Schmitt, Stefan (18 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,411864,00.html">"Greenpeace vs. the United Nations: The Chernobyl Body Count Controversy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Der_Spiegel" title="Der Spiegel">Der Spiegel</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110319065148/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,411864,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Greenpeace+vs.+the+United+Nations%3A+The+Chernobyl+Body+Count+Controversy&rft.date=2006-04-18&rft.aulast=Hawley&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Schmitt%2C+Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2F0%2C1518%2C411864%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balonov-245"><a href="#cite_ref-Balonov_245-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalonov" class="citation journal cs1">Balonov, M. I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120119125747/http://www.nyas.org/asset.axd?id=8b4c4bfc-3b35-434f-8a5c-ee5579d11dbb&t=634507382459270000">"Review 'Chernobyl: Consequences of the Disaster for the Population and the Environment'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_New_York_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences">Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyas.org/asset.axd?id=8b4c4bfc-3b35-434f-8a5c-ee5579d11dbb&t=634507382459270000">the original</a> on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Review+%27Chernobyl%3A+Consequences+of+the+Disaster+for+the+Population+and+the+Environment%27&rft.aulast=Balonov&rft.aufirst=M.+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nyas.org%2Fasset.axd%3Fid%3D8b4c4bfc-3b35-434f-8a5c-ee5579d11dbb%26t%3D634507382459270000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-inflation-USGDP-246"><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-USGDP_246-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnstonWilliamson2023" class="citation web cs1">Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.measuringworth.com/datasets/usgdp/">"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MeasuringWorth" title="MeasuringWorth">MeasuringWorth</a>. Retrieved 30 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MeasuringWorth&rft.atitle=What+Was+the+U.S.+GDP+Then%3F&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Samuel+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.measuringworth.com%2Fdatasets%2Fusgdp%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> United States <a href="/wiki/Gross_Domestic_Product_deflator" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Domestic Product deflator">Gross Domestic Product deflator</a> figures follow the MeasuringWorth series. </li> <li id="cite_note-GorbachevBoC-247"><a href="#cite_ref-GorbachevBoC_247-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Johnson, Thomas (author/director) (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.andanafilms.com/catalogueFiche.php?idFiche=255&rub=Toutes%20les%20fiches%20films">The battle of Chernobyl</a>. Play Film / Discovery Channel.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+battle+of+Chernobyl&rft.pub=Play+Film+%2F+Discovery+Channel&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.andanafilms.com%2FcatalogueFiche.php%3FidFiche%3D255%26rub%3DToutes%2520les%2520fiches%2520films&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> (see 1996 interview with Mikhail Gorbachev). </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorbachev2006" class="citation web cs1">Gorbachev, Mikhail (21 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2006/04/21/commentary/world-commentary/turning-point-at-chernobyl/">"Turning point at Chernobyl"</a>. The Japan Times. Retrieved 24 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Japan+Times&rft.atitle=Turning+point+at+Chernobyl&rft.date=2006-04-21&rft.aulast=Gorbachev&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fopinion%2F2006%2F04%2F21%2Fcommentary%2Fworld-commentary%2Fturning-point-at-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ShlyGlasnost-249"><a href="#cite_ref-ShlyGlasnost_249-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShlyakhterWilson1992" class="citation journal cs1">Shlyakhter, Alexander; Wilson, Richard (1992). "Chernobyl and Glasnost: The Effects of Secrecy on Health and Safety". Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. 34 (5): 25. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992ESPSD..34e..25S">1992ESPSD..34e..25S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00139157.1992.9931445">10.1080/00139157.1992.9931445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environment%3A+Science+and+Policy+for+Sustainable+Development&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+and+Glasnost%3A+The+Effects+of+Secrecy+on+Health+and+Safety&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=25&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00139157.1992.9931445&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992ESPSD..34e..25S&rft.aulast=Shlyakhter&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorbachev2006" class="citation web cs1">Gorbachev, Mikhail (21 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2006/04/21/commentary/world-commentary/turning-point-at-chernobyl/">"Turning point at Chernobyl"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Turning+point+at+Chernobyl&rft.date=2006-04-21&rft.aulast=Gorbachev&rft.aufirst=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.japantimes.co.jp%2Fopinion%2F2006%2F04%2F21%2Fcommentary%2Fworld-commentary%2Fturning-point-at-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayMaissen2021" class="citation book cs1">May, Niels F.; Maissen, Thomas (17 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EUcrEAAAQBAJ&q=%22Chernobyl%22+%22Holodomor%22&pg=PT211">National History and New Nationalism in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Comparison</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781000396348" title="Special:BookSources/9781000396348"><bdi>9781000396348</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210912223203/https://books.google.com/books?id=EUcrEAAAQBAJ&q=%22Chernobyl%22+%22Holodomor%22&pg=PT211">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2021. Retrieved 27 August 2021. <q>Members of the Ukrainian national movement regarded both Holodomor and Chernobyl as 'genocide against the Ukrainian people'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=National+History+and+New+Nationalism+in+the+Twenty-First+Century%3A+A+Global+Comparison&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021-06-17&rft.isbn=9781000396348&rft.aulast=May&rft.aufirst=Niels+F.&rft.au=Maissen%2C+Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEUcrEAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Chernobyl%2522%2B%2522Holodomor%2522%26pg%3DPT211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarlow2019" class="citation news cs1">Marlow, Max (9 June 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/06/09/tragedy-chernobyl-sums-cruel-failures-communism/">"The tragedy of Chernobyl sums up the cruel failures of communism"</a>. The Telegraph. The Telegraph (UK). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/politics/2019/06/09/tragedy-chernobyl-sums-cruel-failures-communism/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Telegraph&rft.atitle=The+tragedy+of+Chernobyl+sums+up+the+cruel+failures+of+communism&rft.date=2019-06-09&rft.aulast=Marlow&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fpolitics%2F2019%2F06%2F09%2Ftragedy-chernobyl-sums-cruel-failures-communism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlokhy" class="citation web cs1">Plokhy, Serhii. