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.hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the 1936–1938 Soviet purge. For political purges in general, see <a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a>. For the period of the French Revolution, see <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Great_Terror_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Great Terror (disambiguation)">Great Terror (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Copy_edit plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Copy_edit" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting" title="Wikipedia:Basic copyediting">copy editing</a> for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Great_Purge" title="Special:EditPage/Great Purge">editing it</a>. (November 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style>The Great Purge, or the Great Terror (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: Большой террор, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian" title="Romanization of Russian">romanized</a>: Bol'shoy terror), also known as the Year of '37 (37-й год, Tridtsat' sed'moy god) and the Yezhovshchina (Ежовщина <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[(j)ɪˈʐofɕːɪnə]</a>, <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'period of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Yezhov</a>'), was a political <a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">purge</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> that took place from 1936 to 1938. It sought to consolidate <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s power over the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> and aimed at removing the remaining influence of <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> within the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The term great purge was popularized by the historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a> in his 1968 book <a href="/wiki/The_Great_Terror_(book)" title="The Great Terror (book)">The Great Terror</a>, whose title was an <a href="/wiki/Allusion" title="Allusion">allusion</a> to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Reign_of_Terror" title="Reign of Terror">Reign of Terror</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rappaport-9">[9]</a> <table class="infobox vevent"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="font-size:125%;">Great Purge</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Purges_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Bolshevik Party purges</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Vinnycia16.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vinnycia16.jpg/220px-Vinnycia16.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vinnycia16.jpg/330px-Vinnycia16.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Vinnycia16.jpg/440px-Vinnycia16.jpg 2x" data-file-width="916" data-file-height="546"></a><div class="infobox-caption">People of <a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia" title="Vinnytsia">Vinnytsia</a> searching through the exhumed victims of the <a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia_massacre" title="Vinnytsia massacre">Vinnytsia massacre</a>, 1943</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location"><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian People's Republic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">Main phase: 19 August 1936 – 17 November 1938 (2 years, 2 months, 4 weeks and 1 day)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Target</th><td class="infobox-data">Political opponents, <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> leadership, <a href="/wiki/Kulaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Kulaks">kulaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD#National_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">religious activists and leaders</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Attack type</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Summary_execution" title="Summary execution">Summary executions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">Massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_murder" title="Mass murder">Mass murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD#National_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">681,692 executions and 116,000 deaths in the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> system (official figures)<a href="#cite_note-EllmanComment-1">[1]</a> 700,000 to 1.2 million (estimated)<a href="#cite_note-EllmanComment-1">[1]</a> <a href="#cite_note-Kuhr-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Xavier-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrators</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> (<a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria" title="Lavrentiy Beria">Lavrentiy Beria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Serov" title="Ivan Serov">Ivan Serov</a> and others), <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Vyshinsky" title="Andrey Vyshinsky">Andrey Vyshinsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lazar_Kaganovich" title="Lazar Kaganovich">Lazar Kaganovich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Kliment Voroshilov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Eikhe" title="Robert Eikhe">Robert Eikhe</a> and others</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data">Elimination of political opponents,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsgreatterror00robepage53_53%5D-4">[4]</a> consolidation of power,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> fear of counterrevolution,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris201716-6">[6]</a> fear of party infiltration<a href="#cite_note-James_Harris_1941-7">[7]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> The purges were largely conducted by the <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> (People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs), which functioned as the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_home_affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of home affairs">interior ministry</a> and secret police of the USSR. Starting in 1936, the NKVD under chief <a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a> began the removal of the central party leadership, <a href="/wiki/Old_Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Bolshevik">Old Bolsheviks</a>, government officials, and regional party <a href="/wiki/Political_boss" title="Political boss">bosses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Soviet politicians who opposed or criticized Stalin were removed from office and imprisoned or executed by the NKVD. Eventually, the purges were expanded to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and military high command, which had a disastrous effect on the military.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The campaigns also affected many other categories of the society: <a href="/wiki/Intelligentsia" title="Intelligentsia">intelligentsia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">wealthy peasants</a> —especially those lending out money or wealth (<a href="/wiki/Kulak" title="Kulak">kulaks</a>)—and professionals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008250,_257%E2%80%9358-13">[13]</a> As the scope of the purge widened, the omnipresent suspicion of saboteurs and <a href="/wiki/Counter-revolutionary" title="Counter-revolutionary">counter-revolutionaries</a> began affecting civilian life. The purge reached its peak between September 1936 and August 1938 under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a>, hence the name Yezhovshchina. The campaigns were carried out according to the <a href="/wiki/General_line_(party)" class="mw-redirect" title="General line (party)">general line of the party</a>, often by direct orders of the <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Central_Committee_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">politburo</a> headed by Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Hundreds of thousands of people were accused of various political crimes (espionage, <a href="/wiki/Wrecking_(Soviet_crime)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrecking (Soviet crime)">wrecking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sabotage" title="Sabotage">sabotage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Soviet_agitation" title="Anti-Soviet agitation">anti-Soviet agitation</a>, conspiracies to prepare uprisings and coups). They were executed by shooting or sent to the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <a href="/wiki/Labor_camp" title="Labor camp">labor camps</a>. The NKVD targeted certain <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union#Nationalities_and_ethnic_groups" title="Soviet Union">ethnic minorities</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a>, and Soviet citizens of Polish origin, who were subjected to forced deportation and extreme repression. Throughout the purge, the NKVD sought to strengthen control over civilians through fear, and frequently used imprisonment, torture, violent interrogation, and executions during its <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">mass operations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges2007227%E2%80%93315-15">[15]</a> In 1938, Stalin reversed his stance on the purges, criticized the NKVD for carrying out mass executions, and oversaw the execution of <a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a>, who headed the NKVD during the purge years. Scholars estimate the death toll for the Great Purge (1936–1938) to be roughly 700,000-1.2 million.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Despite the end of the Great Purge, the widespread surveillance and atmosphere of mistrust continued for decades. Similar purges took place <a href="/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Mongolia" title="Stalinist repressions in Mongolia">in Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sheng_Shicai#1937%E2%80%9338_purges" title="Sheng Shicai">Xinjiang</a>. While the Soviet government desired to put Trotsky on trial during the purge, his exile prevented this. Trotsky survived the purge, though he would be assassinated in 1940 by the NKVD on the orders of Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-21">[21]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Background">1 Background</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Moscow_trials">2 Moscow trials</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#First_and_second_Moscow_trials">2.1 First and second Moscow trials</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Dewey_Commission">2.1.1 Dewey Commission</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Implication_of_the_Rightists">2.1.2 Implication of the Rightists</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Third_Moscow_trial">2.2 Third Moscow trial</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Bukharin's_confession">2.2.1 Bukharin's confession</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#%22Ex-kulaks%22_and_other_%22anti-Soviet_elements%22">3 "Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements"</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Campaigns_targeting_nationalities">4 Campaigns targeting nationalities</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Purge_of_the_army">5 Purge of the army</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Wider_purge">6 Wider purge</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Intelligentsia">6.1 Intelligentsia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Western_%C3%A9migr%C3%A9_victims">6.2 Western émigré victims</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Executions_of_Gulag_inmates">6.3 Executions of Gulag inmates</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Mongolian_Great_Purge">6.4 Mongolian Great Purge</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Xinjiang_Great_Purge">6.5 Xinjiang Great Purge</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Timeline">7 Timeline</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#End">8 End</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Western_reactions">9 Western reactions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Rehabilitation">10 Rehabilitation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Number_of_people_executed">11 Number of people executed</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Stalin's_role">12 Stalin's role</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Soviet_investigation_commissions">13 Soviet investigation commissions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Mass_graves_and_memorials">14 Mass graves and memorials</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Historical_interpretations">15 Historical interpretations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#See_also">16 See also</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Similar_events">16.1 Similar events</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28"><a href="#Similar_Polticidal_Purges">16.1.1 Similar Polticidal Purges</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#References">17 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30"><a href="#Citations">17.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31"><a href="#Sources">17.2 Sources</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#Further_reading">18 Further reading</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-33"><a href="#Film">18.1 Film</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34"><a href="#External_links">19 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Purges_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg/220px-NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="357" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2734" data-file-height="4441"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 357px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg/220px-NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="357" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg/330px-NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg/440px-NKVD_Order_No._00447.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>An excerpt of <a href="/wiki/NKVD_Order_No._00447" title="NKVD Order No. 00447">NKVD Order No. 00447</a></figcaption></figure> Following the <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin">death</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> in 1924, a <a href="/wiki/Power_vacuum" title="Power vacuum">power vacuum</a> opened in the Communist Party, the ruling party in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> (USSR). Various established figures in Lenin's government attempted to succeed him. By 1928, Joseph Stalin, the party's General Secretary, had triumphed over his opponents and gained control of the party.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Initially, Stalin's leadership was widely accepted; his main political adversary, Trotsky, was forced into exile in 1929, and Stalin's doctrine of "<a href="/wiki/Socialism_in_one_country" title="Socialism in one country">socialism in one country</a>" became enshrined party policy. However, in the early 1930s, party officials began to lose faith in his leadership, largely due to the human cost of the <a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">first five-year plan</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Collective_farming" title="Collective farming">collectivization of agriculture</a>. From 1930 onwards, the Party and police officials feared the "social disorder" caused by the upheavals of <a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">forced collectivization of peasants</a> and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932%E2%80%931933" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet famine of 1932–1933">famine of 1932–1933</a>, as well as the massive and uncontrolled migration of millions of peasants into cities. The threat of war heightened Stalin's and generally Soviet perception of marginal and politically suspect populations as the potential source of an uprising in case of invasion. Stalin began to plan for the preventive elimination of such potential recruits for a mythical "fifth column of wreckers, terrorists and spies."<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-werth-25">[25]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068,_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="253" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="939"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 253px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="253" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-R15068%2C_Leo_Dawidowitsch_Trotzki.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, in 1929, shortly before being driven out of the Soviet Union</figcaption></figure> The term "<a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">purge</a>" in Soviet political slang was an abbreviation of the expression purge of the Party ranks. In 1933, for example, the Party expelled some 400,000 people. But from 1936 until 1953, the term changed its meaning, because being expelled from the Party came to mean almost certain arrest, imprisonment, and often execution. The political purge was primarily an effort by Stalin to eliminate challenge from past and potential opposition groups, including the left and right wings led by <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Nikolai Bukharin</a>, respectively. Following the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Civil War</a> and reconstruction of the Soviet economy in the late 1920s, veteran Bolsheviks no longer thought necessary the "temporary" wartime dictatorship, which had passed from Lenin to Stalin. Stalin's opponents inside the Communist Party chided him as undemocratic and lax on bureaucratic corruption.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> This opposition to current leadership may have accumulated substantial support among the working class by attacking the privileges and luxuries the state offered to its high-paid elite. The <a href="/wiki/Ryutin_affair" title="Ryutin affair">Ryutin affair</a> seemed to vindicate Stalin's suspicions. <a href="/wiki/Martemyan_Ryutin" title="Martemyan Ryutin">Ryutin</a> was working with the even larger secret <a href="/wiki/Bloc_of_Soviet_Oppositions" title="Bloc of Soviet Oppositions">Opposition Bloc</a> in which <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Grigory Zinoviev</a> participated,<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and which later led to both of their deaths. Stalin enforced a ban on party factions and banned those party members who had opposed him, effectively ending <a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">democratic centralism</a>. In the new form of Party organization, the Politburo, and Stalin in particular, were the sole dispensers of ideology. This required the elimination of all Marxists with different views, especially those among the prestigious "old guard" of revolutionaries. As the purges began, the government (through the NKVD) shot Bolshevik heroes, including <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky" title="Mikhail Tukhachevsky">Mikhail Tukhachevsky</a> and <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Kun" title="Béla Kun">Béla Kun</a>, as well as the majority of Lenin's Politburo, for disagreements in policy. The NKVD attacked the supporters, friends, and family of these "heretical" Marxists, whether they lived in Russia or not. The NKVD nearly annihilated Trotsky's family before <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky#Assassination" title="Leon Trotsky">killing</a> him in Mexico; the NKVD agent <a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Mercader" title="Ramón Mercader">Ramón Mercader</a> was part of an assassination task force put together by Special Agent <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Sudoplatov" title="Pavel Sudoplatov">Pavel Sudoplatov</a>, under the personal orders of Stalin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewMitrokhin200086%E2%80%9387-29">[29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin,_1934.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg/220px-Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1003"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg/220px-Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg/330px-Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg/440px-Sergei_Kirov_and_Joseph_Stalin%2C_1934.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Leningrad</a> party leader <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Kirov" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Kirov">Sergei Kirov</a> with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a> (and his daughter <a href="/wiki/Svetlana_Alliluyeva" title="Svetlana Alliluyeva">Svetlana</a>) in 1934</figcaption></figure> By 1934, several of Stalin's rivals, such as Trotsky, began calling for Stalin's removal and attempted to break his control over the party.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> In this atmosphere of doubt and suspicion, the popular high-ranking official <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Kirov" title="Sergei Kirov">Sergei Kirov</a> was <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Sergei_Kirov" class="mw-redirect" title="Assassination of Sergei Kirov">assassinated</a>. The assassination, in December 1934, led to an investigation that revealed a network of party members supposedly working against Stalin, including several of Stalin's rivals.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Many of those arrested after Kirov's murder, high-ranking party officials among them, also confessed plans to kill Stalin himself.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The validity of these confessions is debated by historians, but there is consensus that Kirov's death was the flashpoint at which Stalin decided to take action and begin the purges.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Some later historians came to believe that Stalin arranged the murder, or at least that there was sufficient evidence to reach such a conclusion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest1987122%E2%80%9338-35">[35]</a> Kirov was a staunch Stalin loyalist, but Stalin may have viewed him as a potential rival because of his emerging popularity among the moderates. The <a href="/wiki/17th_Congress_of_the_All-Union_Communist_Party_(Bolsheviks)" title="17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)">1934 Party Congress</a> elected Kirov to the central committee with only three votes against, the fewest of any candidate, while Stalin received 292 votes against. After Kirov's assassination, the NKVD charged the ever-growing group of former oppositionists with Kirov's murder as well as a growing list of other offenses, including treason, terrorism, sabotage, and espionage. Another justification for the purge was to remove any possible "fifth column" in case of a war. <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lazar_Kaganovich" title="Lazar Kaganovich">Lazar Kaganovich</a>, participants in the repression as members of the Politburo, maintained this justification throughout the purge; they each signed many death lists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges2007239-36">[36]</a> Stalin believed war was imminent, threatened both by an explicitly hostile Germany and an expansionist Japan. The Soviet press portrayed the country as threatened from within by fascist spies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest1987122%E2%80%9338-35">[35]</a> From the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGellately2007-37">[37]</a> onward,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Lenin had used repression against perceived and legitimate enemies of the Bolsheviks as a systematic method of instilling fear and facilitating control over the population in a campaign called the <a href="/wiki/Red_Terror" title="Red Terror">Red Terror</a>. As the Russian Civil War drew to a close, this campaign was relaxed although the secret police did remain active. From 1924 to 1928, the mass repression – including incarceration in the Gulag system – dropped significantly.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> By 1929, Stalin had defeated his political opponents and gained full control over the party. He organized a committee to begin the process of industrialization of the Soviet Union. Backlash against industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture escalated, which prompted Stalin to increase police presence in rural areas. Soviet authorities increased repression against the kulaks (i.e., wealthy peasants that owned farmland) in a policy called <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">dekulakization</a>. The kulaks responded by destroying crop yields and other acts of sabotage against the Soviet government.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The food shortage led to a mass famine across the USSR and slowed the Five Year Plan. A distinctive feature of the Great Purge was that, for the first time, members of the ruling party were included on a massive scale as victims of the repression. In addition to ordinary citizens, prominent members of the Communist Party were also targets for the purges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLoughlinMcDermott20026-41">[41]</a> The purge of the Party was accompanied by the purge of the whole society. Soviet historians organize the Great Purge into three corresponding trials. The following events are used for the demarcation of the period: <ul><li>1936, the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_trials#The_%22Anti-Soviet_Trotskyist_Center%22" title="Moscow trials">first Moscow trial</a>.</li> <li>1937, introduction of NKVD troikas for implementation of "revolutionary justice."</li> <li>1937, passage of Article 58-14 about "counter-revolutionary sabotage."</li> <li>1937, the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_trials#The_%22Parallel_anti-Soviet_Trotskyist_Center%22" title="Moscow trials">second Moscow trial</a></li> <li>1937, the military purge.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></li> <li>1938, the <a href="/wiki/Case_of_the_Anti-Soviet_%22Bloc_of_Rightists_and_Trotskyites%22" title='Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"'>third Moscow trial</a>.