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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Other branches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warren's_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warren's_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Warren's leadership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warren's_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Vision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historically_significant_decisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historically_significant_decisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Historically significant decisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historically_significant_decisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warren's_role" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warren's_role"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Warren's role</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Warren's_role-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Warren's role subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Warren's_role-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Decisions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decisions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Brown_v._Board_of_Education_(1954)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brown_v._Board_of_Education_(1954)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Brown v. 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.4</span> <span>First Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.5</span> <span>Other Issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Supreme Court of the United States</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">Warren Court</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><div style="float: left;"><a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</a> ←</div> <div style="float: right;">→ <a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Earl_Warren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/170px-Earl_Warren.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/255px-Earl_Warren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/340px-Earl_Warren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="773" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><b>October 5, 1953 – June 23, 1969</b><br />(15 years, 261 days)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">Seat</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Supreme Court Building</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><abbr title="Number">No.</abbr> of <a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_seat" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat">positions</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">9</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">Warren Court decisions</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Warren Court</b> was the period in the history of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a> from 1953 to 1969 when <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> served as the <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">chief justice</a>. The Warren Court is often considered the most liberal court in U.S. history. </p><p>The Warren Court expanded <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judicial_activism" title="Judicial activism">judicial power</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal power</a> in dramatic ways.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been widely recognized that the court, led by the liberal bloc, created a major "<a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutional Revolution</a>" in U.S. history.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Warren Court brought "<a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">one man, one vote</a>" to the United States through a series of rulings, and created the <a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning">Miranda warning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the court was both applauded and criticized for bringing an end to <i>de jure</i> <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporating the Bill of Rights</a> (i.e. including it in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> Due Process clause), and ending officially sanctioned voluntary <a href="/wiki/Prayer_in_public_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer in public schools">prayer in public schools</a>. The period is recognized as the most liberal point that judicial power had ever reached, but with a substantial continuing impact.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Membership">Membership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Membership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Warren Court began on October 5, 1953, when President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> appointed <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, the incumbent governor of California, to replace <a href="/wiki/Fred_Vinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Fred Vinson">Fred Vinson</a> as Chief Justice of the United States. The court began with Warren and the remaining eight members of the <a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</a>: <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Forman Reed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hitz_Burton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Hitz Burton">Harold Hitz Burton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Tom C. Clark</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Sherman Minton</a>. </p><p>Jackson died in 1954 and Minton retired in 1956, and they were replaced by <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">William J. Brennan Jr.</a>. Another vacancy occurred when Reed retired in 1957 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Charles Evans Whittaker</a>. Burton then retired in 1958, and Eisenhower appointed <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a> in his place. When Frankfurter and Whittaker retired in 1962, then-President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> appointed two new justices: <a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Byron White</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Arthur Goldberg</a>. In 1965, President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> encouraged Goldberg to resign to become Ambassador to the United Nations, and nominated <a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</a> to take his place. Clark retired in 1967, and Johnson appointed the first African American justice, <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a> to the court. The Warren Court concluded on June 23, 1969 when <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> retired and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a>. Prominent members of the Court during the Warren Court era besides the Chief Justice included Associate Justices: <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">Brennan</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Frankfurter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">Harlan II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent"> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_4hq3xjm9vlol6h10igc16oswrx5qc6c"></map><img usemap="#timeline_4hq3xjm9vlol6h10igc16oswrx5qc6c" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/4hq3xjm9vlol6h10igc16oswrx5qc6c.png" /></div> <b>Bar key</b>: <div style="display:flex; flex-direction:row; flex-wrap:wrap; gap: 0.8em; align-items:stretch; justify-content:flex-start"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ddd06a; color:black;"> </span> F. Roosevelt appointee</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#50c878; color:black;"> </span> Truman appointee</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00bfff; color:black;"> </span> Eisenhower appointee</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#c9a0dc; color:black;"> </span> Kennedy appointee</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f19cbb; color:black;"> </span> L. Johnson appointee</span> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_branches">Other branches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Presidents during this court included <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>. Congresses during this court included <a href="/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress" title="83rd United States Congress">83rd</a> through the <a href="/wiki/91st_United_States_Congress" title="91st United States Congress">91st</a> United States Congresses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warren's_leadership"><span id="Warren.27s_leadership"></span>Warren's leadership</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Warren's leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the primary factors in Warren's leadership was his political background, having served two and a half terms as <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_California" title="Governor of California">Governor of California</a> (1943–1953) and experience as the Republican candidate for vice president <a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_presidential_election" title="1948 United States presidential election">in 1948</a> (as running mate of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a>). Warren brought a strong belief in the remedial power of law. According to historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bernard_Schwartz_(author)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernard Schwartz (author) (page does not exist)">Bernard Schwartz</a>, Warren's view of the law was pragmatic, seeing it as an instrument for obtaining equity and fairness. Schwartz argues that Warren's approach was most effective "when the political institutions had defaulted on their responsibility to try to address problems such as segregation and reapportionment and cases where the constitutional rights of defendants were abused."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A related component of Warren's leadership was his focus on broad ethical principles, rather than narrower interpretative structures. Describing the latter as "conventional reasoning patterns," Professor <a href="/wiki/G._Edward_White" title="G. Edward White">G. Edward White</a> suggests Warren often disregarded these in groundbreaking cases such as <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i>, where such traditional sources of <a href="/wiki/Judicial_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial precedent">precedent</a> were stacked against him. White suggests Warren's principles "were philosophical, political, and intuitive, not legal in the conventional technical sense."