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/chernobyl-disaster-coverup">"The Chernobyl Cover-Up: How Officials Botched Evacuating an Irradiated City"</a>. History.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211019013138/https://www.history.com/news/chernobyl-disaster-coverup">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=The+Chernobyl+Cover-Up%3A+How+Officials+Botched+Evacuating+an+Irradiated+City&rft.aulast=Plokhy&rft.aufirst=Serhii&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Fchernobyl-disaster-coverup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJuhnKupitz1996" class="citation journal cs1">Juhn, Poong-Eil; Kupitz, Juergen (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull38-1/38104780209.pdf">"Nuclear power beyond Chernobyl: A changing international perspective"</a> (PDF). IAEA Bulletin. 38 (1): 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150508143703/https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/publications/magazines/bulletin/bull38-1/38104780209.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2015. Retrieved 13 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IAEA+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Nuclear+power+beyond+Chernobyl%3A+A+changing+international+perspective&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Juhn&rft.aufirst=Poong-Eil&rft.au=Kupitz%2C+Juergen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fmagazines%2Fbulletin%2Fbull38-1%2F38104780209.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kagarlitsky-255"><a href="#cite_ref-Kagarlitsky_255-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKagarlitsky1989" class="citation book cs1">Kagarlitsky, Boris (1989). "Perestroika: The Dialectic of Change". In <a href="/wiki/Mary_Kaldor" title="Mary Kaldor">Kaldor, Mary</a>; Holden, Gerald; <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Falk" title="Richard A. Falk">Falk, Richard A.</a> (eds.). The New Detente: Rethinking East-West Relations. United Nations University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-962-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-962-9"><bdi>978-0-86091-962-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Perestroika%3A+The+Dialectic+of+Change&rft.btitle=The+New+Detente%3A+Rethinking+East-West+Relations&rft.pub=United+Nations+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-86091-962-9&rft.aulast=Kagarlitsky&rft.aufirst=Boris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna12403612">"Chernobyl cover-up a catalyst for glasnost"</a>. <a href="/wiki/NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a>. Associated Press. 24 April 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150621102111/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/12403612/ns/world_news-europe/t/chernobyl-cover-up-catalyst-glasnost/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2015. Retrieved 21 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+cover-up+a+catalyst+for+glasnost&rft.date=2006-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna12403612&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGovernment_Authorities_or_Not_Fully_Developed2018" class="citation web cs1">Government Authorities or Not Fully Developed (12 June 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://euromaidanpress.com/2018/06/12/chernobyl-nuclear-plant-was-doomed-declassified-kgb-documents-reveal/">"Chornobyl nuclear disaster was tragedy in the making, declassified KGB files show |"</a>. Euromaidan Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190618120916/http://euromaidanpress.com/2018/06/12/chernobyl-nuclear-plant-was-doomed-declassified-kgb-documents-reveal/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 18 June 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Euromaidan+Press&rft.atitle=Chornobyl+nuclear+disaster+was+tragedy+in+the+making%2C+declassified+KGB+files+show+%7C&rft.date=2018-06-12&rft.au=Government+Authorities+or+Not+Fully+Developed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feuromaidanpress.com%2F2018%2F06%2F12%2Fchernobyl-nuclear-plant-was-doomed-declassified-kgb-documents-reveal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Hanneke Brooymans. France, Germany: A tale of two nuclear nations, The Edmonton Journal, 25 May 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitlerCarskadonCzeislerDement1988" class="citation journal cs1">Mitler, M. M.; Carskadon, M. A.; Czeisler, C. A.; Dement, W. C.; Dinges, D. F.; Graeber, R. C. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2517096">"Catastrophes, Sleep, and Public Policy: Consensus Report"</a>. Sleep. 11 (1): 100–109. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fsleep%2F11.1.100">10.1093/sleep/11.1.100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2517096">2517096</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3283909">3283909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sleep&rft.atitle=Catastrophes%2C+Sleep%2C+and+Public+Policy%3A+Consensus+Report&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=100-109&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2517096%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3283909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fsleep%2F11.1.100&rft.aulast=Mitler&rft.aufirst=M.+M.&rft.au=Carskadon%2C+M.+A.&rft.au=Czeisler%2C+C.+A.&rft.au=Dement%2C+W.+C.&rft.au=Dinges%2C+D.+F.&rft.au=Graeber%2C+R.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2517096&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bhopal.net/old_bhopal_web/bhopalnet/presscoverage/houstonchronicle/archive/19861203-challenger.html">"Challenger disaster compared to Bhopal, Chernobyl, TMI"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190507075707/https://www.bhopal.net/old_bhopal_web/bhopalnet/presscoverage/houstonchronicle/archive/19861203-challenger.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Challenger+disaster+compared+to+Bhopal%2C+Chernobyl%2C+TMI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bhopal.net%2Fold_bhopal_web%2Fbhopalnet%2Fpresscoverage%2Fhoustonchronicle%2Farchive%2F19861203-challenger.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clotmag.com/news/insight-exploring-how-chernobyl-impacted-ukrainian-cultural-heritage-part-2">"Exploring how Chernobyl impacted Ukrainian cultural heritage"</a>. 13 October 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Exploring+how+Chernobyl+impacted+Ukrainian+cultural+heritage&rft.date=2021-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.clotmag.com%2Fnews%2Finsight-exploring-how-chernobyl-impacted-ukrainian-cultural-heritage-part-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180805124316/http://gumanyuk.com/#!/Gallery">"Paintings by artist Roman Gumanyuk"</a>. 5 August 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gumanyuk.com/#!/Gallery">the original</a> on 5 August 2018. Retrieved 29 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paintings+by+artist+Roman+Gumanyuk&rft.date=2018-08-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgumanyuk.com%2F%23%21%2FGallery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180823224639/http://www.chernobylshadows.com/index.html">"Series of artworks Pripyat Lights, or Chernobyl Shadows of artist Roman Gumanyuk"</a>. 23 August 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chernobylshadows.com/index.html">the original</a> on 23 August 2018. Retrieved 29 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Series+of+artworks+Pripyat+Lights%2C+or+Chernobyl+Shadows+of+artist+Roman+Gumanyuk&rft.date=2018-08-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chernobylshadows.com%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stalker-game.com/en/?page=gameplay">"S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl"</a>. www.stalker-game.com. Retrieved 29 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.stalker-game.com&rft.atitle=S.T.A.L.K.E.R.