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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Launch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Launch </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Launch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Success_and_market_domination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_and_market_domination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Success and market domination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_and_market_domination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years_and_company_decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years_and_company_decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Later years and company decline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_years_and_company_decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hardware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Hardware </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hardware-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Hardware subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Hardware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Technical_specifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technical_specifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Technical specifications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technical_specifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graphics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graphics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Graphics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graphics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Sound </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_integrated_peripherals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_integrated_peripherals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Other integrated peripherals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_integrated_peripherals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Firmware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Firmware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Firmware </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Firmware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sinclair_Research_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sinclair_Research_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Sinclair Research models </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sinclair_Research_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sinclair Research models subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sinclair_Research_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_16K/48K" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ZX_Spectrum_16K/48K"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 ZX Spectrum 16K/48K </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_16K/48K-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ZX_Spectrum+" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ZX_Spectrum+"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 ZX Spectrum+ </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ZX_Spectrum+-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_128" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ZX_Spectrum_128"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 ZX Spectrum 128 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_128-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amstrad_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amstrad_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Amstrad models </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Amstrad_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Amstrad models subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Amstrad_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_+2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ZX_Spectrum_+2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 ZX Spectrum +2 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_+2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_+3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ZX_Spectrum_+3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 ZX Spectrum +3 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_+3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_+2A,_+2B_and_+3B" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ZX_Spectrum_+2A,_+2B_and_+3B"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 ZX Spectrum +2A, +2B and +3B </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ZX_Spectrum_+2A,_+2B_and_+3B-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Licences_and_re-creations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Licences_and_re-creations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Licences and re-creations </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Licences_and_re-creations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Licences and re-creations subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Licences_and_re-creations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Official_licences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Official_licences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Official licences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Official_licences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unofficial_clones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unofficial_clones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Unofficial clones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unofficial_clones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recreations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recreations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Recreations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recreations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peripherals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peripherals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Peripherals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peripherals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Software </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Reception </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 In popular culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">ZX Spectrum</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" > 50 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%AF_%D8%A5%D9%83%D8%B3_%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="زد إكس سبكتروم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="زد إكس سبكتروم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="اسپکتروم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسپکتروم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_%EC%8A%A4%ED%8E%99%ED%8A%B8%EB%9F%BC" title="ZX 스펙트럼 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="ZX 스펙트럼" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A8" title="ספקטרום סינקלייר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספקטרום סינקלייר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B5%D1%82-%D0%98%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Зет-Икс Спектрум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Зет-Икс Спектрум" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3_%D8%B3%D9%BE%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="زى اكس سپكتروم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="زى اكس سپكتروم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%94%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%8A" title="Спєктроумъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Спєктроумъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum" title="ZX Spectrum – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="Sinclair ZX Spectrum" data-language-autonym="中文" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1982 series of home computers</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox hproduct vevent"><caption class="infobox-title fn summary">ZX Spectrum</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum-02b.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum-02b.svg/220px-Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum-02b.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum-02b.svg/330px-Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum-02b.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum-02b.svg/440px-Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum-02b.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="138" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:ZXSpectrum48k.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/220px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/330px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/440px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2168" data-file-height="1593" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">An issue 2 1982 ZX Spectrum</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Developer</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair Research</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Type</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer">Home computer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Generation</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/8-bit_computing" title="8-bit computing">8-bit</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Release date</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a>: 23 April 1982 (23 April 1982)<a href="#cite_note-BT-1">[1]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a>: 1983 (1983)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">EU</a>: 1985 (1985)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Introductory price</th><td class="infobox-data">UK: <a href="/wiki/Pound_sterling" title="Pound sterling">£</a>125 (16 <a href="/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">KB</a>) (equivalent to £557 in 2023) / £175 (48 KB) (equivalent to £780 in 2023) ,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201869-2">[2]</a> US: <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</a>200, ESP: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_peseta" title="Spanish peseta">Pta</a>44,250</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Discontinued</th><td class="infobox-data">1992<a href="#cite_note-bbclegacy-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Units sold</th><td class="infobox-data">5 million<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMott200076-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Media</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Compact_Cassette_(data)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact Cassette (data)">Compact Cassette</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZX_Microdrive" title="ZX Microdrive">ZX Microdrive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk_variants" title="Floppy disk variants">3-inch floppy disk</a> on Spectrum +3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_BASIC" title="Sinclair BASIC">Sinclair BASIC</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">CPU</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Z80A" class="mw-redirect" title="Z80A">Z80A</a> (or equivalent) @ 3.5 MHz</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Memory</th><td class="infobox-data">16 <a href="/wiki/Kibibyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibibyte">KB</a> / 48 KB / 128 KB (IEC: <a href="/wiki/Kibibyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Kibibyte">KiB</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Display</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/PAL" title="PAL">PAL</a> <a href="/wiki/RF_modulator" title="RF modulator">RF modulator</a> out, 256 × 192, 15 colours</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Graphics</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gate_array" title="Gate array">ULA</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Sound</th><td class="infobox-data">Beeper, <a href="/wiki/AY-3-8912" class="mw-redirect" title="AY-3-8912">AY-3-8912</a> (128K models)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_QL" title="Sinclair QL">QL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_PC200" title="Sinclair PC200">Sinclair PC200</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The ZX Spectrum (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">UK</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/zɛd ɛks/</a>) is an <a href="/wiki/8-bit_computing" title="8-bit computing">8-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer">home computer</a> developed and marketed by <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair Research</a>. Considered one of the most influential computers ever made, it is also one of the best-selling British computers ever, with over five million units sold. It was released in the United Kingdom on 23 April 1982, and around the world in the following years, most notably in Europe, the United States, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a> countries. The machine was designed by English entrepreneur and inventor Sir <a href="/wiki/Clive_Sinclair" title="Clive Sinclair">Clive Sinclair</a> and his small team in <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, and was manufactured in <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a>, Scotland by <a href="/wiki/Timex_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Timex Corporation">Timex Corporation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Day-5">[5]</a> It was made to be small, simple, and most importantly inexpensive, with as few components as possible. The addendum "Spectrum" was chosen to highlight the machine's colour display, which differed from the black-and-white display of its predecessor, the <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rick_Dickinson" title="Rick Dickinson">Rick Dickinson</a> designed its distinctive case, rainbow motif, and <a href="/wiki/Chiclet_keyboard" title="Chiclet keyboard">rubber keyboard</a>. Video output is transmitted to a television set rather than a dedicated <a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">monitor</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a> is loaded and saved onto <a href="/wiki/Compact_audio_cassette" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact audio cassette">compact audio cassettes</a>. The ZX Spectrum was initially distributed by mail order, but after severe backlogs it was sold through <a href="/wiki/High_Street" title="High Street">High Street</a> chains in the United Kingdom. It was released in the US as the <a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_2068" title="Timex Sinclair 2068">Timex Sinclair 2068</a> in 1983, and in some parts of Europe as the <a href="/wiki/Timex_Computer_2048" title="Timex Computer 2048">Timex Computer 2048</a>. Ultimately the Spectrum was released as seven different models, ranging from the entry level with 16 <a href="/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">KB</a> RAM released in 1982 to the ZX Spectrum +3 with 128 KB RAM and built-in <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drive in 1987. Throughout its life, the machine primarily competed with the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dragon_32" class="mw-redirect" title="Dragon 32">Dragon 32</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC" title="Amstrad CPC">Amstrad CPC</a> range. Over 24,000 different software products were released for the ZX Spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-BT-1">[1]</a> The Spectrum played a pivotal role in the early <a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">history of personal computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_video_games" title="History of video games">video gaming</a>, leaving an enduring legacy that influenced generations. Its introduction led to a boom in companies producing software and <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>, the effects of which are still seen. It was among the first home computers aimed at a mainstream audience, with some crediting it as responsible for launching the British information technology industry. The Spectrum is one of the best-selling British computers of all time, retaining the title of Britain's top-selling computer until the <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_PCW" title="Amstrad PCW">Amstrad PCW</a> surpassed it in the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-backlash-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-typewriter-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-slice-8">[8]</a> It was discontinued in 1992. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_Clive_Sinclair_on_X-Bike_Prototype.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sir_Clive_Sinclair_on_X-Bike_Prototype.jpg/130px-Sir_Clive_Sinclair_on_X-Bike_Prototype.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sir_Clive_Sinclair_on_X-Bike_Prototype.jpg/195px-Sir_Clive_Sinclair_on_X-Bike_Prototype.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Sir_Clive_Sinclair_on_X-Bike_Prototype.jpg/260px-Sir_Clive_Sinclair_on_X-Bike_Prototype.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2142" data-file-height="4123" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Clive_Sinclair" title="Clive Sinclair">Clive Sinclair</a> riding an X-Bike prototype in 1990</figcaption></figure> The ZX Spectrum was conceived and designed by engineers at Sinclair Research, founded by English entrepreneur and inventor <a href="/wiki/Clive_Sinclair" title="Clive Sinclair">Clive Sinclair</a>, who was well known for his eccentricity and pioneering ethic.<a href="#cite_note-bizhistory-9">[9]</a> On 25 July 1961, three years after passing his <a href="/wiki/GCE_Advanced_Level_(United_Kingdom)" class="mw-redirect" title="GCE Advanced Level (United Kingdom)">A-levels</a>, he founded <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Radionics" title="Sinclair Radionics">Sinclair Radionics</a> Ltd as a vehicle to advertise his inventions and buy components.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDale198521-10">[10]</a> In 1972, Sinclair had competed with <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> to produce the world's first <a href="/wiki/Pocket_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Pocket calculator">pocket calculator</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Executive" title="Sinclair Executive">Sinclair Executive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-newyork-11">[11]</a> By the mid 1970s, Sinclair Radionics was producing handheld electronic calculators, miniature televisions, and the ill-fated digital <a href="/wiki/Black_Watch_(wristwatch)" title="Black Watch (wristwatch)">Black Watch</a> wristwatch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh202280–81-12">[12]</a> Due to financial losses, Sinclair sought investors from the <a href="/wiki/National_Enterprise_Board" title="National Enterprise Board">National Enterprise Board</a> (NEB), who had bought a 43% interest in the company and streamlined his product line. Sinclair's relationship with the NEB had worsened, however, and by 1979 it opted to break up Sinclair Radionics entirely,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKean1985b126-13">[13]</a> selling off its television division to <a href="/wiki/Binatone" title="Binatone">Binatone</a> and its calculator division to ESL Bristol.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDale198577–78-14">[14]</a> After incurring a £7 million investment loss, Sinclair was given a <a href="/wiki/Golden_handshake" title="Golden handshake">golden handshake</a> and an estimated £10,000 severance package.<a href="#cite_note-newyork-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> He had a former employee, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Curry_(businessman)" title="Christopher Curry (businessman)">Christopher Curry</a>, establish a "corporate lifeboat" company named Science of Cambridge Ltd, in July 1977, called such as they were located near the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDale198589-16">[16]</a> By this time inexpensive <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a> had started appearing on the market, which prompted Sinclair to start producing the <a href="/wiki/MK14" title="MK14">MK14</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Electronic_kit" title="Electronic kit">computer teaching kit</a> which sold well at a very low price.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDale198591-17">[17]</a> Encouraged by this success, Sinclair renamed his company to <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair Research</a>, and started looking to manufacture personal computers. Keeping the cost low was essential for Sinclair to avoid his products from becoming outpriced by American or Japanese equivalents as had happened to several of the previous Sinclair Radionics products.<a href="#cite_note-newyork-11">[11]</a> On 29 January 1980, the <a href="/wiki/ZX80" title="ZX80">ZX80</a> home computer was launched to immediate popularity; notable for being one of the first computers available in the United Kingdom for less than £100.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaurie1981113-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayes1981119-19">[19]</a> The company conducted no market research whatsoever prior to the launch of the ZX80; according to Sinclair, he "simply had a hunch" that the public was sufficiently interested to make such a project feasible and went ahead with ordering 100,000 sets of parts so that he could launch at high volume.<a href="#cite_note-FT-noresearch-20">[20]</a> On 5 March 1981, the <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a> was launched worldwide to immense success with more than 1.5 million units sold,<a href="#cite_note-Sinclair-Research-21">[21]</a> 60% of which was outside Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClarke1982390-22">[22]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ben_Rosen" class="mw-redirect" title="Ben Rosen">Ben Rosen</a>, by pricing the ZX81 so low, the company had "opened up a completely new market among people who had never previously considered owning a computer".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngineering_Today198220–23-23">[23]</a> After its release, computing in Britain became an activity for the general public rather than the preserve of office workers and hobbyists. The ZX81's commercial success made Sinclair Research one of Britain's leading computer manufacturers, with Sinclair himself reportedly "amused and gratified" by the attention the machine received.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHayman198223-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Development">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZX_Spectrum_concept.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/ZX_Spectrum_concept.jpg/220px-ZX_Spectrum_concept.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/ZX_Spectrum_concept.jpg/330px-ZX_Spectrum_concept.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/ZX_Spectrum_concept.jpg/440px-ZX_Spectrum_concept.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1979" data-file-height="1525" /></a><figcaption>An original concept sketch of the ZX Spectrum, depicting an angular and wedge-like form similar to its predecessor, the <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a></figcaption></figure> Development of the ZX Spectrum began in September 1981, a few months after the release of the ZX81. Sinclair resolved to make his own products obsolete before his rivals developed the products that would do so. Parts of designs from the ZX80 and ZX81 were reused to ensure a speedy and cost-effective manufacturing process. The team consisted of 20 engineers housed in a small office at 6 <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Parade" title="King's Parade">King's Parade</a>, Cambridge.<a href="#cite_note-edgehistory-25">[25]</a> During early production, the machine was known as the ZX81 Colour or the ZX82 to highlight the machine's colour display, which differed from the black and white of its predecessors. The addendum "Spectrum" was added later on, to emphasise its 15-colour palette.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201868-26">[26]</a> Aside from a new <a href="/wiki/Crystal_oscillator" title="Crystal oscillator">crystal oscillator</a> and extra chips to add additional <a href="/wiki/Kilobyte" title="Kilobyte">kilobytes</a> of memory,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams198214-27">[27]</a> the ZX Spectrum was intended to be, as quoted by Sinclair's marketing manager, essentially a "ZX81 with colour".<a href="#cite_note-edgehistory-25">[25]</a> According to Sinclair, the team also wanted to combine the ZX81's separate <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> sections for audio and video into a single bank.<a href="#cite_note-registerlegacy-28">[28]</a> Chief engineer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Altwasser" title="Richard Altwasser">Richard Altwasser</a> was responsible for the ZX Spectrum's hardware design. His main contribution was the design of the semi-custom <a href="/wiki/Gate_array" title="Gate array">uncommitted logic array</a> (ULA) integrated circuit, which integrated, on a single chip, the essential hardware functions. Altwasser designed a graphics mode that required less than 7 kilobytes of memory and implemented it on the ULA. Vickers wrote most of the ROM code. Lengthy discussions between Altwasser and Sinclair engineers resulted in a broad agreement that the ZX Spectrum must have high-resolution graphics, 16 kilobytes of memory, an improved <a href="/wiki/Cassette_tape#data" title="Cassette tape">cassette interface</a>, and an impressive colour palette.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198238-29">[29]</a> To achieve this, the team had to divorce the <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU) away from the main display to enable it to work at full efficiency – a method which contrasted with the ZX81's integrated CPU.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198238-29">[29]</a> The inclusion of colour to the display proved a major obstacle to the engineers. A <a href="/wiki/Teletext" title="Teletext">Teletext</a>-like approach was briefly considered, in which each line of text would have colour-change codes inserted into it. However, this was ruled out, as it was deemed unsuitable for high-resolution graphs or diagrams that involved multiple colour changes. Altwasser devised the idea of allocating a <a href="/wiki/BIOS_color_attributes" title="BIOS color attributes">colour attribute</a> to each character position on the screen. This ultimately used eight <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bits</a> of memory for each character position; three bits to provide any one of eight foreground colours and three bits for the eight <a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">background colours</a>, one bit for extra brightness and one bit for flashing. Overall, the system took up slightly less than 7 kilobytes of memory, leaving an additional 9 kilobytes to write programs — a figure that pleased the team.