</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Moscow_trials">Moscow trials</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Moscow trials" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moscow_trials" title="Moscow trials">Moscow trials</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_and_second_Moscow_trials">First and second Moscow trials</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: First and second Moscow trials" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9,_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg/220px-%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="343"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 151px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg/220px-%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="151" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg/330px-%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg/440px-%D0%9B._%D0%94._%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9%2C_%D0%9B._%D0%91._%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B8_%D0%93._%D0%95._%D0%97%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C%D0%B5%D0%B2._%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_1920-%D1%85_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Bolshevik revolutionaries <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lev_Kamenev" title="Lev Kamenev">Lev Kamenev</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Grigory Zinoviev</a></figcaption></figure> Between 1936 and 1938, three very large Moscow trials of former senior Communist Party leaders were held, in which they were accused of conspiring with fascist and capitalist powers to assassinate Stalin and other Soviet leaders, dismember the Soviet Union and restore capitalism. These trials were highly publicized and extensively covered by the outside world, which was mesmerized by the spectacle of Lenin's closest associates confessing to most outrageous crimes and begging for death sentences:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">original research?</a>] <ul><li>The first trial was of 16 members of the so-called "Trotskyite-Kamenevite-Zinovievite-Leftist-Counter-Revolutionary Bloc," held in August 1936,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> at which the chief defendants were <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Grigory Zinoviev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lev_Kamenev" title="Lev Kamenev">Lev Kamenev</a>, two of the most prominent former party leaders, who had indeed been members of a <a href="/wiki/Bloc_of_Soviet_Oppositions" title="Bloc of Soviet Oppositions">Conspiratorial Bloc</a> that opposed Stalin, although its activities were exaggerated.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Among other accusations, they were incriminated with the assassination of Kirov and plotting to kill Stalin. After confessing to the charges, all were sentenced to death and executed.<a href="#cite_note-:0-44">[44]</a></li> <li>The second trial in January 1937 involved 17 lesser figures known as the "anti-Soviet Trotskyite-centre" which included <a href="/wiki/Karl_Radek" title="Karl Radek">Karl Radek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Piatakov" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuri Piatakov">Yuri Piatakov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grigory_Sokolnikov" title="Grigory Sokolnikov">Grigory Sokolnikov</a>, and were accused of plotting with Trotsky, who was said to be conspiring with Germany. Thirteen of the defendants were eventually executed by shooting and the rest received sentences in labor camps where they soon died.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008142-45">[45]</a></li> <li>There was also a secret trial before a military tribunal of a group of Red Army commanders, including <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky" title="Mikhail Tukhachevsky">Mikhail Tukhachevsky</a>, in June 1937.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008182-46">[46]</a></li></ul> It is now known that the confessions were given only after great psychological pressure and torture had been applied to the defendants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008121-47">[47]</a> From the accounts of former <a href="/wiki/OGPU" class="mw-redirect" title="OGPU">OGPU</a> officer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mikhailovich_Orlov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Mikhailovich Orlov">Alexander Orlov</a> and others, the methods used to extract the confessions are known: such tortures as repeated beatings, simulated drownings, making prisoners stand or go without sleep for days on end, and threats to arrest and execute the prisoners' families. For example, Kamenev's teenage son was arrested and charged with terrorism. After months of such interrogation, the defendants were driven to despair and exhaustion.<a href="#cite_note-Redman-48">[48]</a> Zinoviev and Kamenev demanded, as a condition for "confessing", a direct guarantee from the Politburo that their lives and that of their families and followers would be spared. This offer was accepted, but when they were taken to the alleged Politburo meeting, only Stalin, <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Kliment Voroshilov</a>, and Yezhov were present. Stalin claimed that they were the "commission" authorized by the Politburo and gave assurances that death sentences would not be carried out. After the trial, Stalin not only broke his promise to spare the defendants, he had most of their relatives arrested and shot.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest200887-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dewey_Commission">Dewey Commission</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dewey Commission" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dewey_Commission" title="Dewey Commission">Dewey Commission</a></div> In May 1937, the Commission of Inquiry into the Charges Made against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials, commonly known as the Dewey Commission, was set up in the United States by supporters of Trotsky, to establish the truth about the trials. The commission was headed by the noted American philosopher and educator <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>. Although the hearings were obviously conducted with a view to proving Trotsky's innocence, they brought to light evidence which established that some of the specific charges made at the trials could not be true.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2010137-50">[50]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Pyatakov" title="Georgy Pyatakov">Georgy Pyatakov</a> testified that he had flown to <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a> in December 1935 to "receive terrorist instructions" from Trotsky. The Dewey Commission established that no such flight had taken place.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Another defendant, <a href="/wiki/Ivan_N._Smirnov" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan N. Smirnov">Ivan Smirnov</a>, confessed to taking part in the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, at a time when he had already been in prison for a year. The Dewey Commission later published its findings in a 422-page book titled Not Guilty. Its conclusions asserted the innocence of all those condemned in the Moscow Trials. In its summary, the commission wrote<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Independent of extrinsic evidence, the Commission finds: <ul><li>That the conduct of the Moscow Trials was such as to convince any unprejudiced person that no attempt was made to ascertain the truth.</li> <li>That while confessions are necessarily entitled to the most serious consideration, the confessions themselves contain such inherent improbabilities as to convince the Commission that they do not represent the truth, irrespective of any means used to obtain them.</li> <li>That Trotsky never instructed any of the accused or witnesses in the Moscow trials to enter into agreements with foreign powers against the Soviet Union [and] that Trotsky never recommended, plotted, or attempted the restoration of capitalism in the USSR.</li></ul></blockquote> The commission concluded: "We therefore find the Moscow Trials to be frame-ups."<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Implication_of_the_Rightists">Implication of the Rightists</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Implication of the Rightists" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the second trial, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Radek" title="Karl Radek">Karl Radek</a> testified that there was a "third organization separate from the cadres which had passed through [Trotsky's] school,"<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-53">[53]</a> as well as "semi-Trotskyites, quarter-Trotskyites, one-eighth-Trotskyites, people who helped us, not knowing of the terrorist organization but sympathizing with us, people who from liberalism, from a Fronde against the Party, gave us this help."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008164-54">[54]</a> By the "third organization," he meant the last remaining former opposition group called the <a href="/wiki/Right_Opposition" title="Right Opposition">Rightists</a>, led by Bukharin, whom he implicated by saying: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I feel guilty of one thing more: even after admitting my guilt and exposing the organisation, I stubbornly refused to give evidence about Bukharin. I knew that Bukharin's situation was just as hopeless as my own, because our guilt, if not juridically, then in essence, was the same. But we are close friends, and intellectual friendship is stronger than other friendships. I knew that Bukharin was in the same state of upheaval as myself. That is why I did not want to deliver him bound hand and foot to the People's Commissariat of Home Affairs. Just as in relation to our other cadres, I wanted Bukharin himself to lay down his arms.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-53">[53]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_Moscow_trial">Third Moscow trial</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Third Moscow trial" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Case_of_the_Anti-Soviet_%22Bloc_of_Rightists_and_Trotskyites%22" title='Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"'>Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg/220px-1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="284"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 156px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg/220px-1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="156" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg/330px-1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/1934_agranov_yagoda_unknown_redens.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> chiefs responsible for conducting mass repressions (left to right): <a href="/wiki/Yakov_Agranov" title="Yakov Agranov">Yakov Agranov</a>; <a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a>; unknown; <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Redens" title="Stanislav Redens">Stanislav Redens</a>. All three were themselves eventually arrested and executed.</figcaption></figure> The third and final trial, in March 1938, known as the <a href="/wiki/Case_of_the_Anti-Soviet_%22Bloc_of_Rightists_and_Trotskyites%22" title='Case of the Anti-Soviet "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites"'>Trial of the Twenty-One</a>, is the most famous of the Soviet show trials, because of persons involved and the scope of charges which tied together all loose threads from earlier trials. Meant to be the culmination of previous trials,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> is <a href="/wiki/Talk:Great_Purge" title="Talk:Great Purge">disputed</a>] it included 21 defendants alleged to belong to the "Bloc of Rightists and Trotskyites", supposedly led by Nikolai Bukharin, the former chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a>, former premier <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Rykov" title="Alexei Rykov">Alexei Rykov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Rakovsky" title="Christian Rakovsky">Christian Rakovsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Krestinsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Krestinsky">Nikolai Krestinsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genrikh_Yagoda" title="Genrikh Yagoda">Genrikh Yagoda</a>, recently disgraced head of the NKVD.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Bloc_of_Soviet_Oppositions" title="Bloc of Soviet Oppositions">an Opposition Bloc</a> led by Trotsky and with zinovievites really existed, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Brou%C3%A9" title="Pierre Broué">Pierre Broué</a> asserts that Bukharin was not involved.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Differently from Broué, one of his former allies,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jules_Humbert-Droz" title="Jules Humbert-Droz">Jules Humbert-Droz</a>, said in his memoirs that Bukharin told him that he formed a secret bloc with Zinoviev and Kamenev in order to remove Stalin from leadership.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The fact that Yagoda was one of the accused showed the speed at which the purges were consuming their own. It was now alleged that Bukharin and others sought to assassinate Lenin and Stalin from 1918, murder <a href="/wiki/Maxim_Gorky" title="Maxim Gorky">Maxim Gorky</a> by poison, partition the USSR and hand its territories to Germany, Japan, and Great Britain, and other charges.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Even previously sympathetic observers who had accepted the earlier trials found it more difficult to accept these new allegations as they became ever more absurd, and the purge expanded to include almost every living Old Bolshevik leader except Stalin and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kalinin" title="Mikhail Kalinin">Kalinin</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] No other crime of the Stalin years so captivated Western intellectuals as the trial and execution of Bukharin, who was a Marxist theorist of international standing.<a href="#cite_note-Corey_Robin,_Fear,_Page_96-57">[57]</a> For some prominent communists such as <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Wolfe" title="Bertram Wolfe">Bertram Wolfe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jay_Lovestone" title="Jay Lovestone">Jay Lovestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Arthur Koestler</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Brandler" title="Heinrich Brandler">Heinrich Brandler</a>, the Bukharin trial marked their final break with communism, and even turned the first three into fervent anti-communists eventually.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler1940258-59">[59]</a> To them, Bukharin's confession symbolized the depredations of communism, which not only destroyed its sons but also conscripted them in self-destruction and individual abnegation.<a href="#cite_note-Corey_Robin,_Fear,_Page_96-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bukharin's_confession">Bukharin's confession</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bukharin's confession" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bucharin.bra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bucharin.bra.jpg/150px-Bucharin.bra.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="357" data-file-height="476"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bucharin.bra.jpg/150px-Bucharin.bra.jpg" data-width="150" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bucharin.bra.jpg/225px-Bucharin.bra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Bucharin.bra.jpg/300px-Bucharin.bra.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Nikolai Bukharin</a>, Russian <a href="/wiki/Bolshevik" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolshevik">Bolshevik</a> <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">revolutionary</a> executed in 1938</figcaption></figure> On the first day of trial, Krestinsky caused a sensation when he repudiated his written confession and pleaded not guilty to all the charges. However, he changed his plea the next day after "special measures", which dislocated his left shoulder among other things.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008352-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anastas_Mikoyan" title="Anastas Mikoyan">Anastas Mikoyan</a> and Vyacheslav Molotov later claimed that Bukharin was never tortured, but it is now known[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> is <a href="/wiki/Talk:Great_Purge" title="Talk:Great Purge">disputed</a>] that his interrogators were given the order "beating permitted", and were under great pressure to extract confession out of the "star" defendant. Bukharin initially held out for three months, but threats to his young wife and infant son, combined with "methods of physical influence" wore him down. But when he read his confession amended and corrected personally by Stalin, he withdrew his whole confession. The examination started all over again, with a double team of interrogators.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008364%E2%80%9335-61">[61]</a> Bukharin's confession in particular became subject of much debate among Western observers, inspiring Koestler's acclaimed novel <a href="/wiki/Darkness_at_Noon" title="Darkness at Noon">Darkness at Noon</a> and philosophical essay by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a> in Humanism and Terror. His confessions were somewhat different from others in that while he pleaded guilty to "sum total of crimes", he denied knowledge when it came to specific crimes. Some astute observers noted that he would allow only what was in written confession and refuse to go any further.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The result was a curious mix of fulsome confessions (of being a "degenerate fascist" working for "restoration of capitalism") and subtle criticisms of the trial. One observer noted that after disproving several charges against him, Bukharin "proceeded to demolish or rather showed he could very easily demolish the whole case."<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> He continued by saying that "the confession of the accused is not essential. The confession of the accused is a medieval principle of jurisprudence" in a trial that was based solely on confessions. He finished his last plea with the words:<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><blockquote>[T]he monstrousness of my crime is immeasurable especially in the new stage of struggle of the U.S.S.R. May this trial be the last severe lesson, and may the great might of the U.S.S.R. become clear to all.</blockquote><a href="/wiki/Romain_Rolland" title="Romain Rolland">Romain Rolland</a> and others wrote to Stalin seeking clemency for Bukharin, but all the leading defendants were executed except Rakovsky and two others (who were killed in <a href="/wiki/Medvedev_Forest_massacre" title="Medvedev Forest massacre">NKVD prisoner massacres</a> in 1941). Despite the promise to spare his family, Bukharin's wife, <a href="/wiki/Anna_Larina" title="Anna Larina">Anna Larina</a>, was sent to a labor camp, but she survived to see her husband posthumously <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">rehabilitated</a> a half-century later by the Soviet state under <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> in 1988.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id='"Ex-kulaks"_and_other_"anti-Soviet_elements"'>"Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements"</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=8" title='Edit section: "Ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements"' class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> On 2 July 1937, in a top secret order to regional Party and NKVD chiefs Stalin instructed them to produce the estimated number of "kulaks" and "criminals" in their districts. These individuals were to be arrested and executed, or sent to the gulag camps. The party chiefs complied and produced these lists within days, with figures which roughly corresponded to the individuals who were already under secret police surveillance.<a href="#cite_note-werth-25">[25]</a> On 30 July 1937, the <a href="/wiki/NKVD_Order_No._00447" title="NKVD Order No. 00447">NKVD Order No. 00447</a> was issued, directed against "ex-kulaks" and other "anti-Soviet elements" (such as former officials of the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Tsarist regime</a>, former members of political parties other than the communist party, etc.). They were to be executed or sent to Gulag prison camps extrajudicially, under the decisions of NKVD troikas. The following categories appear to have been on index-cards, catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the NKVD and were systematically tracked down: "ex-kulaks" previously deported to "<a href="/wiki/Forced_settlements_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced settlements in the Soviet Union">special settlements</a>" in inhospitable parts of the country (<a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Urals</a>, Kazakhstan, and the <a href="/wiki/Extreme_North_(Russia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme North (Russia)">Far North</a>), former tsarist civil servants, former officers of the <a href="/wiki/White_Army" title="White Army">White Army</a>, participants in peasant rebellions, members of the clergy, persons deprived of voting rights, former members of non-Bolshevik parties, ordinary criminals, like thieves, known to the police and various other "socially harmful elements".<a href="#cite_note-werth2-6-64">[64]</a> However, a large number of people were arrested at random in sweeps, on the basis of denunciations or because they were related to, were friends with or knew people already arrested. Engineers, peasants, railwaymen, and other types of workers were arrested during the "Kulak Operation" based on the fact that they worked for or near important strategic sites and factories where work accidents had occurred due to "frantic rhythms and plans". During this period the NKVD reopened these cases and relabeled them as "sabotage" or "wrecking."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evgeny_Miller1.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Evgeny_Miller1.png/150px-Evgeny_Miller1.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="222" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="480"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 222px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Evgeny_Miller1.png/150px-Evgeny_Miller1.png" data-width="150" data-height="222" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Evgeny_Miller1.png/225px-Evgeny_Miller1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Evgeny_Miller1.png/300px-Evgeny_Miller1.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yevgeny_Miller" title="Yevgeny Miller">Yevgeny-Ludvig Karlovich Miller</a>, one of the remaining leaders of the White movement, was kidnapped by the NKVD in 1937 and executed 19 months later.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Orthodox clergy</a>, including active parishioners, was nearly annihilated: 85% of the 35,000 members of the clergy were arrested. Particularly vulnerable to repression were also the so-called "special settlers" (spetzpereselentsy) who were under permanent police surveillance and constituted a huge pool of potential "enemies" to draw on. At least 100,000 of them were arrested in the course of the Great Terror.<a href="#cite_note-sciencespo.fr-66">[66]</a> Common criminals such as thieves, "violators of the passport regime", etc. were also dealt with in a summary way. In Moscow, for example, nearly one third of the 20,765 persons executed on the <a href="/wiki/Butovo_firing_range" title="Butovo firing range">Butovo firing range</a> were charged with a non-political criminal offence.<a href="#cite_note-sciencespo.fr-66">[66]</a> To carry out the mass arrests, the 25,000 officers of the State Security personnel of NKVD were complemented with units of ordinary police, and <a href="/wiki/Komsomol" title="Komsomol">Komsomol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Young_Communist_League" title="Young Communist League">Young Communist League</a>) and civilian Communist Party members. Seeking to fulfill the quotas, the police rounded up people in markets and train stations, with the purpose of arresting "social outcasts".<a href="#cite_note-werth-25">[25]</a> Local units of the NKVD, in order to meet their "casework minimums" and force confessions out of arrestees worked long uninterrupted shifts during which they interrogated, tortured and beat the prisoners. In many cases those arrested were forced to sign blank pages which were later filled in with a fabricated confession by the interrogators.<a href="#cite_note-werth-25">[25]</a> After the interrogations the files were submitted to NKVD troikas, which pronounced the verdicts in the absence of the accused. During a half-day-long session a troika went through several hundred cases, delivering either a death sentence or a sentence to the Gulag labor camps. Death sentences were immediately enforceable. The executions were carried out at night, either in prisons or in secluded areas run by the NKVD and located as a rule on the outskirts of major cities.<a href="#cite_note-werth2-6-64">[64]</a> The "Kulak Operation" was the largest single campaign of repression in 1937–38, with 669,929 people arrested and 376,202 executed, more than half the total of known executions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges2007%5Bhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidsge44FaZDRECpgPA240_240%5D-67">[67]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Campaigns_targeting_nationalities">Campaigns targeting nationalities</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Campaigns targeting nationalities" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">Mass operations of the NKVD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Azerbaijan" title="Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan">Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_victims_of_the_Great_Purge" title="Armenian victims of the Great Purge">Armenian victims of the Great Purge</a></div> A series of <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">mass operations of the NKVD</a> was carried out from 1937 through 1938 targeting specific nationalities within the Soviet Union, on the order of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Polish_Operation_of_the_NKVD" title="Polish Operation of the NKVD">Polish Operation of the NKVD</a> was the largest of this kind.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2010103%E2%80%9304-68">[68]</a> The Polish operation claimed the largest number of the NKVD victims: 143,810 arrests and 111,091 executions according to records. Snyder estimates that at least eighty-five thousand of them were ethnic Poles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2010103%E2%80%9304-68">[68]</a> The remainder were 'suspected' of being Polish, without further inquiry.