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Warren's leadership was characterized by remarkable consensus on the court, particularly in some of the most controversial cases. These included <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i>, which were unanimously decided, as well as <i><a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i>, each striking down religious recitations in schools with only one dissent. In an unusual action, the decision in <i>Cooper</i> was personally signed by all nine justices, with the three new members of the Court adding that they supported and would have joined the Court's decision in <i>Brown v. Board</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fallon says that, "Some thrilled to the approach of the Warren Court. Many law professors were perplexed, often sympathetic to the Court's results but skeptical of the soundness of its constitutional reasoning. And some of course were horrified."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vision">Vision</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Supreme_Court_1958-62.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/US_Supreme_Court_1958-62.jpg/325px-US_Supreme_Court_1958-62.jpg" decoding="async" width="325" height="207" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/US_Supreme_Court_1958-62.jpg/488px-US_Supreme_Court_1958-62.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/US_Supreme_Court_1958-62.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>The Supreme Court as was composed between 1958 and 1962. Top (l-r): <a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Whittaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles E. Whittaker">Charles E. Whittaker</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John M. Harlan II</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Brennan, Jr.">William J. Brennan, Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a>. Bottom (l-r): <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_L._Black" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugo L. Black">Hugo L. Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Tom C. Clark</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Professor <a href="/wiki/John_Hart_Ely" title="John Hart Ely">John Hart Ely</a> in his book <i>Democracy and Distrust</i> famously characterized the Warren Court as a "<i>Carolene Products</i> Court". This referred to the famous Footnote Four in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Carolene_Products" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Carolene Products">United States v. Carolene Products</a></i>, in which the Supreme Court had suggested that heightened judicial scrutiny might be appropriate in three types of cases: </p> <ul><li>those where a law was challenged as a deprivation of a specifically enumerated right (such as a challenge to a law because it denies "freedom of speech", a phrase specifically included in the Bill of Rights);</li> <li>those where a challenged law made it more difficult to achieve change through normal political processes; and</li> <li>those where a law impinged on the rights of "discrete and insular minorities."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The Warren Court's doctrine can be seen as proceeding aggressively in these general areas:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>its aggressive reading of the first eight amendments in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> (as "incorporated" against the states by the Fourteenth Amendment)</li> <li>its commitment to unblocking the channels of political change ("one-man, one-vote")</li> <li>its vigorous protection of the rights of racial minority groups</li></ul> <p>The Warren Court, while in many cases taking a broad view of individual rights, generally declined to read the Due Process Clause of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> broadly, outside of the incorporation context (see <i><a href="/wiki/Ferguson_v._Skrupa" title="Ferguson v. Skrupa">Ferguson v. Skrupa</a></i>, but see also <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i>). The Warren Court's decisions were also strongly nationalist in thrust, as the Court read Congress's power under the Commerce Clause quite broadly and often expressed an unwillingness to allow constitutional rights to vary from state to state (as was explicitly manifested in <i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Professor <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rebecca_Zietlow&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rebecca Zietlow (page does not exist)">Rebecca Zietlow</a> argues that the Warren Court brought an expansion in the "rights of belonging", which she characterizes as "rights that promote an inclusive vision of who belongs to the national community and facilitate equal membership in that community".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Cox" title="Archibald Cox">Archibald Cox</a>, who as Solicitor General from 1961 to 1965 saw the Court up close, summarized: "The responsibility of government for equality among men, the openness of American society to change and reform, and the decency of the administration of criminal justice received both creative and enduring impetus from the work of the Warren Court."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historically_significant_decisions">Historically significant decisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historically significant decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Supreme_Court_November_19,_1962.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/US_Supreme_Court_November_19%2C_1962.png/220px-US_Supreme_Court_November_19%2C_1962.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/US_Supreme_Court_November_19%2C_1962.png/330px-US_Supreme_Court_November_19%2C_1962.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/US_Supreme_Court_November_19%2C_1962.png/440px-US_Supreme_Court_November_19%2C_1962.png 2x" data-file-width="4026" data-file-height="2640" /></a><figcaption>A photo taken shortly after Justice Goldberg joined the Court. Top (l-r): <a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">Byron White</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">William J. Brennan Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Arthur Goldberg</a> Bottom (l-r): <a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Tom C. Clark</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a>. These court members served together from 1962-1965</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court</a></div> <p>Important decisions during the Warren Court years included decisions holding <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">segregation</a> policies in public schools (<i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>) and <a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">anti-miscegenation laws</a> unconstitutional (<i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i>); ruling that the Constitution protects a general right to privacy (<i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i>); that states are bound by the decisions of the Supreme Court and cannot ignore them (<i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i>); that public schools cannot have official prayer (<i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i>) or mandatory Bible readings (<i><a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</a></i>); the scope of the doctrine of incorporation (<i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i>) was dramatically increased; reading an <a href="/wiki/Equal_protection" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal protection">equal protection</a> clause into the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i>); holding that the states may not apportion a chamber of their legislatures in the manner in which the United States Senate is apportioned (<i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i>); and holding that the Constitution requires active compliance (<i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i>). </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Griffin_v._County_School_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Griffin v. County School Board">Griffin v. County School Board</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Green v. School Board of New Kent County">Green v. School Board of New Kent County</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Adams" title="Lucy v. Adams">Lucy v. Adams</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">Voting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Redistricting" title="Redistricting">redistricting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Apportionment_(politics)" title="Apportionment (politics)">malapportionment</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Wesberry_v._Sanders" title="Wesberry v. Sanders">Wesberry v. Sanders</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Brady_v._Maryland" title="Brady v. Maryland">Brady v. Maryland</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Mapp_v._Ohio" title="Mapp v. Ohio">Mapp v. Ohio</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Escobedo_v._Illinois" title="Escobedo v. Illinois">Escobedo v. Illinois</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Katz_v._United_States" title="Katz v. United States">Katz v. United States</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Terry_v._Ohio" title="Terry v. Ohio">Terry v. Ohio</a> </i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">Free speech</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Yates_v._United_States" title="Yates v. United States">Yates v. United States</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Roth_v._United_States" title="Roth v. United States">Roth v. United States</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Jacobellis_v._Ohio" title="Jacobellis v. Ohio">Jacobellis v. Ohio</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Memoirs_v._Massachusetts" title="Memoirs v. Massachusetts">Memoirs v. Massachusetts</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Tinker_v._Des_Moines_School_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinker v. Des Moines School District">Tinker v. Des Moines School District</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">Abington School District v. Schempp</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Sherbert_v._Verner" title="Sherbert v. Verner">Sherbert v. Verner</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_privacy" title="Right to privacy">Right to privacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">reproductive rights</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cruel_and_unusual_punishment" title="Cruel and unusual punishment">Cruel and unusual punishment</a>: <i><a href="/wiki/Trop_v._Dulles" title="Trop v. Dulles">Trop v. Dulles</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Robinson_v._California" title="Robinson v. California">Robinson v. California</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Warren's_role"><span id="Warren.27s_role"></span>Warren's role</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Warren's role"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Warren took his seat January 11, 1954, on a recess appointment by President Eisenhower; the Senate confirmed him six weeks later. Despite his lack of judicial experience, his years in the Alameda County district attorney's office and as state attorney general gave him far more knowledge of the law in practice than most other members of the Court had. Warren's greatest asset, what made him in the eyes of many of his admirers "Super Chief," was his political skill in manipulating the other justices. Over the years his ability to lead the Court, to forge majorities in support of major decisions, and to inspire liberal forces around the nation, outweighed his intellectual weaknesses. Warren realized his weakness and asked the senior associate justice, <a href="/wiki/Hugo_L._Black" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugo L. Black">Hugo L. Black</a>, to preside over conferences until he became accustomed to the drill. A quick study, Warren soon was in fact, as well as in name, the Court's chief justice.