%3A+Shadow+of+Chernobyl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.stalker-game.com%2Fen%2F%3Fpage%3Dgameplay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.boxofficemojo.com/release/rl1967883777/">"Chernobyl Diaries"</a>. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 29 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Box+Office+Mojo&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Diaries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.boxofficemojo.com%2Frelease%2Frl1967883777%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://embryo.asu.edu/pages/chernobyl-heart-2003">"Chernobyl Heart (2003) | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia"</a>. embryo.asu.edu. Retrieved 2 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=embryo.asu.edu&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Heart+%282003%29+%7C+The+Embryo+Project+Encyclopedia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fembryo.asu.edu%2Fpages%2Fchernobyl-heart-2003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://povmagazine.com/review-the-babushkas-of-chernobyl/">"Review: 'The Babushkas of Chernobyl'"</a>. POV Magazine. 14 June 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=POV+Magazine&rft.atitle=Review%3A+%27The+Babushkas+of+Chernobyl%27&rft.date=2017-06-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpovmagazine.com%2Freview-the-babushkas-of-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thebabushkasofchernobyl.com/">"Home"</a>. The Babushkas of Chernobyl. Retrieved 2 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Babushkas+of+Chernobyl&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthebabushkasofchernobyl.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guidedoc.tv/blog/the-best-documentaries-about-chernobyl/">"The best documentaries about Chernobyl"</a>. Guidedoc.tv. Retrieved 2 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Guidedoc.tv&rft.atitle=The+best+documentaries+about+Chernobyl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguidedoc.tv%2Fblog%2Fthe-best-documentaries-about-chernobyl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson" class="citation cs1">Johnson, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1832484/">La bataille de Tchernobyl</a>. Passé sous silence. Retrieved 2 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+bataille+de+Tchernobyl&rft.series=Pass%C3%A9+sous+silence&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imdb.com%2Ftitle%2Ftt1832484%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyatlov2003" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Dyatlov" title="Anatoly Dyatlov">Dyatlov, Anatoly</a> (2003). Chernobyl. How did it happen (in Russian). Nauchtechlitizdat, Moscow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-93728-006-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-93728-006-0"><bdi>978-5-93728-006-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chernobyl.+How+did+it+happen.&rft.pub=Nauchtechlitizdat%2C+Moscow&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-5-93728-006-0&rft.aulast=Dyatlov&rft.aufirst=Anatoly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChernobyl+disaster" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ukrainian_history#Chernobyl" title="Bibliography of Ukrainian history">Bibliography of Ukrainian history § Chernobyl</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Chernobyl disaster at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chernobyl_disaster" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Chernobyl disaster">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" class="extiw" title="q:Chernobyl disaster">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486" class="extiw" title="d:Q486">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080828234653/http://chernobyl.undp.org/">Official UN Chernobyl site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://swap.stanford.edu/20091112210932/http%3A//www.chernobyl.info/">International Chernobyl Portal chernobyl.info, UN Inter-Agency Project ICRIN</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110225215043/http://www.iaea.or.at/NewsCenter/Features/Chernobyl-15/cherno-faq.shtml">Frequently Asked Chernobyl Questions</a>, by the IAEA</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190517230215/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/topics/reference/chernobyl-disaster/">Chernobyl disaster facts and information</a>, by <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120213074912/http://www.crdp.org.ua/en/">Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme (United Nations Development Programme)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.net-film.ru/en/found-page-1/?search=qChernobyl">Footage and documentary films about Chernobyl disaster</a> on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.net-film.ru/en/">Net-Film Newsreels and Documentary Films Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110715154617/http://www.rapik.com/photo/thumbnails.php?album=38">Photographs from inside the zone of alienation and City of Prypyat (2010)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120322030018/http://www.chelu.eu/Blog/?p=88">Photographs from the City of Pripyat, and of those affected by the disaster</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://englishrussia.com/index.php/2009/04/29/at-the-nuclear-power-plant/">English Russia Photos of a RBMK-based power plant</a>, showing details of the reactor hall, pumps, and the control room</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121215050646/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552539">Post-Soviet Pollution: Effects of Chernobyl</a> from theDean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://map.safecast.org/?y=51.3883&x=30.1002&z=13&l=0&m=0">Map of residual radioactivity around Chernobyl</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chernobyl_disaster" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chernobyl_disaster" title="Template:Chernobyl disaster"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chernobyl_disaster" title="Template talk:Chernobyl disaster"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chernobyl_disaster" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chernobyl disaster"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chernobyl_disaster" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chernobyl disaster</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Chernobyl_and_other_radioactivity_releases" title="Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases">Comparison with other radioactivity releases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_the_Chernobyl_and_Fukushima_nuclear_accidents" title="Comparison of the Chernobyl and Fukushima nuclear accidents">Comparison with Fukushima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Cultural impact of the Chernobyl disaster">Cultural impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deaths_due_to_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Deaths due to the Chernobyl disaster">Deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_dogs" title="Chernobyl dogs">Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant%27s_Foot_(Chernobyl)" title="Elephant's Foot (Chernobyl)">Elephant's Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_groundwater_contamination" title="Chernobyl groundwater contamination">Groundwater contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TORCH_report" title="TORCH report">TORCH report</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Individual_involvement_in_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Individual