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198238–39-30">[30]</a> Much of the firmware was written by computer scientist <a href="/wiki/Steve_Vickers_(computer_scientist)" title="Steve Vickers (computer scientist)">Steve Vickers</a> from Nine Tiles,<a href="#cite_note-registerlegacy-28">[28]</a> who compiled all control routines to produce the <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_BASIC" title="Sinclair BASIC">Sinclair BASIC</a> interpreter, a custom variant of the general purpose <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> programming language. Making a custom interpreter made it possible to fit all of its functionality into a very small amount of <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> (ROM).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams198214-27">[27]</a> The development process of the software was marked by disagreements between Nine Tiles and Sinclair Research. Sinclair placed an emphasis on expediting the release of the Spectrum, primarily by minimising alterations in the software from the ZX81, which had in turn been based on the ZX80's software. The software architecture of the ZX80, however, had been tailored for a severely constrained memory system, and in Nine Tiles' opinion was unsuitable for the enhanced processing demands of the ZX Spectrum. Sinclair favoured solving this with expansion modules on the existing framework like with the ZX81, which Nine Tiles disagreed with. Ultimately, both designs were developed, but Vickers and Nine Tiles were unable to finish their version before the launch of the Spectrum and it was not used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy198684–88-31">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rick_Dickinson.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7a/Rick_Dickinson.jpg/220px-Rick_Dickinson.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/7a/Rick_Dickinson.jpg/330px-Rick_Dickinson.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7a/Rick_Dickinson.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>Designer <a href="/wiki/Rick_Dickinson" title="Rick Dickinson">Rick Dickinson</a> pictured in <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair Research</a>'s Cambridge office in 1983</figcaption></figure> The distinctive case and colourful design of the ZX Spectrum was the creation of <a href="/wiki/Rick_Dickinson" title="Rick Dickinson">Rick Dickinson</a>, a young British industrial designer who had been hired by Sinclair to design the ZX81. Dickinson was tasked to design a sleeker and more "marketable" appearance to the new machine, whilst ensuring all 192 BASIC functions could fit onto 40 physical keys.<a href="#cite_note-edgehistory-25">[25]</a> Early sketches from August 1981 showed the case was to be more angular and wedge-like, in similar vein to an upgraded ZX81 model. Dickinson later settled on a flatter design with a raised rear section and rounded sides in order to depict the machine as "more advanced" as opposed to a mere upgrade. In drawing up potential logos, Dickinson proposed a series of different logotypes which all featured rainbow slashes across the keyboard.<a href="#cite_note-registerhistory-32">[32]</a> The design of the Spectrum's <a href="/wiki/Chiclet_keyboard" title="Chiclet keyboard">rubber keyboard</a> was simplified from several hundred components to a conventional moving keyboard down to "four to five" moving parts using a new technology.<a href="#cite_note-bbc30-33">[33]</a> The keyboard was still undergoing changes as late as February 1982; some sketches included a roundel-on-square key design which was later featured on the later Spectrum+ model.<a href="#cite_note-registerhistory-32">[32]</a> Dickinson recalled in 2007 that "everything was cost driven" and that the minimalist, <a href="/wiki/Bauhaus" title="Bauhaus">Bauhaus</a> approach to the Spectrum gave it an elegant yet "[non] revolutionary" form.<a href="#cite_note-bbclegacy-3">[3]</a> The drawing board on which Dickinson designed the ZX Spectrum is now on display in the <a href="/wiki/Science_Museum,_London" title="Science Museum, London">Science Museum</a> in London.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The need for an improved cassette interface was apparent from the number of complaints received from ZX81 users, who encountered problems when trying to save and load programs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198239-36">[36]</a> To increase the data transfer speed, the team significantly decreased the length of tones that represent binary data.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198239-36">[36]</a> To increase the reliability, a leading period of <a href="/wiki/Pure_tone" title="Pure tone">constant tone</a> was introduced, which allowed the cassette recorder's <a href="/wiki/Automatic_gain_control" title="Automatic gain control">automatic gain control</a> to settle itself down, eliminating hisses on the tape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198239-36">[36]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Schmitt_trigger" title="Schmitt trigger">Schmitt trigger</a> was added inside the ULA to reduce noise of the received signal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198239-36">[36]</a> Originally, the team aimed for data transfer speed of 1000 <a href="/wiki/Baud" title="Baud">baud</a>, but succeeded in getting it to work at a considerably faster 1500 baud.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGore198239-36">[36]</a> Unlike the ZX81, the Spectrum was able to maintain its display during loading and saving operations, and programmers took advantage of this to show a <a href="/wiki/Splash_screen" title="Splash screen">splash screen</a> whilst loading took place in the background. As with the ZX81, the ZX Spectrum was manufactured in <a href="/wiki/Dundee" title="Dundee">Dundee</a>, Scotland, by <a href="/wiki/Timex_Group_USA" title="Timex Group USA">Timex Corporation</a> at the company's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dryburgh,_Dundee_district&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dryburgh, Dundee district (page does not exist)">Dryburgh</a> factory.<a href="#cite_note-Day-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Prior to the manufacture of the ZX81, however, Timex had little experience in assembling electronics and had not originally been an obvious choice of manufacturing subcontractor. It was a well-established manufacturer of mechanical watches but was facing a crisis at the beginning of the 1980s; profits had dwindled to virtually zero as the market for watches stagnated in the face of competition from the <a href="/wiki/Watch#Digital" title="Watch">digital</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quartz_clock" title="Quartz clock">quartz watches</a>. Recognising the trend, Timex's director, <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Olsen" title="Fredrik Olsen">Fred Olsen</a>, determined that the company would diversify into other areas and signed a contract with Sinclair.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy198694-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Launch">Launch</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Launch">edit</a>]</div> The ZX Spectrum was officially revealed before journalists by Sinclair at the <a href="/wiki/Hyatt_Regency_London_%E2%80%93_The_Churchill" title="Hyatt Regency London – The Churchill">Churchill Hotel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Marylebone" title="Marylebone">Marylebone</a>, London, on 23 April 1982.<a href="#cite_note-registerhistory-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-39">[39]</a> Later that week, the machine was officially presented in a "blaze of publicity" at the <a href="/wiki/Earl%27s_Court" title="Earl's Court">Earl's Court</a> Computer Show in London,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams198252-41">[41]</a> and the ZX Microfair in <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark19824-42">[42]</a> The ZX Spectrum was launched with two models: a 16KB 'basic' version, and an enhanced 48KB variant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201869-2">[2]</a> The former model had an undercutting price of £125, significantly lower than its main competitor the <a href="/wiki/BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</a>, whilst the latter model's price of £175 was comparable to a third of an <a href="/wiki/Apple_II" title="Apple II">Apple II</a> computer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark198214-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKean1985b127-44">[44]</a> Upon release, the keyboard surprised many users due to its use of rubber keys, described as offering the feel of "dead flesh".<a href="#cite_note-registerhistory-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-telegraph-45">[45]</a> Sinclair himself remarked that the keyboard's rubber mould was "unusual", but consumers were undeterred.<a href="#cite_note-syntax-46">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harold_Macmillan_and_Clive_Sinclair.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3f/Harold_Macmillan_and_Clive_Sinclair.png/220px-Harold_Macmillan_and_Clive_Sinclair.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3f/Harold_Macmillan_and_Clive_Sinclair.png/330px-Harold_Macmillan_and_Clive_Sinclair.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3f/Harold_Macmillan_and_Clive_Sinclair.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>90 year-old <a href="/wiki/Harold_Macmillan" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a> using the ZX Spectrum with Sinclair looking on (1984)</figcaption></figure> Despite very high demand, Sinclair Research was "notoriously late" in delivering the ZX Spectrum. Their practice of offering mail-order sales before units were ready ensured a constant cash flow, but meant a lacking distribution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201868-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Searle" title="Nigel Searle">Nigel Searle</a>, the newly-appointed chief of Sinclair's computer division, said in June 1982 the company had no plans to stock the new machine in <a href="/wiki/WHSmith" title="WHSmith">WHSmith</a>, which was at the time Sinclair's only retailer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark198243-47">[47]</a> Searle explained that the mail-order system was in place due to there being no "obvious" retail outlets in the United Kingdom which could sell personal computers, and it made "better sense" financially to continue selling through mail-order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark198244-48">[48]</a> The company's conservative approach to distributing the machine was criticised,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201868-26">[26]</a> with disillusioned customers telephoning and writing letters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnston19824-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt1982a4-50">[50]</a> Demand sky-rocketed beyond Sinclair's planned 20,000 monthly unit output to a backlog of 30,000 orders by July 1982. Due to a scheduled holiday at the Timex factory that summer, the backlog had risen to 40,000 units. Sinclair issued a public apology in September that year,<a href="#cite_note-registerhistory-32">[32]</a> and promised that the backlog would be cleared by the end of that month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnston19824-49">[49]</a> Supply did not return to normal until the 1982 Christmas season, however.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201870-51">[51]</a> Production of the machine rapidly increased with the arrival of the more inexpensive Issue 2 <a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">motherboard</a>, a redesign of the main circuit board which addressed hardware manufacturing defects that affected production of the first model.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy1986256-52">[52]</a> Sales of the ZX Spectrum reached 200,000 in its first nine months,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983a1-53">[53]</a> rising to 300,000 for the whole of the first year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackhurst1983b14-54">[54]</a> By August 1983 total sales in Britain and Europe had exceeded 500,000,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983c1-55">[55]</a> with the millionth Spectrum manufactured on 9 December 1983. By this point, an average of 50,000 units were being purchased each month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983d5-56">[56]</a> In July 1983, the ZX Spectrum was launched in the United States as the more enhanced <a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_2068" title="Timex Sinclair 2068">Timex Sinclair 2068</a>. Advertisements described it as offering 72 kilobytes of memory, having a full range of colour and sound for a price under $200.<a href="#cite_note-byte198312-57">[57]</a> Although it was more enhanced than its British counterpart, sales proved poor and <a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair" title="Timex Sinclair">Timex Sinclair</a> collapsed the following year.<a href="#cite_note-registerhistory-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbeer198383-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Success_and_market_domination">Success and market domination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Success and market domination">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Micro-computer_wordt_uitgeleend_bij_biobliotheek,_bij_wizej_van_experiment,_Bestanddeelnr_933-0448_(colour).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Micro-computer_wordt_uitgeleend_bij_biobliotheek%2C_bij_wizej_van_experiment%2C_Bestanddeelnr_933-0448_%28colour%29.jpg/220px-Micro-computer_wordt_uitgeleend_bij_biobliotheek%2C_bij_wizej_van_experiment%2C_Bestanddeelnr_933-0448_%28colour%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Micro-computer_wordt_uitgeleend_bij_biobliotheek%2C_bij_wizej_van_experiment%2C_Bestanddeelnr_933-0448_%28colour%29.jpg/330px-Micro-computer_wordt_uitgeleend_bij_biobliotheek%2C_bij_wizej_van_experiment%2C_Bestanddeelnr_933-0448_%28colour%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Micro-computer_wordt_uitgeleend_bij_biobliotheek%2C_bij_wizej_van_experiment%2C_Bestanddeelnr_933-0448_%28colour%29.jpg/440px-Micro-computer_wordt_uitgeleend_bij_biobliotheek%2C_bij_wizej_van_experiment%2C_Bestanddeelnr_933-0448_%28colour%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>A woman is loaned a ZX Spectrum from a library in the Netherlands, 1984.</figcaption></figure> A crucial part of the company's marketing strategy was to implement regular price-cutting at strategic intervals to maintain <a href="/wiki/Market_share" title="Market share">market share</a>. Ian Adamson and Richard Kennedy noted that Sinclair's method was driven by securing his leading position through "panicking" the competition. While most companies at the time reduced prices of their products while their market share was dwindling, Sinclair Research discounted theirs shortly after sales had peaked, throwing the competition into "utter disarray".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy1986143-60">[60]</a> Sinclair Research made a profit of £14 million in 1983, compared to £8.5 million the previous year. <a href="/wiki/Asset_turnover" title="Asset turnover">Turnover</a> doubled from £27.2 million to £54.5 million, which equated to roughly £1 million for each person employed directly by the company.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegre198318-61">[61]</a> Clive Sinclair became a focal point during the ZX Spectrum's marketing campaign by putting a human face onto the business. Sinclair Research was portrayed in the media as a "plucky" British challenger taking on the technical and marketing might of giant American and Japanese corporations. As David O'Reilly noted in 1986, "by astute use of public relations, particularly playing up his image of a Briton taking on the world, Sinclair has become the best-known name in micros."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy198698-62">[62]</a> The media latched onto Sinclair's image; his "Uncle Clive" persona is said to have been created by the gossip columnist for <a href="/wiki/Personal_Computer_World" title="Personal Computer World">Personal Computer World</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy198697-63">[63]</a> The press praised Sinclair as a visionary genius, with <a href="/wiki/The_Sun_(United_Kingdom)" title="The Sun (United Kingdom)">The Sun</a> lauding him as "the most prodigious inventor since <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>". Adamson and Kennedy wrote that Sinclair outgrew the role of microcomputer manufacturer and "accepted the mantle of pioneering <a href="/wiki/Boffin" title="Boffin">boffin</a> leading Britain into a technological utopia".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy1986114-64">[64]</a> Sinclair's contribution to the technology sector resulted in him being <a href="/wiki/Knight_Bachelor" title="Knight Bachelor">knighted</a> upon the recommendation of <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1983_Birthday_Honours" title="1983 Birthday Honours">Queen's 1983 Birthday Honours List</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbctwo-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-mensabio-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The United Kingdom was largely immunised from the effects of the <a href="/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983" title="Video game crash of 1983">video game crash of 1983</a>, due to the saturation of home computers such as the ZX Spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh2018104-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-nerd-70">[70]</a> The microcomputer market continued to grow and game development was unhindered despite the turbulence in the American markets. Indeed, computer games remained the dominant sector of the British home video game market up until they were surpassed by <a href="/wiki/Sega" title="Sega">Sega</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nintendo" title="Nintendo">Nintendo</a> consoles in 1991.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHis_Majesty's_Stationery_Office1995[httpsiimgurcomCLYiKIpjpg_66],_[httpsiimgurcomvR9vtPXjpg_68]-71">[71]</a> By the end of 1983 there were more than 450 companies in Britain selling video games on cassette, compared to 95 the year before.<a href="#cite_note-wired_uk_history-72">[72]</a> An estimated 10,000 to 50,000 people, mostly young men, were developing games out of their homes based on advertisements in popular magazines. The growth of video games during this period has been compared to the <a href="/wiki/Punk_subculture" title="Punk subculture">punk subculture</a>, fuelled by young people making money from their games.<a href="#cite_note-independent_origins-73">[73]</a> By the mid 1980s, Sinclair Research's share of the British home computer market had climbed to a high of 40 per cent.<a href="#cite_note-newyorkdeal-74">[74]</a> Sales in the 1984 Christmas season were described as "extremely good".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne1985a7-75">[75]</a> In early 1985 the British press reported the home computer boom to have ended,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> leaving many companies slashing prices of their hardware to anticipate lower sales.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne1985a7-75">[75]</a> Despite this, celebration of Sinclair's success in the computing market continued at the <a href="/wiki/Which%3F" title="Which?">Which Computer?</a> show in <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a>, where the five-millionth ZX Spectrum was issued as a prize.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne1985a7-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years_and_company_decline">Later years and company decline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Later years and company decline">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinclair_sale_to_Amstrad_1986_Sinclair_Sugar_handshake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2e/Sinclair_sale_to_Amstrad_1986_Sinclair_Sugar_handshake.jpg/220px-Sinclair_sale_to_Amstrad_1986_Sinclair_Sugar_handshake.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2e/Sinclair_sale_to_Amstrad_1986_Sinclair_Sugar_handshake.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="304" data-file-height="220" /></a><figcaption>Sinclair shaking hands with <a href="/wiki/Alan_Sugar" title="Alan Sugar">Alan Sugar</a>, to mark the conclusion of the sale to <a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad</a> in 1986</figcaption></figure> The ZX Spectrum's successor, the <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_QL" title="Sinclair QL">Sinclair QL</a>, was officially announced on 12 January 1984, shortly before the <a href="/wiki/Macintosh_128K" title="Macintosh 128K">Apple Macintosh</a> went on sale.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenham1984a4-77">[77]</a> Contrasting with its predecessors, the QL was aimed at more serious, professional home users.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESawford198447-78">[78]</a> It suffered from several design flaws; fully operational QLs were not available until the late summer, and complaints against Sinclair concerning delays were upheld by the <a href="/wiki/Advertising_Standards_Authority_(United_Kingdom)" title="Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)">Advertising Standards Authority</a> (ASA) in May of that year. Particularly serious were allegations that Sinclair was cashing cheques months before machines were shipped. By autumn 1984, Sinclair was still publicly forecasting that it would be a "million seller" and that 250,000 units would be sold by the end of the year.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMunford198472-79">[79]</a> QL production was suspended in February 1985, and the price was halved by the end of the year.<a href="#cite_note-Timex/Sinclair_history-80">[80]</a> It ultimately flopped, with 139,454 units being manufactured.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> The ZX Spectrum+, a rebranded ZX Spectrum with identical technical specifications except for the QL-like keyboard, was introduced in October 1984 and made available in WHSmith's stores the day after its launch. Retailers stocked the device in high quantities, anticipating robust Christmas sales. Nevertheless, the product did not perform as well as projected, leading to a significant drop in Sinclair's income from orders in January, as retailers were left with surplus stock. Subsequently, an upgraded model, the ZX Spectrum 128, was released in Spain in September 1985, with development financed by the Spanish distributor Investrónica.<a href="#cite_note-Kept_in_the_Dark-82">[82]</a> The launch of this model in the UK was postponed until January 1986 due to the substantial leftover inventory of the prior model.<a href="#cite_note-comphist-spec128-83">[83]</a> While the Sinclair QL was in development, Sinclair also hoped to repeat his success with the Spectrum in the fledgling electric vehicle market, which he saw as ripe for a new approach. On 10 January 1985, Sinclair unveiled the <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_C5" title="Sinclair C5">Sinclair C5</a>, a small one-person <a href="/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle" title="Battery electric vehicle">battery electric</a> <a href="/wiki/Recumbent_bicycle" title="Recumbent bicycle">recumbent</a> <a href="/wiki/Tricycle" title="Tricycle">tricycle</a>. It marked the culmination of Sir Clive's long-running interest in electric vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDale1985151-84">[84]</a> The C5 turned out to be a significant commercial failure, selling only 17,000 units and losing Sinclair £7 million. It has since been described as "one of the great marketing bombs of postwar British industry".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser198614-85">[85]</a> The ASA ordered Sinclair to withdraw advertisements for the C5 after finding that the company's claims about its safety could not be proved or justified.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The combined failures of the C5 and QL caused investors to lose confidence in Sinclair's judgement. In May 1985, Sinclair Research announced their intention to raise an additional £10 to £15 million to restructure the organisation. Given the loss of confidence in the company, securing the funds proved to be a challenging task. In June 1985, business magnate <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maxwell" title="Robert Maxwell">Robert Maxwell</a> disclosed a takeover bid for Sinclair Research through Hollis Brothers, a subsidiary of his <a href="/wiki/Pergamon_Press" title="Pergamon Press">Pergamon Press</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-srl-87">[87]</a> However, the deal was terminated in August 1985.<a href="#cite_note-newyorkdeal-74">[74]</a> The future of Sinclair Research remained uncertain until 7 April 1986, when the company sold their entire computer product range, along with the "Sinclair" brand name, to <a href="/wiki/Alan_Sugar" title="Alan Sugar">Alan Sugar</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad</a> for £5 million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd19867-88">[88]</a> The takeover sent ripples through the <a href="/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange" title="London Stock Exchange">London Stock Exchange</a>, but Amstrad's shares soon recovered, with one stock broker affirming that "<a href="/wiki/City_of_London" title="City of London">the City</a> appears to have taken the news in its stride".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScolding19867-89">[89]</a> Amstrad's acquisition of the brand name saw the release of three ZX Spectrum models throughout the late 1980s, each with varying improvements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips198647-90">[90]</a> By 1990, Sinclair Research consisted of Sinclair and two other employees down from 130 employees at its peak in 1985.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The ZX Spectrum was officially discontinued in 1992, after ten years on the market.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201870-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbclegacy-3">[3]</a> Sinclair Research thereafter continued to exist as a one-man company, marketing Sir Clive Sinclair's inventions until his death in September 2021. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hardware">Hardware</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hardware">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technical_specifications">Technical specifications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Technical specifications">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zx-colors.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Zx-colors.png/220px-Zx-colors.