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Warren joined the Court in 1954 all the justices had been appointed by <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> or <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a>, and all were committed <a href="/wiki/New_Deal_coalition" title="New Deal coalition">New Deal liberals</a>. They disagreed about the role that the courts should play in achieving liberal goals. The Court was split between two warring factions. <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a> led one faction, which insisted upon judicial self-restraint and insisted courts should defer to the policymaking prerogatives of the White House and Congress. <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> led the opposing faction that agreed the court should defer to Congress in matters of economic policy, but felt the judicial agenda had been transformed from questions of <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a> to those of individual liberties, and in this area courts should play a more central role. Warren's belief that the judiciary must seek to do justice, placed him with the latter group, although he did not have a solid majority until after Frankfurter's retirement in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decisions">Decisions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Warren was a more liberal justice than anyone had anticipated.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warren was able to craft a long series of <a href="/wiki/Landmark_decisions_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Landmark decisions in the United States">landmark decisions</a> because he built a winning coalition. When Frankfurter retired in 1962 and President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> named labor union lawyer <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Arthur Goldberg</a> to replace him, Warren finally had the fifth vote for his liberal majority. <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Brennan, Jr.">William J. Brennan, Jr.</a>, a liberal Democrat appointed by Eisenhower in 1956, was the intellectual leader of the faction that included Black and Douglas. Brennan complemented Warren's political skills with the strong legal skills Warren lacked. Warren and Brennan met before the regular conferences to plan out their strategy.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brown_v._Board_of_Education_(1954)"><span id="Brown_v._Board_of_Education_.281954.29"></span>Brown v. Board of Education (1954)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Brown v. Board of Education (1954)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_347" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 347">347</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/">483</a> (1954) banned the segregation of public schools. The very first case put Warren's leadership skills to an extraordinary test. The Legal Defense Fund of the NAACP (a small legal group formed for tax reasons<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from the much better known <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a>) had been waging a systematic legal fight against the "separate but equal" doctrine enunciated in <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> (1896) and finally had challenged Plessy in a series of five related cases, which had been argued before the Court in the spring of 1953. However the justices had been unable to decide the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for whites and blacks.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While all but one justice personally rejected segregation, the self-restraint faction questioned whether the Constitution gave the Court the power to order its end. Warren's faction believed the Fourteenth Amendment did give the necessary authority and were pushing to go ahead. Warren, who held only a recess appointment, held his tongue until the Senate, dominated by southerners, confirmed his appointment. Warren told his colleagues after oral argument that he believed segregation violated the Constitution and that only if one considered African Americans inferior to whites could the practice be upheld. But he did not push for a vote. Instead, he talked with the justices and encouraged them to talk with each other as he sought a common ground on which all could stand. Finally he had eight votes, and the last holdout, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Reed</a> of Kentucky, agreed to join the rest. Warren drafted the basic opinion in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and kept circulating and revising it until he had an opinion endorsed by all the members of the Court.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The unanimity Warren achieved helped speed the drive to desegregate public schools, which came about under President <a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Nixon" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard M. Nixon">Richard M. Nixon</a>. Throughout his tenure in the bench, Warren succeeded in keeping all decisions concerning segregation unanimous. Brown applied to schools, but soon the Court enlarged the concept to other state actions, striking down racial classification in many areas. Congress ratified the process in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a>. Warren did compromise by agreeing to Frankfurter's demand that the Court go slowly in implementing desegregation; Warren used Frankfurter's suggestion that a 1955 decision (Brown II) include the phrase "all deliberate speed."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Brown decision of 1954 marked, in dramatic fashion, the radical shift in the Court's –  and the nation's –  priorities from issues of property rights to civil liberties. Under Warren the courts became an active partner in governing the nation, although still not coequal. Warren never saw the courts as a backward-looking branch of government. </p><p>The Brown decision was a powerful moral statement. His biographer concludes, "If Warren had not been on the Court, the Brown decision might not have been unanimous and might not have generated a moral groundswell that was to contribute to the emergence of the civil rights movement of the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warren was never a legal scholar on par with Frankfurter or a great advocate of particular doctrines, as were Black and Douglas.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, he believed that in all branches of government common sense, decency, and elemental justice were decisive, not <i>stare decisis</i> (that is, reliance on previous Court decisions), tradition, or the text of the Constitution. He wanted results that in his opinion reflected the best American sentiments. He felt racial segregation was simply wrong, and <i>Brown</i>, whatever its doctrinal defects, remains a landmark decision primarily because of Warren's interpretation of the equal protection clause.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reapportionment">Reapportionment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reapportionment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/One_man,_one_vote" title="One man, one vote">one man, one vote</a> cases (<i><a href="/wiki/Baker_v._Carr" title="Baker v. Carr">Baker v. Carr</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a></i>) of 1962–1964, had the effect of ending the over-representation of rural areas in state legislatures, as well as the under-representation of suburbs. Central cities –  which had long been under-represented –  were now losing population to the suburbs and were not greatly affected. </p><p>Warren's priority on fairness shaped other major decisions. In 1962, over the strong objections of Frankfurter, the Court agreed that questions regarding malapportionment in state legislatures were not political issues, and thus were not outside the Court's purview. For years underpopulated rural areas had deprived metropolitan centers of equal representation in state legislatures. In Warren's California, Los Angeles County had only one state senator. Cities had long since passed their peak, and now it was the middle class suburbs that were underrepresented. Frankfurter insisted that the Court should avoid this "political thicket" and warned that the Court would never be able to find a clear formula to guide lower courts in the rash of lawsuits sure to follow. But Douglas found such a formula: "one man, one vote."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the key apportionment case <i>Reynolds v. Sims</i> (1964)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warren delivered a civics lesson: "To the extent that a citizen's right to vote is debased, he is that much less a citizen," Warren declared. "The weight of a citizen's vote cannot be made to depend on where he lives. This is the clear and strong command of our Constitution's Equal Protection Clause." Unlike the desegregation cases, in this instance, the Court ordered immediate action, and despite loud outcries from rural legislators, Congress failed to reach the two-thirds needed pass a constitutional amendment. The states complied, reapportioned their legislatures quickly and with minimal troubles. Numerous commentators have concluded reapportionment was the Warren Court's great "success" story.