involvement in the Chernobyl disaster">Individuals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Akimov" title="Aleksandr Akimov">Aleksandr Akimov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Dyatlov" title="Anatoly Dyatlov">Anatoly Dyatlov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Ignatenko" title="Vasily Ignatenko">Vasily Ignatenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valery_Khodemchuk" title="Valery Khodemchuk">Valery Khodemchuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Shcherbina" title="Boris Shcherbina">Boris Shcherbina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valery_Legasov" title="Valery Legasov">Valery Legasov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mykola_Melnyk" title="Mykola Melnyk">Mykola Melnyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassili_Nesterenko" title="Vassili Nesterenko">Vassili Nesterenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Pikalov" title="Vladimir Pikalov">Vladimir Pikalov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Pravyk" title="Volodymyr Pravyk">Volodymyr Pravyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Tarakanov" title="Nikolai Tarakanov">Nikolai Tarakanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Telyatnikov" title="Leonid Telyatnikov">Leonid Telyatnikov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonid_Toptunov" title="Leonid Toptunov">Leonid Toptunov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_exclusion_zone" title="Chernobyl exclusion zone">Exclusion zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernihiv%E2%80%93Ovruch_railway" title="Chernihiv–Ovruch railway">Chernihiv–Ovruch railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl" title="Chernobyl">Chernobyl</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">power plant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kopachi" title="Kopachi">Kopachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opachychi" title="Opachychi">Opachychi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poliske" title="Poliske">Poliske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Forest" title="Red Forest">Red Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarasy" title="Tarasy">Tarasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velyki_Klishchi" title="Velyki Klishchi">Velyki Klishchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilcha,_Kyiv_Oblast" title="Vilcha, Kyiv Oblast">Vilcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaniv,_Vyshhorod_Raion,_Kyiv_Oblast" title="Yaniv, Vyshhorod Raion, Kyiv Oblast">Yaniv</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polesie_State_Radioecological_Reserve" title="Polesie State Radioecological Reserve">Polesie Reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aravichy" title="Aravichy">Aravichy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzernavichy" title="Dzernavichy">Dzernavichy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pripyat" title="Pripyat">Pripyat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pripyat_amusement_park" title="Pripyat amusement park">amusement park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azure_Swimming_Pool" title="Azure Swimming Pool">Azure swimming pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avanhard_Stadium_(Pripyat)" title="Avanhard Stadium (Pripyat)">Avanhard stadium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FC_Stroitel_Pripyat" title="FC Stroitel Pripyat">FC Stroitel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Culture_Energetik" title="Palace of Culture Energetik">Energetik cultural palace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(factory)" title="Jupiter (factory)">Jupiter factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polissya_hotel" title="Polissya hotel">Polissya hotel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavutych" title="Slavutych">Slavutych</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Children_International" title="Chernobyl Children International">Chernobyl Children International</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_Chernobyl_Benefit_Concert" title="Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert">Children of Chernobyl Benefit Concert</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Forum" title="Chernobyl Forum">Chernobyl Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Recovery_and_Development_Programme" title="Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme">Chernobyl Recovery and Development Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Shelter_Fund" title="Chernobyl Shelter Fund">Chernobyl Shelter Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Chernobyl%27s_Children" title="Friends of Chernobyl's Children">Friends of Chernobyl's Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellesrad" title="Bellesrad">State Institution for Radiation Monitoring and Radiation Safety</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">Related topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chernobyl" title="Capture of Chernobyl">2022 Russian capture of Chernobyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl:_Abyss" title="Chernobyl: Abyss">Chernobyl: Abyss (2021 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_(miniseries)" title="Chernobyl (miniseries)">Chernobyl (2019 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl:_The_Lost_Tapes" title="Chernobyl: The Lost Tapes">Chernobyl: The Lost Tapes</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_liquidators" title="Chernobyl liquidators">Chernobyl liquidators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_necklace" title="Chernobyl necklace">Chernobyl necklace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobylite" title="Chernobylite">Chernobylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant_sarcophagus" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant sarcophagus">Sarcophagus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_New_Safe_Confinement" title="Chernobyl New Safe Confinement">New Safe Confinement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samosely" title="Samosely">Samosely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_National_Chernobyl_Museum" title="Ukrainian National Chernobyl Museum">National Chernobyl Museum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Chernobyl_disaster" title="Category:Chernobyl disaster">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_and_radioactive_disasters,_former_facilities,_tests_and_test_sites" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Template:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Template talk:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_and_radioactive_disasters,_former_facilities,_tests_and_test_sites" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Nuclear and radioactive disasters, former facilities, tests and test sites</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of disasters and incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_involving_radioactive_substances" title="Crimes involving radioactive substances">Crimes involving radioactive substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident#Incidents" title="Criticality accident">Criticality accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown#Nuclear_meltdown_events" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_nuclear_accidents" title="List of military nuclear accidents">Military nuclear accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_by_death_toll" title="List of nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll">Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_and_radiation_fatalities_by_country" title="List of nuclear