<a href="#cite_note-Russian1-69">[69]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kosior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kosior.jpg/134px-Kosior.jpg" decoding="async" width="134" height="182" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="227" data-file-height="308"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 134px;height: 182px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kosior.jpg/134px-Kosior.jpg" data-width="134" data-height="182" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Kosior.jpg/201px-Kosior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Kosior.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Polish-born Soviet politician <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Kosior" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislav Kosior">Stanislav Kosior</a>, a contributor to the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">1932–33 famine in Ukraine</a>, executed in 1939</figcaption></figure> Poles comprised 12.5% of those who were killed during the Great Terror, while comprising only 0.4% of the population. Overall, national minorities targeted in these campaigns composed 36%<a href="#cite_note-snyvic-70">[70]</a> of the victims of the Great Purge, despite being only 1.6%<a href="#cite_note-snyvic-70">[70]</a> of the Soviet Union's population. 74%<a href="#cite_note-snyvic-70">[70]</a> of ethnic minorities arrested during the Great Purge were executed while those sentenced during the Kulak Operation had only a 50% chance of being executed,<a href="#cite_note-snyvic-70">[70]</a> (though this may have been due to the Gulag camp's lack of space in the late stages of the Purge rather than deliberate discrimination in sentencing).<a href="#cite_note-snyvic-70">[70]</a> The wives and children of those arrested and executed were dealt with by the <a href="/wiki/NKVD_Order_No._00486" class="mw-redirect" title="NKVD Order No. 00486">NKVD Order No. 00486</a>. The women were sentenced to forced labour for 5 or 10 years.<a href="#cite_note-fronda-71">[71]</a> Their minor children were put in orphanages. All possessions were confiscated. Extended families were purposely left with nothing to live on, which usually sealed their fate as well, affecting up to 200,000–250,000 people of Polish background depending on the size of their families.<a href="#cite_note-fronda-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/National_operations_of_the_NKVD" class="mw-redirect" title="National operations of the NKVD">National operations of the NKVD</a> were conducted on a quota system using <a href="/wiki/Album_procedure" title="Album procedure">album procedure</a>. The officials were mandated to arrest and execute a specific number of so-called "counter-revolutionaries", compiled by administration using various statistics but also telephone books with names sounding non-Russian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECourtois1999-72">[72]</a> The Polish Operation of the NKVD served as a model for a series of similar NKVD secret decrees targeting a number of the Soviet Union's diaspora nationalities: the <a href="/wiki/Finns" title="Finns">Finnish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvians" title="Latvians">Latvian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estonians" title="Estonians">Estonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgarians" title="Bulgarians">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashtuns" title="Pashtuns">Afghan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Iranian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Chinese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-73">[73]</a> Of the operations against national minorities, it was the largest one, second only to the "Kulak Operation" in terms of the number of victims. According to <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a>, ethnic Poles constituted the largest group of victims in the Great Terror, comprising less than 0.5% of the country's population but comprising 12.5% of those executed.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khadija_Gaibova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Khadija_Gaibova.jpg/155px-Khadija_Gaibova.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="238" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="833" data-file-height="1279"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 155px;height: 238px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Khadija_Gaibova.jpg/155px-Khadija_Gaibova.jpg" data-width="155" data-height="238" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Khadija_Gaibova.jpg/233px-Khadija_Gaibova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Khadija_Gaibova.jpg/310px-Khadija_Gaibova.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Pianist <a href="/wiki/Khadija_Gayibova" title="Khadija Gayibova">Khadija Gayibova</a>, executed in 1938</figcaption></figure> Timothy Snyder attributes 300,000 deaths during the Great Purge to "national terror" including ethnic minorities and Ukrainian "kulaks" who had survived <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">dekulakization</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a> famine that had been used to kill millions in the early 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lev_Kopelev" title="Lev Kopelev">Lev Kopelev</a> wrote "In Ukraine 1937 began in 1933", referring to the earlier Soviet political repressions in Ukraine.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a>: 418 There was also deadly persecution of Ukrainian cultural elites, who are referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a>. Statistics of Ukraine's Ministry of Foreign Affairs indicate that about 200,000 victims of the Great Purge were Ukrainians.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Concerning diaspora minorities, the vast majority of whom were Soviet citizens and whose ancestors had resided for decades and sometimes centuries in the Soviet Union and Russian Empire, "this designation absolutized their cross-border ethnicities as the only salient aspect of their identity, sufficient proof of their disloyalty and sufficient justification for their arrest and execution" (Martin, 2001: 338).<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Some scholars have called the national operations of the NKVD <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocidal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-stalpol-82">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Norman_Naimark" title="Norman Naimark">Norman Naimark</a> called Stalin's policy towards Poles in the 1930s "genocidal".<a href="#cite_note-stalpol-82">[82]</a> However, he does not consider the Great Purge entirely genocidal because it also targeted political opponents.<a href="#cite_note-stalpol-82">[82]</a> Some scholars, however, focus on the security dilemma in the border areas suggesting the need to secure the ethnic integrity of Soviet space vis-à-vis neighboring capitalistic enemy states.<a href="#cite_note-:4-73">[73]</a> They stress the role of <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a> and believe that representatives of these minorities were killed not because of their ethnicity, but because of their possible relations to countries hostile to the USSR and fear of disloyalty in the case of an invasion.<a href="#cite_note-:4-73">[73]</a> Nevertheless, little proof exists to suggest that Russia's and Stalin's alleged prejudices played a central causal role in the Great Purge.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Purge_of_the_army">Purge of the army</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Purge of the army" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Case_of_the_Trotskyist_Anti-Soviet_Military_Organization" title="Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization">Case of the Trotskyist Anti-Soviet Military Organization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5marshals_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/220px-5marshals_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="628" data-file-height="450"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 158px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/220px-5marshals_01.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="158" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/330px-5marshals_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/5marshals_01.jpg/440px-5marshals_01.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The first five <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Marshal of the Soviet Union">Marshals of the Soviet Union</a> in November 1935. (l–r): <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tukhachevsky" title="Mikhail Tukhachevsky">Mikhail Tukhachevsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semyon_Budyonny" title="Semyon Budyonny">Semyon Budyonny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Kliment Voroshilov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Blyukher" title="Vasily Blyukher">Vasily Blyukher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Yegorov_(soldier)" title="Alexander Yegorov (soldier)">Alexander Yegorov</a>. Only Budyonny and Voroshilov survived the Great Purge.</figcaption></figure> The purge of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Navy" title="Soviet Navy">Military Maritime Fleet</a> removed three of five <a href="/wiki/Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Marshal of the Soviet Union">marshals</a> (then equivalent to four-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-star generals),<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts),<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008211-85">[85]</a> 50 of 57 army <a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">corps</a> commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army <a href="/wiki/Commissar" title="Commissar">commissars</a>, and 25 of 28 army corps commissars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECourtois1999198-86">[86]</a> At first, it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most of those purged were merely expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–1939 were allowed to return to service.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high command).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008198%E2%80%9389_(a_Soviet_book,_''Marshal_Tukhachevskiy''_by_Nikulin,_pp._189%E2%80%9394_is_cited)-88">[88]</a> The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly created, two people from the eight in the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway. However the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008200%E2%80%9302-89">[89]</a> The purge had a significant effect on German decision making in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>: many German generals opposed an invasion of Russia, but <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> disagreed, arguing that the Red Army was less effective after its intellectual leadership had been eliminated in the purge.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Wider_purge">Wider purge</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Wider purge" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><noscript><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" data-alt="video icon" data-width="16" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7CDo767vFWc&">Soviet woman speech during the Great purge</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><noscript><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 16px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" data-alt="video icon" data-width="16" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zIhDPL92SOY">Nikita Khrushchev speech during Great purge</a></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Great_Purge" title="Special:EditPage/Great Purge">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Russian <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyist</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Vadim_Rogovin" title="Vadim Rogovin">Vadim Rogovin</a> argued that Stalin had destroyed thousands of foreign communists capable of leading socialist change in their respective countries. He referenced 600 active <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Communist_Party" title="Bulgarian Communist Party">Bulgarian</a> communists that perished in his prison camps along with the thousands of German communists that were handed over from Stalin to the Gestapo after the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact" title="Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact">German-Soviet Pact</a>. Rogovin also noted that sixteen members of the <a href="/wiki/Central_committee" title="Central committee">Central committee</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Germany" title="Communist Party of Germany">Communist Party of Germany</a> became victims of Stalinist terror. Repressive measures were also enforced upon the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Communist_Party" title="Hungarian Communist Party">Hungarian</a>, <a href="/wiki/League_of_Communists_of_Yugoslavia" title="League of Communists of Yugoslavia">Yugoslav</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Poland" title="Communist Party of Poland">Polish Communist</a> parties.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Eric_D._Weitz" title="Eric D. Weitz">Eric D. Weitz</a>, 60% of German exiles in the Soviet Union were liquidated during the Stalinist terror, and a higher proportion of the KPD Politburo membership had died in the Soviet Union than had died in Nazi Germany. Weitz also noted that hundreds of German citizens, the majority of whom were Communists, were handed over to the Gestapo from Stalin's administration.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Many Jewish figures such as <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Weissberg-Cybulski" title="Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski">Alexander Weissberg-Cybulski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Houtermans" title="Fritz Houtermans">Fritz Houtermans</a> were arrested in 1937 by the NKVD and turned over to the German Gestapo.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Berger-Barzilai" title="Joseph Berger-Barzilai">Joseph Berger-Barzilai</a>, co-founder of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Palestine" title="Communist Party of Palestine">Communist Party of Palestine</a>, spent twenty five years in Stalin's prisons and concentrations camps after the purges in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> External purges were also conducted in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, in which the NKVD oversaw purges of anti-Stalinist elements in the Spanish Republican forces including <a href="/wiki/Trotskyist" class="mw-redirect" title="Trotskyist">Trotskyist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist">anarchist</a> factions.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Notable cases involved the execution of <a href="/wiki/Andreu_Nin" title="Andreu Nin">Andreu Nin</a>, Spanish <a href="/wiki/POUM" title="POUM">POUM</a> and former government minister, <a href="/wiki/Jose_Robles" class="mw-redirect" title="Jose Robles">Jose Robles</a>, a left-wing academic and translator along with many members of the POUM faction.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Out of six members of the original <a href="/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Politburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Politburo</a> during the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> who lived until the Great Purge, Stalin himself was the only one who remained in the Soviet Union, alive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGellately2007-37">[37]</a> Four of the other five were executed; the fifth, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, had been forced into exile outside the Soviet Union in 1929, but was assassinated in Mexico by Soviet agent <a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Mercader" title="Ramón Mercader">Ramón Mercader</a> in 1940. Of the seven members elected to the Politburo between the October Revolution and Lenin's death in 1924, four were executed, one (<a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tomsky" title="Mikhail Tomsky">Tomsky</a>) committed suicide, and two (Molotov and <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kalinin" title="Mikhail Kalinin">Kalinin</a>) lived.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A series of documents discovered in the Central Committee archives in 1992 by <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Bukovsky" title="Vladimir Bukovsky">Vladimir Bukovsky</a> demonstrate that there were limits for arrests and executions as for all other activities in the planned economy.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The victims were convicted <a href="/wiki/Trial_in_absentia" title="Trial in absentia">in absentia</a> and in camera by extrajudicial organs—the <a href="/wiki/NKVD_troika" title="NKVD troika">NKVD troikas</a> sentenced indigenous "enemies" under <a href="/wiki/NKVD_Order_No._00447" title="NKVD Order No. 00447">NKVD Order No. 00447</a> and the two-man dvoiki (NKVD Commissar <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a> and Main State Prosecutor <a href="/wiki/Andrey_Vyshinsky" title="Andrey Vyshinsky">Andrey Vyshinsky</a>, or their deputies) those arrested along national lines.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The victims were executed at night, either in prisons, in the cellars of NKVD headquarters, or in a secluded area, usually a forest. The NKVD officers shot prisoners in the head using pistols.<a href="#cite_note-sciencespo.fr-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Other methods of dispatching victims were used on an experimental basis. In Moscow, the use of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_gas_van" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet gas van">gas vans</a> to kill the victims during their transportation to the <a href="/wiki/Butovo_firing_range" title="Butovo firing range">Butovo firing range</a> has been documented.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligentsia">Intelligentsia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Intelligentsia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/UPTI_Affair" title="UPTI Affair">UPTI Affair</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">Sharashka</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Korets%E2%80%93Landau_leaflet" title="Korets–Landau leaflet">Korets–Landau leaflet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg/220px-NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="694"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg/220px-NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg/330px-NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg/440px-NKVD_Mandelstam.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>1938 NKVD arrest photo of the poet <a href="/wiki/Osip_Mandelstam" title="Osip Mandelstam">Osip Mandelstam</a>, who died in a labor camp</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Babel_NKWD.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Babel_NKWD.png/220px-Babel_NKWD.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="803"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Babel_NKWD.png/220px-Babel_NKWD.png" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Babel_NKWD.png/330px-Babel_NKWD.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Babel_NKWD.png/440px-Babel_NKWD.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The NKVD photo of writer <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Babel" title="Isaac Babel">Isaac Babel</a> made after his arrest</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MeyerholdMug.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/MeyerholdMug.jpg/220px-MeyerholdMug.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="435"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 160px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/MeyerholdMug.jpg/220px-MeyerholdMug.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="160" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/MeyerholdMug.jpg/330px-MeyerholdMug.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/MeyerholdMug.jpg/440px-MeyerholdMug.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Theatre director <a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Meyerhold" title="Vsevolod Meyerhold">Vsevolod Meyerhold</a> at the time of his arrest</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vavilov_in_prison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vavilov_in_prison.jpg/220px-Vavilov_in_prison.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="848" data-file-height="597"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 155px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vavilov_in_prison.jpg/220px-Vavilov_in_prison.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="155" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vavilov_in_prison.jpg/330px-Vavilov_in_prison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Vavilov_in_prison.jpg/440px-Vavilov_in_prison.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Botanist <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a>'s photo, taken at the time of his arrest</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aino_Forsten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Aino_Forsten.jpg/180px-Aino_Forsten.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="292" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="228" data-file-height="370"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 292px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Aino_Forsten.jpg/180px-Aino_Forsten.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="180" data-height="292" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Aino_Forsten.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aino_Forsten" title="Aino Forsten">Aino Forsten</a>; (1885–1937) Finnish educator and <a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Finland" title="Social Democratic Party of Finland">Social Democratic</a> politician,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> later arrested and executed</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1930-MushketovD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1930-MushketovD.jpg/180px-1930-MushketovD.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="220" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="779"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 220px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1930-MushketovD.jpg/180px-1930-MushketovD.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="220" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1930-MushketovD.jpg/270px-1930-MushketovD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/1930-MushketovD.jpg/360px-1930-MushketovD.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Paleontologist and geologist <a href="/wiki/Dmitrii_Mushketov" class="mw-redirect" title="Dmitrii Mushketov">Dmitrii Mushketov</a>, executed in 1938.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VSOshchepkov1912.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/VSOshchepkov1912.jpg/180px-VSOshchepkov1912.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="192" data-file-height="264"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 248px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/VSOshchepkov1912.jpg/180px-VSOshchepkov1912.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="248" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/VSOshchepkov1912.jpg 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Vasili_Oshchepkov" title="Vasili Oshchepkov">Vasili Oshchepkov</a>, who popularized <a href="/wiki/Judo" title="Judo">judo</a> in the USSR and co-invented <a href="/wiki/Sambo_(martial_art)" title="Sambo (martial art)">sambo</a>. He was accused of being a Japanese spy, and <a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">extrajudicially executed</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Butyrka" class="mw-redirect" title="Butyrka">Butyrka</a> in 1938.</figcaption></figure> Those who perished during the Great Purge include: <div><ul><li>Theoretical <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Matvei_Bronstein" title="Matvei Bronstein">Matvei Bronstein</a> and pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> was arrested, accused of fictional "terroristic" activity and shot in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a> was a prominent Russian <a href="/wiki/Geneticist" title="Geneticist">geneticist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botanist</a> that made several contributions to <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_science" title="Agricultural science">agricultural science</a> such as the law of homologous series in variation and <a href="/wiki/Vavilov_center" title="Vavilov center">centres of origins of cultivated plants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> He was removed from his formal positions in 1935 and perished in prison in 1943 following his conflicts with <a href="/wiki/Trofim_Lysenko" title="Trofim Lysenko">Trofim Lysenko</a>. The controversy would also contribute to a wider decline in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> research in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li><li>Experimental physicist <a href="/wiki/Lev_Shubnikov" title="Lev Shubnikov">Lev Shubnikov</a> considered the "Soviet founding father of Soviet low-temperature physics"<a href="#cite_note-j24093868-109">[109]</a> He was known for the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Shubnikov%E2%80%93de_Haas_effect" title="Shubnikov–de Haas effect">Shubnikov–de Haas effect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Type-II_superconductor" title="Type-II superconductor">type-II superconductivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-j24093868-109">[109]</a> He also one of the first to discover <a href="/wiki/Antiferromagnetism" title="Antiferromagnetism">antiferromagnetism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Shubnikov was executed in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li><li>Soviet economist <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Kondratiev" title="Nikolai Kondratiev">Nikolai Kondratiev</a> was a proponent for the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a> and developed the business cycle theory known as <a href="/wiki/Kondratiev_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Kondratiev waves">Kondratiev waves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Kondratiev was executed in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_Obolensky" title="Valerian Obolensky">Valerian Obolensky</a>, was a Soviet economist, chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> and Professor of the Agricultural Academy<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> in Moscow but was eventually executed on fabricated charges in 1938.