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Due_process_and_rights_of_defendants_(1963–1966)"><span id="Due_process_and_rights_of_defendants_.281963.E2.80.931966.29"></span>Due process and rights of defendants (1963–1966)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Due process and rights of defendants (1963–1966)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_372" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 372">372</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/372/335/">335</a> (1963) the Court held that the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a> required that all indigent criminal defendants receive publicly funded counsel (Florida law at that time required the assignment of free counsel to indigent defendants only in capital cases); <i><a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_384" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 384">384</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/384/436/">436</a> (1966) required that certain rights of a person interrogated while in police custody be clearly explained, including the right to an <a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attorney at law (United States)">attorney</a> (often called the "<a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning">Miranda warning</a>"). </p><p>While most Americans eventually agreed that the Court's desegregation and apportionment decisions were fair and right, disagreement about the "due process revolution" continues into the 21st century. Warren took the lead in criminal justice; despite his years as a tough prosecutor, he always insisted that the police must play fair or the accused should go free. Warren was privately outraged at what he considered police abuses that ranged from warrantless searches to forced confessions. </p><p>Warren’s Court ordered lawyers for indigent defendants, in <i><a href="/wiki/Gideon_v._Wainwright" title="Gideon v. Wainwright">Gideon v. Wainwright</a></i> (1963), and prevented prosecutors from using evidence seized in illegal searches, in <i>Mapp v. Ohio</i> (1961). The famous case of <i>Miranda v. Arizona</i> (1966) summed up Warren's philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Everyone, even one accused of crimes, still enjoyed constitutionally protected rights, and the police had to respect those rights and issue a specific warning when making an arrest. Warren did not believe in coddling criminals; thus in <i>Terry v. Ohio</i> (1968) he gave police officers leeway to stop and frisk those they had reason to believe held weapons. </p><p>Conservatives angrily denounced the "handcuffing of the police."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Violent crime and homicide rates shot up nationwide in the following years; in New York City, for example, after steady to declining trends until the early 1960s, the homicide rate doubled in the period from 1964 to 1974 from just under 5 per 100,000 at the beginning of that period to just under 10 per 100,000 in 1974. Controversy exists about the cause, with conservatives blaming the Court decisions, and liberals pointing to the demographic boom and increased urbanization and income inequality characteristic of that era. After 1992 the homicide rates fell sharply.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Amendment">First Amendment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: First Amendment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Warren Court also sought to expand the scope of application of the First Amendment. The Court's decision outlawing mandatory school prayer in <i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i> (1962) brought vehement complaints by conservatives that echoed into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_Issues">Other Issues</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Warren worked to nationalize the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> by applying it to the states. Moreover, in one of the landmark cases decided by the Court, <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> (1965), the Warren Court affirmed a constitutionally protected <a href="/wiki/Right_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Right of privacy">right of privacy</a>, emanating from the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, also known as substantive due process.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This ruling was critical even after Warren's retirement (and Fortas' untimely departure as well) for the outcome of the <i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> case which recognized the constitutional right to abortion. </p><p>With the exception of the desegregation decisions, few decisions were unanimous. The eminent scholar Justice <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a> took Frankfurter's place as the Court's self-constraint spokesman, often joined by <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byron_R._White" class="mw-redirect" title="Byron R. White">Byron R. White</a>. But with the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">first</a> black justice (as well as the first non-white justice), and <a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</a> (replacing Goldberg), Warren could count on six votes in most cases.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1275594942">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center .gallery{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left .gallery{justify-content:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right .gallery{justify-content:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery.gallery.gallery{line-height:1.35em;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;column-gap:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{outline:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "],html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{outline:solid #d7d7d7 1px}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .skin-invert-image .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb.thumb.thumb img{background:none!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb img:not([alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]):not([alt*="\200b \200b \200c "]){background:white!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .mod-gallery img[alt*="\200b \200b \200b "]{filter:invert(1)hue-rotate(180deg)}}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 210.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 208.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1953_-_1954).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (October 5, 1953 - October 9, 1954)"><img alt="Warren Court, (October 5, 1953 - October 9, 1954)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Warren_Court_%281953_-_1954%29.png/313px-Warren_Court_%281953_-_1954%29.png" decoding="async" width="209" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Warren_Court_%281953_-_1954%29.png/469px-Warren_Court_%281953_-_1954%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Warren_Court_%281953_-_1954%29.png/625px-Warren_Court_%281953_-_1954%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2460" data-file-height="1590" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(October 5, 1953 - October 9, 1954)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 219.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 217.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1955_-_1956).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (March 28, 1955 - October 15, 1956)"><img alt="Warren Court, (March 28, 1955 - October 15, 1956)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Warren_Court_%281955_-_1956%29.png/326px-Warren_Court_%281955_-_1956%29.png" decoding="async" width="218" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Warren_Court_%281955_-_1956%29.png/489px-Warren_Court_%281955_-_1956%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Warren_Court_%281955_-_1956%29.png/651px-Warren_Court_%281955_-_1956%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2298" data-file-height="1426" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(March 28, 1955 - October 15, 1956)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 171.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 169.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1956_-_1957).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (October 16, 1956 - February 25, 1957)"><img alt="Warren Court, (October 16, 1956 - February 25, 1957)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Warren_Court_%281956_-_1957%29.png/254px-Warren_Court_%281956_-_1957%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Warren_Court_%281956_-_1957%29.png/381px-Warren_Court_%281956_-_1957%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Warren_Court_%281956_-_1957%29.png/508px-Warren_Court_%281956_-_1957%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="1510" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(October 16, 1956 - February 25, 1957)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 218px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 216px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1957_-_1958).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (March 25, 1957 - October 13, 1958)"><img alt="Warren Court, (March 25, 1957 - October 13, 1958)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Warren_Court_%281957_-_1958%29.jpg/324px-Warren_Court_%281957_-_1958%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Warren_Court_%281957_-_1958%29.jpg/486px-Warren_Court_%281957_-_1958%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Warren_Court_%281957_-_1958%29.jpg/648px-Warren_Court_%281957_-_1958%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1777" data-file-height="1109" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(March 25, 1957 - October 13, 1958)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 169.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 167.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1958_-_1962).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (October 14, 1958 - March 31, 1962)"><img alt="Warren Court, (October 14, 1958 - March 31, 1962)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Warren_Court_%281958_-_1962%29.jpg/251px-Warren_Court_%281958_-_1962%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Warren_Court_%281958_-_1962%29.jpg/376px-Warren_Court_%281958_-_1962%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Warren_Court_%281958_-_1962%29.jpg/501px-Warren_Court_%281958_-_1962%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1694" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(October 14, 1958 - March 31, 1962)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 171.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 169.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1962).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (April 16, 1962 - August 28, 1962)"><img alt="Warren Court, (April 16, 1962 - August 28, 1962)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Warren_Court_%281962%29.jpg/254px-Warren_Court_%281962%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Warren_Court_%281962%29.jpg/381px-Warren_Court_%281962%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Warren_Court_%281962%29.jpg/508px-Warren_Court_%281962%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2001" data-file-height="1592" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(April 16, 1962 - August 28, 1962)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 173.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 171.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1962_-_1965).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (October 1, 1962 - July 25, 1965)"><img alt="Warren Court, (October 1, 1962 - July 25, 1965)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Warren_Court_%281962_-_1965%29.jpg/257px-Warren_Court_%281962_-_1965%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="172" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Warren_Court_%281962_-_1965%29.jpg/385px-Warren_Court_%281962_-_1965%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Warren_Court_%281962_-_1965%29.jpg/513px-Warren_Court_%281962_-_1965%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1654" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(October 1, 1962 - July 25, 1965)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 175.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 173.