and radiation fatalities by country">Nuclear and radiation fatalities by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Nuclear weapons tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_China" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_France" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_India" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_North_Korea" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagai-I" title="Chagai-I">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction#Testing_the_first_device" title="South Africa and weapons of mass destruction">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom#Nuclear_tests" title="Nuclear weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_tests_in_Australia" title="Nuclear weapons tests in Australia">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_nuclear_testing_in_the_United_States" title="British nuclear testing in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of United States nuclear weapons tests">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sunken_nuclear_submarines" title="List of sunken nuclear submarines">Sunken nuclear submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_orphan_source_incidents" title="List of orphan source incidents">List of orphan source incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_accidents_by_country" title="List of nuclear power accidents by country">Nuclear power accidents by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Individual accidents and sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2019 <a href="/wiki/Nyonoksa_radiation_accident" title="Nyonoksa radiation accident">Nyonoksa radiation accident</a></li> <li>2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident" title="Fukushima nuclear accident">Fukushima nuclear accident</a></li> <li>2001 <a href="/wiki/Instituto_Oncol%C3%B3gico_Nacional#Accident" title="Instituto Oncológico Nacional">Instituto Oncológico Nacional#Accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1990 <a href="/wiki/Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" title="Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident</a></li> <li>1987 <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a></li> <li>1986 <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chernobyl disaster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_the_Chernobyl_disaster" title="Effects of the Chernobyl disaster">Effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chernobyl-related_articles" title="List of Chernobyl-related articles">Related articles</a></li></ul></li> <li>1985 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-431" title="Soviet submarine K-431">Chazhma Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1985–1987 <a href="/wiki/Therac-25" title="Therac-25">Therac-25</a> accident</li> <li>1982 <a href="/wiki/Andreev_Bay_nuclear_accident" title="Andreev Bay nuclear accident">Andreev Bay nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1980 <a href="/wiki/Kramatorsk_radiological_accident" title="Kramatorsk radiological accident">Kramatorsk radiological accident</a></li> <li>1979 <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident_health_effects" title="Three Mile Island accident health effects">Three Mile Island accident health effects</a></li> <li>1969 <a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens reactor</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Johnston_Atoll#National_nuclear_weapon_test_site_1958-1963#Failures" title="Johnston Atoll"> Thor missile launch failures at Johnston Atoll</a> under <a href="/wiki/Operation_Fishbowl" title="Operation Fishbowl">Operation Fishbowl</a></li> <li>1962 <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19#Nuclear_accident" title="Soviet submarine K-19">K-19 nuclear accident</a></li> <li>1961 <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a> nuclear meltdown</li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a></li> <li>1957 <a href="/wiki/Operation_Plumbbob" title="Operation Plumbbob">Operation Plumbbob</a></li> <li>1954 <a href="/wiki/Totskoye_nuclear_exercise" title="Totskoye nuclear exercise">Totskoye nuclear exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination_from_the_Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a></li> <li>1945 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale (INES)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">Books about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of films about nuclear issues">Films about nuclear issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_anti-nuclear_movement" title="History of the anti-nuclear movement">History of the anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_against_Nuclear_Tests" title="International Day against Nuclear Tests">International Day against Nuclear Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_close_calls" title="Nuclear close calls">Nuclear close calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-Free_Future_Award" title="Nuclear-Free Future Award">Nuclear-Free Future Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-free_zone" title="Nuclear-free zone">Nuclear-free zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_peace_activists" title="List of peace activists">Peace activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_camp" title="Peace camp">Peace camp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell%E2%80%93Einstein_Manifesto" title="Russell–Einstein Manifesto">Russell–Einstein Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smiling_Sun" title="Smiling Sun">Smiling Sun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Category:Radiation accidents and incidents">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" title="Template:Nuclear power in Ukraine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" title="Template talk:Nuclear power in Ukraine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear power in Ukraine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" title="Nuclear power in Ukraine">Nuclear power in Ukraine</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Ukraine" title="Energy in Ukraine">Energy in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" title="Nuclear power in Ukraine">Nuclear power in Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Ukraine" title="List of power stations in Ukraine">List of power stations in Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reactors of Power Stations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khmelnytskyi_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Plant">Khmelnytskyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivne_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Rivne Nuclear Power Plant">Rivne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Ukraine_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="South Ukraine Nuclear Power Plant">South Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaporizhzhia_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant">Zaporizhzhia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zaporizhzhia_Nuclear_Power_Plant_crisis" title="Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant crisis">crisis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unfinished</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Atomic_Energy_Station" title="Crimean Atomic Energy Station">Crimean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chyhyryn_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chyhyryn Nuclear Power Plant">Chyhyryn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odesa_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Odesa Nuclear Power