</li><li><a href="/wiki/Isaak_Rubin" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaak Rubin">Isaak Rubin</a>, Soviet economist and ranked among the most influential contributors to the classical Marxist tradition. He is noted for his seminal work, <a href="/wiki/Essays_on_Marx%27s_Theory_of_Value" title="Essays on Marx's Theory of Value">Essays on Marx's Theory of Value</a>. Rubin was arrested and executed in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Milyutin" title="Vladimir Milyutin">Vladimir Milyutin</a>, Russian economist, politician and statistician, supporter of a socialist coalition government in 1917 and <a href="/wiki/Worker%27s_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker's control">worker's control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Perished under Stalin's purges in 1937.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></li><li>Astronomer <a href="/wiki/Boris_Numerov" title="Boris Numerov">Boris Numerov</a>, founder of the Computing Institute in 1919 and was noted for his specialism in applied celestial mechanics before the Second World War. He was executed in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></li><li>Soviet engineer and inventor <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Kleymyonov" title="Ivan Kleymyonov">Ivan Kleymyonov</a> who among the key founders of Soviet <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocketry</a>, chief of the <a href="/wiki/Gas_Dynamics_Laboratory" title="Gas Dynamics Laboratory">Gas Dynamics Laboratory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Kleymyonov was executed in 1938.</li><li>Soviet <a href="/wiki/Astrophysicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrophysicist">astrophysicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boris_Gerasimovich" title="Boris Gerasimovich">Boris Gerasimovich</a> who was director of the <a href="/wiki/Pulkovo_Observatory" title="Pulkovo Observatory">Pulkovo Observatory</a>. Gerasimovich was arrested along with 13 other astronomers and was personally executed in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a></li><li>Soviet engineer and chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_the_National_Economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Council of the National Economy">Supreme Council of the National Economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Bogdanov" title="Pyotr Bogdanov">Pyotr Bogdanov</a>, who oversaw Soviet construction projects and nationalization of the chemical industry. Bogdanov was executed in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></li><li>Soviet military theorist and general, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Svechin" title="Alexander Svechin">Alexander Svechin</a>, was a leading thinker in the field during the 1920s and noted for his seminal work, Strategy, before he was purged in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li><li>Poet <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Gastev" title="Aleksei Gastev">Aleksei Gastev</a>, director of <a href="/wiki/Central_Institute_of_Labour" title="Central Institute of Labour">Central Institute of Labour</a> and pioneering theorist of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_management" title="Scientific management">scientific management</a> of labour in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> His son, <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gastev" title="Yuri Gastev">Yuri Gastev</a> became a prominent Soviet <a href="/wiki/Cybernetician" class="mw-redirect" title="Cybernetician">cybernetician</a>, emigre and eventual political dissident.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></li><li>Jewish German <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a> <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Noether" title="Fritz Noether">Fritz Noether</a> had fled persecution from <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in 1934. He was also the sibling of prominent mathematician <a href="/wiki/Emmy_Noether" title="Emmy Noether">Emmy Noether</a> who made various contributions to <a href="/wiki/Abstract_algebra" title="Abstract algebra">abstract algebra</a>. He had contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Herglotz%E2%80%93Noether_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Herglotz–Noether theorem">Herglotz–Noether theorem</a> in <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> had futilely pleaded for his case prior to his eventual execution due to accusations of working as a German spy.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></li><li>Poet <a href="/wiki/Osip_Mandelstam" title="Osip Mandelstam">Osip Mandelstam</a> was arrested for reciting his famous anti-Stalin poem <a href="/wiki/Stalin_Epigram" title="Stalin Epigram">Stalin Epigram</a> to his circle of friends in 1934. After intervention by Nikolai Bukharin and <a href="/wiki/Boris_Pasternak" title="Boris Pasternak">Boris Pasternak</a> (Stalin jotted down in Bukharin's letter with feigned[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] indignation: "Who gave them the right to arrest Mandelstam?"), Stalin instructed NKVD to "isolate but preserve" him, and Mandelstam was "merely" exiled to <a href="/wiki/Cherdyn,_Perm_Krai" title="Cherdyn, Perm Krai">Cherdyn</a> for three years, but this proved to be a temporary reprieve. In May 1938, he was arrested again for "counter-revolutionary activities".<a href="#cite_note-poemhunter-136">[136]</a> On 2 August 1938, Mandelstam was sentenced to five years in correction camps and died on 27 December 1938 at a transit camp near Vladivostok.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Pasternak himself was nearly purged, but Stalin is said to have crossed Pasternak's name off the list, saying "Don't touch this cloud dweller."<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></li><li>Writer <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Babel" title="Isaac Babel">Isaac Babel</a> was arrested in May 1939, and according to his confession paper (which contained a blood stain) he "confessed" to being a member of a Trotskyist organization and being recruited by French writer <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Malraux" title="André Malraux">André Malraux</a> to spy for France. In the final interrogation, he retracted his confession and wrote letters to the prosecutor's office stating that he had implicated innocent people, but to no avail. Babel was tried before an NKVD troika and convicted of simultaneously spying for the French, Austrians and Trotsky, as well as "membership in a terrorist organization". On 27 January 1940, he was shot in <a href="/wiki/Butyrka_prison" title="Butyrka prison">Butyrka prison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-139">[139]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Sukhanov" title="Nikolai Sukhanov">Nikolai Sukhanov</a>, chronicler of the Russian Revolution of 1917, agrarian economist, revolutionary intellectual and editor of the opposition paper.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Initially, arrested during the <a href="/wiki/1931_Menshevik_Trial" title="1931 Menshevik Trial">Menshevik Trials</a> in 1931, arrested again in 1937 for alleged espionage before he was ultimately executed in 1940.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li><li>Writer <a href="/wiki/Boris_Pilnyak" title="Boris Pilnyak">Boris Pilnyak</a> was arrested on 28 October 1937 for counter-revolutionary activities, spying and terrorism. One report alleged that "he held secret meetings with <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gide" title="André Gide">[André] Gide</a>, and supplied him with information about the situation in the USSR. There is no doubt that Gide used this information in his book attacking the USSR." Pilnyak was tried on 21 April 1938. In the proceeding that lasted 15 minutes, he was condemned to death and executed shortly afterward.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-139">[139]</a></li><li>Theatre director <a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Meyerhold" title="Vsevolod Meyerhold">Vsevolod Meyerhold</a> was arrested in 1939 and shot in February 1940 for "spying" for Japanese and British intelligence. His wife, the actress <a href="/wiki/Zinaida_Reich" title="Zinaida Reich">Zinaida Raikh</a>, was murdered in her apartment.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> In a letter to Molotov dated 13 January 1940, Meyerhold wrote: <blockquote>The investigators began to use force on me, a sick 65-year-old man. I was made to lie face down and beaten on the soles of my feet and my spine with a rubber strap ... For the next few days, when those parts of my legs were covered with extensive internal hemorrhaging, they again beat the red-blue-and-yellow bruises with the strap and the pain was so intense that it felt as if boiling water was being poured on these sensitive areas. I howled and wept from the pain. I incriminated myself in the hope that by telling them lies I could end the ordeal. When I lay down on the cot and fell asleep, after 18 hours of interrogation, in order to go back in an hour's time for more, I was woken up by my own groaning and because I was jerking about like a patient in the last stages of typhoid fever.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-139">[139]</a></blockquote></li><li>Georgian poet <a href="/wiki/Titsian_Tabidze" title="Titsian Tabidze">Titsian Tabidze</a> was arrested on 10 October 1937 on a charge of treason and was tortured in prison. In a bitter humor, he named only the 18th-century Georgian poet <a href="/wiki/Besiki" title="Besiki">Besiki</a> as his accomplice in anti-Soviet activities.<a href="#cite_note-auto-143">[143]</a> He was executed on 16 December 1937.</li><li>Tabidze's lifelong friend and fellow poet, <a href="/wiki/Paolo_Iashvili" title="Paolo Iashvili">Paolo Iashvili</a>, having earlier been forced to denounce several of his associates as the <a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">enemies of the people</a>, shot himself with a hunting gun in the building of the Writers' Union.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> He witnessed and was even forced to participate in public trials that ousted many of his associates from the Writers' Union, effectively condemning them to death. When <a href="/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria" title="Lavrentiy Beria">Lavrentiy Beria</a>, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus under Stalin and subsequently head of the NKVD, further pressured Iashvili with the alternatives of denouncing Tabidze or being arrested and tortured by the NKVD, Iashvili killed himself.<a href="#cite_note-auto-143">[143]</a></li><li>In early 1937, poet Pavel Nikolayevich Vasiliev is said to have defended Nikolai Bukharin as "a man of the highest nobility and the conscience of peasant Russia" at the time of his denunciation at the Pyatakov Trial (Second Moscow Trial) and damned other writers then signing the routine condemnations as "pornographic scrawls on the margins of Russian literature". He was promptly shot on 16 July 1937.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008301-145">[145]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Sten" title="Jan Sten">Jan Sten</a>, philosopher and deputy head of the Marx-Engels Institute, was Stalin's private tutor when Stalin was trying hard to study Hegel's <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">dialectic</a>. (Stalin received lessons twice a week from 1925 to 1928, but he found it difficult to master even some of the basic ideas. Stalin developed enduring hostility toward German idealistic philosophy, which he called "the aristocratic reaction to the French Revolution".) Sten eventually became a member of an underground opposition group, and this group later joined the <a href="/wiki/Bloc_of_Soviet_Oppositions" title="Bloc of Soviet Oppositions">Bloc of Soviet Oppositions</a> which was led by Leon Trotsky.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> In 1937, Sten was seized on the direct order of Stalin, who declared him one of the chiefs of "<a href="/wiki/Mensheviks" title="Mensheviks">Menshevizing</a> idealists". On 19 June 1937, Sten was put to death in <a href="/wiki/Lefortovo_prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Lefortovo prison">Lefortovo prison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_Riazanov" title="David Riazanov">David Riazanov</a>, Soviet historian and founder of the <a href="/wiki/Marx-Engels_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx-Engels Institute">Marx-Engels Institute</a>. He had been an old associate of <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Arrested and put to death in 1938.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li><li>Poet <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Klyuev" title="Nikolai Klyuev">Nikolai Klyuev</a> was arrested in 1933 for contradicting Soviet ideology. He was shot in October 1937.</li><li>Russian linguist <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Nikolayevich_Durnovo" title="Nikolai Nikolayevich Durnovo">Nikolai Durnovo</a>, born into the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Durnovo" title="House of Durnovo">Durnovo noble family</a>, was executed on 27 October 1937. He created a classification of Russian dialects that served as a base for modern scientific linguistic nomenclature.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mari_people" title="Mari people">Mari</a> poet and playwright <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Chavain" title="Sergei Chavain">Sergei Chavain</a> was executed in <a href="/wiki/Yoshkar-Ola" title="Yoshkar-Ola">Yoshkar-Ola</a> on 11 November 1937. The <a href="/wiki/State_Prizes_of_the_Soviet_Republics" title="State Prizes of the Soviet Republics">State prize</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mari_El" title="Mari El">Mari El</a> is named after Chavain.</li><li>Ukrainian theater and movie director <a href="/wiki/Les_Kurbas" title="Les Kurbas">Les Kurbas</a>, considered by many to be the most important Ukrainian theater director of the 20th century, was shot on 3 November 1937.</li><li>Russian writer and explorer <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_Kravkov" title="Maximilian Kravkov">Maximilian Kravkov</a> was arrested on a charge of his alleged participation in the "Japanese-SR Terrorist Subversive Espionage Organization". He was executed on 12 October 1937.</li><li>Russian <a href="/wiki/Esperanto" title="Esperanto">Esperanto</a> writer and translator <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vladimirovich_Nekrasov" title="Nikolai Vladimirovich Nekrasov">Nikolai Nekrasov</a> was arrested in 1938, and accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists". He was executed on 4 October 1938. Another Esperanto writer <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Varankin" title="Vladimir Varankin">Vladimir Varankin</a> was executed on 3 October 1938.</li><li>Playwright and avant-garde poet <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Oleynikov" title="Nikolay Oleynikov">Nikolay Oleynikov</a> was arrested and executed for "subversive writing" on 24 November 1937.</li><li><a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakut</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Platon_Oyunsky" title="Platon Oyunsky">Platon Oyunsky</a>, seen as one of the founders of modern Yakut literature, died in prison in 1939.</li><li>Russian dramaturge <a href="/wiki/Adrian_Piotrovsky" title="Adrian Piotrovsky">Adrian Piotrovsky</a>, responsible for creating the synopsis for Sergei Prokofiev's ballet <a href="/wiki/Romeo_and_Juliet_(Prokofiev)" title="Romeo and Juliet (Prokofiev)">Romeo and Juliet</a>, was executed on 21 November 1937.</li><li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Shumyatsky" title="Boris Shumyatsky">Boris Shumyatsky</a>, de facto executive producer for the Soviet film monopoly from 1930 to 1937, was executed as a "traitor" in 1938, following a purge of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_film_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet film industry">Soviet film industry</a>.</li><li>Sinologist <a href="/wiki/Julian_Shchutsky" title="Julian Shchutsky">Julian Shchutsky</a> was convicted as a "Japanese spy" and executed on 2 February 1938.</li><li>Russian linguist <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Aleksandrovich_Nevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolai Aleksandrovich Nevsky">Nikolai Nevsky</a>, an expert on East Asian languages, was arrested by the NKVD on the charge of being a "Japanese spy". On 27 November 1937 he was executed, along with his Japanese wife Isoko Mantani-Nevsky.</li><li>Ukrainian drama writer <a href="/wiki/Mykola_Kulish" title="Mykola Kulish">Mykola Kulish</a> was executed on 3 November 1937. He is considered to be one of the lead figures of <a href="/wiki/Executed_Renaissance" title="Executed Renaissance">Executed Renaissance</a>.</li><li>After <a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">sunspot</a> development research was judged un-Marxist, 27 astronomers disappeared between 1936 and 1938. The Meteorological Office was violently purged as early as 1933 for failing to predict weather harmful to the crops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008295-150">[150]</a></li></ul></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:184px;max-width:184px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:ChoibalsanNUM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/ChoibalsanNUM.jpg/180px-ChoibalsanNUM.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 240px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/ChoibalsanNUM.jpg/180px-ChoibalsanNUM.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="180" data-height="240" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/ChoibalsanNUM.jpg/270px-ChoibalsanNUM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/ChoibalsanNUM.jpg/360px-ChoibalsanNUM.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:182px;max-width:182px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg/180px-Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="260" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1011"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 260px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg/180px-Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="180" data-height="260" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg/270px-Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg/360px-Sheng_Shi-tsai.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Statue of <a href="/wiki/Khorloogiin_Choibalsan" title="Khorloogiin Choibalsan">Khorloogiin Choibalsan</a> in front of the <a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Mongolia" title="National University of Mongolia">National University of Mongolia</a>, and portrait of <a href="/wiki/Sheng_Shicai" title="Sheng Shicai">Sheng Shicai</a>, who both organized large-scale murderous purges in <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_émigré_victims">Western émigré victims</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Western émigré victims" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Victims of the terror included American immigrants to the Soviet Union who had emigrated at the height of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> to find work. At the height of the Terror, American immigrants besieged the US embassy, begging for passports so they could leave the Soviet Union. They were turned away by embassy officials, only to be arrested on the pavement outside by lurking NKVD agents. Many[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">quantify</a>] were subsequently shot dead at <a href="/wiki/Butovo_firing_range" title="Butovo firing range">Butovo firing range</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In addition, 141 American Communists of Finnish origin were executed and buried at <a href="/wiki/Sandarmokh" title="Sandarmokh">Sandarmokh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> 127 <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish Canadian">Finnish Canadians</a> were also shot and buried there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaynesKlehr2003117-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Executions_of_Gulag_inmates">Executions of Gulag inmates</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Executions of Gulag inmates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Political prisoners already serving a sentence in the Gulag camps were also executed in large numbers. NKVD Order no. 00447 also targeted "the most vicious and stubborn anti-Soviet elements in camps", they were all "to be put into the first category"—that is, shot. NKVD Order no. 00447 decreed 10,000 executions for this contingent, but at least three times more were shot in the course of the secret mass operation, the majority in March–April 1938.<a href="#cite_note-sciencespo.fr-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongolian_Great_Purge">Mongolian Great Purge</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mongolian Great Purge" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Mongolia" title="Stalinist repressions in Mongolia">Stalinist repressions in Mongolia</a></div> During the late 1930s, Stalin dispatched NKVD operatives to the <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_People%27s_Republic" title="Mongolian People's Republic">Mongolian People's Republic</a>, established a Mongolian version of the NKVD troika, and proceeded to execute tens of thousands of people accused of having ties to "pro-Japanese spy rings".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuromiya20072-154">[154]</a> Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">lamas</a> made up the majority of victims, with 18,000 being killed in the terror. Other victims were nobility and political and academic figures, along with some ordinary workers and herders.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Mass graves containing hundreds of executed Buddhist monks and civilians have been discovered as recently as 2003.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xinjiang_Great_Purge">Xinjiang Great Purge</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Xinjiang Great Purge" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_War_(1937)" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinjiang War (1937)">Xinjiang War (1937)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sheng_Shicai" title="Sheng Shicai">Sheng Shicai</a></div> The pro-Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Sheng_Shicai" title="Sheng Shicai">Sheng Shicai</a> of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> province in China launched his own purge in 1937 to coincide with Stalin's Great Purge. The <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_War_(1937)" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinjiang War (1937)">Xinjiang War (1937)</a> broke out amid the purge.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Sheng received assistance from the NKVD. Sheng and the Soviets alleged a massive Trotskyist conspiracy and a "Fascist Trotskyite plot" to destroy the Soviet Union. The Soviet Consul General <a href="/wiki/Garegin_Apresov" title="Garegin Apresov">Garegin Apresoff</a>, General <a href="/wiki/Ma_Hushan" title="Ma Hushan">Ma Hushan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma_Shaowu" title="Ma Shaowu">Ma Shaowu</a>, Mahmud Sijan, the official leader of the Xinjiang province Huang Han-chang and <a href="/wiki/Hoja-Niyaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoja-Niyaz">Hoja-Niyaz</a> were among the 435 alleged conspirators in the plot. Xinjiang came under virtual Soviet control.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Timeline" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Great_Purge" title="Timeline of the Great Purge">Timeline of the Great Purge</a></div> The Great Purge of 1936–1938 can be roughly divided into four periods:<a href="#cite_note-OR-159">[159]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg/140px-Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="185" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="338" data-file-height="446"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 140px;height: 185px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg/140px-Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="140" data-height="185" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg/210px-Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg/280px-Izrail_Pliner_NKVD.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Israel_Pliner" title="Israel Pliner">Israil Pliner</a>; (1896–1939) chief of <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a> <a href="/wiki/NKVD" title="NKVD">NKVD</a> (1937–1938), later himself arrested and executed in 1939</figcaption></figure> <dl><dt>October 1936 – February 1937</dt> <dd>Reforming the security organizations, adopting official plans on purging the elites.</dd> <dt>March – June 1937</dt> <dd>Purging the elites; adopting plans for the mass repressions against the "social base" of the potential aggressors, starting of purging the "elites" from opposition.</dd> <dt>July 1937 – October 1938</dt> <dd>Mass repressions against "kulaks", "dangerous" ethnic minorities, family members of oppositionists, military officers, saboteurs in agriculture and industry.</dd> <dt>November 1938 – 1939</dt> <dd>Stopping of mass operations, abolishing of many organs of extrajudicial executions, repressions against some organizers of mass repressions.</dd></dl> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="End">End</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: End" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal,_orignal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg/200px-Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="163" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="997"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 163px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg/200px-Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="200" data-height="163" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg/300px-Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg/400px-Nikolai_Yezhov_with_Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_orignal.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal,_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg/200px-Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1226" data-file-height="1004"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 164px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg/200px-Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="200" data-height="164" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg/300px-Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg/400px-Stalin_and_Molotov_along_the_Volga%E2%80%93Don_Canal%2C_Nikolai_Yezhov_removed.