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1965_-_1967).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (October 4, 1965 - June 12, 1967)"><img alt="Warren Court, (October 4, 1965 - June 12, 1967)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Warren_Court_%281965_-_1967%29.jpg/260px-Warren_Court_%281965_-_1967%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="174" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Warren_Court_%281965_-_1967%29.jpg/390px-Warren_Court_%281965_-_1967%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Warren_Court_%281965_-_1967%29.jpg/520px-Warren_Court_%281965_-_1967%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1840" data-file-height="1431" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(October 4, 1965 - June 12, 1967)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 170.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 168.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Warren_Court_(1967_-_1969).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Warren Court (October 2, 1967 - May 14, 1969)"><img alt="Warren Court, (October 2, 1967 - May 14, 1969)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Warren_Court_%281967_-_1969%29.jpg/253px-Warren_Court_%281967_-_1969%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Warren_Court_%281967_-_1969%29.jpg/380px-Warren_Court_%281967_-_1969%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Warren_Court_%281967_-_1969%29.jpg/507px-Warren_Court_%281967_-_1969%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1894" data-file-height="1511" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Warren Court<br />(October 2, 1967 - May 14, 1969)</div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Government_by_Judiciary" title="Government by Judiciary">Government by Judiciary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History of the Supreme Court of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">Modern liberalism in the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"To many people, the idea of judicial deference to the elected branches lost much of its theoretical appeal in the 1950s and 1960s, when the Supreme Court, under the leadership of Chief Justice Earl Warren, was invalidating school segregation (<a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Bd. of Educ.</a>), protecting freedom of speech (<a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a>) striking down poll taxes (<a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Bd. of Elections</a>), requiring a rule of one person, one vote (<a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._Sims" title="Reynolds v. Sims">Reynolds v. Sims</a>), and protecting accused criminals against police abuse (<a href="/wiki/Miranda_v._Arizona" title="Miranda v. Arizona">Miranda v. Arizona</a>)."<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Is it possible to defend the Warren Court against the charge that its decisions were fatally undemocratic? The most elaborate effort came from <a href="/wiki/John_Hart_Ely" title="John Hart Ely">John Hart Ely</a>, the Warren Court's most celebrated expositor and defender, who famously argued for what he called a "representation-reinforcing" approach to judicial review. Like Thayer, Ely emphasized the central importance for democratic self-rule. But Ely famously insisted that if self-rule is really our lodestar, then unqualified judicial deference to legislatures is utterly senseless. Some rights, Ely argued, are indispensable to self-rule, and the Court legitimately protects those rights not in spite of democracy but in its name. The right to vote and the right to speak are the central examples. Courts promote democracy when they protect those rights."<sup id="cite_ref-Breyer4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breyer4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Ely went much further. He argued that some groups are at a systematic disadvantage in the democratic process, and that when courts protect “discrete and insular minorities,” they are reinforcing democracy too."<sup id="cite_ref-Breyer4_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Breyer4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In later years Eisenhower remarked several times that making Warren the Chief Justice was a mistake. He probably had the criminal cases in mind, not <i>Brown.</i> <sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein, Cass</a> <i>Breyer's Judicial Pragmatism</i> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Law_School" title="University of Chicago Law School">University of Chicago Law School</a>. November, 2005. pg. 3-4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPederson" class="citation web cs1">Pederson, William D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1370/earl-warren">"Earl Warren"</a>. <i>www.mtsu.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mtsu.edu&rft.atitle=Earl+Warren&rft.aulast=Pederson&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtsu.edu%2Ffirst-amendment%2Farticle%2F1370%2Fearl-warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorwitz1993" class="citation journal cs1">Horwitz, Morton J. (Winter 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1814&context=wlulr">"The Warren Court And The Pursuit Of Justice"</a>. <i>Washington and Lee Law Review</i>. <b>50</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+and+Lee+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Warren+Court+And+The+Pursuit+Of+Justice&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=50&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Horwitz&rft.aufirst=Morton+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarlycommons.law.wlu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1814%26context%3Dwlulr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDriver2012" class="citation journal cs1">Driver, Justin (October 2012). "The Constitutional Conservatism of the Warren Court". <i>California Law Review</i>. <b>100</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">1101–</span>1167. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23408735">23408735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=California+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Constitutional+Conservatism+of+the+Warren+Court&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1101-%3C%2Fspan%3E1167&rft.date=2012-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23408735%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Driver&rft.aufirst=Justin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowe,_Jr.2002" class="citation book cs1">Powe, Jr., Lucas A. 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(1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/73968804.pdf">"The Warren Court: Completion of a Constitutional Revolution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Vanderbilt Law Review</i>. <b>23</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vanderbilt+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Warren+Court%3A+Completion+of+a+Constitutional+Revolution&rft.volume=23&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Swindler&rft.aufirst=William+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F73968804.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warren.ucsd.edu/about/biography.html">"Biography of Earl Warren"</a>. <i>warren.ucsd.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=warren.ucsd.edu&rft.atitle=Biography+of+Earl+Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarren.ucsd.edu%2Fabout%2Fbiography.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theconstitutionproject.com/portfolio/one-person-one-vote/">"One Person, One Vote | The Constitution Project"</a>. <i>www.theconstitutionproject.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.theconstitutionproject.com&rft.atitle=One+Person%2C+One+Vote+%7C+The+Constitution+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theconstitutionproject.com%2Fportfolio%2Fone-person-one-vote%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/1965/759">"Miranda v. Arizona"</a>. <i>Oyez</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-10-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oyez&rft.atitle=Miranda+v.+Arizona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F1965%2F759&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Breyer4-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Breyer4_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Breyer4_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sunstein; <i>Breyer’s Judicial Pragmatism</i>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwartz, Bernard (1996) <i>The Warren Court: A Retrospective</i> <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, pg. 5. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510439-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510439-0">0-19-510439-0</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7wbI8Aapis4C">preview</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwartz (1996), pg. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tushnet, Mark <i>The Warren Court: in Historical and Political Perspective.</i> (1996). pp 40-42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/37.htm">Introduction to Cooper v. Aaron</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard H. Fallon, <i>The Dynamic Constitution: An Introduction to American Constitutional Law</i> (2005) p 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">304 U.S. 144, 152 n.4 (1938).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZietlow2008" class="citation journal cs1">Zietlow, Rebecca E. (2008-01-01). "The Judicial Restraint of the Warren Court (and Why it Matters)". <i>Ohio State Law Journal</i>. <b>69</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">255–</span>301. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=960144">960144</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ohio+State+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Judicial+Restraint+of+the+Warren+Court+%28and+Why+it+Matters%29&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E255-%3C%2Fspan%3E301&rft.date=2008-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D960144%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Zietlow&rft.aufirst=Rebecca+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/hlr83&start_page=1&collection=journals&set_as_cursor=0&men_tab=srchresults&id=37">"Chief Justice Warren"</a>. <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>83</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>5, 1. November 1969<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-04-01</span></span> – via <a href="/wiki/Heinonline.