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Zx-colors.png 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>The ZX Spectrum's full <a href="/wiki/Palette_(computing)" title="Palette (computing)">colour palette</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a>, an 8-bit <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Clock_rate" title="Clock rate">clock rate</a> of 3.5 <a href="/wiki/Hertz#SI_multiples" title="Hertz">MHz</a>. The original model Spectrum has 16 KB of ROM and either 16 kB or 48 kB of RAM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201870-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graphics">Graphics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Graphics">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_graphic_modes" title="ZX Spectrum graphic modes">ZX Spectrum graphic modes</a></div> Video output is channelled through an <a href="/wiki/RF_modulator" title="RF modulator">RF modulator</a>, intended for use with contemporary television sets, to provide a simple colour graphic display. Text is displayed using a grid of 32 columns × 24 rows of characters from the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_character_set" title="ZX Spectrum character set">ZX Spectrum character set</a>, or from a custom set. The machine features a colour palette of 15 colours, consisting of seven saturated colours at two levels of brightness, along with black.<a href="#cite_note-Vickers-92">[92]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Image_resolution" title="Image resolution">image resolution</a> is 256×192 pixels, subject to the same colour limitations.<a href="#cite_note-SpectrumManualChapter16-93">[93]</a> To optimise memory usage, colour is stored separately from the pixel <a href="/wiki/Bitmap" title="Bitmap">bitmap</a> in a low resolution, 32×24 grid overlay, corresponding to the character cells. In practical terms, this means that all pixels within an 8x8 character block share one foreground colour and one background colour. Altwasser received a patent for this design.<a href="#cite_note-Altwasser-94">[94]</a> An "attribute" consists of a foreground and a background colour, a brightness level (normal or bright) and a flashing "flag" which, when set, causes the two colours to swap at regular intervals.<a href="#cite_note-SpectrumManualChapter16-93">[93]</a> This scheme leads to what was dubbed "colour clash" or <a href="/wiki/Attribute_clash" title="Attribute clash">attribute clash</a>, where a desired colour of a specific pixel could not be selected, but only the colour attributes of an 8x8 block. This became a distinctive feature of the Spectrum, requiring programs, especially games, to be designed with this limitation in mind. In contrast, other machines available at the same time, such as the <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC" title="Amstrad CPC">Amstrad CPC</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Commodore_64" title="Commodore 64">Commodore 64</a>, did not suffer from this limitation. While the Commodore 64 also employed colour attributes, it utilised a special multicolour mode and hardware <a href="/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)" title="Sprite (computer graphics)">sprites</a> to circumvent attribute clash.<a href="#cite_note-digitalfoundry-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MSX_Computer_Color_Limit.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/MSX_Computer_Color_Limit.gif" decoding="async" width="209" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="158" /></a><figcaption>The effect of <a href="/wiki/Attribute_clash" title="Attribute clash">attribute clash</a> on an <a href="/wiki/MSX" title="MSX">MSX</a>, similar to a ZX Spectrum</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sound">Sound</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sound">edit</a>]</div> Sound output is produced through a built-in beeper capable of generating a single channel with ten octaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015b16-96">[96]</a> It is controlled by a single <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">EAR</code> bit.<a href="#cite_note-worldofspectrum-16-48-97">[97]</a> By toggling it on and off, simple sounds are generated. This speaker, capable of producing just one note at a time, was governed by the <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a> command 'BEEP', where programmers could manipulate parameters for pitch and duration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a16-98">[98]</a> Furthermore, the processor remained occupied exclusively with the BASIC BEEPs until their completion, limiting concurrent operations. Despite these constraints, it marked a significant step forward from the <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a>, which lacked any sound capabilities. Resourceful programmers swiftly devised workarounds; its rudimentary audio functionality compelled developers to explore unconventional methods such as programming the beeper to emit multiple pitches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a17-99">[99]</a> Later software became available that allowed for two-channel sound playback. The machine includes an <a href="/wiki/Expansion_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Expansion bus">expansion bus</a> <a href="/wiki/Edge_connector" title="Edge connector">edge connector</a> and 3.5 mm audio in/out ports, facilitating the connection of a <a href="/wiki/Cassette_recorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Cassette recorder">cassette recorder</a> for loading and saving programs and data. The <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">EAR</code> port has a higher output than the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">MIC</code> and is recommended for headphones, while the <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">MIC</code> port is intended for attachment to other audio devices as a <a href="/wiki/Line_level" title="Line level">line-in</a> source.<a href="#cite_note-Vickers-19-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_integrated_peripherals">Other integrated peripherals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other integrated peripherals">edit</a>]</div> The ZX Spectrum integrated various design elements from the ZX81. The keyboard decoding and cassette interfaces were nearly identical, although the latter was programmed for higher-speed loading and saving. The central ULA <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> shares some resemblance with that of the ZX81, but it features a fully hardware-based television raster generator with colour support. This enhancement indirectly provided the new machine with roughly four times the processing power of the ZX81, as the Z80 was relieved of video generation tasks. An initial ULA design flaw occasionally led to incorrect keyboard scanning, which was resolved by adding a small <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">circuit board</a> mounted upside down ("dead cockroach") next to the CPU in Issue 1 ZX Spectrums.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKean1985b127-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Firmware">Firmware</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Firmware">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZXspectrum_mb.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/ZXspectrum_mb.jpg/220px-ZXspectrum_mb.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/ZXspectrum_mb.jpg/330px-ZXspectrum_mb.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/ZXspectrum_mb.jpg/440px-ZXspectrum_mb.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1222" /></a><figcaption>48K motherboard (Issue 3B: 1983, heat sink removed)</figcaption></figure> The machine's <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_BASIC" title="Sinclair BASIC">Sinclair BASIC</a> interpreter is stored in 16 KiB ROM, along with essential system routines. The ROM code, responsible for tasks such as <a href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> calculations and <a href="/wiki/Parser" class="mw-redirect" title="Parser">expression parsing</a>, exhibited significant similarities to ZX81, although a few outdated routines remained in the Spectrum ROM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENash1984217-101">[101]</a> The Spectrum's keyboard is imprinted with BASIC keywords. To input a command in BASIC, many keywords require a single keyboard stroke. Other keywords require a change of keyboard mode by a few keystrokes.<a href="#cite_note-Vickers-2-102">[102]</a> The BASIC interpreter is derived from the one used on the <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a>. A BASIC program for ZX81 can be entered into a ZX Spectrum with minimal modifications. However, Spectrum BASIC introduced numerous additional features, enhancing its usability. The <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_character_set" title="ZX Spectrum character set">ZX Spectrum character set</a> was expanded compared to that of the ZX81, which lacked lowercase letters. Spectrum BASIC incorporated extra keywords for better graphics and sound functionality, and support for multi-statement lines was added. The built-in ROM tape modulation software routines for cassette data storage enable data transfers at an average speed of 171 <a href="/wiki/Bit_rate" title="Bit rate">bits per second</a> (bit/s), with a theoretical peak speed of 256 bit/s. The tape modulation is significantly more advanced than the ZX81, with approximately four times faster average speeds.<a href="#cite_note-myprius-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sinclair_Research_models">Sinclair Research models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Sinclair Research models">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ZX_Spectrum_16K/48K">ZX Spectrum 16K/48K</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: ZX Spectrum 16K/48K">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZXSpectrum48k.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/220px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/330px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/440px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2168" data-file-height="1593" /></a><figcaption>ZX Spectrum 16K/48K (Dimensions (mm): 233×144×30 (W×H×D) @ ≈552 grams).<a href="#cite_note-HCHOF-104">[104]</a></figcaption></figure> The original ZX Spectrum is remembered for its rubber <a href="/wiki/Chiclet_keyboard" title="Chiclet keyboard">chiclet keyboard</a>, diminutive size and distinctive rainbow motif. It was originally released on 23 April 1982 with 16 KB of RAM for £125 (equivalent to £557 in 2023) or with 48 KB for £175 (equivalent to £780 in 2023);<a href="#cite_note-High_Street_Spectrum-105">[105]</a> these prices were reduced to £99 (equivalent to £422 in 2023) and £129 (equivalent to £550 in 2023) respectively in 1983.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert1983a13-106">[106]</a> Owners of the 16 KB model could purchase an internal 32 KB RAM upgrade, which for early "Issue 1" machines consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Daughterboard" class="mw-redirect" title="Daughterboard">daughterboard</a>. Later issue machines required the fitting of 8 <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">dynamic RAM</a> chips and a few <a href="/wiki/Transistor-transistor_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistor-transistor logic">TTL</a> chips. Users could mail their 16K Spectrums to Sinclair to be upgraded to 48 KB versions. Later revisions contained 64 KB of memory but were configured such that only 48 KB were usable.<a href="#cite_note-ys-64k-1984-09-107">[107]</a> External 32 KB RAM packs that mounted in the rear expansion slot were available from third parties. Both machines had 16 KB of onboard ROM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201868-26">[26]</a> An "Issue 1" ZX Spectrum can be distinguished from Issue 2 or 3 models by the colour of the keys – light grey for Issue 1, blue-grey for later machines.<a href="#cite_note-ps-s48kv-2003-09-108">[108]</a> Although the official service manual states that approximately 26,000 of these original boards were manufactured,<a href="#cite_note-Servicing-109">[109]</a> subsequent serial number analysis shows that only 16,000 were produced, almost all of which fell in the serial number range 001-000001 to 001-016000.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> An online tool now exists to allow users to ascertain the likely issue number of their ZX Spectrum by inputting the serial number.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> These models experienced numerous changes to its motherboard design throughout its life; mainly to improve manufacturing efficiencies, but also to correct bugs from previous boards. Another issue was with the Spectrum's power supply. In March 1983, Sinclair issued an urgent recall warning for all owners of models bought after 1 January 1983.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b6-112">[112]</a> Plugs with a non-textured surface were at risk of causing shock, and were asked to be sent back to a warehouse in <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a> which would supply a replacement within 48 hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b6-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackhurst1983a5-113">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ZX_Spectrum+">ZX Spectrum+ </h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: ZX Spectrum+">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg/220px-ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg/330px-ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg/440px-ZX_Spectrum%2B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2136" data-file-height="1260" /></a><figcaption>ZX Spectrum+ (Dimensions (mm): 319×149×38 (W×H×D))<a href="#cite_note-HCHOF-104">[104]</a></figcaption></figure> Development of the ZX Spectrum+ began in June 1984,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenham1984b104-114">[114]</a> and was released on 15 October that year at £179.<a href="#cite_note-New_Spectrum-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-hcw231084-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-PSZX+-117">[117]</a> It was assembled by AB Electronics in <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samsung" title="Samsung">Samsung</a> in South Korea.<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-145-118">[118]</a> This 48 KB Spectrum introduced a new <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_QL" title="Sinclair QL">QL</a>-style case with an injection-moulded keyboard and a reset button that functions as a switch shorting across the CPU reset capacitor. Electronically, it was identical to the previous 48 KB model. The machine outsold the rubber-key model two to one,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenham1984b104-114">[114]</a> however, some retailers reported a failure rate of up to 30%, compared with a more typical 5–6% for the older model.<a href="#cite_note-PSZX+-117">[117]</a> In early 1985, the original Spectrum was officially discontinued, and the ZX Spectrum+ was reduced in price to £129.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne1985a7-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ZX_Spectrum_128">ZX Spectrum 128 </h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: ZX Spectrum 128">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg/220px-ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg/330px-ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg/440px-ZX_Spectrum128K.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2211" data-file-height="1418" /></a><figcaption>ZX Spectrum 128</figcaption></figure> In 1985, Sinclair developed the ZX Spectrum 128 (codenamed Derby) in conjunction with their Spanish distributor Investrónica (a subsidiary of <a href="/wiki/El_Corte_Ingl%C3%A9s" title="El Corte Inglés">El Corte Inglés</a> department store group).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrey19855-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne1985b5-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrey198611-121">[121]</a> Investrónica had helped adapt the ZX Spectrum+ to the Spanish market after their government introduced a special tax on all computers with 64 KB RAM or less,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> and a law which obliged all computers sold in Spain to support the Spanish alphabet and show messages in Spanish.<a href="#cite_note-BOE-123">[123]</a> The appearance of the ZX Spectrum 128 is similar to the ZX Spectrum+, with the exception of a large external <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heatsink</a> for the internal 7805 <a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator" title="Voltage regulator">voltage regulator</a> added to the right hand end of the case, replacing the internal heatsink in previous versions. This external <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heatsink</a> led to the system's nickname, "The <a href="/wiki/Toast_rack" title="Toast rack">Toast Rack</a>".<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> New features included 128 KB RAM with RAM disc commands, three-channel audio via the <a href="/wiki/General_Instrument_AY-3-8910" title="General Instrument AY-3-8910">AY-3-8912</a> chip, <a href="/wiki/MIDI" title="MIDI">MIDI</a> compatibility, an <a href="/wiki/RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a> serial port, an <a href="/wiki/RGB" class="mw-redirect" title="RGB">RGB</a> monitor port, 32 KB of ROM including an improved BASIC editor, and an external keypad.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a17-99">[99]</a> The machine was simultaneously unveiled for the first time and launched in September 1985 at the <a href="/wiki/SIMO_TCI" title="SIMO TCI">SIMO '85</a> trade show in Spain, with a price of 44,250 <a href="/wiki/Spanish_peseta" title="Spanish peseta">pesetas</a>. Sinclair later presented the ZX Spectrum 128 at <a href="/wiki/The_May_Fair_Hotel" title="The May Fair Hotel">The May Fair Hotel</a>'s Crystal Rooms in London, where he acknowledged that entertainment was the most common use of home computers. Due to the large number of unsold Spectrum+ models, Sinclair decided not to start it selling in the United Kingdom until January 1986 at a price of £179.<a href="#cite_note-sincuser-49-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-nerd-70">[70]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a> processor used in the Spectrum has a <a href="/wiki/16-bit" class="mw-redirect" title="16-bit">16-bit</a> address bus, which means only 64 KB of memory can be directly addressed. To facilitate the extra 80 KB of RAM the designers used <a href="/wiki/Bank_switching" title="Bank switching">bank switching</a> so the new memory would be available as eight pages of 16 KB at the top of the address space. The same technique was used to page between the new 16 KB editor ROM and the original 16 KB BASIC ROM at the bottom of the address space.<a href="#cite_note-128+3-Manual-8-126">[126]</a> The new sound chip and <a href="/wiki/MIDI" title="MIDI">MIDI</a> out abilities were exposed to the BASIC programming language with the command <code>PLAY</code> and a new command <code>SPECTRUM</code> was added to switch the machine into 48K mode, keeping the current BASIC program intact (although there is no command to switch back to 128K mode). To enable BASIC programmers to access the additional memory, a RAM disk was created where files could be stored in the additional 80 KB of RAM. The new commands took the place of two existing user-defined-character spaces causing compatibility problems with certain BASIC programs.<a href="#cite_note-128+3-Manual-7-127">[127]</a> Unlike its predecessors, it has no internal speaker, and can only produce sound from a television speaker.<a href="#cite_note-128-Manual-9-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Amstrad_models">Amstrad models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Amstrad models">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ZX_Spectrum_+2">ZX Spectrum +2 </h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: ZX Spectrum +2">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZX_Spectrum_Plus2_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/ZX_Spectrum_Plus2_%28retouched%29.jpg/220px-ZX_Spectrum_Plus2_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/ZX_Spectrum_Plus2_%28retouched%29.jpg/330px-ZX_Spectrum_Plus2_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/ZX_Spectrum_Plus2_%28retouched%29.jpg/440px-ZX_Spectrum_Plus2_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1846" data-file-height="708" /></a><figcaption>ZX Spectrum +2</figcaption></figure> The ZX Spectrum +2 marked Amstrad's entry into the Spectrum market shortly after their <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research_Ltd#Amstrad_acquisition" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinclair Research Ltd">acquisition of the Spectrum range and "Sinclair" brand</a> in 1986. This machine featured a brand-new grey case with a spring-loaded keyboard, dual joystick ports, and an integrated cassette recorder known as the "Datacorder," akin to the <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC_464" title="Amstrad CPC 464">Amstrad CPC 464</a>. However, it was largely identical to the ZX Spectrum 128 in most technical aspects. The machine retailed for £149.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips198647-90">[90]</a> The new keyboard did not feature the BASIC keyword markings seen on earlier Spectrums, except for the keywords <code>LOAD</code>, <code>CODE</code>, and <code>RUN</code>, which were useful for loading software. Instead, the +2 introduced a menu system, almost identical to that of the ZX Spectrum 128, allowing users to switch between 48K BASIC programming with keywords and 128K BASIC programming, where all words, both keywords and others, needed to be typed out in full (though keywords were still stored internally as one character each). Despite these changes, the layout remained identical to that of the 128.<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-145-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ZX_Spectrum_+3">ZX Spectrum +3 </h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: ZX Spectrum +3">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg/220px-ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg/330px-ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg/440px-ZX_Spectrum_Plus3.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2507" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption>ZX Spectrum +3</figcaption></figure> The ZX Spectrum +3, which was launched in 1987, bore a resemblance to its predecessor but introduced a built-in 3-inch <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drive instead of the cassette drive. Initially priced at £249,<a href="#cite_note-South-129">[129]</a> it later retailed for £199.<a href="#cite_note-sincuser-68-130">[130]</a> It was the only Spectrum model capable of running the <a href="/wiki/CP/M" title="CP/M">CP/M</a> operating system without additional hardware. Unlike its predecessors, the ZX Spectrum +3 power supply utilised a DIN connector and featured "Sinclair +3" branding on the case.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Significant alterations caused a series of incompatibilities, such as the removal of several lines on the expansion bus edge connector. This resulted in complications for various peripheries. Additionally, changes in memory timing led to certain RAM banks being contended, causing failures in high-speed colour-changing effects. The keypad scanning routines from the ROM were also eliminated, rendering some older 48K and 128K games incompatible with the machine. The ZX Interface 1 was also rendered incompatible due to disparities in ROM and expansion connectors, making it impossible to connect and use the Microdrive units.<a href="#cite_note-Goodwin-145-118">[118]</a> Production of the +3 was discontinued in December 1990, reportedly in response to Amstrad's relaunch of their CPC range, with an estimated 15% of ZX Spectrums sold being +3 models at the time. The +2B model, the only other model still in production at this point, continued to be manufactured, as it was believed not to be in direct competition with other computers in Amstrad's product range.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ZX_Spectrum_+2A,_+2B_and_+3B">ZX Spectrum +2A, +2B and +3B</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: ZX Spectrum +2A, +2B and +3B">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spectrum_128-2_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Spectrum_128-2_%28retouched%29.jpg/220px-Spectrum_128-2_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Spectrum_128-2_%28retouched%29.jpg/330px-Spectrum_128-2_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Spectrum_128-2_%28retouched%29.jpg/440px-Spectrum_128-2_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="614" /></a><figcaption>ZX Spectrum +2A</figcaption></figure> The ZX Spectrum +2A was a new version of the Spectrum +2<a href="#cite_note-crashfeb89-134">[134]</a> using the same circuit board as the Spectrum +3.<a href="#cite_note-crashfeb89-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-nce101288-135">[135]</a> It was sold from late 1988 and unlike the original grey +2 was housed inside a black case.<a href="#cite_note-crashfeb89-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-nce101288-135">[135]</a> The Spectrum +2A/+3 motherboard (AMSTRAD part number Z70830) was designed so that it could be assembled with a +2 style "datacorder" connected instead of the <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk_controller" class="mw-redirect" title="Floppy disk controller">floppy disk controller</a>.<a href="#cite_note-+3-Manual-18-136">[136]</a> The power supply of the ZX Spectrum +2A used the same <a href="/wiki/Pinout" title="Pinout">pinout</a> as the +3 and has "Sinclair +2" written on the case.<a href="#cite_note-Fuente+2A-137">[137]</a> 1989 saw the release of the ZX Spectrum +2B and ZX Spectrum +3B. They are functionally similar in design to the Spectrum +2A and +3,<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> though changes to the generation of the audio output signal were made to resolve problems with <a href="/wiki/Clipping_(audio)" title="Clipping (audio)">clipping</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nce090989-139">[139]</a> The +2B board has no provision for floppy disk controller circuitry, while the +3B motherboard has no provision for connecting an internal tape drive. Production of all Amstrad Spectrum models ended in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-bbclegacy-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Licences_and_re-creations">Licences and re-creations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Licences and re-creations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_ZX_Spectrum_clones" title="List of ZX Spectrum clones">List of ZX Spectrum clones</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Official_licences">Official licences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Official licences">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timex_Sinclair_2068_Manipulated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Timex_Sinclair_2068_Manipulated.jpg/220px-Timex_Sinclair_2068_Manipulated.