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae" title="Damnatio memoriae">Damnatio memoriae</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Yezhov" title="Nikolai Yezhov">Nikolai Yezhov</a>. He was posthumously removed from pictures, such as here where he stood next to Joseph Stalin.</div></div></div></div></div> In the summer of 1938, Yezhov was relieved from his post as head of the NKVD and was eventually tried and executed. <a href="/wiki/Lavrentiy_Beria" title="Lavrentiy Beria">Lavrentiy Beria</a> succeeded him as head. On 17 November 1938, a joint decree of <a href="/wiki/Sovnarkom" class="mw-redirect" title="Sovnarkom">Sovnarkom</a> USSR and <a href="/wiki/Central_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Committee">Central Committee</a> of VKP(b) (<a href="/wiki/Decree_about_Arrests,_Prosecutor_Supervision_and_Course_of_Investigation" title="Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation">Decree about Arrests, Prosecutor Supervision and Course of Investigation</a>) and the subsequent order of the NKVD undersigned by Beria cancelled most of the <a href="/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD" title="Mass operations of the NKVD">NKVD orders of systematic repression</a> and suspended implementation of death sentences. The decree signaled the end of massive Soviet purges.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Michael Parrish argues that while the Great Terror ended in 1938, a lesser terror continued in the 1940s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish199632-160">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a> (a Soviet Army officer who became a prisoner for a decade in the Gulag system) presents in <a href="/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago" title="The Gulag Archipelago">The Gulag Archipelago</a> his view of the timeline of all the Leninist and Stalinist purges (1918–1956), in which the 1936–1938 purge may have been simply the one that got the most attention from people in a position to record its magnitude for posterity—the intelligentsia—by directly targeting them, whereas several other waves of the ongoing flow of purges, such as the <a href="/wiki/First_five-year_plan_(Soviet_Union)" title="First five-year plan (Soviet Union)">first five-year plan</a> of 1928–1933's collectivization and <a href="/wiki/Dekulakization" title="Dekulakization">dekulakization</a>, were just as huge and just as devoid of justice but were more successfully swallowed into oblivion in the popular memory of the (surviving) Soviet public.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESolzhenitsyn1973-161">[161]</a> In some cases, high military command arrested under Yezhov were later executed under Beria. Some examples include Marshal of the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Yegorov_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Yegorov (military)">Alexander Yegorov</a>, arrested in April 1938 and shot (or died from torture) in February 1939 (his wife, G. A. Yegorova, was shot in August 1938); Army Commander <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Fedko" title="Ivan Fedko">Ivan Fedko</a>, arrested July 1938 and shot February 1939; Flagman Konstantin Dushenov, arrested May 1938 and shot February 1940; Komkor <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Bondar" title="Georgy Bondar">G. I. Bondar</a>, arrested August 1938 and shot March 1939. All the aforementioned have been posthumously <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">rehabilitated</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrish199633-162">[162]</a> When the relatives of those who had been executed in 1937–1938 inquired about their fate, they were told by NKVD that their arrested relatives had been sentenced to "<a href="/wiki/10_years_without_the_right_of_correspondence" title="10 years without the right of correspondence">10 years without the right of correspondence</a>" (десять лет без права переписки). When these ten-year periods elapsed in 1947–1948 but the arrested did not appear, the relatives asked <a href="/wiki/Ministry_for_State_Security_(USSR)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry for State Security (USSR)">MGB</a> about their fate again and this time were told that the arrested died in imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Western_reactions">Western reactions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Western reactions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> Although the trials of former Soviet leaders were widely publicized, the hundreds of thousands of other arrests and executions were not. These became known in the West only as a few former gulag inmates reached the West with their stories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008472%E2%80%9373-164">[164]</a> Not only did foreign correspondents from the West fail to report on the purges, but in many Western nations (especially France), attempts were made to silence or discredit these witnesses;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008472-165">[165]</a> according to Robert Conquest, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> took the position that evidence of the camps should be ignored so the French proletariat would not be discouraged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008472-165">[165]</a> A series of legal actions ensued at which definitive evidence was presented that established the validity of the former labor camp inmates' testimony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008472%E2%80%9374-166">[166]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a> in his 1968 book The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties, with respect to the trials of former leaders, some Western observers were unintentionally or intentionally ignorant of the fraudulent nature of the charges and evidence, notably <a href="/wiki/Walter_Duranty" title="Walter Duranty">Walter Duranty</a> of <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, a Russian speaker; the American Ambassador, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Davies" title="Joseph E. Davies">Joseph E. Davies</a>, who reported, "proof ... beyond reasonable doubt to justify the verdict of treason";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008468-167">[167]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_Webb" title="Beatrice Webb">Beatrice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Webb">Sidney Webb</a>, authors of Soviet Communism: A New Civilization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008469-168">[168]</a> While "Communist Parties everywhere simply transmitted the Soviet line", some of the most critical reporting also came from the left, notably <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Manchester Guardian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008465,_467-169">[169]</a> The American journalist <a href="/wiki/H._R._Knickerbocker" class="mw-redirect" title="H. R. Knickerbocker">H. R. Knickerbocker</a> also reported on the executions. He called them in 1941 "the great purges", and described how over four years they affected "the top fourth or fifth, to estimate it conservatively, of the Party itself, of the Army, Navy, and Air Force leaders and then of the new Bolshevik intelligentsia, the foremost technicians, managers, supervisors, scientists". Knickerbocker also wrote about dekulakization: "It is a conservative estimate to say that some 5,000,000 [kulaks] ... died at once, or within a few years."<a href="#cite_note-knickerbocker1941-170">[170]</a> Evidence and the results of research began to appear after Stalin's death. This revealed the full enormity of the Purges. The first of these sources were the revelations of Nikita Khrushchev, which particularly affected the American editors of the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_USA" title="Communist Party USA">Communist Party USA</a> newspaper, the <a href="/wiki/Daily_Worker" title="Daily Worker">Daily Worker</a>, who, following the lead of The New York Times, published the <a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">Secret Speech</a> in full.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="Rehabilitation">Rehabilitation</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rehabilitation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">Rehabilitation (Soviet)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_(Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg/220px-The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1014" data-file-height="731"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 159px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg/220px-The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="159" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg/330px-The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg/440px-The_Soviet_Union_1963_CPA_2824_stamp_%28Russian_Civil_War_Hero_Marshal_of_the_Soviet_Union_Mikhail_Tukhachevsky._Map_of_Eastern_Front_of_Russian_Civil_War%29.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Posthumously rehabilitated, <a href="/wiki/Tukhachevsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Tukhachevsky">Tukhachevsky</a> on a 1963 postage stamp of the Soviet Union</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg/220px-No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1456"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 124px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg/220px-No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="124" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg/330px-No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg/440px-No_to_death_penalty_sculpture_Ulaanbaatar.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Monument to victims of the repressions in <a href="/wiki/Ulaanbaatar" title="Ulaanbaatar">Ulaanbaatar</a>, Mongolia</figcaption></figure> The Great Purge was denounced by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev following Stalin's death. In his secret speech to the <a href="/wiki/20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union">20th</a> <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">CPSU</a> congress in February 1956 (which was made public a month later), Khrushchev referred to the purges as an "abuse of power" by Stalin which resulted in enormous harm to the country. In the same speech, he recognized that many of the victims were innocent and were convicted on the basis of false confessions extracted by torture. Khrushchev later claimed in his memoirs that he had initiated the process, overcoming objections and protests from the rest of Party leadership, but the transcripts belie this, although they show differences of opinion regarding the contents.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Starting from 1954, some of the convictions were overturned. Mikhail Tukhachevsky and other generals convicted in the Trial of Red Army Generals were declared innocent ("<a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(Soviet)" title="Rehabilitation (Soviet)">rehabilitated</a>") in 1957. The former Politburo members <a href="/wiki/Yan_Rudzutak" class="mw-redirect" title="Yan Rudzutak">Yan Rudzutak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Kosior" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislav Kosior">Stanislav Kosior</a> and many lower-level victims were also declared innocent in the 1950s. Nikolai Bukharin and others convicted in the Moscow Trials were not rehabilitated until as late as 1988. Leon Trotsky, considered a major player in the Russian Revolution and a major contributor to <a href="/wiki/Marxist_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist theory">Marxist theory</a>, was never rehabilitated by the USSR. The book Rehabilitation: The Political Processes of the 1930s–50s (Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов) (1991) contains a large amount of newly presented original archive material: transcripts of interrogations, letters of convicts, and photos. The material demonstrates in detail how numerous show trials were fabricated.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Number_of_people_executed">Number of people executed</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Number of people executed" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="718"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 154px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg/220px-RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="154" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg/330px-RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg/440px-RIAN_archive_910794_Memorial_events_in_Bykovnya_Graves_reserve.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Memorial events in <a href="/wiki/Bykivnia_graves" title="Bykivnia graves">Bykivnia graves</a> reserve</figcaption></figure> Official figures put the total number of documentable executions during the years 1937 and 1938 at 681,692,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurston1998139-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> in addition to 116,000 deaths in the <a href="/wiki/Gulag" title="Gulag">Gulag</a>,<a href="#cite_note-EllmanComment-1">[1]</a> and 2,000 unofficially killed in non-article 58 shootings;<a href="#cite_note-EllmanComment-1">[1]</a> whereas the total estimate of deaths brought about by Soviet repression during the Great Purge ranges from 950,000 to 1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention and those who died shortly after being released from the Gulag, as a result of their treatment therein.<a href="#cite_note-EllmanComment-1">[1]</a> There were also <a href="/wiki/Deportation_of_Koreans_in_the_Soviet_Union#Death_tol" title="Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union">16,500 to 50,000 deaths in the deportation of Soviet Koreans</a> which correspond to the purge. According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a>, a practice of falsification for lowering the execution numbers was disguising executions with the sentence "<a href="/wiki/10_years_without_the_right_of_correspondence" title="10 years without the right of correspondence">10 years without the right of correspondence</a>" which almost always meant execution. All of the bodies identified from the mass graves at <a href="/wiki/Vinnytsia_massacre" title="Vinnytsia massacre">Vinnitsa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kuropaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuropaty">Kuropaty</a> were of individuals who had received this sentence.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Despite this, the lower figure did roughly confirm Conquest's original 1968 estimate of 700,000 "legal" executions and in the preface to the 40th anniversary edition of The Great Terror, Conquest claimed that he had been "correct on the vital matter—the numbers put to death: about one million".<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/J._Arch_Getty" title="J. Arch Getty">J. Arch Getty</a> and Oleg V. Naumov, "popular estimates of executions in the great purges vary from 500,000 to 7 million." However, according to them, "the archival evidence from the secret police rejects the astronomically high estimates often given for the number of terror victims" and "the data available at this point make it clear that the number shot in the two worst purge years [1937–38] was more likely in the hundreds of thousands than in the millions."<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> According to historian Corrina Kuhr, 700,000 people were executed during the Great Purge out of the 2.5 million who were arrested.<a href="#cite_note-Kuhr-2">[2]</a> Professor Nérard François-Xavier estimates the same number of people who were sentenced to death; however, he states that 1.3 million people were arrested.<a href="#cite_note-Xavier-3">[3]</a> The Soviets themselves made their own estimates with <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Vyacheslav Molotov</a> saying "The report written by that commission member…says that 1,370,000 arrests were made in the 1930s. That's too many. I responded that the figures should be thoroughly reviewed".<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="Stalin's_role">Stalin's role</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Stalin's role" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg/170px-Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="342" data-file-height="498"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 248px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg/170px-Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="248" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg/255px-Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg/340px-Great_Purge_Stalin_Voroshilov_Kaganovich_Zhdanov_Molotov.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A list from the Great Purge signed by <a href="/wiki/Vyacheslav_Molotov" title="Vyacheslav Molotov">Molotov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kliment_Voroshilov" title="Kliment Voroshilov">Voroshilov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lazar_Kaganovich" title="Lazar Kaganovich">Kaganovich</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andrei_Zhdanov" title="Andrei Zhdanov">Zhdanov</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"> Historians with archival access have confirmed that Stalin was intimately involved in the purge. Russian historian <a href="/wiki/Oleg_Khlevniuk" title="Oleg Khlevniuk">Oleg V. Khlevniuk</a> states "theories about the elemental, spontaneous nature of the terror, about a loss of central control over the course of mass repression, and about the role of regional leaders in initiating the terror are simply not supported by the historical record".<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Besides signing Yezhov's lists, Stalin sometimes gave instructions concerning certain individuals. In one instance, he told Yezhov "Isn't it time to squeeze this gentleman and force him to report on his dirty little business? Where is he: in a prison or a hotel?" In another, while reviewing one of Yezhov's lists, he added to M. I. Baranov's name, "beat, beat!"<a href="#cite_note-:1-180">[180]</a> Stalin also signed 357 lists in 1937 and 1938 authorizing executions of some 40,000 people, and about 90% of these are confirmed to have been shot,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> this was 7.4% of those executed legally.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> While reviewing one such list, Stalin reportedly muttered to no one in particular: "Who's going to remember all this riff-raff in ten or twenty years time? No one. Who remembers the names now of the <a href="/wiki/Boyars" class="mw-redirect" title="Boyars">boyars</a> <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan the Terrible</a> got rid of? No one."<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Stalin had ordered for 100,000 <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">lamas</a> in Mongolia to be liquidated but the political leader <a href="/wiki/Peljidiin_Genden" title="Peljidiin Genden">Peljidiin Genden</a> resisted the order.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> It is quite possible that Yezhov misled Stalin about the aspects of the purge process.<a href="#cite_note-:5-187">[187]</a> Many people at the time, and also a few subsequent commentators, surmised that the Great Purge wasn't started by Stalin's initiative, so the idea got about that the process was entirely out of control once it had begun.<a href="#cite_note-:5-187">[187]</a> Stalin may have failed to anticipate the catastrophic excesses of the NKVD under Yezhov.<a href="#cite_note-:5-187">[187]</a> Stalin also objected to the large numbers of people that Yezhov was purging. For example, when Yezhov announced that 200,000 party members were expelled, Stalin interrupted him, said that they were "very many" and suggested instead to only expel 30,000 and 600 former <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zinovievist" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinovievist">Zinovievists</a> which "would be a bigger victory".<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Stephen G. Wheatcroft</a> posits that while the 'purposive deaths' caused by Hitler constitute 'murder', those caused under Stalin fall into the category of 'execution', although in terms of "causing death by criminal neglect and ruthlessness (...) Stalin probably exceeded Hitler".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatcroft19961348-189">[189]</a> Wheatcroft elaborates: <blockquote>Stalin undoubtedly caused many innocent people to be executed, but it seems likely that he thought many of them guilty of crimes against the state and felt that the execution of others would act as a deterrent to the guilty. He signed the papers and insisted on documentation. Hitler, by contrast, wanted to be rid of the Jews and communists simply because they were Jews and communists. He was not concerned about making any pretence at legality. He was careful not to sign anything on this matter and was equally insistent on no documentation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWheatcroft19961348-189">[189]</a></blockquote> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"><h2 id="Soviet_investigation_commissions">Soviet investigation commissions</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Soviet investigation commissions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg/170px-RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="684" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 255px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg/170px-RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="255" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg/255px-RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg/340px-RIAN_archive_749019_Opening_of_monument_to_victims_of_political_repressions.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Opening of monument to victims of political repressions, Moscow, 1990</figcaption></figure> At least two Soviet commissions investigated the show-trials after Stalin's death. The first was headed by Molotov and included Voroshilov, Kaganovich, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Suslov" title="Mikhail Suslov">Suslov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yekaterina_Furtseva" title="Yekaterina Furtseva">Furtseva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Shvernik" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Shvernik">Shvernik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averky_Aristov" title="Averky Aristov">Aristov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Pospelov" title="Pyotr Pospelov">Pospelov</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Rudenko" title="Roman Rudenko">Rudenko</a>. They were given the task to investigate the materials concerning Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and others. The commission worked in 1956–1957. While stating that the accusations against Tukhachevsky et al. should be abandoned, it failed to fully rehabilitate the victims of the three Moscow trials, although the final report does contain an admission that the accusations have not been proven during the trials and "evidence" had been produced by lies, blackmail, and "use of physical influence". Bukharin, Rykov, Zinoviev, and others were still seen as political opponents, and though the charges against them were obviously false, they could not have been rehabilitated because "for many years they headed the anti-Soviet struggle against the building of socialism in USSR".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The second commission largely worked from 1961 to 1963 and was headed by Shvernik ("<a href="/wiki/Shvernik_Commission" title="Shvernik Commission">Shvernik Commission</a>"). It included <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Shelepin" title="Alexander Shelepin">Shelepin</a>, Serdyuk, Mironov, Rudenko, and Semichastny. The hard work resulted in two massive reports, which detailed the mechanism of falsification of the show-trials against Bukharin, Zinoviev, Tukhachevsky, and many others. The commission based its findings in large part on eyewitness testimonies of former NKVD workers and victims of repressions, and on many documents. The commission recommended rehabilitating every accused with the exceptions of Radek and Yagoda, because Radek's materials required some further checking, and Yagoda was a criminal and one of the falsifiers of the trials (though most of the charges against him had to be dropped too, he was not a "spy", etc.). The commission stated: <blockquote>Stalin committed a very grave crime against the Communist party, the socialist state, Soviet people and worldwide revolutionary movement...Together with Stalin, the responsibility for the abuse of law, mass unwarranted repressions and death of many thousands of wholly innocent people also lies on Molotov, Kaganovich, Malenkov....</blockquote> Molotov stated "We would have been complete idiots if we had taken the reports at their face value. We were not idiots." and that "the cases were reviewed and some people were released"<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"><h2 id="Mass_graves_and_memorials">Mass graves and memorials</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Mass graves and memorials" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mass_graves_from_Soviet_mass_executions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass graves from Soviet mass executions">Mass graves from Soviet mass executions</a></div> In the late 1980s, with the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Memorial_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorial Society">Memorial Society</a> and similar organisations across the Soviet Union at a time of <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Gorbachev</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Glasnost" title="Glasnost">glasnost</a> ("openness and transparency") it became possible not only to speak about the Great Terror but to begin locating the killing grounds of 1937–1938 and identifying those who lay buried there. In 1988, for instance, the mass graves at <a href="/wiki/Kurapaty" title="Kurapaty">Kurapaty</a> in Belarus were the site of a clash between demonstrators and the police. In 1990, a boulder stone was brought from the former <a href="/wiki/Solovki_prison_camp" title="Solovki prison camp">Solovki prison camp</a> in the White Sea, and erected next to KGB headquarters in Moscow as a memorial to all "the victims of political repression" since 1917. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, many more mass graves filled with executed victims of the terror were discovered and turned into memorial sites.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Some, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bykivnia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bykivnia">Bykivnia</a> killing fields near <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a>, are said to contain up to 200,000 corpses.