Plant">Odesa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharkiv_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Kharkiv Nuclear Power Plant">Kharkiv</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Closed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant">Chernobyl</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Chernobyl" title="Capture of Chernobyl">battle</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other reactors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NASU_Institute_of_Nuclear_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="NASU Institute of Nuclear Research">NASU Institute of Nuclear Research</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kharkiv_Institute_of_Physics_and_Technology_neutron_source_facility&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology neutron source facility (page does not exist)">Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology neutron source facility</a> [<a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%83%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%22%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%22" class="extiw" title="uk:Ядерна підкритична установка "Джерело нейтронів"">uk</a>]</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energoatom" title="Energoatom">Energoatom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turboatom" title="Turboatom">Turboatom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_anti-nuclear_movement" title="History of the anti-nuclear movement">History of the anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_protests" title="Anti-nuclear protests">Anti-nuclear protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear reactors">List of nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" title="Category:Nuclear power in Ukraine">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q486#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/853649/">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh87003900">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12044110t">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12044110t">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00968593">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810568028805606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007539140705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028649109">IdRef</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Chernobyl_disaster&params=51_23_23_N_30_05_57_E_region:UA_type:landmark&title=Chernobyl+disaster">51°23′23″N 30°05′57″E / 51.38972°N 30.09917°E / 51.38972; 30.09917 (Chernobyl disaster)</a>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&oldid=1258831879">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&oldid=1258831879</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chernobyl_disaster" title="Category:Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_health_disasters" title="Category:1986 health disasters">1986 health disasters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_in_Belarus" title="Category:1986 in Belarus">1986 in Belarus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:1986 in the Soviet Union">1986 in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_in_Ukraine" title="Category:1986 in Ukraine">1986 in Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_industrial_disasters" title="Category:1986 industrial disasters">1986 industrial disasters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_disasters_in_Belarus" title="Category:1986 disasters in Belarus">1986 disasters in Belarus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_disasters_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:1986 disasters in the Soviet Union">1986 disasters in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1986_disasters_in_Ukraine" title="Category:1986 disasters in Ukraine">1986 disasters in Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:April_1986_events_in_Europe" title="Category:April 1986 events in Europe">April 1986 events in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:April_1986_events_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:April 1986 events in the Soviet Union">April 1986 events in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chernobyl,_Ukraine" title="Category:Chernobyl, Ukraine">Chernobyl, Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civilian_nuclear_power_accidents" title="Category:Civilian nuclear power accidents">Civilian nuclear power accidents</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Disasters_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Disasters in the Soviet Union">Disasters in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environment_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Environment of the Soviet Union">Environment of the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_disasters_in_Europe" title="Category:Environmental disasters in Europe">Environmental disasters in Europe</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_disasters_in_Ukraine" title="Category:Environmental disasters in Ukraine">Environmental disasters in Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Explosions_in_1986" title="Category:Explosions in 1986">Explosions in 1986</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fires_in_Ukraine" title="Category:Fires in Ukraine">Fires in Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Health_in_Ukraine" title="Category:Health in Ukraine">Health in Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_fires_and_explosions" title="Category:Industrial fires and explosions">Industrial fires and explosions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:INES_Level_7_accidents" title="Category:INES Level 7 accidents">INES Level 7 accidents</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Man-made_disasters_in_Belarus" title="Category:Man-made disasters in Belarus">Man-made disasters in Belarus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Man-made_disasters_in_Ukraine" title="Category:Man-made disasters in Ukraine">Man-made disasters in Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Man-made_disasters_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Category:Man-made disasters in the Soviet Union">Man-made disasters in the Soviet Union</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pripyat" title="Category:Pripyat">Pripyat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Category:Radiation accidents and incidents">Radiation accidents and incidents</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Soviet_cover-ups" title="Category:Soviet cover-ups">Soviet cover-ups</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru)" title="Category:CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)">CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru)" title="Category:CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)">CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_uses_Ukrainian-language_script_(uk)" title="Category:CS1 uses Ukrainian-language script (uk)">CS1 uses Ukrainian-language script (uk)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Ukrainian-language_sources_(uk)" title="Category:CS1 Ukrainian-language sources (uk)">CS1 Ukrainian-language sources (uk)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Russian-language_sources_(ru)" title="Category:Articles with Russian-language sources (ru)">Articles with Russian-language sources (ru)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">CS1 maint: unfit URL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_March_2022" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from March 2022">Articles with dead external links from March 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_German-language_sources_(de)" title="Category:CS1 