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Timex_Sinclair_2068_Manipulated.jpg/330px-Timex_Sinclair_2068_Manipulated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Timex_Sinclair_2068_Manipulated.jpg/440px-Timex_Sinclair_2068_Manipulated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3912" data-file-height="2131" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_2068" title="Timex Sinclair 2068">Timex Sinclair 2068</a>, released in 1983 for the American market</figcaption></figure> Following <a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad</a>'s acquisition of Sinclair Research's computer business, Sir Clive Sinclair formed the mail order company <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Computer">Cambridge Computer</a>, which he used to release the portable <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Z88" title="Cambridge Z88">Cambridge Z88</a> in February 1987.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-goodwin-1987-141">[141]</a> This ill-fated Spectrum clone incorporated a ULA that introduced the high-resolution video mode originally pioneered in the Timex Sinclair 2068. The Pandora was designed with a flat-screen monitor and Microdrives, intended as Sinclair's solution for portable business computing.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timex-Computer-2048-Manipulated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Timex-Computer-2048-Manipulated.jpg/220px-Timex-Computer-2048-Manipulated.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Timex-Computer-2048-Manipulated.jpg/330px-Timex-Computer-2048-Manipulated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Timex-Computer-2048-Manipulated.jpg/440px-Timex-Computer-2048-Manipulated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1690" data-file-height="1020" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Timex_Computer_2048" title="Timex Computer 2048">Timex Computer 2048</a>, highly compatible with the ZX Spectrum 48K, was very successful in both Portugal and Poland.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Timex_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Timex of Portugal">Timex of Portugal</a> developed and produced several branded computers, including a <a href="/wiki/PAL_region" class="mw-redirect" title="PAL region">PAL region</a>-compatible version of the Timex Sinclair 2068, known as the <a href="/wiki/Timex_Computer_2048" title="Timex Computer 2048">Timex Computer 2048</a>. This variant features distinct buffers for both the ULA and the CPU, significantly enhancing compatibility with ZX Spectrum software compared to the American model.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Software developed for the Portuguese-made 2048 remained fully compatible with its American counterpart, as the ROMs were left unaltered. Timex of Portugal also created a ZX Spectrum "emulator" in cartridge form.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Several other upgrades were introduced, including a BASIC64 cartridge enabling it to utilise high-resolution (512x192) modes.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> This model saw significant success in both Portugal and Poland.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SAM_Coup%C3%A9_(white_bg_and_shadow).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/SAM_Coup%C3%A9_%28white_bg_and_shadow%29.jpg/220px-SAM_Coup%C3%A9_%28white_bg_and_shadow%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/SAM_Coup%C3%A9_%28white_bg_and_shadow%29.jpg/330px-SAM_Coup%C3%A9_%28white_bg_and_shadow%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/SAM_Coup%C3%A9_%28white_bg_and_shadow%29.jpg/440px-SAM_Coup%C3%A9_%28white_bg_and_shadow%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2542" data-file-height="1345" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/SAM_Coup%C3%A9" title="SAM Coupé">SAM Coupé</a>, despite being a commercial failure, is hailed as a credible successor to the ZX Spectrum.</figcaption></figure> In India, Deci Bells Electronics Limited<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Pune" title="Pune">Pune</a>, introduced a licensed version of the Spectrum+ in 1988.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Dubbed the "dB Spectrum+", it performed well in the Indian market, selling over 50,000 units and achieving an 80% market share.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unofficial_clones">Unofficial clones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Unofficial clones">edit</a>]</div> Numerous <a href="/wiki/List_of_ZX_Spectrum_clones" title="List of ZX Spectrum clones">unofficial Spectrum clones</a> were produced, especially in Eastern Europe. Thousands of small start-ups in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> assembled various clones, distributed through poster adverts and street stalls. Over 50 such clone models existed in total.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a>, the ZX Spectrum was released as the <a href="/wiki/Didaktik" title="Didaktik">Didaktik Gama</a>, sporting two <a href="/wiki/Bank_switching" title="Bank switching">switched</a> 32 KB memory banks and 16 KB of slower RAM containing graphical data for video output, along with a 5.25"/3.5" <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> There were also clones produced in South America, such as the Brazilian-made <a href="/wiki/TK90X" title="TK90X">TK90X</a> and <a href="/wiki/TK95" title="TK95">TK95</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenix-Tadsen201914-16-155">[155]</a> as well as the Argentine <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Czerweny computers">Czerweny CZ</a> models.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> In the United Kingdom, Spectrum peripheral vendor <a href="/wiki/Miles_Gordon_Technology" title="Miles Gordon Technology">Miles Gordon Technology</a> (MGT) released the <a href="/wiki/SAM_Coup%C3%A9" title="SAM Coupé">SAM Coupé</a> 8-bit home computer in December 1989. It was designed to be fully compatible with the ZX Spectrum 48K, housing a Zilog Z80B processor clocked at 6 MHz and 256KB of RAM.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh2018140-157">[157]</a> By this point, the <a href="/wiki/Amiga" title="Amiga">Amiga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atari_ST" title="Atari ST">Atari ST</a> had taken hold of the market, leaving MGT in eventual receivership in June 1990.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> In his book Retro Tech, <a href="/wiki/Nostalgia_Nerd" title="Nostalgia Nerd">Peter Leigh</a> considers the Sam Coupé to be the "true" successor of the ZX Spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh2018142-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recreations">Recreations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Recreations">edit</a>]</div> In 2013, an <a href="/wiki/FPGA" class="mw-redirect" title="FPGA">FPGA</a>-based redesign of the original ZX Spectrum known as the <a href="/wiki/ZX-Uno" class="mw-redirect" title="ZX-Uno">ZX Uno</a>, was formally announced. All of its hardware, firmware and software are <a href="/wiki/Open_source" title="Open source">open source</a>,<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> released as <a href="/wiki/Creative_Commons_licence" class="mw-redirect" title="Creative Commons licence">Creative Commons licence</a> Share-alike. The use of a <a href="/wiki/Spartan_(FPGA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spartan (FPGA)">Spartan</a> FPGA allows the system to not only re-implement the ZX Spectrum, but many other 8-bit computers and games consoles.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The device also runs modern open FPGA machines such as the Chloe 280SE.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The Uno was successfully <a href="/wiki/Crowdfunding" title="Crowdfunding">crowdfunded</a> in 2016 and the first boards went on sale the same year.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> In January 2014, <a href="/wiki/Elite_Systems" title="Elite Systems">Elite Systems</a>, who produced a successful range of software for the original ZX Spectrum in the 1980s, announced plans for a Spectrum-themed <a href="/wiki/Bluetooth" title="Bluetooth">bluetooth</a> keyboard that would attach to mobile devices.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The company used a crowdfunding campaign to fund the Recreated ZX Spectrum, which would be compatible with games the company had already released on <a href="/wiki/ITunes" title="ITunes">iTunes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Google_Play" title="Google Play">Google Play</a>.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Elite Systems took down its Spectrum Collection application the following month, due to complaints from authors of the original software that they had not been paid for the content.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <a href="/wiki/Wired_UK" title="Wired UK">Wired UK</a> described the finished device, which was styled as an original Spectrum 48k keyboard, as "absolutely gorgeous" but said it was ultimately more of an expensive novelty than an actual Spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-Rundle-168">[168]</a> In July 2019, <a href="/wiki/Eurogamer" title="Eurogamer">Eurogamer</a> reported that many of the orders had yet to be delivered due to a dispute between Elite Systems and their manufacturer, Eurotech.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_Vega.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_Vega.png/220px-Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_Vega.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_Vega.png/330px-Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_Vega.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_Vega.png/440px-Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_Vega.png 2x" data-file-width="2776" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption>The ZX Spectrum Vega TV Game Console, made by Retro Computers</figcaption></figure> Later in 2014, the Sinclair <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_Vega" title="ZX Spectrum Vega">ZX Spectrum Vega</a> retro video game console was announced by Retro Computers Ltd and crowdfunded on <a href="/wiki/Indiegogo" title="Indiegogo">Indiegogo</a> with the backing of Clive Sinclair.<a href="#cite_note-guardian20121202-170">[170]</a> The Vega, released in 2015, took the form of a <a href="/wiki/Handheld_TV_game" title="Handheld TV game">handheld TV game</a><a href="#cite_note-guardian20121202-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> but the lack of a full keyboard<a href="#cite_note-syntax-46">[46]</a> led to criticism from reviewers due to the large number of text adventures supplied with the device.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Most reviewers branded the device cheap and uncomfortable to use.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rundle-168">[168]</a> The follow-up, the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_Vega%2B" title="ZX Spectrum Vega+">ZX Spectrum Vega+</a> was designed as a <a href="/wiki/Handheld_game_console" title="Handheld game console">handheld game console</a>. Despite reaching its crowdfunding target in March 2016,<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> the company failed to fulfil the majority of orders. Reviewing the Vega+, <a href="/wiki/The_Register" title="The Register">The Register</a> criticised numerous aspects and features of the machine, including its design and build quality and summed up by saying that the "entire feel is plasticky and inconsequential".<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Retro Computers Ltd was placed into liquidation in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> The <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_Next" title="ZX Spectrum Next">ZX Spectrum Next</a> is an expanded and updated version of the ZX Spectrum computer implemented with FPGA technology<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> funded by a <a href="/wiki/Kickstarter" title="Kickstarter">Kickstarter</a> campaign in April 2017,<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> with the board-only computer delivered to backers later that year.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> The finished machine, including a case designed by <a href="/wiki/Rick_Dickinson" title="Rick Dickinson">Rick Dickinson</a> who died during the development of the project,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> was released to backers in February 2020.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> MagPi called it "a lovely piece of kit", noting that it is "well-designed and well-built: authentic to the original, and with technology that nods to the past while remaining functional and relevant in the modern age".<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> PC Pro magazine called the Next "undeniably impressive" while noting that some features are "not quite ready".<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> A further Kickstarter for an improved revision of the hardware was funded in August 2020.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-news-2020-08-13-185">[185]</a> In August 2024, Retro Games announced that they would be releasing a recreation of the ZX Spectrum titled "The Spectrum" which would include 48 built-in games, a save game option, rewind mode and pre-owned titles load up. It is set to be released on 22 November 2024.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Peripherals">Peripherals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Peripherals">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:592px;max-width:592px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinclair.zx.thermal.printer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sinclair.zx.thermal.printer.jpg/102px-Sinclair.zx.thermal.printer.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sinclair.zx.thermal.printer.jpg/153px-Sinclair.zx.thermal.printer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Sinclair.zx.thermal.printer.jpg/204px-Sinclair.zx.thermal.printer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1381" data-file-height="1398" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Zx_interface_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Zx_interface_2.png/127px-Zx_interface_2.png" decoding="async" width="127" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Zx_interface_2.png/191px-Zx_interface_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Zx_interface_2.png/254px-Zx_interface_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1392" data-file-height="1137" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:240px;max-width:240px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Zx_interface_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Zx_interface_1.png/238px-Zx_interface_1.png" decoding="async" width="238" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Zx_interface_1.png/357px-Zx_interface_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Zx_interface_1.png/476px-Zx_interface_1.png 2x" data-file-width="2480" data-file-height="1076" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:111px;max-width:111px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinclair_ZX_Microdrive_White_BG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Sinclair_ZX_Microdrive_White_BG.jpg/109px-Sinclair_ZX_Microdrive_White_BG.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Sinclair_ZX_Microdrive_White_BG.jpg/164px-Sinclair_ZX_Microdrive_White_BG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Sinclair_ZX_Microdrive_White_BG.jpg/218px-Sinclair_ZX_Microdrive_White_BG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1160" data-file-height="1103" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Official peripherals: the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Printer" title="ZX Printer">ZX Printer</a>, the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Interface_2" title="ZX Interface 2">ZX Interface 2</a>, the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Interface_1" title="ZX Interface 1">ZX Interface 1</a> and the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Microdrive" title="ZX Microdrive">ZX Microdrive</a></div></div></div></div> Several <a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">peripherals</a> were developed and marketed by Sinclair. The <a href="/wiki/ZX_Printer" title="ZX Printer">ZX Printer</a>, a small <a href="/wiki/Spark_printing" title="Spark printing">spark printer</a>, was already on the market upon the ZX Spectrum's release,<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> as its <a href="/wiki/Bus_(computing)" title="Bus (computing)">computer bus</a> was partially <a href="/wiki/Backward_compatibility" title="Backward compatibility">backward-compatible</a> with that of its predecessor, the ZX81. It uses two electrically charged styli to burn away the surface of aluminium-coated paper to reveal the black underlay.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy1986107-189">[189]</a> The <a href="/wiki/ZX_Interface_1" title="ZX Interface 1">ZX Interface 1</a> add-on module, launched in 1983, includes 8 kB of ROM, an <a href="/wiki/RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a> serial port, a proprietary <a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">local area network</a> (LAN) interface known as ZX Net, and a port for connecting up to eight <a href="/wiki/ZX_Microdrive" title="ZX Microdrive">ZX Microdrives</a> — tape-loop cartridge storage devices released in July 1983, known for their speed, albeit with some reliability concerns.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> A revised version of these Microdrives was used on the <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_QL" title="Sinclair QL">Sinclair QL</a>, although the storage format was electrically compatible but logically incompatible with the ZX Spectrum's. Sinclair Research also introduced the <a href="/wiki/ZX_Interface_2" title="ZX Interface 2">ZX Interface 2</a>, which added two joystick ports and a <a href="/wiki/ROM_cartridge" title="ROM cartridge">ROM cartridge</a> port.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Although the ZX Microdrives were initially greeted with good reviews,<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> they never became a popular distribution method due to fears over cartridge quality and piracy.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg/220px-Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg/330px-Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg/440px-Kempston_joystick_interface.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1740" data-file-height="1104" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kempston_Micro_Electronics#Interface" title="Kempston Micro Electronics">Kempston interface</a>, a third-party add-on widely used for <a href="/wiki/Joystick" title="Joystick">joysticks</a></figcaption></figure> A plethora of third-party hardware add-ons were available throughout the machine's life. Some notable ones included the <a href="/wiki/Kempston_Micro_Electronics#Interface" title="Kempston Micro Electronics">Kempston joystick interface</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a14-195">[195]</a> the Morex Peripherals <a href="/wiki/Centronics" title="Centronics">Centronics</a>/RS-232 interface, the <a href="/wiki/Currah" title="Currah">Currah</a> Microspeech unit for speech synthesis,<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> <a href="/wiki/Videoface" title="Videoface">Videoface</a> Digitiser,<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Cheetah_Marketing" title="Cheetah Marketing">Cheetah Marketing</a> <a href="/wiki/SpecDrum" title="SpecDrum">SpecDrum</a>, which was a drum machine,<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Multiface" title="Multiface">Multiface</a>, a snapshot and disassembly tool from Romantic Robot.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> After the original ZX Spectrum's keyboard received criticism for its "dead flesh" feel,<a href="#cite_note-bbclegacy-3">[3]</a> external keyboards became especially popular.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> In 1983, DK'Tronics launched a Light Pen compatible with some drawing software.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> There were also many disk drive interfaces like the Abbeydale Designers/<a href="/wiki/Watford_Electronics" title="Watford Electronics">Watford Electronics</a> SPDOS, Abbeydale Designers/Kempston KDOS, and Opus Discovery. The SPDOS and KDOS interfaces were bundled with office productivity software, including the <a href="/wiki/Tasword" title="Tasword">Tasword</a> Word Processor, Masterfile database, and <a href="/wiki/Microsphere_(software_company)#Company_history" title="Microsphere (software company)">Omnicalc</a> spreadsheet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouth198461-202">[202]</a> This bundle, along with OCP's Stock Control, Finance, and Payroll systems, introduced small businesses to streamlined computerised operations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201870-51">[51]</a> In 1987 and 1988, <a href="/wiki/Miles_Gordon_Technology" title="Miles Gordon Technology">Miles Gordon Technology</a> released the <a href="/wiki/DISCiPLE" title="DISCiPLE">DISCiPLE</a> and <a href="/wiki/%2BD" title="+D">+D</a> systems. These systems had the capability to store memory images as disk snapshots, allowing users to restore the Spectrum to its exact previous state. Both systems were compatible with the Microdrive command syntax, simplifying the porting of existing software.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> During the mid-1980s, Telemap Group Ltd launched a fee-based service that allowed ZX Spectrum users to connect their machines to the <a href="/wiki/Micronet_800" title="Micronet 800">Micronet 800</a> viewdata service via a Prism Micro Products VTX5000 modem. Micronet 800, hosted by <a href="/wiki/Prestel" title="Prestel">Prestel</a>, provided news and information about microcomputers and offered a form of instant messaging and online shopping.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software">Software</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Software">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_software" title="ZX Spectrum software">ZX Spectrum software</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_ZX_Spectrum_games" title="List of ZX Spectrum games">List of ZX Spectrum games</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:181px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:ZX_Rebelstar_3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZX_Rebelstar_3.png/242px-ZX_Rebelstar_3.png" decoding="async" width="242" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZX_Rebelstar_3.png/363px-ZX_Rebelstar_3.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/ZX_Rebelstar_3.png/484px-ZX_Rebelstar_3.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:181px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:ZX_Laser_Squad.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ZX_Laser_Squad.png/242px-ZX_Laser_Squad.png" decoding="async" width="242" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ZX_Laser_Squad.png/363px-ZX_Laser_Squad.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/ZX_Laser_Squad.png/484px-ZX_Laser_Squad.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Screenshots from ZX Spectrum games <a href="/wiki/Rebelstar" title="Rebelstar">Rebelstar</a> (1984) and <a href="/wiki/Laser_Squad" title="Laser Squad">Laser Squad</a> (1988)</div></div></div></div> Most Spectrum software was originally distributed on <a href="/wiki/Audio_cassette_tape" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio cassette tape">audio cassette tapes</a>, intended to work with a normal domestic cassette recorder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201868-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Software was mainly distributed through print media such as magazines and books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201869-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> To load software onto the machine, the reader would <a href="/wiki/Type-in_program" title="Type-in program">type the BASIC program listing by hand</a>, run it, and save it to the cassette for later use. Some magazines distributed 7" 33<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>1⁄3 rpm <a href="/wiki/Flexi_disc" title="Flexi disc">flexi disc</a> records, or "<a href="/wiki/Floppy_ROM" class="mw-redirect" title="Floppy ROM">Floppy ROMs</a>", a variant of regular <a href="/wiki/Vinyl_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Vinyl record">vinyl records</a> which could be played on a standard record player.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Some radio stations would broadcast audio stream data via <a href="/wiki/Frequency_modulation" title="Frequency modulation">frequency modulation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medium_wave" title="Medium wave">medium wave</a> so that listeners could directly record it onto an audio cassette themselves. ZX Spectrum-focused radio programmes existed in the United Kingdom, which were received over long distances on domestic radio receivers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert1983b14-209">[209]</a> Different types of software released for the machine include <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> implementations, <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">databases</a>,<a href="#cite_note-zappowboom-210">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">word processors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tasword" title="Tasword">Tasword</a> being the most prominent<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWetherill1984126-211">[211]</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">spreadsheets</a>,<a href="#cite_note-zappowboom-210">[210]</a> drawing and painting tools (e.g. <a href="/wiki/OCP_Art_Studio" title="OCP Art Studio">OCP Art Studio</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a>), 3D-modelling (e.g. VU-3D<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> software.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> Over 24,000 different software titles were released for the ZX Spectrum throughout its lifespan.<a href="#cite_note-BT-1">[1]</a> The ZX Spectrum had an extensive library of video games, including iconic titles such as <a href="/wiki/Manic_Miner" title="Manic Miner">Manic Miner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jet_Set_Willy" title="Jet Set Willy">Jet Set Willy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chuckie_Egg" title="Chuckie Egg">Chuckie Egg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elite_(video_game)" title="Elite (video game)">Elite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabre_Wulf" title="Sabre Wulf">Sabre Wulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knight_Lore" title="Knight Lore">Knight Lore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Hobbit_(1982_video_game)" title="The Hobbit (1982 video game)">The Hobbit</a>. These games were instrumental in establishing the machine as a prominent gaming platform during the 1980s. Hardware limitations of the machine required a particular level of creativity from <a href="/wiki/Video_game_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Video game designer">video game designers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdamsonKennedy198664-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> From August 1982 the ZX Spectrum came bundled with <a href="/wiki/Horizons:_Software_Starter_Pack" title="Horizons: Software Starter Pack">Horizons: Software Starter Pack</a>,<a href="#cite_note-psion-ssp-218">[218]</a> a software compilation which included ten demonstration programs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly19825-219">[219]</a> Some ZX Spectrum games hold a number of industry-firsts and <a href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Records" title="Guinness World Records">Guinness World Records</a>. These include <a href="/wiki/Ant_Attack" title="Ant Attack">Ant Attack</a>, the first home computer game to use <a href="/wiki/Isometric_video_game_graphics" title="Isometric video game graphics">isometric graphics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <a href="/wiki/Turbo_Esprit" title="Turbo Esprit">Turbo Esprit</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Open_world_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Open world game">open world</a> driving game,<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> and Redhawk, which featured the first superhero created specifically for a video game.