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Heinonline.org">Heinonline.org</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Chief+Justice+Warren&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E5%2C+1&rft.date=1969-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fhlr83%26start_page%3D1%26collection%3Djournals%26set_as_cursor%3D0%26men_tab%3Dsrchresults%26id%3D37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWarren+Court" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White (1982) pp 159-61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael R. Belknap, <i>The Supreme Court under Earl Warren, 1953-1969</i> (2005) pp. 13-14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See David. A. Nichols, <i>Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution</i> (2007) pp 91-93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Powe (2000)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/tu_bush_bio_naacp.html">"Biographies: NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc., Teaching Judicial History, fjc.gov"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanhistory.si.edu/Brown/history/index.html">Smithsonian, “Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education’’</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150630105121/http://americanhistory.si.edu/Brown/history/index.html">Archived</a> 2015-06-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For text see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=347&invol=483">BROWN v. BOARD OF EDUCATION, 347 U.S. 483 (1954)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert L. Carter, "The Warren Court and Desegregation," <i>Michigan Law Review,</i> Vol. 67, No. 2 (Dec., 1968), pp. 237-248 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1287417">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White, <i>Earl Warren, a public life</i> (1982) p. 208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White, <i>Earl Warren, a public life</i> (1982) p. 161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patterson, <i>Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy</i> (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James A. Gazell, "One Man, One Vote: Its Long Germination," <i>The Western Political Quarterly,</i> Vol. 23, No. 3 (Sep., 1970), pp. 445-462 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/446565">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=377&invol=533">REYNOLDS v. SIMS, 377 U.S. 533 (1964)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert B. McKay, "Reapportionment: Success Story of the Warren Court." <i>Michigan Law Review,</i> Vol. 67, No. 2 (Dec., 1968), pp. 223-236 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1287416">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=384&invol=436">MIRANDA v. ARIZONA, 384 U.S. 436 (1966)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Kahn and Ken I. Kersch, eds. <i>The Supreme Court and American Political Development</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0700614397?keywords=miranda%20%26%2334%3Bcrime%20rates%26%2334%3B&p=S04N&checkSum=%252FyIgYm2ybgibk6P%252BM%252FG9LcucFd6ieUBSkCM%252FVsFiLs0%253D">online at p. 442</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Sowell, <i>The Vision of the Anointed: Self-congratulation as a Basis for Social Policy</i> (1995) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ISTtFtcIkKAC&dq=homicide+%22warren+court%22&pg=PA29">online at p. 26-29</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=370&invol=421">ENGEL v. VITALE, 370 U.S. 421 (1962)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0381_0479_ZS.html">Griswold v. Connecticut (No. 496) 151 Conn. 544, 200 A.2d 479, reversed</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michal R. Belknap, <i>The Supreme Court under Earl Warren, 1953-1969</i> (2005)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Atkins, Burton M. and Terry Sloope. "The 'New' Hugo Black and the Warren Court," <i>Polity,</i> Apr 1986, Vol. 18#4 pp 621–637; argues that in the 1960s Black moved to the right on cases involving civil liberties, civil rights, and economic liberalism.</li> <li>Ball, Howard, and Phillip Cooper. "Fighting Justices: Hugo L. Black and William O. Douglas and Supreme Court Conflict," <i>American Journal of Legal History,</i> Jan 1994, Vol. 38#1 pp 1–37</li> <li>Belknap, Michal, <i>The Supreme Court Under Earl Warren, 1953-1969</i> (2005), 406pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1570035636">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Eisler, Kim Isaac. <i>The Last Liberal: Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. and the Decisions That Transformed America</i> (2003)</li> <li>Hockett, Jeffrey D. "Justices Frankfurter and Black: Social Theory and Constitutional Interpretation," <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, Vol. 107#3 (1992), pp. 479–499 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2152441">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Horwitz, Morton J. <i>The Warren Court and the Pursuit of Justice</i> (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0809016257">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Lewis, Anthony. "Earl Warren" in Leon Friedman and Fred L. Israel, eds. <i>The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Volume: 4.</i> (1997) pp 1373–1400; includes all members of the Warren Court. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/99223171?title=The%20Justices%20of%20the%20United%20States%20Supreme%20Court%3a%20Their%20Lives%20and%20Major%20Opinions%20-%20Vol.%204">online edition</a></li> <li>Marion, David E. <i>The Jurisprudence of Justice William J. Brennan, Jr.</i> (1997)</li> <li>Patterson, James T. <i> Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy</i> (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/111458889?title=Brown%20v.%20Board%20of%20Education%3a%20A%20Civil%20Rights%20Milestone%20and%20Its%20Troubled%20Legacy">online edition</a></li> <li>Powe, Lucas A.. <i>The Warren Court and American Politics</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0674006836">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Scheiber, Harry N. <i>Earl Warren and the Warren Court: The Legacy in American and Foreign Law</i> (2006)</li> <li>Schwartz, Bernard. <i>The Warren Court: A Retrospective</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0195104390">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Schwartz, Bernard. "Chief Justice Earl Warren: Super Chief in Action." <i>Journal of Supreme Court History</i> 1998 (1): 112-132</li> <li>Silverstein, Mark. <i>Constitutional Faiths: Felix Frankfurter, Hugo Black, and the Process of Judicial Decision Making</i> (1984)</li> <li>Tushnet, Mark. <i>The Warren Court in Historical and Political Perspective</i> (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0813916658">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Urofsky, Melvin I. "William O. Douglas and Felix Frankfurter: Ideology and Personality on the Supreme Court," <i>History Teacher,</i> Nov 1990, Vol. 24#1 pp 7–18</li> <li>Wasby, Stephen L. "Civil Rights and the Supreme Court: A Return of the Past," <i>National Political Science Review,</i> July 1993, Vol. 4, pp 49–60</li> <li>White, G. Edward. <i>Earl Warren</i> (1982), biography by a leading scholar</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Warren_Court&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071112173647/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,840195,00.html?internalid=ACA"><i>The Legacy of the Warren Court</i></a>, Time Magazine, 4 July 1969</li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">1789–1795</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Jay_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Jay Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">1795</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rutledge_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rutledge Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">1796–1800</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Ellsworth_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Ellsworth Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall" title="John Marshall">John Marshall</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">1801–1835</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Marshall_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Marshall Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">1836–1864</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taney_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taney Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Salmon P. Chase</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">1864–1873</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Chase_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Chase Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Waite" title="Morrison Waite">Morrison Waite</a> (<a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">1874–1888</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Waite_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Waite Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melville_Fuller" title="Melville Fuller">Melville Fuller</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">1888–1910</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Fuller_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Fuller Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">Edward Douglass White</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Court_(justices)" title="White Court (justices)">1910–1921</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_White_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the White Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">1921–1930</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Taft_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Taft Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Charles Evans Hughes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">1930–1941</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Hughes_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Hughes Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Harlan F. Stone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Court" title="Stone Court">1941–1946</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Stone_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Stone Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">1946–1953</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Vinson_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Vinson Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">1953–1969</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Warren_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Warren Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_E._Burger" title="Warren E. Burger">Warren E. Burger</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">1969–1986</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Burger_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Burger Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">William Rehnquist</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">1986–2005</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Rehnquist_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court">cases</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">2005–present</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_by_the_Roberts_Court" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Roberts Court">cases</a></i>)</li></ol> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd flatlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Associate_justices189" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align:left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 