German-language sources (de)">CS1 German-language sources (de)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Norwegian-language_sources_(no)" title="Category:CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no)">CS1 Norwegian-language sources (no)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_intentionally_citing_retracted_publications" title="Category:Articles intentionally citing retracted publications">Articles intentionally citing retracted publications</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_Oxford_spelling_from_August_2016" title="Category:Use Oxford spelling from August 2016">Use Oxford spelling from August 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_January_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from January 2024">Use dmy dates from January 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_shortened_footnotes_from_May_2023" title="Category:Use shortened footnotes from May 2023">Use shortened footnotes from May 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Infobox_mapframe_without_OSM_relation_ID_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata">Infobox mapframe without OSM relation ID on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_October_2018" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from October 2018">Articles lacking reliable references from October 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hAudio_microformats" title="Category:Articles with hAudio microformats">Articles with hAudio microformats</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2016" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_June_2019" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from June 2019">Articles lacking reliable references from June 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Sister_project_links_with_hidden_wikidata" title="Category:Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata">Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Coordinates on Wikidata">Coordinates on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_Kartographer_extension" title="Category:Pages using the Kartographer extension">Pages using the Kartographer extension</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 21:48 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chernobyl_disaster&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-88l8n","wgBackendResponseTime":182,"wgKartographerLiveData":{"_f12de65ae136e75aea49e22427f24c5695da383e":[{"type":"Feature","geometry":{"coordinates":[30.099166666666665,51.38972222222222],"type":"Point"},"properties":{"title":"Chernobyl disaster","marker-color":"#5E74F3"}}]},"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"3.839","walltime":"4.283","ppvisitednodes":{"value":36134,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":708292,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":21836,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":25,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":26,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1054445,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3723.039 1 -total"," 50.65% 1885.789 2 Template:Reflist"," 17.43% 649.011 116 Template:Cite_web"," 10.37% 386.159 53 Template:Cite_journal"," 9.99% 371.989 58 Template:Rp"," 9.88% 367.844 60 Template:R/superscript"," 5.33% 198.428 41 Template:Cite_news"," 5.13% 191.056 34 Template:Cite_book"," 4.77% 177.633 5 Template:Harvard_citation_no_brackets"," 4.74% 176.473 178 Template:R/where"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.292","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":27467265,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdamovCherkashov2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBakerChesser2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBakerVan_Den_BusscheWrightWiggins1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBalonov\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarkerVan_Den_BusscheWrightWiggins1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaryakhtarGoncharZhidkovZhidkov2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaverstock2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelyaev\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeresfordCopplestone2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerrington_De_GonzálezMaheshKimBhargavan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBogatovBorovoiLagunenkoPazukhin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBogdanovaZurnadzhyGreenebaumMcConnell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBond2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorovoi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoyle2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurnett2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardisKrewskiBoniolDrozdovitch2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastronovo1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCedervall2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChecherov1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChecherov2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChesserBaker2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrossette1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavletbaev1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_GeerPerssonRodhe2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeryabinaKuchmelNagorskayaHinton2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDigges2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDinetsHulchiySofiadisGhaderi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDmitriev2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobrzyńskiFornalskiFeinendegen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDolkNichols1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyatlov\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyatlov2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmbury-Dennis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEuropean_Greens_and_UK_scientists_Ian_Fairlie_PhD_and_David_Sumner2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvangeliouBalkanskiCozicHao2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairlieSumner2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeshbachFriendly1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFleishmanNikiforovSaulusKomov1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuritsuRyoYeliseevaThuy2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzález2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorbachev2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGould1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGovernment_Authorities_or_Not_Fully_Developed2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrady1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraves\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGronlund2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGusevGuskovaMettler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuskova2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuyKolirin2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallenbeck1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawkes1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawleySchmitt2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHigginbotham2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHigginbotham2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHjelmgaard2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIkäheimonen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJargin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstone2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJourneauBoccaccioJégouPiluso2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJuhnKupitz1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKagarlitsky1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarpan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaspersonStallen1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKetchum1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnudsen1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKostin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKramer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrogh1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKryshev1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuchinskaya2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLax1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyle\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacalisterCarter2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarlow2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarples1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarples1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayMaissen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCall2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKenna2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedvedev\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedvedev1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedvedev1990\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMettler\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMettler2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitlerCarskadonCzeislerDement1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMould2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulvey2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMycio2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMycio2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMøllerMousseau2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMückPröhlLikhtarevKovgan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNuwer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliphant2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrange2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPakhomovDubasov2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrovUdalovSubrtBakardjieva2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetryna2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlokhy\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPröhlMückLikhtarevKovgan2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRagheb2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawlinsonHovenden2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenthal2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRybacki2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSametSeo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamodelova2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchipani2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmemann1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShcherbak1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShlyakhterWilson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSich1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithBeresford2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteadmanHodgkinson1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinerFielitz2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinhauserBrandlJohnson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStone2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStägerZokSchillerFeng2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuess2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrichopoulosZavitsanosKoutisDrogari1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerreetVerslegersQuintensBaatout2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVlasovaGigova2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWagemakerGuskovaBebeshkoGriffiths1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeigeltScherb2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWendorf2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWessells2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYablokovNesterenkoNesterenko2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYeagerMachielaKothiyalDean2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZamostianMoysichMahoneyMcCarthy2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZatsepinVergerRobert-GnansiaGagnière2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZeilig1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhukovskyItkinChernenko1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZohuriMcDaniel2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZoriyDederichsPillathHeuel-Fabianek2016\"] = 1,\n [\"higginbotham\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 4,\n [\"'\\\"\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 6,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Better source needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 3,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Chernobyl\"] = 1,\n [\"Chernobyl disaster\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 34,\n [\"Cite episode\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 53,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 41,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite tech report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 115,\n [\"Color box\"] = 5,\n [\"Convert\"] = 38,\n [\"Coord\"] = 2,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Formatprice\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvard citation no brackets\"] = 5,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 1,\n [\"Inflation-fn\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox event\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox mapframe\"] = 1,\n [\"Legend-line\"] = 3,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Main article\"] = 1,\n [\"Nbsp\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents\"] = 1,\n [\"Nuclear power in Ukraine\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Retracted\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 58,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 4,\n [\"Start date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"Use Oxford spelling\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Use shortened footnotes\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 4,\n [\"YouTube\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","460","18.0"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","320","12.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","260","10.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","200","7.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","140","5.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","4.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","100","3.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","60","2.3"],["type","60","2.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","60","2.3"],["[others]","780","30.5"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-zdzzs","timestamp":"20241124210826","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Chernobyl disaster","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Chernobyl_disaster","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q486","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q486","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-09-03T22:13:51Z","dateModified":"2024-11-21T21:48:19Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/87\/IAEA_02790015_%285613115146%29.jpg","headline":"1986 nuclear accident in the Soviet Union"}</script> </body> </html>