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Psion_Horizons_for_ZX_Spectrum_cassette.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Psion_Horizons_for_ZX_Spectrum_cassette.jpg/220px-Psion_Horizons_for_ZX_Spectrum_cassette.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Psion_Horizons_for_ZX_Spectrum_cassette.jpg/330px-Psion_Horizons_for_ZX_Spectrum_cassette.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Psion_Horizons_for_ZX_Spectrum_cassette.jpg/440px-Psion_Horizons_for_ZX_Spectrum_cassette.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3698" data-file-height="2465" /></a><figcaption>Spectrum software was distributed almost exclusively on audio cassettes.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Reception">edit</a>]</div> Initial reception of the ZX Spectrum was generally positive. Critics in Britain welcomed the new machine as a worthy successor to the <a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a>; Robin Bradbeer of <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> praised the additional keyboard functions the Spectrum had to offer, and lauded the "strength" of its ergonomic and presentable design.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbeer198214–15-223">[223]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hartnell" title="Tim Hartnell">Tim Hartnell</a> from <a href="/wiki/Your_Computer_(British_magazine)" title="Your Computer (British magazine)">Your Computer</a> noted that Sinclair had improved on the shortcomings of the <a href="/wiki/ZX80" title="ZX80">ZX80</a> and ZX81 by revamping the Spectrum's load and save functions, noting that it made working with the machine "a pleasure".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartnell198220–21-224">[224]</a> Hartnell concluded that despite minor faults, the machine was "way ahead" of its competitors, and the quality far exceeded that of the <a href="/wiki/BBC_Micro" title="BBC Micro">BBC Micro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartnell198222-225">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games" title="Computer and Video Games">Computer and Video Games</a>' Terry Pratt compared the Spectrum's keyboard negatively to the typewriter-style used on the BBC Micro, opining that it was an improvement over the ZX81 but unsuited for "typists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPratt1982b3-226">[226]</a> In similar vein, David Tebbutt from <a href="/wiki/Personal_Computer_World" title="Personal Computer World">Personal Computer World</a> felt that the Spectrum's keyboard felt more like a calculator than typewriter, but praised its functional versatility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETebbutt1982118-227">[227]</a> Likewise, Gregg Williams from <a href="/wiki/Byte_(magazine)" title="Byte (magazine)">BYTE</a> criticised the keyboard, declaring that despite the machine's attractive price the layout "is impossible to justify" and "poorly designed" in several respects. Williams was sceptical of the computer's appeal to American consumers if sold for US$220 — "hardly competitive with comparable low-cost American units" — and expected that Timex would sell it for $125–150.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams198340-228">[228]</a> A more negative review came from Jim Lennox of Technology Week, who wrote that "after using it [...] I find Sinclair's claim that it is the most powerful computer under £500 unsustainable. Compared to more powerful machines, it is slow, its colour graphics are disappointing, its BASIC limited and its keyboard confusing".<a href="#cite_note-nerd-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "You cannot exaggerate Sir <a href="/wiki/Clive_Sinclair" title="Clive Sinclair">Clive Sinclair</a>’s influence on the world [...] All your UK video game companies today were built on the shoulders of giants who made games for the ZX Spectrum." </blockquote> <cite class="left-aligned" style="">— Television presenter <a href="/wiki/Dominik_Diamond" title="Dominik Diamond">Dominik Diamond</a> on Sinclair's death in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a></cite> </div> The importance of the ZX Spectrum and its role in the early <a href="/wiki/History_of_personal_computers" title="History of personal computers">history of personal computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_video_gaming" class="mw-redirect" title="History of video gaming">video gaming</a> has left it regarded as the most important and influential computer of the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh201869-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-bbclegacy-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-tech40-230">[230]</a> Some observers credit it as being responsible for launching the British information technology industry during <a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession" title="Early 1980s recession">a period of recession</a>,<a href="#cite_note-reg25-231">[231]</a> while introducing home computing to the masses.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> As of 2024<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit">[update]</a>, it is also one of the best-selling British computers of all time, with over five million units sold by the end of the Spectrum's lifespan in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-backlash-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-slice-8">[8]</a> It retained the title of Britain's top-selling computer until the <a href="/wiki/Amstrad_PCW" title="Amstrad PCW">Amstrad PCW</a> surpassed it in the 1990s, with eight million units sold by the end of the PCW's lifespan in 1998.<a href="#cite_note-typewriter-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-slice-8">[8]</a> The ZX Spectrum is affectionately known as the "Speccy" by elements of its fan following.<a href="#cite_note-ys-70-233">[233]</a> A number of notable games developers began their careers on the ZX Spectrum. <a href="/wiki/Tim_and_Chris_Stamper" class="mw-redirect" title="Tim and Chris Stamper">Tim and Chris Stamper</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_Play_the_Game" title="Ultimate Play the Game">Ultimate Play the Game</a> in 1982,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt201024-234">[234]</a> who found success with their blockbuster hits <a href="/wiki/Jetpac" title="Jetpac">Jetpac</a> (1983), <a href="/wiki/Atic_Atac" title="Atic Atac">Atic Atac</a> (1983), <a href="/wiki/Sabre_Wulf" title="Sabre Wulf">Sabre Wulf</a> (1984), and <a href="/wiki/Knight_Lore" title="Knight Lore">Knight Lore</a> (1984).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunt201024–31-235">[235]</a> The Stamper brothers later founded <a href="/wiki/Rare_(company)" title="Rare (company)">Rare</a>, which became <a href="/wiki/Nintendo" title="Nintendo">Nintendo</a>'s first Western third-party developer.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Perry_(game_developer)" title="David Perry (game developer)">David Perry</a>, the founder of <a href="/wiki/Shiny_Entertainment" title="Shiny Entertainment">Shiny Entertainment</a>, moved from Northern Ireland to England to focus on developing games for the ZX Spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Some programmers have continued to code for the platform by using emulators on modern PCs.<a href="#cite_note-Kelion-238">[238]</a> A robust <a href="/wiki/Homebrew_(video_games)" title="Homebrew (video games)">homebrew</a> community continues into the present day, with several games being released commercially from new software houses such as <a href="/wiki/Cronosoft" title="Cronosoft">Cronosoft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> In 2020, a museum dedicated to the ZX Spectrum and other Sinclair products opened in <a href="/wiki/Cantanhede,_Portugal" title="Cantanhede, Portugal">Cantanhede</a>, Portugal.<a href="#cite_note-loadzx-240">[240]</a> The Rubber-Keyed Wonder, a documentary about the ZX Spectrum created by Anthony and Nicola Caulfield, was funded through <a href="/wiki/Kickstarter" title="Kickstarter">Kickstarter</a> in 2023 and will premiere on 3 October 2024 in London.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: In popular culture">edit</a>]</div> The ZX Spectrum has been referenced numerous times in popular culture. A running gag in <a href="/wiki/Scott_Pilgrim_vs._the_World" title="Scott Pilgrim vs. the World">Scott Pilgrim vs. the World</a> features character <a href="/wiki/Julie_Powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Julie Powers">Julie Powers</a> being censored with the sound effects of the ZX Spectrum. The director of the film, <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Wright" title="Edgar Wright">Edgar Wright</a>, who was a big fan of the Spectrum, stated that he always used to wait for Spectrum games to load when he was a teenager.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> On 23 April 2012, a <a href="/wiki/Google_doodle" class="mw-redirect" title="Google doodle">Google doodle</a> honoured the 30th anniversary of the Spectrum. As it coincided with <a href="/wiki/St_George%27s_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="St George's Day">St George's Day</a>, the Google logo was of <a href="/wiki/Saint_George_and_the_Dragon" title="Saint George and the Dragon">St George fighting a dragon</a> in the style of a Spectrum loading screen.<a href="#cite_note-St._George's_Day-243">[243]</a> One of the alternate endings in the <a href="/wiki/Interactive_film" title="Interactive film">interactive film</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_Mirror:_Bandersnatch" title="Black Mirror: Bandersnatch">Black Mirror: Bandersnatch</a> (2018) included the main character playing data tape audio that, when loaded into a ZX Spectrum software emulator, generates a <a href="/wiki/QR_code" title="QR code">QR code</a> leading to a website with a playable version of the "Nohzdyve" game featured in the film.<a href="#cite_note-Bandersnatch-244">[244]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/WPVG_icon_2016.svg/28px-WPVG_icon_2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/WPVG_icon_2016.svg/42px-WPVG_icon_2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/WPVG_icon_2016.svg/56px-WPVG_icon_2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="249" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Video_games" title="Portal:Video games">Video games portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg/25px-Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg/38px-Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg/51px-Rubik%27s_cube_v3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="530" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:1980s" title="Portal:1980s">1980s portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_Kingdom" title="Portal:United Kingdom">United Kingdom portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators#Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum_and_clones" title="List of computer system emulators">List of computer system emulators#Sinclair ZX Spectrum and clones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ZX_Spectrum_games" title="List of ZX Spectrum games">List of ZX Spectrum games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_graphic_modes" title="ZX Spectrum graphic modes">ZX Spectrum graphic modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_character_set" title="ZX Spectrum character set">ZX Spectrum character set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contended_memory" title="Contended memory">Contended memory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved 31 March 2015. <q>It was the computer that introduced a generation to video gaming, helped to earn Sir Clive Sinclair a knighthood and even made programming cool: the ZX Spectrum has a lot to answer for.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum+at+30%3A+the+computer+that+started+a+revolution&rft.date=2012-04-23&rft.aulast=Warman&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Ftechnology%2Fnews%2F9220468%2FZX-Spectrum-at-30-the-computer-that-started-a-revolution.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221215164112/https://www.retrogamer.net/profiles/hardware/zx-spectrum-hardware-profile/">"ZX Spectrum profile"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Retro_Gamer" title="Retro Gamer">Retro Gamer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. 4 December 2013. 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November 1985. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514040006/http://www.crashonline.org.uk/22/editrl.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRASH&rft.atitle=Kept+in+the+Dark&rft.issue=22&rft.date=1985-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crashonline.org.uk%2F22%2Feditrl.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-comphist-spec128-83"><a href="#cite_ref-comphist-spec128_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computinghistory.org.uk/cgi-bin/sitewise.pl?act=det&p=2584">"Sinclair ZX Spectrum 128"</a>. The Centre for Computing History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100821130000/http://www.computinghistory.org.uk/cgi-bin/sitewise.pl?act=det&p=2584">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2010. Retrieved 4 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sinclair+ZX+Spectrum+128&rft.pub=The+Centre+for+Computing+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computinghistory.org.uk%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsitewise.pl%3Fact%3Ddet%26p%3D2584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDale1985151-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDale1985151_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDale1985">Dale 1985</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFraser198614-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFraser198614_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFraser1986">Fraser 1986</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1">"C5 advert claims rejected". <a href="/wiki/The_Times" title="The Times">The Times</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/News_Corp" title="News Corp">News Corp</a>. 17 July 1985. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Times&rft.atitle=C5+advert+claims+rejected&rft.pages=3&rft.date=1985-07-17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-srl-87"><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-srl_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/18/business/sinclair-to-sell-british-unit.html">"Sinclair to Sell British Unit"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. 18 June 1985. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518140601/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/18/business/sinclair-to-sell-british-unit.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 4 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Sinclair+to+Sell+British+Unit&rft.date=1985-06-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1985%2F06%2F18%2Fbusiness%2Fsinclair-to-sell-british-unit.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKidd19867-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKidd19867_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKidd1986">Kidd 1986</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScolding19867-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScolding19867_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFScolding1986">Scolding 1986</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips198647-90">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillips198647_90-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillips198647_90-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPhillips1986">Phillips 1986</a>, p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeder1985" class="citation web cs1">Feder, Barnaby (19 May 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230516193313/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/05/19/magazine/inventing-the-future.html">"Inventing the Future"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. New York City. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1985/05/19/magazine/inventing-the-future.html">the original</a> on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Inventing+the+Future&rft.date=1985-05-19&rft.aulast=Feder&rft.aufirst=Barnaby&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1985%2F05%2F19%2Fmagazine%2Finventing-the-future.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vickers-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Vickers_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers1982" class="citation book cs1">Vickers, Steven (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap1.html">"Introduction"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/">Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinclair Research Ltd">Sinclair Research Ltd</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924115058/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Sinclair+ZX+Spectrum+BASIC+Programming&rft.pub=Sinclair+Research+Ltd&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2FZXBasicManual%2Fzxmanchap1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SpectrumManualChapter16-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SpectrumManualChapter16_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SpectrumManualChapter16_93-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers1982" class="citation book cs1">Vickers, Steven (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap16.html">"Colours"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/">Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinclair Research Ltd">Sinclair Research Ltd</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924115058/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 23 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colours&rft.btitle=Sinclair+ZX+Spectrum+BASIC+Programming&rft.pub=Sinclair+Research+Ltd&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2FZXBasicManual%2Fzxmanchap16.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Altwasser-94"><a href="#cite_ref-Altwasser_94-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=EP0107687">EP patent 0107687</a>, Richard Francis Altwasser, "Display for a computer", issued 6 July 1988, assigned to Sinclair Research Ltd<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&rft.number=0107687&rft.cc=EP&rft.title=Display+for+a+computer&rft.inventor=Richard+Francis+Altwasser&rft.assignee=Sinclair+Research+Ltd&rft.date=6 July 1988&rft.appldate=22 April 1983&rft.prioritydate=22 April 1982">  </li> <li id="cite_note-digitalfoundry-95"><a href="#cite_ref-digitalfoundry_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry-face-off-zx-spectrum-vs-commodore-64">"Face off – ZX Spectrum vs Commodore 64"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eurogamer" title="Eurogamer">Eurogamer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. 29 April 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120904041518/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/digitalfoundry-face-off-zx-spectrum-vs-commodore-64">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eurogamer&rft.atitle=Face+off+%E2%80%93+ZX+Spectrum+vs+Commodore+64&rft.date=2012-04-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurogamer.net%2Farticles%2Fdigitalfoundry-face-off-zx-spectrum-vs-commodore-64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015b16-96"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015b16_96-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkins2015b">Wilkins 2015b</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-worldofspectrum-16-48-97"><a href="#cite_ref-worldofspectrum-16-48_97-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldofspectrum.org/faq/reference/48kreference.htm#PortFE">"PortFE"</a>. 16K / 48K ZX Spectrum Reference. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230325133729/https://worldofspectrum.org/faq/reference/48kreference.htm#PortFE">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2023. Retrieved 4 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=PortFE&rft.btitle=16K+%2F+48K+ZX+Spectrum+Reference&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldofspectrum.org%2Ffaq%2Freference%2F48kreference.htm%23PortFE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a16-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a16_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkins2015a">Wilkins 2015a</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a17-99">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a17_99-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a17_99-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkins2015a">Wilkins 2015a</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vickers-19-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Vickers-19_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers" class="citation book cs1">Vickers, Steven. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap19.html">"BEEP"</a>. Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinclair Research Ltd">Sinclair Research Ltd</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141113055815/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap19.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=BEEP&rft.btitle=Sinclair+ZX+Spectrum+BASIC+Programming&rft.pub=Sinclair+Research+Ltd&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2FZXBasicManual%2Fzxmanchap19.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENash1984217-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENash1984217_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNash1984">Nash 1984</a>, p. 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-Vickers-2-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Vickers-2_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickers1982" class="citation book cs1">Vickers, Steven (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/zxmanchap2.html">"Basic programming concepts"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/">Sinclair ZX Spectrum BASIC Programming</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research_Ltd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinclair Research Ltd">Sinclair Research Ltd</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924115058/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 19 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Basic+programming+concepts&rft.btitle=Sinclair+ZX+Spectrum+BASIC+Programming&rft.pub=Sinclair+Research+Ltd&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Vickers&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2FZXBasicManual%2Fzxmanchap2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-myprius-103"><a href="#cite_ref-myprius_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.myprius.co.za/tape_storage.htm">"Tape Data Storage"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120415055937/http://www.myprius.co.za/tape_storage.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tape+Data+Storage&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.myprius.co.za%2Ftape_storage.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HCHOF-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HCHOF_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HCHOF_104-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStratford2014" class="citation web cs1">Stratford, Christopher (11 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gondolin.org.uk/hchof/hchof.php">"The Home Computers Hall of Fame, The Machines"</a>. gondolin.org.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150317112736/http://gondolin.org.uk/hchof/hchof.php">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=gondolin.org.uk&rft.atitle=The+Home+Computers+Hall+of+Fame%2C+The+Machines&rft.date=2014-05-11&rft.aulast=Stratford&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gondolin.org.uk%2Fhchof%2Fhchof.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-High_Street_Spectrum-105"><a href="#cite_ref-High_Street_Spectrum_105-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ZX-computing-1983-02">"The High Street Spectrum"</a>. ZX Computing: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ZX-computing-1983-02/page/n42">43</a>. February 1983. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170316134253/https://archive.org/details/ZX-computing-1983-02">Archived</a> from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZX+Computing&rft.atitle=The+High+Street+Spectrum&rft.pages=43&rft.date=1983-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FZX-computing-1983-02&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert1983a13-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilbert1983a13_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilbert1983a">Gilbert 1983a</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-ys-64k-1984-09-107"><a href="#cite_ref-ys-64k-1984-09_107-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin1984" class="citation journal cs1">Goodwin, Simon (September 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/yr07/yr07_33.htm">"Suddenly, it's the 64K Spectrum!"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Your_Spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Your Spectrum">Your Spectrum</a> (7): 33–34. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140522194918/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~jg27paw4/yr07/yr07_33.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 31 March 2015. <q>So the first three issues of the Spectrum used a combination of eight 16K chips and eight 32K ones. The latest machines depart from that combination, but Sinclair Research has been very quiet about the alteration.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Your+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Suddenly%2C+it%27s+the+64K+Spectrum%21&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=33-34&rft.date=1984-09&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.users.globalnet.co.uk%2F~jg27paw4%2Fyr07%2Fyr07_33.