16em;"> <ol><li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">J. Rutledge</a>* (1790–1791)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Cushing" title="William Cushing">Cushing</a> (1790–1810)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">Wilson</a> (1789–1798)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">Blair</a> (1790–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">Iredell</a> (1790–1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(judge)" title="Thomas Johnson (judge)">T. Johnson</a> (1792–1793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">Paterson</a> (1793–1806)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">S. Chase</a> (1796–1811)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushrod_Washington" title="Bushrod Washington">Washington</a> (1798–1829)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Moore" title="Alfred Moore">Moore</a> (1800–1804)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Johnson_(judge)" title="William Johnson (judge)">W. Johnson</a> (1804–1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Brockholst_Livingston" title="Henry Brockholst Livingston">Livingston</a> (1807–1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Todd" title="Thomas Todd">Todd</a> (1807–1826)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Duvall" title="Gabriel Duvall">Duvall</a> (1811–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Story" title="Joseph Story">Story</a> (1812–1845)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith_Thompson" title="Smith Thompson">Thompson</a> (1823–1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Trimble" title="Robert Trimble">Trimble</a> (1826–1828)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McLean" title="John McLean">McLean</a> (1829–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Baldwin_(judge)" title="Henry Baldwin (judge)">Baldwin</a> (1830–1844)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Moore_Wayne" class="mw-redirect" title="James Moore Wayne">Wayne</a> (1835–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_P._Barbour" title="Philip P. Barbour">Barbour</a> (1836–1841)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Catron" title="John Catron">Catron</a> (1837–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McKinley" title="John McKinley">McKinley</a> (1838–1852)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_V._Daniel" title="Peter V. Daniel">Daniel</a> (1842–1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Nelson" title="Samuel Nelson">Nelson</a> (1845–1872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Woodbury" title="Levi Woodbury">Woodbury</a> (1845–1851)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Cooper_Grier" title="Robert Cooper Grier">Grier</a> (1846–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Robbins_Curtis" title="Benjamin Robbins Curtis">Curtis</a> (1851–1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Campbell" title="John Archibald Campbell">Campbell</a> (1853–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Clifford" title="Nathan Clifford">Clifford</a> (1858–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah_Haynes_Swayne" title="Noah Haynes Swayne">Swayne</a> (1862–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Freeman_Miller" title="Samuel Freeman Miller">Miller</a> (1862–1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Davis_(Supreme_Court_justice)" title="David Davis (Supreme Court justice)">Davis</a> (1862–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Field</a> (1863–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Strong_(Pennsylvania_judge)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)">Strong</a> (1870–1880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Bradley" title="Joseph P. Bradley">Bradley</a> (1870–1892)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ward_Hunt" title="Ward Hunt">Hunt</a> (1873–1882)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan" title="John Marshall Harlan">J. M. Harlan</a> (1877–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Burnham_Woods" title="William Burnham Woods">Woods</a> (1881–1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Matthews_(judge)" title="Stanley Matthews (judge)">Matthews</a> (1881–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Gray" title="Horace Gray">Gray</a> (1882–1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Blatchford" title="Samuel Blatchford">Blatchford</a> (1882–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Quintus_Cincinnatus_Lamar" title="Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar">L. Lamar</a> (1888–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_J._Brewer" title="David J. Brewer">Brewer</a> (1890–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Billings_Brown" title="Henry Billings Brown">Brown</a> (1891–1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Shiras_Jr." title="George Shiras Jr.">Shiras</a> (1892–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_E._Jackson" title="Howell E. Jackson">H. Jackson</a> (1893–1895)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Douglass_White" title="Edward Douglass White">E. White</a>* (1894–1910)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_W._Peckham" title="Rufus W. Peckham">Peckham</a> (1896–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McKenna" title="Joseph McKenna">McKenna</a> (1898–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Holmes</a> (1902–1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Day" title="William R. Day">Day</a> (1903–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Moody" title="William Henry Moody">Moody</a> (1906–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Harmon_Lurton" title="Horace Harmon Lurton">Lurton</a> (1910–1914)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>* (1910–1916)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Van_Devanter" title="Willis Van Devanter">Van Devanter</a> (1911–1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rucker_Lamar" title="Joseph Rucker Lamar">J. Lamar</a> (1911–1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahlon_Pitney" title="Mahlon Pitney">Pitney</a> (1912–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clark_McReynolds" title="James Clark McReynolds">McReynolds</a> (1914–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Brandeis</a> (1916–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hessin_Clarke" title="John Hessin Clarke">Clarke</a> (1916–1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Sutherland" title="George Sutherland">Sutherland</a> (1922–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(judge)" title="Pierce Butler (judge)">Butler</a> (1923–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Terry_Sanford" title="Edward Terry Sanford">Sanford</a> (1923–1930)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/Harlan_F._Stone" title="Harlan F. Stone">Stone</a>* (1925–1941)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_Roberts" title="Owen Roberts">O. Roberts</a> (1930–1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo</a> (1932–1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Black</a> (1937–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Reed</a> (1938–1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Frankfurter</a> (1939–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">Douglas</a> (1939–1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Murphy" title="Frank Murphy">Murphy</a> (1940–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">Byrnes</a> (1941–1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">R. Jackson</a> (1941–1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_Rutledge" title="Wiley Rutledge">W. Rutledge</a> (1943–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_H._Burton" title="Harold H. Burton">Burton</a> (1945–1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_C._Clark" title="Tom C. Clark">Clark</a> (1949–1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Minton</a> (1949–1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">J. M. Harlan II</a> (1955–1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan_Jr." title="William J. Brennan Jr.">Brennan</a> (1956–1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Whittaker</a> (1957–1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Stewart</a> (1958–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byron_White" title="Byron White">B. White</a> (1962–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Goldberg</a> (1962–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Fortas</a> (1965–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">T. Marshall</a> (1967–1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Blackmun" title="Harry Blackmun">Blackmun</a> (1970–1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_F._Powell_Jr." title="Lewis F. Powell Jr.">Powell</a> (1972–1987)</li> <li><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;"><a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a>* (1972–1986)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Paul_Stevens" title="John Paul Stevens">Stevens</a> (1975–2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">O'Connor</a> (1981–2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Scalia</a> (1986–2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Kennedy</a> (1988–2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">Souter</a> (1990–2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Thomas</a> (1991–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg" title="Ruth Bader Ginsburg">Ginsburg</a> (1993–2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Breyer</a> (1994–2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Alito</a> (2006–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sotomayor</a> (2009–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Kagan</a> (2010–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Gorsuch</a> (2017–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Kavanaugh</a> (2018–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Barrett</a> (2020–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">K. Jackson</a> (2022–present)</li></ol> </div> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: #eeeeff;color:black;">*<i>Also served as chief justice of the United States</i></span></div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/80px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/160px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States775" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:SCOTUS_horizontal" title="Template:SCOTUS horizontal"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:SCOTUS_horizontal" title="Template talk:SCOTUS horizontal"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS_horizontal" title="Special:EditPage/Template:SCOTUS horizontal"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States775" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The court</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" title="Lists of United States Supreme Court cases">Lists of cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the Supreme Court of the United States">Court demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_leanings_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices" title="Ideological leanings of United States Supreme Court justices">Ideological leanings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomination_and_confirmation_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Nomination and confirmation to the Supreme Court of the United States">Nomination and confirmation</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Procedures_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States">Procedures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amicus_curiae#United_States_Supreme_Court_rules" title="Amicus curiae"><i>Amicus curiae</i> brief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certiorari#United_States" title="Certiorari"><i>Certiorari</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Certiorari_before_judgment" title="Certiorari before judgment">Cert. before judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismissed_as_improvidently_granted" title="Dismissed as improvidently granted">Cert. dismissed as improvidently granted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grant,_vacate,_remand" title="Grant, vacate, remand">Grant, vacate, remand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_docket" title="Shadow docket">Shadow docket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In-chambers_opinion" title="In-chambers opinion">In-chambers opinion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current members</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justice</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/John_Roberts" title="John Roberts">John Roberts</a></li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a>:</b> <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elena_Kagan" title="Elena Kagan">Elena Kagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Kavanaugh" title="Brett Kavanaugh">Brett Kavanaugh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amy_Coney_Barrett" title="Amy Coney Barrett">Amy Coney Barrett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#Retired_justices" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Retired justices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kennedy" title="Anthony Kennedy">Anthony Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Souter" title="David Souter">David Souter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="History of the Supreme Court of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Court" title="Jay Court">Jay Court</a> (1789–1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutledge_Court" title="Rutledge Court">Rutledge Court</a> (1795)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Court" title="Ellsworth Court">Ellsworth Court</a> (1796–1800)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Court" title="Marshall Court">Marshall Court</a> (1801–1835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taney_Court" title="Taney Court">Taney Court</a> (1836–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chase_Court" title="Chase Court">Chase Court</a> (1864–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waite_Court" title="Waite Court">Waite Court</a> (1874–1888)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuller_Court" title="Fuller Court">Fuller Court</a> (1888–1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Court_(judges)" class="mw-redirect" title="White Court (judges)">White Court</a> (1910–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taft_Court" title="Taft Court">Taft Court</a> (1921–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hughes_Court" title="Hughes Court">Hughes Court</a> (1930–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Court" title="Stone Court">Stone Court</a> (1941–1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinson_Court" title="Vinson Court">Vinson Court</a> (1946–1953)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Warren Court</a> (1953–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burger_Court" title="Burger Court">Burger Court</a> (1969–1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_Court" title="Rehnquist Court">Rehnquist Court</a> (1986–2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberts_Court" title="Roberts Court">Roberts Court</a> (2005–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists of justices<br />and nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States#List_of_chief_justices" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States#list_of_associate_justices" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">All justices</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_court_composition" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition">court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_attended_by_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices" title="List of law schools attended by United States Supreme Court justices">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_by_seat" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat">seat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_justices_by_time_in_office" title="List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office">time in office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">All nominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unsuccessful_nominations_to_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Unsuccessful nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States">unsuccessful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._Supreme_Court_justices_who_also_served_in_the_U.S._Congress" title="List of U.S. Supreme Court justices who also served in the U.S. Congress">Justices who served in Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_burial_places_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of burial places of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Burial places of justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Statutes affecting<br />court size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">Judiciary Act of 1801</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1802" title="Judiciary Act of 1802">Judiciary Act of 1802</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Circuit_Act_of_1807" title="Seventh Circuit Act of 1807">Seventh Circuit Act of 1807</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_and_Ninth_Circuits_Act_of_1837" title="Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837">Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Circuit_Act_of_1863" title="Tenth Circuit Act of 1863">Tenth Circuit Act of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Circuits_Act" title="Judicial Circuits Act">Judicial Circuits Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1869" title="Judiciary Act of 1869">Judiciary Act of 1869</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Functionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clerk_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States">Clerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court" title="Marshal of the United States Supreme Court">Marshal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Police" title="Supreme Court Police">Supreme Court Police</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">Reporter of Decisions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_clerk_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Law clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States">Law clerk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Lists of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States">lists</a>: <a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Chief_Justice)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Chief Justice)">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_1)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 1)">Seat 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_2)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 2)">Seat 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_3)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 3)">Seat 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_4)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 4)">Seat 4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_6)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 6)">Seat 6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_8)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 8)">Seat 8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_9)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 9)">Seat 9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_clerks_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_(Seat_10)" title="List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 10)">Seat 10</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court_Building" title="United States Supreme Court Building">Supreme Court Building</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Former: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Exchange_(New_York_City)" title="Royal Exchange (New York City)">Royal Exchange, New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_City_Hall_(Philadelphia)" title="Old City Hall (Philadelphia)">Old City Hall, Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Supreme_Court_Chamber" title="Old Supreme Court Chamber">Old Supreme Court Chamber, U.S. Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Senate_Chamber" title="Old Senate Chamber">Old Senate Chamber, U.S. Capitol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article III, U.S. Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">original jurisdiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cameras_in_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Cameras in the Supreme Court of the United States">Camera policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Conduct_for_Justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Code of Conduct for Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">Code of Conduct for Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_Procedures_Reform_Bill_of_1937" title="Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937">Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era"><i>Lochner</i> era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Samuel_Chase" title="Impeachment of Samuel Chase">Impeachment of Samuel Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Commission_on_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Presidential Commission on the Supreme Court of the United States">Presidential Commission on the Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States_in_fiction" title="Supreme Court of the United States in fiction">Supreme Court in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_leaks" title="List of United States Supreme Court leaks">Supreme Court leaks</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lawyers%27_Edition" title="Lawyers' Edition">Lawyers' Edition</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_General_of_the_United_States" title="Solicitor General of the United States">United States Solicitor General</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span 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