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ps-s48kv-2003-09-108"><a href="#cite_ref-ps-s48kv-2003-09_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen2003" class="citation web cs1">Owen, Chris (6 September 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum/spec48versions.htm">"Spectrum 48K Versions"</a>. Planet Sinclair. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150321023603/http://rk.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum/spec48versions.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2015. <q>It is often possible to determine which version of the Spectrum 16/48K one has without opening the case, as there are a number of clues...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Planet+Sinclair&rft.atitle=Spectrum+48K+Versions&rft.date=2003-09-06&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nvg.ntnu.no%2Fsinclair%2Fcomputers%2Fzxspectrum%2Fspec48versions.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Servicing-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Servicing_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorn_(EMI)_Datatech_Ltd1984" class="citation book cs1">Thorn (EMI) Datatech Ltd (March 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://k1.spdns.de/Vintage/Sinclair/82/Sinclair%20ZX%20Spectrum/Repair/ZX%20Spectrum%20Service%20Manual%20(OCRed).pdf">Servicing Manual For ZX Spectrum</a> (PDF). Sinclair Research Ltd. p. 4.3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190201013410/https://k1.spdns.de/Vintage/Sinclair/82/Sinclair%20ZX%20Spectrum/Repair/ZX%20Spectrum%20Service%20Manual%20%28OCRed%29.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 1 February 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Servicing+Manual+For+ZX+Spectrum&rft.pages=4.3&rft.pub=Sinclair+Research+Ltd&rft.date=1984-03&rft.au=Thorn+%28EMI%29+Datatech+Ltd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fk1.spdns.de%2FVintage%2FSinclair%2F82%2FSinclair%2520ZX%2520Spectrum%2FRepair%2FZX%2520Spectrum%2520Service%2520Manual%2520%28OCRed%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrumforeveryone.com/technical/zx-spectrum-models/">"ZX Spectrum Models"</a>. Spectrum for Everyone. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210909125915/https://spectrumforeveryone.com/technical/zx-spectrum-models/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spectrum+for+Everyone&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum+Models&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrumforeveryone.com%2Ftechnical%2Fzx-spectrum-models%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://serials.spectrumforeveryone.com/">"Spectrum For Everyone Serial DB"</a>. Spectrum For Everyone Serial DB. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210909125915/https://serials.spectrumforeveryone.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Spectrum+For+Everyone+Serial+DB&rft.atitle=Spectrum+For+Everyone+Serial+DB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fserials.spectrumforeveryone.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b6-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b6_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b6_112-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b">Popular Computing Weekly 1983b</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBackhurst1983a5-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBackhurst1983a5_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBackhurst1983a">Backhurst 1983a</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDenham1984b104-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenham1984b104_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenham1984b104_114-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDenham1984b">Denham 1984b</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-New_Spectrum-115"><a href="#cite_ref-New_Spectrum_115-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924094040/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/033/news.htm">"News: New Spectrum launch"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (33): 11. December 1984. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/033/news.htm">the original</a> on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 19 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=News%3A+New+Spectrum+launch&rft.issue=33&rft.pages=11&rft.date=1984-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sincuser.f9.co.uk%2F033%2Fnews.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hcw231084-116"><a href="#cite_ref-hcw231084_116-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200924170531/https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=2651&page=1">"Spectrum surprise!"</a>. Home Computing Weekly. No. 85. Argus Specialist Publications. 23 October 1984. p. 1. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=2651&page=1">the original</a> on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Home+Computing+Weekly&rft.atitle=Spectrum+surprise%21&rft.issue=85&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1984-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrumcomputing.co.uk%2Fpage.php%3Fissue_id%3D2651%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PSZX+-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PSZX+_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PSZX+_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen" class="citation web cs1">Owen, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum/specplus.htm">"ZX Spectrum+"</a>. Planet Sinclair. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110903053833/http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/sinclair/computers/zxspectrum/specplus.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Planet+Sinclair&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum%2B&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nvg.ntnu.no%2Fsinclair%2Fcomputers%2Fzxspectrum%2Fspecplus.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodwin-145-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin-145_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin-145_118-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goodwin-145_118-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodwin1987" class="citation magazine cs1">Goodwin, Simon (December 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Crash_Magazine_048b/page/144">"Tech Tips – +3 Faults"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crash_(magazine)" title="Crash (magazine)">Crash</a>. No. 48. p. 145. Retrieved 24 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crash&rft.atitle=Tech+Tips+%E2%80%93+%2B3+Faults&rft.issue=48&rft.pages=145&rft.date=1987-12&rft.aulast=Goodwin&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FCrash_Magazine_048b%2Fpage%2F144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrey19855-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrey19855_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrey1985">Frey 1985</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBourne1985b5-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBourne1985b5_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBourne1985b">Bourne 1985b</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrey198611-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrey198611_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrey1986">Frey 1986</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> (in Spanish) Ministerio de Economía y Hacienda (BOE 211 de 3 September 1985), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-18847">Real Decreto 1558/1985, de 28 de agosto, por el que se aclara el alcance del mínimo específico introducido en la subpartida 84.53.B.II del Arancel de Aduanas, por el Real Decreto 1215/1985</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430111506/http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-18847">Archived</a> 30 April 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Rango: Real Decreto, Páginas: 27743 – 27744, Referencia: 1985/18847. </li> <li id="cite_note-BOE-123"><a href="#cite_ref-BOE_123-0">^</a> (in Spanish) Ministerio de Industria y Energía (BOE 179 de 27 July 1985), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-15611">Real Decreto 1250/1985, de 19 de junio, por el que se establece la sujeción a especificaciones técnicas de los terminales de pantalla con teclado, periféricos para entrada y representación de información en equipo de proceso de datos</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130430104621/http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1985-15611">Archived</a> 30 April 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Rango: Real Decreto, Páginas: 23840–23841, Referencia: 1985/15611. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://retrorevivalshop.co.uk/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=7&products_id=60">"Murata 5v Switching Regulator (for Toastrack models)"</a>. Retro Revival Shop. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211113115246/http://retrorevivalshop.co.uk/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=7&products_id=60">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2021. Retrieved 13 November 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Retro+Revival+Shop&rft.atitle=Murata+5v+Switching+Regulator+%28for+Toastrack+models%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fretrorevivalshop.co.uk%2Findex.php%3Fmain_page%3Dproduct_info%26cPath%3D7%26products_id%3D60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sincuser-49-125"><a href="#cite_ref-sincuser-49_125-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924093908/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/049/128lnch.htm">"Clive discovers games – at last"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (49): 53. April 1985. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/049/128lnch.htm">the original</a> on 24 September 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Clive+discovers+games+%E2%80%93+at+last&rft.issue=49&rft.pages=53&rft.date=1985-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sincuser.f9.co.uk%2F049%2F128lnch.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128+3-Manual-8-126"><a href="#cite_ref-128+3-Manual-8_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128+3Manual/chapter8pt24.html">"Spectrum 128+3 Manual, Chapter 8 Part 24"</a>. Amstrad. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120615075843/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128+3Manual/chapter8pt24.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spectrum+128%2B3+Manual%2C+Chapter+8+Part+24&rft.pub=Amstrad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2FZXSpectrum128%2B3Manual%2Fchapter8pt24.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128+3-Manual-7-127"><a href="#cite_ref-128+3-Manual-7_127-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128+3Manual/chapter7.html">"Spectrum 128+3 Manual, Chapter 7"</a>. Amstrad. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120615074428/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128+3Manual/chapter7.html">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spectrum+128%2B3+Manual%2C+Chapter+7&rft.pub=Amstrad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2FZXSpectrum128%2B3Manual%2Fchapter7.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128-Manual-9-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128-Manual-9_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128Manual/sp128p09.html">"World of Spectrum – Documentation – ZX Spectrum 128 Manual Page 9"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424174241/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrum128Manual/sp128p09.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+of+Spectrum+%E2%80%93+Documentation+%E2%80%93+ZX+Spectrum+128+Manual+Page+9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2FZXSpectrum128Manual%2Fsp128p09.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-South-129"><a href="#cite_ref-South_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouth1987" class="citation journal cs1">South, Phil (July 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=YourSinclair/Issue19/Pages/YourSinclair1900022.jpg">"It's here... the Spectrum +3"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Your_Sinclair" title="Your Sinclair">Your Sinclair</a> (17): 22–23. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120809145932/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=YourSinclair/Issue19/Pages/YourSinclair1900022.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Your+Sinclair&rft.atitle=It%27s+here...+the+Spectrum+%2B3&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=22-23&rft.date=1987-07&rft.aulast=South&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fshowmag.cgi%3Fmag%3DYourSinclair%2FIssue19%2FPages%2FYourSinclair1900022.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sincuser-68-130"><a href="#cite_ref-sincuser-68_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmstrad1987" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad</a> (November 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=SinclairUser/Issue068/Pages/SinclairUser06800002.jpg">"The new Sinclair has one big disk advantage"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (68): 2–3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825201005/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=SinclairUser/Issue068/Pages/SinclairUser06800002.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=The+new+Sinclair+has+one+big+disk+advantage&rft.issue=68&rft.pages=2-3&rft.date=1987-11&rft.au=Amstrad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fshowmag.cgi%3Fmag%3DSinclairUser%2FIssue068%2FPages%2FSinclairUser06800002.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160829065203/http://www.yorkdistribution.co.uk/acatalog/Power-supply-for-Spectrum-128---2A---3-PS_SPE3.html">"Power supply for Spectrum 128, +2A, +3"</a>. York Distribution Limited. 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Retrieved 26 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crash&rft.atitle=Dishy+New+Spectrum+in+Sex+Scandal&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=9&rft.date=1989-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrumcomputing.co.uk%2Fpage.php%3Fissue_id%3D1028%26page%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-nce101288-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nce101288_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nce101288_135-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200808064929/https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/page.php?issue_id=4777&page=55">"Amstrad again"</a>. New Computer Express. No. 5. Future Publishing. 10 December 1988. p. 55. 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The Week. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221218234336/https://www.theweek.in/news/sci-tech/2021/09/18/the-innovative-legacy-of-clive-sinclair.html">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Week&rft.atitle=The+innovative+legacy+of+Clive+Sinclair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theweek.in%2Fnews%2Fsci-tech%2F2021%2F09%2F18%2Fthe-innovative-legacy-of-clive-sinclair.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isourcingindia.com/team/tirlochan-singh/">"Tirlochan Singh"</a>. isourcingindia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221218234337/https://isourcingindia.com/team/tirlochan-singh/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=isourcingindia&rft.atitle=Tirlochan+Singh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fisourcingindia.com%2Fteam%2Ftirlochan-singh%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOwen" class="citation web cs1">Owen, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nvg.org/sinclair/computers/clones/clones.htm">"Clones and variants"</a>. Planet Sinclair. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060925001540/http://www.nvg.org/sinclair/computers/clones/clones.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2006. Retrieved 26 October 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Planet+Sinclair&rft.atitle=Clones+and+variants&rft.aulast=Owen&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nvg.org%2Fsinclair%2Fcomputers%2Fclones%2Fclones.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlabihoud2000" class="citation web cs1">Slabihoud, Stephan (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.8bit-museum.de/pcb/index.htm?group=35&id=185">"The PCB-Gallery - Didaktik Gamma"</a>. 8bit-museum.de. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230930100727/https://8bit-museum.de/pcb/index.htm?group=35&id=185">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=8bit-museum.de&rft.atitle=The+PCB-Gallery+-+Didaktik+Gamma&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Slabihoud&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.8bit-museum.de%2Fpcb%2Findex.htm%3Fgroup%3D35%26id%3D185&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPenix-Tadsen201914-16-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPenix-Tadsen201914-16_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPenix-Tadsen2019">Penix-Tadsen 2019</a>, p. 14-16. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZangoni2005" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zangoni, Néstor (7 January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://microhobby.speccy.cz/290803/ord/tadeo.htm">"CZERWENY Series (CZ) Argentina (Z80A)"</a>. MicroHobby Web independiente para usuarios de ordenadores Sinclair y compatibles (in Spanish). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240405171243/https://microhobby.speccy.cz/290803/ord/tadeo.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2024. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=MicroHobby+Web+independiente+para+usuarios+de+ordenadores+Sinclair+y+compatibles&rft.atitle=CZERWENY+Series+%28CZ%29+Argentina+%28Z80A%29&rft.date=2005-01-07&rft.aulast=Zangoni&rft.aufirst=N%C3%A9stor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmicrohobby.speccy.cz%2F290803%2Ford%2Ftadeo.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh2018140-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeigh2018140_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeigh2018">Leigh 2018</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlway" class="citation journal cs1">Alway, Robin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130315073401/http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles/samsurgeon0890.htm">"So what really has happened to the SAM Coupé?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Your_Sinclair" title="Your Sinclair">Your Sinclair</a> (56): 40. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles/samsurgeon0890.htm">the original</a> on 15 March 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Your+Sinclair&rft.atitle=So+what+really+has+happened+to+the+SAM+Coup%C3%A9%3F&rft.issue=56&rft.pages=40&rft.aulast=Alway&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ysrnry.co.uk%2Farticles%2Fsamsurgeon0890.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeigh2018142-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeigh2018142_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLeigh2018">Leigh 2018</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBy2017" class="citation web cs1">By (13 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hackaday.com/2017/01/12/retro-zx-spectrum-lives-a-spartan-existence/">"Retro ZX Spectrum Lives A Spartan Existence"</a>. Hackaday. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200725020214/https://hackaday.com/2017/01/12/retro-zx-spectrum-lives-a-spartan-existence/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hackaday&rft.atitle=Retro+ZX+Spectrum+Lives+A+Spartan+Existence&rft.date=2017-01-13&rft.au=By&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhackaday.com%2F2017%2F01%2F12%2Fretro-zx-spectrum-lives-a-spartan-existence%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.verkami.com/projects/14074-zx-uno">"Back this Crowdfunding "ZX-UNO" in Verkami"</a>. www.verkami.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200905095017/https://www.verkami.com/projects/14074-zx-uno">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.verkami.com&rft.atitle=Back+this+Crowdfunding+%22ZX-UNO%22+in+Verkami&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.verkami.com%2Fprojects%2F14074-zx-uno&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOld2020" class="citation web cs1">Old, Vintage is The New (4 February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vintageisthenewold.com/introducing-the-chloe-280se-a-new-z80-microcomputer/">"Introducing the Chloe 280SE, a new Z80 microcomputer"</a>. Vintage is the New Old, Retro Games News, Retro Gaming, Retro Computing. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240516004252/https://www.vintageisthenewold.com/introducing-the-chloe-280se-a-new-z80-microcomputer">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2024. Retrieved 30 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vintage+is+the+New+Old%2C+Retro+Games+News%2C+Retro+Gaming%2C+Retro+Computing&rft.atitle=Introducing+the+Chloe+280SE%2C+a+new+Z80+microcomputer&rft.date=2020-02-04&rft.aulast=Old&rft.aufirst=Vintage+is+The+New&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvintageisthenewold.com%2Fintroducing-the-chloe-280se-a-new-z80-microcomputer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zxuno.speccy.org/index_e.shtml">"ZX-Uno"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180105191835/http://zxuno.speccy.org/index_e.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2018. Retrieved 20 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ZX-Uno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fzxuno.speccy.org%2Findex_e.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharwood2014" class="citation news cs1">Sharwood, Simon (29 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/01/29/sinclairs_zx_spectrum_to_live_again/">"Sinclair's ZX Spectrum to LIVE AGAIN!"</a>. The Register. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140131073309/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/01/29/sinclairs_zx_spectrum_to_live_again/">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Register&rft.atitle=Sinclair%27s+ZX+Spectrum+to+LIVE+AGAIN%21&rft.date=2014-01-29&rft.aulast=Sharwood&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theregister.co.uk%2F2014%2F01%2F29%2Fsinclairs_zx_spectrum_to_live_again%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamilton2014" class="citation news cs1">Hamilton, Alex (2 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.techradar.com/news/gaming/zx-spectrum-is-coming-back-as-a-bluetooth-keyboard-1211655">"ZX Spectrum is coming back as a Bluetooth keyboard"</a>. TechRadar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140204231450/http://www.techradar.com/news/gaming/zx-spectrum-is-coming-back-as-a-bluetooth-keyboard-1211655">Archived</a> from the original on 4 February 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TechRadar&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum+is+coming+back+as+a+Bluetooth+keyboard&rft.date=2014-01-02&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.techradar.com%2Fnews%2Fgaming%2Fzx-spectrum-is-coming-back-as-a-bluetooth-keyboard-1211655&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis2014" class="citation news cs1">Curtis, Sophie (2 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10546696/ZX-Spectrum-to-be-resurrected-as-Bluetooth-keyboard.html">"ZX Spectrum to be resurrected as Bluetooth keyboard"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140106031043/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/10546696/ZX-Spectrum-to-be-resurrected-as-Bluetooth-keyboard.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum+to+be+resurrected+as+Bluetooth+keyboard&rft.date=2014-01-02&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Sophie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Ftechnology%2Fnews%2F10546696%2FZX-Spectrum-to-be-resurrected-as-Bluetooth-keyboard.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlex_Hern" class="citation news cs1">Alex Hern. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2014/feb/13/zx-spectrum-kickstarter-over-unpaid-developer-bills">"ZX Spectrum Kickstarter project stalls over unpaid developer bills"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150627035003/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/gamesblog/2014/feb/13/zx-spectrum-kickstarter-over-unpaid-developer-bills">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum+Kickstarter+project+stalls+over+unpaid+developer+bills&rft.au=Alex+Hern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2Fgamesblog%2F2014%2Ffeb%2F13%2Fzx-spectrum-kickstarter-over-unpaid-developer-bills&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rundle-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rundle_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rundle_168-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRundle2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Rundle, Michael (1 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.co.uk/article/recreated-spectrum-zx-vega-review">"Which of the 'retro' Spectrum remakes is worth your £100?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Wired_UK" title="Wired UK">Wired UK</a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/Cond%C3%A9_Nast" title="Condé Nast">Condé Nast</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1357-0978">1357-0978</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200904141917/https://www.wired.co.uk/article/recreated-spectrum-zx-vega-review">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired+UK&rft.atitle=Which+of+the+%27retro%27+Spectrum+remakes+is+worth+your+%C2%A3100%3F&rft.date=2015-10-01&rft.issn=1357-0978&rft.aulast=Rundle&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.co.uk%2Farticle%2Frecreated-spectrum-zx-vega-review&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYin-Poole2016" class="citation web cs1">Yin-Poole, Wesley (8 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231011181505/https://www.eurogamer.net/when-kickstarters-go-bad-chasing-down-the-recreated-zx-spectrum">"When Kickstarters go bad: chasing down the Recreated ZX Spectrum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eurogamer" title="Eurogamer">Eurogamer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurogamer.net/articles/2016-07-08-when-kickstarters-go-bad-chasing-down-the-recreated-zx-spectrum">the original</a> on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 30 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eurogamer&rft.atitle=When+Kickstarters+go+bad%3A+chasing+down+the+Recreated+ZX+Spectrum&rft.date=2016-07-08&rft.aulast=Yin-Poole&rft.aufirst=Wesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurogamer.net%2Farticles%2F2016-07-08-when-kickstarters-go-bad-chasing-down-the-recreated-zx-spectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-guardian20121202-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guardian20121202_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guardian20121202_170-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel_Gibbs2014" class="citation news cs1">Samuel Gibbs (2 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/dec/02/zx-spectrum-vega-games-console">"ZX Spectrum gets new lease of life as Vega games console"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150625225821/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/dec/02/zx-spectrum-vega-games-console">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum+gets+new+lease+of+life+as+Vega+games+console&rft.date=2014-12-02&rft.au=Samuel+Gibbs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2014%2Fdec%2F02%2Fzx-spectrum-vega-games-console&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheo_Merz2014" class="citation web cs1">Theo Merz (3 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/the-filter/10547681/8-reasons-you-should-be-excited-about-the-return-of-the-ZX-Spectrum.html">"8 reasons you should be excited about the return of the ZX Spectrum"</a>. The Daily Telegraph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160323011350/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/the-filter/10547681/8-reasons-you-should-be-excited-about-the-return-of-the-ZX-Spectrum.html">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2016. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/019/hardwre.htm">the original</a> on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Hardware+World%3A+Spectrum+receives+its+biggest+improvement&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=27-29&rft.date=1983-10&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sincuser.f9.co.uk%2F019%2Fhardwre.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924100919/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/021/hardwre.htm">"Hardware World: Sinclair cartridges may be out of step"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (21): 35. December 1983. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/021/hardwre.htm">the original</a> on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Hardware+World%3A+Sinclair+cartridges+may+be+out+of+step&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=35&rft.date=1983-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sincuser.f9.co.uk%2F021%2Fhardwre.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrey1984" class="citation journal cs1">Frey, Franco (May 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crashonline.org.uk/04/microdv.htm">"Epicventuring and Multiplayer Networking"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crash_(magazine)" title="Crash (magazine)">CRASH</a> (4): 46–47. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070816014620/http://crashonline.org.uk/04/microdv.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 16 August 2007. Retrieved 11 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRASH&rft.atitle=Epicventuring+and+Multiplayer+Networking&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=46-47&rft.date=1984-05&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Franco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crashonline.org.uk%2F04%2Fmicrodv.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoot1985" class="citation journal cs1">Foot, Cathy (November 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crashonline.org.uk/22/opinion.htm">"Microdrive revisited"</a>. CRASH (22): 8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060822201523/http://www.crashonline.org.uk/22/opinion.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 10 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRASH&rft.atitle=Microdrive+revisited&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1985-11&rft.aulast=Foot&rft.aufirst=Cathy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crashonline.org.uk%2F22%2Fopinion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a14-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkins2015a14_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkins2015a">Wilkins 2015a</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924100919/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/021/hardwre.htm">"Hardware World: Clear speech from Currah module"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (21): 40. December 1983. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/021/hardwre.htm">the original</a> on 24 September 2006. Retrieved 29 August 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Hardware+World%3A+Clear+speech+from+Currah+module&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=40&rft.date=1983-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sincuser.f9.co.uk%2F021%2Fhardwre.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrey1987" class="citation journal cs1">Frey, Franco (February 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue37/Pages/Crash3700086.jpg">"Tech Niche: Videoface to Face"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crash_(magazine)" title="Crash (magazine)">CRASH</a> (37): 86–87. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825201008/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue37/Pages/Crash3700086.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRASH&rft.atitle=Tech+Niche%3A+Videoface+to+Face&rft.issue=37&rft.pages=86-87&rft.date=1987-02&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Franco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fshowmag.cgi%3Fmag%3DCrash%2FIssue37%2FPages%2FCrash3700086.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBates1986" class="citation journal cs1">Bates, Jon (April 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crashonline.org.uk/27/specdrum.htm">"Tech Niche: SpecDrum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crash_(magazine)" title="Crash (magazine)">CRASH</a> (27): 100. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070815194429/http://crashonline.org.uk/27/specdrum.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2007. Retrieved 9 August 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRASH&rft.atitle=Tech+Niche%3A+SpecDrum&rft.issue=27&rft.pages=100&rft.date=1986-04&rft.aulast=Bates&rft.aufirst=Jon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crashonline.org.uk%2F27%2Fspecdrum.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Frey, Franco (March 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue26/Pages/Crash2600086.jpg">"Tech Niche: Multifaceted device"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crash_(magazine)" title="Crash (magazine)">CRASH</a> (36): 86. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825201012/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue26/Pages/Crash2600086.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2012. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/031/hardwre.htm">the original</a> on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Hardware+World%3A+Emperor+Looks+Good&rft.issue=31&rft.pages=31&rft.date=1984-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sincuser.f9.co.uk%2F031%2Fhardwre.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/entry/1000124/Hardware/DKTronics_Light_Pen">"DK'Tronics Light Pen"</a>. spectrumcomputing.co.uk. 1983. Retrieved 3 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=spectrumcomputing.co.uk&rft.atitle=DK%27Tronics+Light+Pen&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrumcomputing.co.uk%2Fentry%2F1000124%2FHardware%2FDKTronics_Light_Pen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESouth198461-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESouth198461_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSouth1984">South 1984</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrey1987" class="citation journal cs1">Frey, Franco (March 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue38/Pages/Crash3800082.jpg">"Tech Niche: Pure Gospel"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crash_(magazine)" title="Crash (magazine)">CRASH</a> (38): 82–83. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825201016/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue38/Pages/Crash3800082.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRASH&rft.atitle=Tech+Niche%3A+Pure+Gospel&rft.issue=38&rft.pages=82-83&rft.date=1987-03&rft.aulast=Frey&rft.aufirst=Franco&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fshowmag.cgi%3Fmag%3DCrash%2FIssue38%2FPages%2FCrash3800082.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/hardware/feat24.html">"Prism VTX 5000"</a>. World of Spectrum. Home Computer Advanced Course. 1984. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130105100602/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/hardware/feat24.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+of+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Prism+VTX+5000&rft.date=1984&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fhardware%2Ffeat24.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVickersBradbeer,_Robin1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steve_Vickers_(academia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Steve Vickers (academia)">Vickers, Steven</a>; Bradbeer, Robin (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXSpectrumIntroduction/chapter_six.html">"6. 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Retrieved 17 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+of+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Books&rft.aulast=van+der+Heide&rft.aufirst=Martijn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fbooks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2021" class="citation web cs1">Freeman, Will (7 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230125135756/https://www.theguardian.com/games/2021/jul/07/video-games-on-vinyl-flexi-discs-zx-spectrum">"Spin machines: the curious history of video games on vinyl"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. London. 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Retrieved 23 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Spin+machines%3A+the+curious+history+of+video+games+on+vinyl&rft.date=2021-07-07&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fgames%2F2021%2Fjul%2F07%2Fvideo-games-on-vinyl-flexi-discs-zx-spectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert1983b14-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGilbert1983b14_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGilbert1983b">Gilbert 1983b</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-zappowboom-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-zappowboom_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-zappowboom_210-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearce1982" class="citation journal cs1">Pearce, Nick (October–November 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000075.jpg">"Zap! 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Retrieved 5 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZX+Computing&rft.atitle=Zap%21+Pow%21+Boom%21&rft.pages=75&rft.date=1982-10%2F1982-11&rft.aulast=Pearce&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fshowmag.cgi%3Fmag%3DZXComputing%2FIssue8210%2FPages%2FZXComputing821000075.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWetherill1984126-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWetherill1984126_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWetherill1984">Wetherill 1984</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert1985" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert, John (October 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924103003/http://www.sincuser.f9.co.uk/043/sftwreb.htm">"Art Studio"</a>. 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ZX Computing: 76–77. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120825201025/http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=ZXComputing/Issue8210/Pages/ZXComputing821000076.jpg">Archived</a> from the original on 25 August 2012. Retrieved 5 August 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ZX+Computing&rft.atitle=VU-3D&rft.pages=76-77&rft.date=1983-10%2F1983-11&rft.aulast=Carter&rft.aufirst=Alasdair&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fshowmag.cgi%3Fmag%3DZXComputing%2FIssue8210%2FPages%2FZXComputing821000076.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bioeddie.co.uk/Spectrum/vu-3d.htm">"Psion Vu-3D"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202125355/http://bioeddie.co.uk/Spectrum/vu-3d.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2007. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/105280-first-isometric-home-computer-game">the original</a> on 21 October 2023. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cronosoft.fwscart.com/storepage5357726.aspx">the original</a> on 20 September 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+us+-+What+we+do&rft.pub=Cronosoft&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcronosoft.fwscart.com%2Fstorepage5357726.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-loadzx-240"><a href="#cite_ref-loadzx_240-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loadzx.com/en/">"LOAD ZX Spectrum"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022065054/https://loadzx.com/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 October 2020. Retrieved 19 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=LOAD+ZX+Spectrum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loadzx.com%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlake2024" class="citation web cs1">Blake, Vikki (9 September 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurogamer.net/the-rubber-keyed-wonder-is-a-new-film-that-charts-the-development-of-the-zx-spectrum">"The Rubber Keyed Wonder is a new film that charts the development of the ZX Spectrum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Eurogamer" title="Eurogamer">Eurogamer</a>. Retrieved 14 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Eurogamer&rft.atitle=The+Rubber+Keyed+Wonder+is+a+new+film+that+charts+the+development+of+the+ZX+Spectrum&rft.date=2024-09-09&rft.aulast=Blake&rft.aufirst=Vikki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurogamer.net%2Fthe-rubber-keyed-wonder-is-a-new-film-that-charts-the-development-of-the-zx-spectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpitznagel2010" class="citation magazine cs1">Spitznagel, Eric (12 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2010/08/scott-pilgrim-director-edgar-wright-sees-no-difference-between-video-games-and-heroin">"Scott Pilgrim Director Edgar Wright Sees No Difference Between Video Games and Heroin"</a>. Vanity Fair. Retrieved 1 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vanity+Fair&rft.atitle=Scott+Pilgrim+Director+Edgar+Wright+Sees+No+Difference+Between+Video+Games+and+Heroin&rft.date=2010-08-12&rft.aulast=Spitznagel&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vanityfair.com%2Fculture%2F2010%2F08%2Fscott-pilgrim-director-edgar-wright-sees-no-difference-between-video-games-and-heroin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-St._George's_Day-243"><a href="#cite_ref-St._George's_Day_243-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doodles.google/doodle/st-georges-day-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-zx-spectrum/">"St. George's Day / The 30th Anniversary of the ZX Spectrum"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120507223012/http://www.google.com/doodles/st-georges-day-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-zx-spectrum">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=St.+George%27s+Day+%2F+The+30th+Anniversary+of+the+ZX+Spectrum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoodles.google%2Fdoodle%2Fst-georges-day-the-30th-anniversary-of-the-zx-spectrum%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bandersnatch-244"><a href="#cite_ref-Bandersnatch_244-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes2018" class="citation web cs1">Hughes, William (28 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.avclub.com/bandersnatchs-stockpile-of-black-mirror-easter-eggs-inc-1831365758">"Bandersnatch's stockpile of Black Mirror easter eggs includes a playable video game take on an old episode"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_A.V._Club" title="The A.V. Club">The A.V. Club</a>. New York City: <a href="/wiki/G/O_Media" title="G/O Media">G/O Media</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231011181122/https://www.avclub.com/bandersnatchs-stockpile-of-black-mirror-easter-eggs-inc-1831365758">Archived</a> from the original on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 28 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+A.V.+Club&rft.atitle=Bandersnatch%27s+stockpile+of+Black+Mirror+easter+eggs+includes+a+playable+video+game+take+on+an+old+episode&rft.date=2018-12-28&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.avclub.com%2Fbandersnatchs-stockpile-of-black-mirror-easter-eggs-inc-1831365758&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams1982" class="citation journal cs1">Adams, Stephen (July 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-004/page/n13/mode/2up?q=spectrum">"Taking the lid off the Spectrum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (4). London: <a href="/wiki/EMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="EMAP">EMAP</a>. Retrieved 3 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Taking+the+lid+off+the+Spectrum&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1982-07&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsinclair-user-magazine-004%2Fpage%2Fn13%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dspectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsonKennedy1986" class="citation book cs1">Adamson, Ian; Kennedy, Richard (1986). Sinclair and the Sunrise Technology. <a href="/wiki/Harmondsworth" title="Harmondsworth">Harmondsworth</a>, England: <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-008774-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-008774-1"><bdi>978-0-14-008774-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sinclair+and+the+Sunrise+Technology&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+England&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-14-008774-1&rft.aulast=Adamson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhurst1983a" class="citation journal cs1">Backhurst, Nigel (15 March 1983a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/home-computing-weekly-002/page/n3/mode/2up">"Big response to call back"</a>. Home Computing Weekly (2). London: Argus Specialist Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Home+Computing+Weekly&rft.atitle=Big+response+to+call+back&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1983-03-15&rft.aulast=Backhurst&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhome-computing-weekly-002%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBackhurst1983b" class="citation journal cs1">Backhurst, Nigel (10 May 1983b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/home-computing-weekly-010/page/n13/mode/2up">"Spectrums 'to double'"</a>. Home Computing Weekly (10). London: Argus Specialist Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Home+Computing+Weekly&rft.atitle=Spectrums+%27to+double%27&rft.issue=10&rft.date=1983-05-10&rft.aulast=Backhurst&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhome-computing-weekly-010%2Fpage%2Fn13%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne1985a" class="citation journal cs1">Bourne, Chris (March 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-036/page/n5/mode/2up">"Sinclair declares Spectrum price war"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (36). London: <a href="/wiki/EMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="EMAP">EMAP</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Sinclair+declares+Spectrum+price+war&rft.issue=36&rft.date=1985-03&rft.aulast=Bourne&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsinclair-user-magazine-036%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourne1985b" class="citation journal cs1">Bourne, Chris (November 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/Sinclair_User_044/page/4/mode/2up">"Sinclair declares Spectrum price war"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (44). 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London: <a href="/wiki/EMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="EMAP">EMAP</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Early+promise+is+shown+by+colourful+Spectrum&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1982-06&rft.aulast=Bradbeer&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsinclair-user-magazine-003%2Fpage%2Fn13%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dspectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradbeer1983" class="citation magazine cs1">Bradbeer, Robin (March 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/sinclair-user-magazine-012/SinclairUser_012_Mar_1983#page/n81/mode/2up">"Timex upgrades Spectrum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a>. Vol. 12. 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Retrieved 23 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CRASH&rft.atitle=Amstrad+has+bought+Sinclair+Research&rft.issue=28&rft.date=1986-05&rft.aulast=Kidd&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.crashonline.org.uk%2F28%2Feditrl.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurie1981" class="citation journal cs1">Laurie, Peter (April 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/PracticalComputing1981April04/mode/2up">"ZX80 Line-Up"</a>. Practical Computing. 4 (4). <a href="/wiki/Sutton,_Surrey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sutton, Surrey">Sutton</a>: IPC Electrical Press Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Practical+Computing&rft.atitle=ZX80+Line-Up&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1981-04&rft.aulast=Laurie&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPracticalComputing1981April04%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenix-Tadsen2019" class="citation book cs1">Penix-Tadsen, Phillip (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8PDCDwAAQBAJ">Video Games and the Global South</a>. New York City: Lulu. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-359-64139-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-359-64139-0"><bdi>978-0-359-64139-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240516004122/https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Video_Games_and_the_Global_South.html?id=8PDCDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2024. Retrieved 15 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Video+Games+and+the+Global+South&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Lulu&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-359-64139-0&rft.aulast=Penix-Tadsen&rft.aufirst=Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8PDCDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983a" class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-02-17">"Spectrum sales top 200,000"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Popular_Computing_Weekly" title="Popular Computing Weekly">Popular Computing Weekly</a>. 2 (7). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. 17 February 1983.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Computing+Weekly&rft.atitle=Spectrum+sales+top+200%2C000&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=7&rft.date=1983-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpopular-computing-weekly-1983-02-17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b" class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-03-03/page/n5/mode/2up">"Urgent recall notice"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Popular_Computing_Weekly" title="Popular Computing Weekly">Popular Computing Weekly</a>. 2 (9). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. 3 March 1983.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Computing+Weekly&rft.atitle=Urgent+recall+notice&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=9&rft.date=1983-03-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpopular-computing-weekly-1983-03-03%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983c" class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-08-04">"Spectrum tops 1/2 million mark"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Popular_Computing_Weekly" title="Popular Computing Weekly">Popular Computing Weekly</a>. 2 (31). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. 4 August 1983.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Computing+Weekly&rft.atitle=Spectrum+tops+1%2F2+million+mark&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=31&rft.date=1983-08-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpopular-computing-weekly-1983-08-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983d" class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/popular-computing-weekly-1983-12-22/page/n3/mode/2up">"1m Spectrums"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Popular_Computing_Weekly" title="Popular Computing Weekly">Popular Computing Weekly</a>. 2 (51). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>. 22 December 1983.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Computing+Weekly&rft.atitle=1m+Spectrums&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=51&rft.date=1983-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpopular-computing-weekly-1983-12-22%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt1982a" class="citation journal cs1">Pratt, Terry (June 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cvg-magazine-008/page/n3/mode/2up?q=spectrum">"Sinclair's new baby"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games" title="Computer and Video Games">Computer and Video Games</a> (8). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+and+Video+Games&rft.atitle=Sinclair%27s+new+baby&rft.issue=8&rft.date=1982-06&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcvg-magazine-008%2Fpage%2Fn3%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dspectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPratt1982b" class="citation journal cs1">Pratt, Terry (July 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cvg-magazine-009/page/n93/mode/2up?q=spectrum">"Z-Extra: Spectrum anlaysis"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_and_Video_Games" title="Computer and Video Games">Computer and Video Games</a> (9). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+and+Video+Games&rft.atitle=Z-Extra%3A+Spectrum+anlaysis&rft.issue=9&rft.date=1982-07&rft.aulast=Pratt&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcvg-magazine-009%2Fpage%2Fn93%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dspectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMott2000" class="citation magazine cs1">Mott, Tony (January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EDGE.N080.2000.01/page/76/mode/2up">"Videogaming: The Odyssey"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Edge_(magazine)" title="Edge (magazine)">Edge</a>. No. 80. <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Edge&rft.atitle=Videogaming%3A+The+Odyssey&rft.issue=80&rft.date=2000-01&rft.aulast=Mott&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FEDGE.N080.2000.01%2Fpage%2F76%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunford1984" class="citation journal cs1">Munford, Roger (September 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-07/page/n73/mode/2up">"Lunch with Sir Clive"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Your_Spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Your Spectrum">Your Spectrum</a> (7). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Your+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Lunch+with+Sir+Clive&rft.issue=7&rft.date=1984-09&rft.aulast=Munford&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyour-spectrum-magazine-07%2Fpage%2Fn73%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNash1984" class="citation book cs1">Nash, John (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/effectivescienti0000nash/page/216/mode/2up?q=timex+sinclair">Effective scientific problem solving with small computers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reston,_Virginia" title="Reston, Virginia">Reston</a>: Reston Pub. Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8359-1596-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8359-1596-0"><bdi>978-0-8359-1596-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effective+scientific+problem+solving+with+small+computers&rft.place=Reston&rft.pub=Reston+Pub.+Co&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-8359-1596-0&rft.aulast=Nash&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feffectivescienti0000nash%2Fpage%2F216%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dtimex%2Bsinclair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeigh2018" class="citation book cs1">Leigh, Peter (2018). The Nostalgia Nerd's Retro Tech. London: Ilex Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78157-570-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78157-570-3"><bdi>978-1-78157-570-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nostalgia+Nerd%27s+Retro+Tech&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Ilex+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78157-570-3&rft.aulast=Leigh&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeigh2022" class="citation book cs1">Leigh, Peter (2022). Nostalgia Nerd's Gadgets, Gizmos & Gimmicks: A Potted History of Personal Tech. London: Ilex Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78157-889-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78157-889-6"><bdi>978-1-78157-889-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nostalgia+Nerd%27s+Gadgets%2C+Gizmos+%26+Gimmicks%3A+A+Potted+History+of+Personal+Tech&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Ilex+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-78157-889-6&rft.aulast=Leigh&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1986" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips, Max (November 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/your-sinclair-11/page/n49/mode/2up">"ZX Spectrum +2"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Your_Sinclair" title="Your Sinclair">Your Sinclair</a> (11). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Your+Sinclair&rft.atitle=ZX+Spectrum+%2B2&rft.issue=11&rft.date=1986-11&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyour-sinclair-11%2Fpage%2Fn49%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrata1987" class="citation journal cs1">Prata, Fernando (13 May 1987). "TC 3256: A proposta Timex no mundo das aplicações profissionais". Mircosete (46).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mircosete&rft.atitle=TC+3256%3A+A+proposta+Timex+no+mundo+das+aplica%C3%A7%C3%B5es+profissionais&rft.issue=46&rft.date=1987-05-13&rft.aulast=Prata&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSawford1984" class="citation journal cs1">Sawford, Bruce (July 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-05/page/n47/mode/2up?q=only+four+months+late">"QL news"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Your_Sinclair" title="Your Sinclair">Your Sinclair</a> (5). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Your+Sinclair&rft.atitle=QL+news&rft.issue=5&rft.date=1984-07&rft.aulast=Sawford&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyour-spectrum-magazine-05%2Fpage%2Fn47%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Donly%2Bfour%2Bmonths%2Blate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScolding1986" class="citation journal cs1">Scolding, Bill (May 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-050/page/n5/mode/2up">"Amstrad axes QL in Sinclair sell out"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (50). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>: 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Amstrad+axes+QL+in+Sinclair+sell+out&rft.issue=50&rft.pages=7&rft.date=1986-05&rft.aulast=Scolding&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsinclair-user-magazine-050%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegre1983" class="citation journal cs1">Segre, Nicole (November 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sinclair-user-magazine-020/page/n17/mode/2up?q=spectrum">"Sinclair profit is more than £14m"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_User" title="Sinclair User">Sinclair User</a> (20). London: <a href="/wiki/EMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="EMAP">EMAP</a>. Retrieved 3 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sinclair+User&rft.atitle=Sinclair+profit+is+more+than+%C2%A314m&rft.issue=20&rft.date=1983-11&rft.aulast=Segre&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsinclair-user-magazine-020%2Fpage%2Fn17%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dspectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro1984" class="citation journal cs1">Shapiro, Neil (February 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GuMDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA98">"Big bytes for little bucks"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Popular_Mechanics" title="Popular Mechanics">Popular Mechanics</a> (2). New York City: <a href="/wiki/Hearst_Communications" title="Hearst Communications">Hearst Communications</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240516004133/https://books.google.com/books?id=GuMDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA98#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2024. Retrieved 23 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Mechanics&rft.atitle=Big+bytes+for+little+bucks&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1984-02&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGuMDAAAAMBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouth1984" class="citation journal cs1">South, Phil (November 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/your-spectrum-magazine-09/page/n62/mode/1up?view=theater">"Watford plugs the gap"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Your_Spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Your Spectrum">Your Spectrum</a> (9). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Your+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Watford+plugs+the+gap&rft.issue=9&rft.date=1984-11&rft.aulast=South&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fyour-spectrum-magazine-09%2Fpage%2Fn62%2Fmode%2F1up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTebbutt1982" class="citation journal cs1">Tebbutt, David (June 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/PersonalComputerWorld1982-06/page/118/mode/2up?q=spectrum">"Benchtest: Sinclair ZX Spectrum"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Personal_Computer_World" title="Personal Computer World">Personal Computer World</a>. 5 (6). London: <a href="/wiki/Incisive_Media" title="Incisive Media">Incisive Media</a>. Retrieved 18 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Personal+Computer+World&rft.atitle=Benchtest%3A+Sinclair+ZX+Spectrum&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=6&rft.date=1982-06&rft.aulast=Tebbutt&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FPersonalComputerWorld1982-06%2Fpage%2F118%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dspectrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWetherill1984" class="citation journal cs1">Wetherill, Steven (June 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldofspectrum.org/showmag.cgi?mag=Crash/Issue05/Pages/Crash0500126.jpg">"Tasword Two: The Word Processor"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Crash_(magazine)" title="Crash (magazine)">Crash</a> (5). <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath</a>: <a href="/wiki/Future_plc" title="Future plc">Future plc</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crash&rft.atitle=Tasword+Two%3A+The+Word+Processor&rft.issue=5&rft.date=1984-06&rft.aulast=Wetherill&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldofspectrum.org%2Fshowmag.cgi%3Fmag%3DCrash%2FIssue05%2FPages%2FCrash0500126.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1983" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Gregg (January 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-01/1983_01_BYTE_08-01_Looking_Ahead#page/n41/mode/2up">"Microcomputer, British Style / The Fifth Personal Computer World Show"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Byte_(magazine)" title="Byte (magazine)">Byte</a>. San Francisco: <a href="/wiki/UBM_Technology_Group" title="UBM Technology Group">UBM Technology Group</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byte&rft.atitle=Microcomputer%2C+British+Style+%2F+The+Fifth+Personal+Computer+World+Show&rft.date=1983-01&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fbyte-magazine-1983-01%2F1983_01_BYTE_08-01_Looking_Ahead%23page%2Fn41%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkins2015a" class="citation book cs1">Wilkins, Chris (2015). The Story of the ZX Spectrum in Pixels: Volume 1. <a href="/wiki/Kenilworth" title="Kenilworth">Kenilworth</a>: Retro Fusion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9931315-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9931315-0-9"><bdi>978-0-9931315-0-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+ZX+Spectrum+in+Pixels%3A+Volume+1&rft.place=Kenilworth&rft.pub=Retro+Fusion+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-9931315-0-9&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkins2015b" class="citation book cs1">Wilkins, Chris (2015). The Story of the ZX Spectrum in Pixels: Volume 2. <a href="/wiki/Kenilworth" title="Kenilworth">Kenilworth</a>: Retro Fusion Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9931315-2-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9931315-2-3"><bdi>978-0-9931315-2-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+ZX+Spectrum+in+Pixels%3A+Volume+2&rft.place=Kenilworth&rft.pub=Retro+Fusion+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-9931315-2-3&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=Chris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZX+Spectrum" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=ZX_Spectrum&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_ZX_Spectrum" class="extiw" title="commons:Sinclair ZX Spectrum">Sinclair ZX Spectrum</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldofspectrum.org/ZXBasicManual/">ZX Spectrum</a> BASIC manual</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jsspeccy.zxdemo.org/">JSSpeccy 3</a> ZX Spectrum emulator in the browser</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldofspectrum.org/">World Of Spectrum</a> ZX Spectrum Game Database</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrumcomputing.co.uk/">Spectrum Computing</a> ZX Spectrum Database</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sinclair_computers_and_clones" title="Template:Sinclair computers and clones"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sinclair_computers_and_clones" title="Template talk:Sinclair computers and clones"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sinclair_computers_and_clones" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sinclair computers and clones"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sinclair_computers,_derivatives,_and_clones" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair computers, derivatives, and clones</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair Research / Science of Cambridge</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MK14" title="MK14">MK14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX80" title="ZX80">ZX80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX81" title="ZX81">ZX81</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">ZX Spectrum</a> (<a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="ZX Spectrum+">ZX Spectrum+</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_128" class="mw-redirect" title="ZX Spectrum 128">ZX Spectrum 128</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_QL" title="Sinclair QL">QL</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="11" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:ZXSpectrum48k.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/100px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/150px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/ZXSpectrum48k.jpg/200px-ZXSpectrum48k.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2168" data-file-height="1593" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amstrad" title="Amstrad">Amstrad</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_%2B2" class="mw-redirect" title="ZX Spectrum +2">ZX Spectrum +2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_%2B3" class="mw-redirect" title="ZX Spectrum +3">ZX Spectrum +3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Licenced systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_Vega" title="ZX Spectrum Vega">ZX Spectrum Vega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_Vega%2B" title="ZX Spectrum Vega+">ZX Spectrum Vega+</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timex_Group_USA" title="Timex Group USA">Timex Corporation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_1000" title="Timex Sinclair 1000">T/S 1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_1500" class="mw-redirect" title="Timex Sinclair 1500">T/S 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_2068" title="Timex Sinclair 2068">T/S 2068</a> (TC 2068)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timex_Computer_2048" title="Timex Computer 2048">TC 2048</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timex_Computer_3256" title="Timex Computer 3256">TC 3256</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Computer">Cambridge Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Z88" title="Cambridge Z88">Z88</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Lists of <a href="/wiki/Clone_(computing)" title="Clone (computing)">clones</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ZX80/81_clones" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ZX80/81 clones">ZX80/81 clones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ZX_Spectrum_clones" title="List of ZX Spectrum clones">ZX Spectrum clones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Sinclair_QL_clones" title="List of Sinclair QL clones">QL clones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Compatible or related systems</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ZX80 based: <a href="/wiki/MicroAce" title="MicroAce">MicroAce</a>, <a href="/wiki/TK80" title="TK80">TK80</a>, <a href="/wiki/NE-Z80" title="NE-Z80">NE-Z80</a></li> <li>ZX81 based: <a href="/wiki/Apply_300" title="Apply 300">Apply 300</a>, <a href="/wiki/AS-1000" title="AS-1000">AS-1000</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lambda_8300" title="Lambda 8300">Lambda 8300</a>, <a href="/wiki/CP-200" title="CP-200">CP-200</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_Electr%C3%B3nica#CZ_1000" title="Czerweny Electrónica">CZ 1000</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_Electr%C3%B3nica#CZ_1500" title="Czerweny Electrónica">CZ 1500</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_Electr%C3%B3nica#CZ_1000_plus" title="Czerweny Electrónica">CZ 1000 plus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_Electr%C3%B3nica#CZ_1500_plus" title="Czerweny Electrónica">CZ 1500 plus</a>, <a href="/wiki/NE-Z8000" title="NE-Z8000">NE-Z8000</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ringo_R470" title="Ringo R470">Ringo R-470</a>, <a href="/wiki/TK82C" title="TK82C">TK82C</a>, <a href="/wiki/TK83" title="TK83">TK83</a>, <a href="/wiki/TK85" title="TK85">TK85</a></li> <li>ZX Spectrum based: <a href="/wiki/ATM_(computer)" title="ATM (computer)">ATM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentagon_(computer)" title="Pentagon (computer)">Pentagon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_Electr%C3%B3nica#CZ_2000" title="Czerweny Electrónica">CZ 2000</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_Electr%C3%B3nica#CZ_Spectrum" title="Czerweny Electrónica">CZ Spectrum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czerweny_Electr%C3%B3nica#CZ_Spectrum_plus" title="Czerweny Electrónica">CZ Spectrum plus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Didaktik" title="Didaktik">Didaktik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dubna_48K" title="Dubna 48K">Dubna 48K</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hobbit_(computer)" title="Hobbit (computer)">Hobbit</a>,<a href="/wiki/Scorpion_ZS-256" title="Scorpion ZS-256">Scorpion ZS-256</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sprinter_(computer)" title="Sprinter (computer)">Sprinter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kay_1024" title="Kay 1024">Kay 1024</a>, <a href="/wiki/Komputer_2086" title="Komputer 2086">Komputer 2086</a>, <a href="/wiki/TK90X" title="TK90X">TK90X</a>, <a href="/wiki/TK95" title="TK95">TK95</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robik" title="Robik">Robik</a>, <a href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum_Next" title="ZX Spectrum Next">ZX Spectrum Next</a></li> <li>QL based: <a href="/wiki/CST_Thor" title="CST Thor">CST Thor</a>, <a href="/wiki/One_Per_Desk" title="One Per Desk">One Per Desk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Q40_(motherboard)" title="Q40 (motherboard)">Q40/Q60</a></li> <li>Other: <a href="/wiki/SAM_Coup%C3%A9" title="SAM Coupé">SAM Coupé</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Ace" title="Jupiter Ace">Jupiter Ace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research" title="Sinclair Research">Sinclair Research</a> peripherals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Printer" title="ZX Printer">ZX Printer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Interface_1" title="ZX Interface 1">ZX Interface 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Interface_2" title="ZX Interface 2">ZX Interface 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZX_Microdrive" title="ZX Microdrive">ZX Microdrive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Timex peripherals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>TS2040 Printer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_2050" title="Timex Sinclair 2050">TS2050 Modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timex_FDD" class="mw-redirect" title="Timex FDD">FDD Disk Drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timex_FDD3000" title="Timex FDD3000">FDD3000 Disk Drive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other peripherals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Disk_Interface" title="Beta Disk Interface">Beta Disk Interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DISCiPLE" title="DISCiPLE">DISCiPLE</a></li> <li>MB02</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotronics_Wafadrive" title="Rotronics Wafadrive">Rotronics Wafadrive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiface" title="Multiface">Multiface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kempston_Micro_Electronics" title="Kempston Micro Electronics">Kempston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Currah" title="Currah">Currah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpecDrum" title="SpecDrum">SpecDrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAM_Music_Machine" title="RAM Music Machine">RAM Music Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_Light_Rifle" title="Stack Light Rifle">Stack Light Rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnum_Light_Phaser" title="Magnum Light Phaser">Magnum Light Phaser</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Sinclair" title="Clive Sinclair">Clive Sinclair</a></li> <li>John Pemberton</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Dickinson" title="Rick Dickinson">Rick Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Altwasser" title="Richard Altwasser">Richard Altwasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Vickers_(computer_scientist)" title="Steve Vickers (computer scientist)">Steve Vickers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23882#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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[\"CITEREFBy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarter1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasserly2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCellan-Jones2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClark1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarke1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorfield2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorfield2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrookes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDale1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenham1984a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenham1984b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngineering_Today1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeder1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoot1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraser1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrey1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrey1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrey1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrey1987\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGames2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert1983a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert1983b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodenough2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodwin1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodwin1987\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGore1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimwood\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalfacree2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartnell1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHattersley2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayes1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayman1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHis_Majesty\u0026#039;s_Stationery_Office1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunt2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnston1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJowitt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKean1985b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelion2012\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKelion2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKidd1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurie1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeigh2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeigh2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeigh2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorenz1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMardsen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcCandless1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcFerran2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLaughlin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerriman\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoran2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMott2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMunford1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNash1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOld2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwen\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFOwen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOxford2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearce1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPenix-Tadsen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPopular_Computing_Weekly1983d\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrata1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt1982a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt1982b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReporter2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichard_Francis_Altwasser1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRick_Dickinson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRundle2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel_Gibbs2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSawford1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScolding1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegre1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiro1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharwood2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlabihoud2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouth1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouth1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpeed2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpitznagel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStratford2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTebbutt1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheo_Merz2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorn_(EMI)_Datatech_Ltd1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVickers\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVickers1982\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFVickersBradbeer,_Robin1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWetherill1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkins2015a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkins2015b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYin-Poole2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZangoni2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_der_Heide\"] = 1,\n [\"plus\"] = 1,\n [\"plus2\"] = 1,\n [\"plus3\"] = 1,\n [\"spectrum128\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"'\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 4,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media notes\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 16,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 66,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite patent\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 91,\n [\"Code\"] = 4,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 4,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Fraction\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 17,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"In lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Inflation\"] = 6,\n [\"Infobox computing device\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"ProQuest\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 105,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sinclair computers and clones\"] = 1,\n [\"Start date\"] = 3,\n [\"US$\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 1,\n [\"Video game release\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","21.6"],["dataWrapper 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