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] In 2007, one such site, the Butovo firing range near Moscow, was turned into a shrine to the victims of Stalinism. Between August 1937 and October 1938, more than 20,000 people were shot and buried there.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> On 30 October 2017, President Vladimir Putin opened the <a href="/wiki/Wall_of_Sorrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall of Sorrow">Wall of Sorrow</a>, an official but controversial recognition of the crimes of the Soviet regime.<a href="#cite_note-nyt-199">[199]</a> In August 2021, a mass grave containing between 5,000 and 8,000 skeletons was discovered in <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesa</a>, Ukraine, during exploration works for a planned expansion of <a href="/wiki/Odesa_International_Airport" title="Odesa International Airport">Odesa International Airport</a>. The graves are believed to date back to the late 1930s during the purge.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title='"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988'><noscript><img alt='"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988' src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg/120px-Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1218"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 73px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg/120px-Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg" data-alt='"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988' data-width="120" data-height="73" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg/180px-Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg/240px-Wall_of_sorrow_at_the_first_exhibition_of_the_victims_of_Stalinism_in_Moscow.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">"Wall of sorrow" at the first exhibition of the victims of Stalinism in Moscow, 19 November 1988 </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Kuropaty mass grave site near Minsk, Belarus"><noscript><img alt="The Kuropaty mass grave site near Minsk, Belarus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg/120px-Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1594" data-file-height="1040"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 78px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg/120px-Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg" data-alt="The Kuropaty mass grave site near Minsk, Belarus" data-width="120" data-height="78" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg/180px-Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg/240px-Kurapaty_1989_meeting.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Kuropaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuropaty">Kuropaty</a> mass grave site near <a href="/wiki/Minsk" title="Minsk">Minsk</a>, Belarus</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Krasny Bor memorial cemetery near Petrozavodsk, Russia"><noscript><img alt="The Krasny Bor memorial cemetery near Petrozavodsk, Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg/120px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 90px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg/120px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg" data-alt="The Krasny Bor memorial cemetery near Petrozavodsk, Russia" data-width="120" data-height="90" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg/180px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg/240px-%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%91%D0%BE%D1%80.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Krasny Bor memorial cemetery near <a href="/wiki/Petrozavodsk" title="Petrozavodsk">Petrozavodsk</a>, Russia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A memorial to Polish victims of Stalinist repression, Tomsk, Russia"><noscript><img alt="A memorial to Polish victims of Stalinist repression, Tomsk, Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg/120px-Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 120px;height: 90px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg/120px-Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg" data-alt="A memorial to Polish victims of Stalinist repression, Tomsk, Russia" data-width="120" data-height="90" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg/180px-Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg/240px-Stalin-repressions-poles-memorial.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A memorial to <a href="/wiki/Poles_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Poles in the Soviet Union">Polish</a> victims of Stalinist repression, <a href="/wiki/Tomsk" title="Tomsk">Tomsk</a>, Russia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of Donetsk, Ukraine"><noscript><img alt="A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of Donetsk, Ukraine" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg/90px-%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 90px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg/90px-%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg" data-alt="A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of Donetsk, Ukraine" data-width="90" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg/135px-%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg/180px-%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0_302.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A monument to victims of political repressions in Rutchenkove settlement, part of <a href="/wiki/Donetsk" title="Donetsk">Donetsk</a>, Ukraine</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia"><noscript><img alt="A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg/90px-Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 90px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg/90px-Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg" data-alt="A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia" data-width="90" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg/135px-Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg/180px-Stalin-repressions-Tomsk-stone.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A memorial to victims of Stalinist repression in Tomsk, Russia</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title='The monumental slab at the entrance to the Sandarmokh burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia'><noscript><img alt='The monumental slab at the entrance to the Sandarmokh burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia' src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg/90px-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 90px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg/90px-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg" data-alt='The monumental slab at the entrance to the Sandarmokh burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia' data-width="90" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg/135px-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg/180px-%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%8525.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The monumental slab at the entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Sandarmokh" title="Sandarmokh">Sandarmokh</a> burial grounds reads: "People! do not kill one another", Russia</div> </li> </ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(15)"><h2 id="Historical_interpretations">Historical interpretations</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Historical interpretations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-15 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-15"> The Great Purge has provoked numerous debates about its purpose, scale, and mechanisms. According to one interpretation, Stalin's regime had to maintain its citizens in a state of fear and uncertainty to stay in power (Brzezinski, 1958). Robert Conquest emphasized Stalin's paranoia, focused on the Moscow show trial of "Old Bolsheviks", and analyzed the carefully planned and systematic destruction of the Communist Party. Some others view the Great Purge as a crucial moment, or rather the culmination, of a vast <a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">social engineering</a> campaign started at the beginning of the 1930s (Hagenloh, 2000; Shearer, 2003; Werth, 2003).<a href="#cite_note-werth-25">[25]</a> According to an October 1993 study published in <a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a>, much of the Great Purge was directed against the widespread banditry and criminal activity which was occurring in the Soviet Union at the time.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Deutscher" title="Isaac Deutscher">Isaac Deutscher</a> regarded the Moscow trials "as the prelude to the destruction of an entire generation of revolutionaries".<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a> viewed the excessive violence characteristic of the mass purges as an ideological differentiation between Stalinism and Bolshevism.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> He summarised his view: <blockquote>"The present purge draws between Bolshevism and Stalinism not simply a bloody line but a whole river of blood. The annihilation of all the older generation of Bolsheviks, an important part of the middle generation which participated in the civil war, and that part of the youth that took up most seriously the Bolshevik traditions, shows not only a political but a thoroughly physical incompatibility between Bolshevism and Stalinism. How can this not be seen?".<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a></blockquote> According to <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>'s 1956 speech, "<a href="/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>", and to historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Robert Conquest</a>, a great number of accusations, notably those presented at the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow Trials">Moscow show trials</a>, were based on <a href="/wiki/Forced_confession" title="Forced confession">forced confessions</a>, often obtained through <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008121_which_cites_his_secret_speech-205">[205]</a> and on loose interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Article_58_(RSFSR_Penal_Code)" title="Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)">Article 58 of the RSFSR Penal Code</a>, which dealt with counter-revolutionary crimes. Due legal process, as defined by Soviet law in force at the time, was often largely replaced with summary proceedings by <a href="/wiki/NKVD_troika" title="NKVD troika">NKVD troikas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008286-206">[206]</a> Valentin Berezhkov, who became Stalin's interpreter in 1941, suggests parallels in his memoir between Hitler's inner party purge and Stalin's mass repressions of <a href="/wiki/Old_Bolsheviks" title="Old Bolsheviks">Old Bolsheviks</a>, military commanders and intellectuals.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research pokes "rather large holes in the traditional story" weaved by Conquest and others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20172%E2%80%934-208">[208]</a> His findings, while not exonerating Stalin or the Soviet state, dispel the notion that the bloodletting was merely the result of Stalin attempting to establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an exaggerated fear of counterrevolution:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris201716-6">[6]</a> <blockquote>So what was the motivation behind the Terror? The answers required a lot more digging, but it gradually became clearer that the violence of the late 1930s was driven by fear. Most Bolsheviks, Stalin among them, believed that the revolutions of 1789, 1848 and 1871 had failed because their leaders hadn't adequately anticipated the ferocity of the counter-revolutionary reaction from the establishment. They were determined not to make the same mistake.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a></blockquote> Two major lines of interpretation have emerged among historians. One argues that the purges reflected Stalin's ambitions, his paranoia, and his inner drive to increase his power and eliminate potential rivals. Revisionist historians explain the purges by theorizing that rival factions exploited Stalin's paranoia and used terror to enhance their own position. Peter Whitewood examines the first purge, directed at the Army, and comes up with a third interpretation that Stalin and other top leaders believing that they were always surrounded by capitalist enemies, always worried about the vulnerability and loyalty of the Red Army.<a href="#cite_note-James_Harris_1941-7">[7]</a> It was not a ploy—Stalin truly believed it. "Stalin attacked the Red Army because he seriously misperceived a serious security threat"; thus "Stalin seems to have genuinely believed that foreign‐backed enemies had infiltrated the ranks and managed to organize a conspiracy at the very heart of the Red Army." The purge hit deeply from June 1937 and November 1938, removing 35,000; many were executed. Experience in carrying out the purge facilitated purging other key elements in the wider Soviet polity.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Historians often cite the disruption as factors in the Red Army's disastrous military performance during the German invasion.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Thurston" title="Robert W. Thurston">Robert W. Thurston</a> reports that the purge was not intended to subdue the Soviet masses, many of whom helped enact the purge, but to deal with opposition to Stalin's rule among the Soviet elites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurston1998xx-214">[214]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(16)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-16 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-16"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leningrad_affair" title="Leningrad affair">Leningrad affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Rightist_Campaign" title="Anti-Rightist Campaign">Anti-Rightist Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin" title="Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin">Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Soviet_Union-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Soviet Union-related articles">Index of Soviet Union-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Great_Purge" title="Timeline of the Great Purge">Timeline of the Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1927%E2%80%931953)" title="History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)">History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_victims_of_the_Great_Purge" title="Armenian victims of the Great Purge">Armenian victims of the Great Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_members_of_traitors_to_the_Motherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Family members of traitors to the Motherland">Family members of traitors to the Motherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphans_in_the_Soviet_Union#Children_of_%22enemies_of_the_people%22,_1937%E2%80%931945" title="Orphans in the Soviet Union">Orphans in the Soviet Union#Children of "enemies of the people", 1937–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killings_under_communist_regimes" title="Mass killings under communist regimes">Mass killings under communist regimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lustration" title="Lustration">Lustration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Azerbaijan" title="Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan">Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holodomor" title="Holodomor">Holodomor</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Similar_events">Similar events</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Similar events" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Great_Leap_Forward" title="Great Leap Forward">Great Leap Forward</a> (China)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Khmer Rouge genocide</a> (Cambodia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/30_September_Movement" title="30 September Movement">30 September killings</a> (Indonesia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a> (Czechoslovakia)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Similar_Polticidal_Purges">Similar Polticidal Purges</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Similar Polticidal Purges" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66</a> (Indonesia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War</a> (Argentina)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Terror_(Spain)" title="White Terror (Spain)">White Terror</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_League_massacre" title="Bodo League massacre">Bodo League massacre</a> (South Korea)</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(17)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-17 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-17"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EllmanComment-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EllmanComment_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EllmanComment_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EllmanComment_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EllmanComment_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EllmanComment_1-4">e</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFEllman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/ELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf">"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"</a> (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 54 (7): 1151–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966813022000017177">10.1080/0966813022000017177</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43510161">43510161</a>. <q>The best estimate that can currently be made of the number of repression deaths in 1937–38 is the range 950,000–1.2 million, i.e. about a million. This is the estimate which should be used by historians, teachers and journalists concerned with twentieth century Russian—and world—history</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Repression+Statistics%3A+Some+Comments&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1151-72&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0966813022000017177&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A43510161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FELM-Repression_Statistics.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuhr-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kuhr_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuhr_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhr1998" class="citation journal cs1">Kuhr, Corinna (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20171081">"Children of 'Enemies of The People' as Victims of the Great Purges"</a>. Cahiers du Monde russe. 39 (1/2): 209–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fcmr.1998.2520">10.3406/cmr.1998.2520</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1252-6576">1252-6576</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20171081">20171081</a> – via <a href="/wiki/JSTOR" title="JSTOR">JSTOR</a>. <q>According to latest estimates 2,5 million people were arrested and 700,000 of them shot. These figures are based on reliable archival materials [...]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+du+Monde+russe&rft.atitle=Children+of+%27Enemies+of+The+People%27+as+Victims+of+the+Great+Purges&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=209-20&rft.date=1998&rft.issn=1252-6576&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20171081%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fcmr.1998.2520&rft.aulast=Kuhr&rft.aufirst=Corinna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20171081&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Xavier-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Xavier_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Xavier_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrançois-Xavier2009" class="citation web cs1">François-Xavier, Nérard (27 February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/en/document/levashovo-cemetery-and-great-terror-leningrad-region.html">"The Levashovo cemetery and the Great Terror in the Leningrad region"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Paris_Institute_of_Political_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Institute of Political Studies">Paris Institute of Political Studies</a>. <q>The Yezhovshchina or Stalin's Great Terror [...] The precise end result of these operations is difficult to establish, but the total of the condemnations is estimated at roughly 1,300,000 of which 700,000 were sentenced to death, most of the others were sentenced to ten years in the camps (document translated in Werth, 2006: 143).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Paris+Institute+of+Political+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Levashovo+cemetery+and+the+Great+Terror+in+the+Leningrad+region&rft.date=2009-02-27&rft.aulast=Fran%C3%A7ois-Xavier&rft.aufirst=N%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencespo.fr%2Fmass-violence-war-massacre-resistance%2Fen%2Fdocument%2Flevashovo-cemetery-and-great-terror-leningrad-region.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008[httpsarchiveorgdetailsgreatterror00robepage53_53]-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008%5Bhttpsarchiveorgdetailsgreatterror00robepage53_53%5D_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatterror00robe/page/53">53</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrett_Homkes2004" class="citation journal cs1">Brett Homkes (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair">"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Party Purge"</a>. McNair Scholars Journal. 8 (1): 13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McNair+Scholars+Journal&rft.atitle=Certainty%2C+Probability%2C+and+Stalin%27s+Great+Party+Purge&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13&rft.date=2004&rft.au=Brett+Homkes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1032%26context%3Dmcnair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris201716-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris201716_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris201716_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2017">Harris 2017</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-James_Harris_1941-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-James_Harris_1941_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-James_Harris_1941_7-1">b</a> James Harris, "Encircled by Enemies: Stalin's Perceptions of the Capitalist World, 1918–1941," Journal of Strategic Studies 30#3 [2007]: 513–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/european-history/great-purge#leon-trotsky">"Great Terror: 1937, Stalin & Russia"</a>. HISTORY. 4 October 2022. Retrieved 5 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HISTORY&rft.atitle=Great+Terror%3A+1937%2C+Stalin+%26+Russia&rft.date=2022-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Feuropean-history%2Fgreat-purge%23leon-trotsky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rappaport-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Rappaport_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelen_Rappaport1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Rappaport" title="Helen Rappaport">Helen Rappaport</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lsKClpnX8qwC">Joseph Stalin: A Biographical Companion</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1576070840" title="Special:BookSources/978-1576070840"><bdi>978-1576070840</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Joseph+Stalin%3A+A+Biographical+Companion&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1576070840&rft.au=Helen+Rappaport&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlsKClpnX8qwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/TokaevComradeX1956">"Tokaev Comrade X 1956"</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tokaev+Comrade+X+1956&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTokaevComradeX1956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitewood2016" class="citation web cs1">Whitewood, Peter (13 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://universitypressblog.dept.ku.edu/uncategorized/rethinking-stalins-purge-of-the-red-army-1937-38/">"Rethinking Stalin's Purge of the Red Army, 1937–38"</a>. University Press of Kansas Blog. Retrieved 3 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+Press+of+Kansas+Blog&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Stalin%27s+Purge+of+the+Red+Army%2C+1937%E2%80%9338&rft.date=2016-06-13&rft.aulast=Whitewood&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Funiversitypressblog.dept.ku.edu%2Funcategorized%2Frethinking-stalins-purge-of-the-red-army-1937-38%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUldricks1977" class="citation journal cs1">Uldricks, Teddy J. (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/ABBEDEFC36C8903615BEEB02D3AB2CBD/S0037677900146224a.pdf/div-class-title-the-impact-of-the-great-purges-on-the-peopleandapos-s-commissariat-of-foreign-affairs-div.pdf">"The Impact of the Great Purges on the People's Commissariat of Foreign Affairs"</a> (PDF). Slavic Review. 36 (2): 187–204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2495035">10.2307/2495035</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2495035">2495035</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163664533">163664533</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+the+Great+Purges+on+the+People%27s+Commissariat+of+Foreign+Affairs&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=187-204&rft.date=1977&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163664533%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2495035%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2495035&rft.aulast=Uldricks&rft.aufirst=Teddy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fservices%2Faop-cambridge-core%2Fcontent%2Fview%2FABBEDEFC36C8903615BEEB02D3AB2CBD%2FS0037677900146224a.pdf%2Fdiv-class-title-the-impact-of-the-great-purges-on-the-peopleandapos-s-commissariat-of-foreign-affairs-div.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008250,_257–58-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008250,_257%E2%80%9358_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, pp. 250, 257–58. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Goldman, W. (2005). "Stalinist Terror and Democracy: The 1937 Union Campaign". The American Historical Review, 110(5), 1427–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges2007227–315-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiges2007227%E2%80%93315_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFiges2007">Figes 2007</a>, pp. 227–315. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHomkes2004" class="citation journal cs1">Homkes, Brett (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1032&context=mcnair">"Certainty, Probability, and Stalin's Great Purge"</a>. McNair Scholars Journal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McNair+Scholars+Journal&rft.atitle=Certainty%2C+Probability%2C+and+Stalin%27s+Great+Purge&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Homkes&rft.aufirst=Brett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.gvsu.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1032%26context%3Dmcnair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Ellman, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310">"Soviet Repression Statistics: Some Comments"</a>. Europe-Asia Studies. 54 (7): 1151–1172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0966813022000017177">10.1080/0966813022000017177</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0966-8136">0966-8136</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/826310">826310</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=Soviet+Repression+Statistics%3A+Some+Comments&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1151-1172&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0966-8136&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826310%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0966813022000017177&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F826310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShearer2023" class="citation book cs1">Shearer, David R. (11 September 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CCHMEAAAQBAJ&dq=great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PR7">Stalin and War, 1918-1953: Patterns of Repression, Mobilization, and External Threat</a>. Taylor & Francis. p. vii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95544-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95544-6"><bdi>978-1-000-95544-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+War%2C+1918-1953%3A+Patterns+of+Repression%2C+Mobilization%2C+and+External+Threat&rft.pages=vii&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023-09-11&rft.isbn=978-1-000-95544-6&rft.aulast=Shearer&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCCHMEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dgreat%2Bpurge%2B1.2%2Bmillion%26pg%3DPR7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2019" class="citation book cs1">Nelson, Todd H. (16 October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oJGyDwAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+great+purge+1.2+million&pg=PA7">Bringing Stalin Back In: Memory Politics and the Creation of a Useable Past in Putin's Russia</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-9153-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4985-9153-9"><bdi>978-1-4985-9153-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bringing+Stalin+Back+In%3A+Memory+Politics+and+the+Creation+of+a+Useable+Past+in+Putin%27s+Russia&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2019-10-16&rft.isbn=978-1-4985-9153-9&rft.aulast=Nelson&rft.aufirst=Todd+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoJGyDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dstalin%2Bgreat%2Bpurge%2B1.2%2Bmillion%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leon-Trotsky/Exile-and-assassination">"Leon Trotsky – Exile and assassination | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. Retrieved 27 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Leon+Trotsky+%E2%80%93+Exile+and+assassination+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FLeon-Trotsky%2FExile-and-assassination&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-21"><a href="#cite_ref-:6_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchatman1938" class="citation book cs1">Schatman, Max (1938). Behind the Moscow Trials.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behind+the+Moscow+Trials&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Schatman&rft.aufirst=Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/topics/russia/joseph-stalin">"Joseph Stalin"</a>. History.com. Retrieved 2 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History.com&rft.atitle=Joseph+Stalin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Ftopics%2Frussia%2Fjoseph-stalin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Hagenloh, Paul. 2000. 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People's Comissariat of Justice of the U.S.S.R. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0711N78KN">B0711N78KN</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anti-Soviet+%27Bloc+of+Rights+and+Trotskyites%27+Heard+before+the+Military+Collegium+of+the+Supreme+Court+of+the+U.S.S.R.%2C+Verbatim+Report&rft.pub=People%27s+Comissariat+of+Justice+of+the+U.S.S.R.&rft.date=1938&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0711N78KN%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.au=People%27s+Comissariat+of+Justice+of+the+U.S.S.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2FAnti-Soviet-Trotskyites-Military-Collegium-Verbatim%2Fdp%2FB0711N78KN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight1999" class="citation book cs1">Knight, Amy (1999). 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521335706" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521335706"><bdi>978-0521335706</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+the+Great+Purges%3A+The+Soviet+Communist+Party+Reconsidered%2C+1933%E2%80%931938&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0521335706&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=John+Arch&rft.au=Getty%2C+John+Archibald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR5zx54LB-A4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest1987122–38-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest1987122%E2%80%9338_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest1987122%E2%80%9338_35-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest1987">Conquest 1987</a>, pp. 122–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges2007239-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiges2007239_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFiges2007">Figes 2007</a>, p. 239. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGellately2007-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGellately2007_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGellately2007_37-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGellately2007">Gellately 2007</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Robert Gellately, Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe, 2007, Knopf, 720 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1400040051" title="Special:BookSources/1400040051">1400040051</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uh.edu/~vlazarev/4389/Gulag-Gregory.htm">"Gulag History, Structure and Size: A View From the Secret Archives"</a>. uh.edu. 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The Journal of Slavic Military Studies. 29 (3): 524–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13518046.2016.1200397">10.1080/13518046.2016.1200397</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1351-8046">1351-8046</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151381912">151381912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Slavic+Military+Studies&rft.atitle=Whitewood%2C+Peter%2C+The+Red+Army+and+the+Great+Terror%3A+Stalin%27s+Purge+of+the+Soviet+Military&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=524-26&rft.date=2016-07-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151381912%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1351-8046&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13518046.2016.1200397&rft.aulast=Harward&rft.aufirst=Grant&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F13518046.2016.1200397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Rogovin (1998), pp. 17–18 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-44"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_44-0">^</a> Rogovin (1998), pp. 36–38 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008142-45"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008142_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008182-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008182_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 182. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008121-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008121_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-Redman-48"><a href="#cite_ref-Redman_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedman1958" class="citation journal cs1">Redman, Joseph (March–April 1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/pearce/1958/03/trials.html">"The British Stalinists and the Moscow Trials"</a>. Labour Review. 3 (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Labour+Review&rft.atitle=The+British+Stalinists+and+the+Moscow+Trials&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1958-03%2F1958-04&rft.aulast=Redman&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fpearce%2F1958%2F03%2Ftrials.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest200887-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest200887_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 87. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2010137-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder2010137_50-0">^</a> Snyder 2010, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDewey2008" class="citation book cs1">Dewey, John (2008). Not guilty : report of the Commission of Inquiry Into the Charges Made Against Leon Trotsky in the Moscow Trials. 1859–1952. New York: Sam Sloan and Ishi Press International. pp. 154–55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0923891312" title="Special:BookSources/978-0923891312"><bdi>978-0923891312</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/843206645">843206645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Not+guilty+%3A+report+of+the+Commission+of+Inquiry+Into+the+Charges+Made+Against+Leon+Trotsky+in+the+Moscow+Trials&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=154-55&rft.pub=Sam+Sloan+and+Ishi+Press+International&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F843206645&rft.isbn=978-0923891312&rft.aulast=Dewey&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1937/dewey/index.htm">"The Case of Leon Trotsky (Report of Dewey Commission – 1937)"</a>. www.marxists.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=The+Case+of+Leon+Trotsky+%28Report+of+Dewey+Commission+%E2%80%93+1937%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Ftrotsky%2F1937%2Fdewey%2Findex.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_53-1">b</a> British Embassy Report: Viscount Chilston to Mr. Eden, 6 February 1937 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008164-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008164_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Stephen. Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bukharin+and+the+Bolshevik+Revolution&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumbert-Droz" class="citation book cs1">Humbert-Droz, Jules. De Lenine à Staline. Dix ans au service de l'Internationale communiste 1921–1931.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Lenine+%C3%A0+Staline.+Dix+ans+au+service+de+l%27Internationale+communiste+1921%E2%80%931931&rft.aulast=Humbert-Droz&rft.aufirst=Jules&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Corey_Robin,_Fear,_Page_96-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Corey_Robin,_Fear,_Page_96_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Corey_Robin,_Fear,_Page_96_57-1">b</a> Corey Robin, "Fear", p. 96 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Bertram David Wolfe, "Breaking with communism", p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoestler1940258-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoestler1940258_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKoestler1940">Koestler 1940</a>, p. 258. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008352-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008352_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 352. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008364–35-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008364%E2%80%9335_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, pp. 364–35. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Report by Viscount Chilston (British ambassador) to Viscount Halifax, No. 141, Moscow, 21 March 1938 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Tucker, Robert. 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L'ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. Autopsie d'un meurtre de masse, 1937–1938. Paris: Tallandier. </li> <li id="cite_note-sciencespo.fr-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sciencespo.fr_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sciencespo.fr_66-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sciencespo.fr_66-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sciencespo.fr_66-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html/">"The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n°00447 (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network"</a>. nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html. 19 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html&rft.atitle=The+NKVD+Mass+Secret+Operation+n%C2%B000447+%28August+1937+%E2%80%93+November+1938%29+%26%23124%3B+Sciences+Po+Mass+Violence+and+Resistance+%E2%80%93+Research+Network&rft.date=2016-01-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnkvd-mass-secret-operation-n-00447-august-1937-november-1938.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFiges2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsge44FaZDRECpgPA240_240]-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFiges2007%5Bhttpsbooksgooglecombooksidsge44FaZDRECpgPA240_240%5D_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFiges2007">Figes 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sge44FaZDREC&pg=PA240">240</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder2010103–04-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder2010103%E2%80%9304_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder2010103%E2%80%9304_68-1">b</a> Snyder 2010, pp. 103–04. </li> <li id="cite_note-Russian1-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Russian1_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFН.В.Петров,_А.Б.Рогинский" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Н.В.Петров, А.Б.Рогинский. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170215195305/http://www.memo.ru/history/polacy/00485ART.htm"><bdi lang="ru">"Польская операция" НКВД 1937–1938 гг.</bdi></a> ["The Polish operation" NKVD 1937–1938] (in Russian). НИПЦ «Мемориал». Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.memo.ru/history/POLAcy/00485ART.htm">the original</a> on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2012. <q>Original title: О фашистско-повстанческой, шпионской, диверсионной, пораженческой и террористической деятельности польской разведки в СССР</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%22+%D0%9D%D0%9A%D0%92%D0%94+1937%E2%80%931938+%D0%B3%D0%B3.&rft.pub=%D0%9D%D0%98%D0%9F%D0%A6+%C2%AB%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%C2%BB&rft.au=%D0%9D.%D0%92.%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%2C+%D0%90.%D0%91.%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.memo.ru%2Fhistory%2FPOLAcy%2F00485ART.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-snyvic-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-snyvic_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-snyvic_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-snyvic_70-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-snyvic_70-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-snyvic_70-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2010" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books. p. 104.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloodlands%3A+Europe+Between+Hitler+and+Stalin&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fronda-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fronda_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fronda_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichał_Jasiński2010" class="citation web cs1">Michał Jasiński (27 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120323100829/http://fronda.gliwice.pl/czytelnia.php5?id=84">"Zapomniane ludobójstwo stalinowskie (The forgotten Stalinist genocide)"</a>. Gliwicki klub Fondy. Czytelnia. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fronda.gliwice.pl/czytelnia.php5?id=84">the original</a> on 23 March 2012 – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zapomniane+ludob%C3%B3jstwo+stalinowskie+%28The+forgotten+Stalinist+genocide%29&rft.pub=Gliwicki+klub+Fondy.+Czytelnia&rft.date=2010-10-27&rft.au=Micha%C5%82+Jasi%C5%84ski&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffronda.gliwice.pl%2Fczytelnia.php5%3Fid%3D84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECourtois1999-72"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourtois1999_72-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCourtois1999">Courtois 1999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_73-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundströmKotljarchuk2017" class="citation book cs1">Sundström, Olle; Kotljarchuk, Andrej (2017). "Introduction: the problem of ethnic and religious minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1167084/FULLTEXT01.pdf">Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Stalin's Soviet Union: New Dimensions of Research</a> (PDF). Södertörn Academic Studies. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9176017777" title="Special:BookSources/978-9176017777"><bdi>978-9176017777</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+the+problem+of+ethnic+and+religious+minorities+in+Stalin%27s+Soviet+Union&rft.btitle=Ethnic+and+Religious+Minorities+in+Stalin%27s+Soviet+Union%3A+New+Dimensions+of+Research&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=S%C3%B6dert%C3%B6rn+Academic+Studies&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-9176017777&rft.aulast=Sundstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Olle&rft.au=Kotljarchuk%2C+Andrej&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.diva-portal.org%2Fsmash%2Fget%2Fdiva2%3A1167084%2FFULLTEXT01.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Snyder, Timothy</a>. 2010. <a href="/wiki/Bloodlands" title="Bloodlands">Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0465002390" title="Special:BookSources/0465002390">0465002390</a>. pp. 102, 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands, Basic Books, 2010, pp. 411–12 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubtelny2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orest_Subtelny" title="Orest Subtelny">Subtelny, Orest</a> (2009) [1988]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l5uiWHgRphQC">Ukraine: A History</a> (4th revised ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442609914" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442609914"><bdi>978-1442609914</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+A+History&rft.place=Toronto&rft.edition=4th+revised&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1442609914&rft.aulast=Subtelny&rft.aufirst=Orest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl5uiWHgRphQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyck2022" class="citation book cs1">Dyck, Kirsten (2022). "Holodomor and Holocaust memory in competition and cooperation". In Cox, John M.; Khoury, Amal; Minslow, Sarah (eds.). Denial: the final stage of genocide. Routledge studies in modern history. London New York: Routledge. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-01070-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-01070-8"><bdi>978-1-003-01070-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Holodomor+and+Holocaust+memory+in+competition+and+cooperation&rft.btitle=Denial%3A+the+final+stage+of+genocide&rft.place=London+New+York&rft.series=Routledge+studies+in+modern+history&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-003-01070-8&rft.aulast=Dyck&rft.aufirst=Kirsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html/">"The NKVD Mass Secret National Operations (August 1937 – November 1938) | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network"</a>. nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html. 15 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html&rft.atitle=The+NKVD+Mass+Secret+National+Operations+%28August+1937+%E2%80%93+November+1938%29+%26%23124%3B+Sciences+Po+Mass+Violence+and+Resistance+%E2%80%93+Research+Network&rft.date=2019-04-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnkvd-mass-secret-national-operations-august-1937-november-1938.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarlycommons.law.case.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1078&context=jil">"The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study"</a> by Karol Karski, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, Vol. 45, 2013 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin,_Terry1998" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Terry (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/3229636/Martin%201998.pdf?sequence=2">"The origins of Soviet ethnic cleansing"</a> (PDF). The Journal of Modern History. 70 (4): 813–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F235168">10.1086/235168</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32917643">32917643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+Soviet+ethnic+cleansing&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=813-61&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F235168&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32917643%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Martin%2C+Terry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F3229636%2FMartin%25201998.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2010" class="citation web cs1">Snyder, Timothy (5 October 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2010/oct/05/holocaust-secondworldwar">"The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact"</a>. the Guardian. Retrieved 6 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+fatal+fact+of+the+Nazi-Soviet+pact&rft.date=2010-10-05&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2Fcifamerica%2F2010%2Foct%2F05%2Fholocaust-secondworldwar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-stalpol-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stalpol_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalpol_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-stalpol_82-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaimark2016" class="citation book cs1">Naimark, Norman M. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IB-hDQAAQBAJ&q=%2522Polish%2520operation%2522">Genocide: A World History</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190637729" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190637729"><bdi>978-0190637729</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+A+World+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0190637729&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIB-hDQAAQBAJ%26q%3D%252522Polish%252520operation%252522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuromiyaPepłoński2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kuromiya, Hiroaki; Pepłoński, Andrzej (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.openedition.org/monderusse/9736">"The Great Terror"</a>. Cahiers du monde russe. Russie – Empire russe – Union soviétique et États indépendants. 50 (50/2–3): 647–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fmonderusse.9736">10.4000/monderusse.9736</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1252-6576">1252-6576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+du+monde+russe.+Russie+%E2%80%93+Empire+russe+%E2%80%93+Union+sovi%C3%A9tique+et+%C3%89tats+ind%C3%A9pendants&rft.atitle=The+Great+Terror&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=50%2F2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=647-70&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fmonderusse.9736&rft.issn=1252-6576&rft.aulast=Kuromiya&rft.aufirst=Hiroaki&rft.au=Pep%C5%82o%C5%84ski%2C+Andrzej&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.openedition.org%2Fmonderusse%2F9736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goarmy.com/about/ranks-and-insignia/ranks.html">"Ranks"</a>. goarmy.com. Retrieved 18 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=goarmy.com&rft.atitle=Ranks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.goarmy.com%2Fabout%2Franks-and-insignia%2Franks.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008211-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008211_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECourtois1999198-86"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECourtois1999198_86-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCourtois1999">Courtois 1999</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Stephen Lee, European Dictatorships 1918–1945, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008198–89_(a_Soviet_book,_''Marshal_Tukhachevskiy''_by_Nikulin,_pp._189–94_is_cited)-88"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008198%E2%80%9389_(a_Soviet_book,_''Marshal_Tukhachevskiy''_by_Nikulin,_pp._189%E2%80%9394_is_cited)_88-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, pp. 198–89 (a Soviet book, Marshal Tukhachevskiy by Nikulin, pp. 189–94 is cited). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008200–02-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008200%E2%80%9302_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 200–02. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> "Despite the fact that the combined firepower of the Red Army was greater than that of the Germans, the Purges had effectively crippled it by destroying the officer corps. This was the decisive element which persuaded Hitler to attack in 1941. At the Nuremberg trial, Marshal Keitel testified that many German generals had warned Hitler not to attack Russia, arguing that the Red Army was a formidable opponent. Rejecting these Hitler gave Keitel his main reason 'The first-class high-ranking officers were wiped out by Stalin in 1937, and the new generation cannot yet provide the brains they need.'" <a href="/wiki/Roy_Medvedev" title="Roy Medvedev">Roy Medvedev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Let_History_Judge" title="Let History Judge">Let History Judge</a>, p. 214 [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogovin2021" class="citation book cs1">Rogovin, Vadim Zakharovich (2021). Was There an Alternative? Trotskyism: a Look Back Through the Years. Mehring Books. p. 380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-893638-97-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-893638-97-6"><bdi>978-1-893638-97-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Was+There+an+Alternative%3F+Trotskyism%3A+a+Look+Back+Through+the+Years&rft.pages=380&rft.pub=Mehring+Books&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-893638-97-6&rft.aulast=Rogovin&rft.aufirst=Vadim+Zakharovich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitz2021" class="citation book cs1">Weitz, Eric D. (13 April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JOgSEAAAQBAJ&dq=stalin+handed+over+german+communists+gestapo&pg=PA280">Creating German Communism, 1890–1990: From Popular Protests to Socialist State</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 280. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-22812-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-22812-9"><bdi>978-0-691-22812-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creating+German+Communism%2C+1890%E2%80%931990%3A+From+Popular+Protests+to+Socialist+State&rft.pages=280&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2021-04-13&rft.isbn=978-0-691-22812-9&rft.aulast=Weitz&rft.aufirst=Eric+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJOgSEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dstalin%2Bhanded%2Bover%2Bgerman%2Bcommunists%2Bgestapo%26pg%3DPA280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSheehan2018" class="citation book cs1">Sheehan, Helena (23 January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-udOEAAAQBAJ&q=helena+sheehan">Marxism and the Philosophy of Science: A Critical History</a>. Verso Books. pp. 416–417. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78663-426-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78663-426-9"><bdi>978-1-78663-426-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marxism+and+the+Philosophy+of+Science%3A+A+Critical+History&rft.pages=416-417&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2018-01-23&rft.isbn=978-1-78663-426-9&rft.aulast=Sheehan&rft.aufirst=Helena&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-udOEAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dhelena%2Bsheehan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutscher2015" class="citation book cs1">Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet">The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky</a>. Verso Books. p. 1443. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5"><bdi>978-1-78168-721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet%3A+The+Life+of+Leon+Trotsky&rft.pages=1443&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2015-01-05&rft.isbn=978-1-78168-721-5&rft.aulast=Deutscher&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYGznDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Disaac%2Bdeutscher%2Btrotsky%2Bthe%2Bprophet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWasserstein2012" class="citation book cs1">Wasserstein, Bernard (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HJSQZJKHX_8C&dq=Joseph+Berger-Barzilai+purge&pg=PA395">On the Eve: The Jews of Europe Before the Second World War</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 395. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-9427-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-9427-7"><bdi>978-1-4165-9427-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Eve%3A+The+Jews+of+Europe+Before+the+Second+World+War&rft.pages=395&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2012-05&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-9427-7&rft.aulast=Wasserstein&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHJSQZJKHX_8C%26dq%3DJoseph%2BBerger-Barzilai%2Bpurge%26pg%3DPA395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSakwa2012" class="citation book cs1">Sakwa, Richard (12 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQSiM2vPO54C&dq=spanish+civil+war+stalin+purged+nin&pg=PA43">Soviet Politics: In Perspective</a>. Routledge. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90996-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-90996-4"><bdi>978-1-134-90996-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Politics%3A+In+Perspective&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-11-12&rft.isbn=978-1-134-90996-4&rft.aulast=Sakwa&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQSiM2vPO54C%26dq%3Dspanish%2Bcivil%2Bwar%2Bstalin%2Bpurged%2Bnin%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitehead2024" class="citation book cs1">Whitehead, Jonathan (4 April 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7aLsEAAAQBAJ&dq=andreu+nin+stalin+purges&pg=PA81">The End of the Spanish Civil War: Alicante 1939</a>. Pen and Sword History. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3990-6395-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3990-6395-1"><bdi>978-1-3990-6395-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+End+of+the+Spanish+Civil+War%3A+Alicante+1939&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Pen+and+Sword+History&rft.date=2024-04-04&rft.isbn=978-1-3990-6395-1&rft.aulast=Whitehead&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7aLsEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dandreu%2Bnin%2Bstalin%2Bpurges%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService2007" class="citation book cs1">Service, Robert (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Frgm5QodnFoC&dq=andreu+nin+stalin+purged&pg=PA211">Comrades!: A History of World Communism</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02530-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02530-1"><bdi>978-0-674-02530-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comrades%21%3A+A+History+of+World+Communism&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02530-1&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFrgm5QodnFoC%26dq%3Dandreu%2Bnin%2Bstalin%2Bpurged%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKocho-Williams2013" class="citation book cs1">Kocho-Williams, Alastair (4 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vu2kOJbrCuMC&dq=spanish+civil+war+stalin+purged+nin&pg=PA61">Russia's International Relations in the Twentieth Century</a>. Routledge. p. 60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15747-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15747-9"><bdi>978-1-136-15747-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+International+Relations+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pages=60&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-01-04&rft.isbn=978-1-136-15747-9&rft.aulast=Kocho-Williams&rft.aufirst=Alastair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVu2kOJbrCuMC%26dq%3Dspanish%2Bcivil%2Bwar%2Bstalin%2Bpurged%2Bnin%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeze2009" class="citation book cs1">Freeze, Gregory (2009). Russia: A History. United States: Oxford University Press. pp. 364–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199560417" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199560417"><bdi>978-0199560417</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+History&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=364-72&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0199560417&rft.aulast=Freeze&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html/">"Kurapaty (1937–1941): NKVD Mass Killings in Soviet Belarus | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance – Research Network"</a>. kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html. 29 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html&rft.atitle=Kurapaty+%281937%E2%80%931941%29%3A+NKVD+Mass+Killings+in+Soviet+Belarus+%26%23124%3B+Sciences+Po+Mass+Violence+and+Resistance+%E2%80%93+Research+Network&rft.date=2019-04-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings-soviet-belarus.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> This information was published first in 1990 in a <a href="/wiki/Komsomolskaya_Pravda" title="Komsomolskaya Pravda">Komsomolskaya Pravda</a> article (October 28, 1990, p. 2). Later, it was cited by several sources, including: <a href="/wiki/Yevgenia_Albats" title="Yevgenia Albats">Albats, Yevgenia</a>. 1995. KGB: The State Within a State. p. 101; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Gellately" title="Robert Gellately">Gellately, Robert</a>. 2007. Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1400040051" title="Special:BookSources/1400040051">1400040051</a>. p. 460; <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Merridale" title="Catherine Merridale">Merridale, Catherine</a>. 2002. Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia. Penguin Books. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0142000639" title="Special:BookSources/0142000639">0142000639</a>. p. 200; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Colton" title="Timothy Colton">Colton, Timothy J.</a> 1998. Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674587496" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674587496">978-0674587496</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lXM2H6tWHskC&pg=PA286&dq=gas+chamber+butovo">p. 286</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Alexandr_Solzhenitsyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandr Solzhenitsyn">Alexandr Solzhenitsyn</a>. <a href="/wiki/Two_Hundred_Years_Together" title="Two Hundred Years Together">Two Hundred Years Together</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eduskunta.fi/FI/kansanedustajat/Sivut/910364.aspx">"Aino Forsten"</a> (in Finnish). Parliament of Finland. Retrieved 21 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aino+Forsten&rft.pub=Parliament+of+Finland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eduskunta.fi%2FFI%2Fkansanedustajat%2FSivut%2F910364.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronstein2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bronstein, Matvei (2011). "Republication of: Quantum theory of weak gravitational fields". General Relativity and Gravitation. 44 (1): 267–283. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012GReGr..44..267B">2012GReGr..44..267B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10714-011-1285-4">10.1007/s10714-011-1285-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122107821">122107821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=General+Relativity+and+Gravitation&rft.atitle=Republication+of%3A+Quantum+theory+of+weak+gravitational+fields&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=267-283&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122107821%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10714-011-1285-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012GReGr..44..267B&rft.aulast=Bronstein&rft.aufirst=Matvei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergmannSabbata2012" class="citation book cs1">Bergmann, Peter G.; Sabbata, V. de (6 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=62NsCQAAQBAJ&dq=Matvei+Bronstein&pg=PA440">Advances in the Interplay Between Quantum and Gravity Physics</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 440. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-0347-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-0347-6"><bdi>978-94-010-0347-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advances+in+the+Interplay+Between+Quantum+and+Gravity+Physics&rft.pages=440&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2012-12-06&rft.isbn=978-94-010-0347-6&rft.aulast=Bergmann&rft.aufirst=Peter+G.&rft.au=Sabbata%2C+V.+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D62NsCQAAQBAJ%26dq%3DMatvei%2BBronstein%26pg%3DPA440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRovelliVidotto2015" class="citation book cs1">Rovelli, Carlo; Vidotto, Francesca (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4VjeBAAAQBAJ&dq=Matvei+Bronstein&pg=PA7">Covariant Loop Quantum Gravity: An Elementary Introduction to Quantum Gravity and Spinfoam Theory</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 6–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06962-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-06962-6"><bdi>978-1-107-06962-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Covariant+Loop+Quantum+Gravity%3A+An+Elementary+Introduction+to+Quantum+Gravity+and+Spinfoam+Theory&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-06962-6&rft.aulast=Rovelli&rft.aufirst=Carlo&rft.au=Vidotto%2C+Francesca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4VjeBAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DMatvei%2BBronstein%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagill2013" class="citation book cs1">Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xqvpudh8dasC&dq=Nikolai+Vavilov+botanist+contributions&pg=PA3801">The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography</a>. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-59369-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-59369-7"><bdi>978-1-136-59369-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+20th+Century+O-Z%3A+Dictionary+of+World+Biography&rft.pages=3801-3805&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-05-13&rft.isbn=978-1-136-59369-7&rft.aulast=Magill&rft.aufirst=Frank+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxqvpudh8dasC%26dq%3DNikolai%2BVavilov%2Bbotanist%2Bcontributions%26pg%3DPA3801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagill2013" class="citation book cs1">Magill, Frank N. (13 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xqvpudh8dasC&dq=Nikolai+Vavilov+botanist+contributions&pg=PA3801">The 20th Century O-Z: Dictionary of World Biography</a>. Routledge. pp. 3801–3805. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-59369-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-59369-7"><bdi>978-1-136-59369-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+20th+Century+O-Z%3A+Dictionary+of+World+Biography&rft.pages=3801-3805&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-05-13&rft.isbn=978-1-136-59369-7&rft.aulast=Magill&rft.aufirst=Frank+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxqvpudh8dasC%26dq%3DNikolai%2BVavilov%2Bbotanist%2Bcontributions%26pg%3DPA3801&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-j24093868-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-j24093868_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-j24093868_109-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharmaSen2006" class="citation journal cs1">Sharma, Hari Prasad; Sen, Subir K. (2006). "Shubnikov: A case of non-recognition in superconductivity research". Current Science. 91 (11): 1576–1578. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-3891">0011-3891</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24093868">24093868</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Science&rft.atitle=Shubnikov%3A+A+case+of+non-recognition+in+superconductivity+research&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1576-1578&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24093868%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0011-3891&rft.aulast=Sharma&rft.aufirst=Hari+Prasad&rft.au=Sen%2C+Subir+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKharchenko2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kharchenko, N. F. (1 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aip.org/ltp/article/31/8/633/458580/On-seven-decades-of-antiferromagnetism">"On seven decades of antiferromagnetism"</a>. Low Temperature Physics. 31 (8): 633–634. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005LTP....31..633K">2005LTP....31..633K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2008126">10.1063/1.2008126</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1063-777X">1063-777X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Low+Temperature+Physics&rft.atitle=On+seven+decades+of+antiferromagnetism&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=633-634&rft.date=2005-08-01&rft.issn=1063-777X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2008126&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005LTP....31..633K&rft.aulast=Kharchenko&rft.aufirst=N.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aip.org%2Fltp%2Farticle%2F31%2F8%2F633%2F458580%2FOn-seven-decades-of-antiferromagnetism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShifman2015" class="citation book cs1">Shifman, Misha (28 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uFsGCwAAQBAJ&dq=lev+shubnikov+1937&pg=PA19">Physics In A Mad World</a>. World Scientific. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4619-31-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-4619-31-8"><bdi>978-981-4619-31-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+In+A+Mad+World&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2015-08-28&rft.isbn=978-981-4619-31-8&rft.aulast=Shifman&rft.aufirst=Misha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuFsGCwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dlev%2Bshubnikov%2B1937%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetz2011" class="citation book cs1">Betz, Frederick (22 February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9WfrBgAAQBAJ&dq=nikolai+kondratiev+1938&pg=PA31">Managing Technological Innovation: Competitive Advantage from Change</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-54782-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-54782-3"><bdi>978-0-470-54782-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+Technological+Innovation%3A+Competitive+Advantage+from+Change&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011-02-22&rft.isbn=978-0-470-54782-3&rft.aulast=Betz&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9WfrBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dnikolai%2Bkondratiev%2B1938%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuo2017" class="citation book cs1">Guo, Rongxing (6 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz8UDgAAQBAJ&dq=nikolai+kondratiev+executed+1938&pg=PA164">An Economic Inquiry into the Nonlinear Behaviors of Nations: Dynamic Developments and the Origins of Civilizations</a>. Springer. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-48772-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-48772-4"><bdi>978-3-319-48772-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+Inquiry+into+the+Nonlinear+Behaviors+of+Nations%3A+Dynamic+Developments+and+the+Origins+of+Civilizations&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017-02-06&rft.isbn=978-3-319-48772-4&rft.aulast=Guo&rft.aufirst=Rongxing&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNz8UDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dnikolai%2Bkondratiev%2Bexecuted%2B1938%26pg%3DPA164&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrausz2015" class="citation book cs1">Krausz, Tamás (27 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z23IBgAAQBAJ&dq=valerin+obolensky+executed&pg=PA417">Reconstructing Lenin: An Intellectual Biography</a>. NYU Press. p. 417. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-449-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58367-449-9"><bdi>978-1-58367-449-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reconstructing+Lenin%3A+An+Intellectual+Biography&rft.pages=417&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2015-02-27&rft.isbn=978-1-58367-449-9&rft.aulast=Krausz&rft.aufirst=Tam%C3%A1s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz23IBgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dvalerin%2Bobolensky%2Bexecuted%26pg%3DPA417&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosmer1971" class="citation book cs1">Rosmer, Alfred (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B9poAAAAMAAJ&q=valerin+obolensky+professor">Lenin's Moscow</a>. (Cottons Gardens, E2 8DN), Pluto Press Limited. p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-902818-11-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-902818-11-8"><bdi>978-0-902818-11-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%27s+Moscow&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=%28Cottons+Gardens%2C+E2+8DN%29%2C+Pluto+Press+Limited&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-902818-11-8&rft.aulast=Rosmer&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB9poAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dvalerin%2Bobolensky%2Bprofessor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgriculture1925" class="citation book cs1">Agriculture, United States Department of (1925). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iv5MAAAAYAAJ&dq=valerin+obolensky+professor&pg=RA25-PA3">The Official Record of the United States Department of Agriculture</a>. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Official+Record+of+the+United+States+Department+of+Agriculture&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=U.S.+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1925&rft.aulast=Agriculture&rft.aufirst=United+States+Department+of&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Div5MAAAAYAAJ%26dq%3Dvalerin%2Bobolensky%2Bprofessor%26pg%3DRA25-PA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaccarelloIzumo2014" class="citation book cs1">Faccarello, Gilbert; Izumo, Masashi (3 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a6HIAgAAQBAJ&dq=Isaak+Rubin+1937&pg=PA203">The Reception of David Ricardo in Continental Europe and Japan</a>. Routledge. pp. 203–204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-81995-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-81995-0"><bdi>978-1-317-81995-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reception+of+David+Ricardo+in+Continental+Europe+and+Japan&rft.pages=203-204&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-02-03&rft.isbn=978-1-317-81995-0&rft.aulast=Faccarello&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rft.au=Izumo%2C+Masashi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da6HIAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3DIsaak%2BRubin%2B1937%26pg%3DPA203&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinhoff2021" class="citation book cs1">Steinhoff, James (21 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a1w0EAAAQBAJ&dq=Isaak+Rubin+executed+1937&pg=PA55">Automation and Autonomy: Labour, Capital and Machines in the Artificial Intelligence Industry</a>. Springer Nature. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-71689-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-71689-9"><bdi>978-3-030-71689-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Automation+and+Autonomy%3A+Labour%2C+Capital+and+Machines+in+the+Artificial+Intelligence+Industry&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2021-06-21&rft.isbn=978-3-030-71689-9&rft.aulast=Steinhoff&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da1w0EAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DIsaak%2BRubin%2Bexecuted%2B1937%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMccauley2014" class="citation book cs1">Mccauley, Martin (4 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7cbKAgAAQBAJ&dq=milyutin+coalition+government&pg=PA21">The Soviet Union 1917-1991</a>. Routledge. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-90179-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-90179-2"><bdi>978-1-317-90179-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviet+Union+1917-1991&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-02-04&rft.isbn=978-1-317-90179-2&rft.aulast=Mccauley&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7cbKAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dmilyutin%2Bcoalition%2Bgovernment%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2020" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Jonathan (15 May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pkjWDwAAQBAJ&dq=Vladimir+Milyutin+%C2%A0economist&pg=PA200">Historical Dictionary of the Russian Revolution</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 200–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-3981-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-3981-3"><bdi>978-1-5381-3981-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+Russian+Revolution&rft.pages=200-201&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2020-05-15&rft.isbn=978-1-5381-3981-3&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpkjWDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DVladimir%2BMilyutin%2B%25C2%25A0economist%26pg%3DPA200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSerge2019" class="citation book cs1">Serge, Victor (9 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YcBWDwAAQBAJ&dq=vladimir+milyutin+prison+1937&pg=PA626">Notebooks: 1936-1947</a>. New York Review of Books. p. 626. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68137-271-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-68137-271-6"><bdi>978-1-68137-271-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notebooks%3A+1936-1947&rft.pages=626&rft.pub=New+York+Review+of+Books&rft.date=2019-04-09&rft.isbn=978-1-68137-271-6&rft.aulast=Serge&rft.aufirst=Victor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYcBWDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dvladimir%2Bmilyutin%2Bprison%2B1937%26pg%3DPA626&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLankford2013" class="citation book cs1">Lankford, John (7 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9jyExgmZxBoC&dq=Boris+Numerov+astronomer&pg=PA365">History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia</a>. Routledge. p. 365. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-50834-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-50834-9"><bdi>978-1-136-50834-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Astronomy%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=365&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-03-07&rft.isbn=978-1-136-50834-9&rft.aulast=Lankford&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9jyExgmZxBoC%26dq%3DBoris%2BNumerov%2Bastronomer%26pg%3DPA365&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChertok2005" class="citation book cs1">Chertok, Boris Evseevich (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2IUgAQAAIAAJ&dq=Ivan+Kleymyonov+founder&pg=PA165">Rockets and People</a>. NASA. pp. 164–165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-073239-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-16-073239-3"><bdi>978-0-16-073239-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rockets+and+People&rft.pages=164-165&rft.pub=NASA&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-16-073239-3&rft.aulast=Chertok&rft.aufirst=Boris+Evseevich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2IUgAQAAIAAJ%26dq%3DIvan%2BKleymyonov%2Bfounder%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPondrom2018" class="citation book cs1">Pondrom, Lee G. (25 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vlZoDwAAQBAJ&dq=boris+gerasimovich&pg=PA109">Soviet Atomic Project, The: How The Soviet Union Obtained The Atomic Bomb</a> (109 ed.). World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-323-557-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-323-557-1"><bdi>978-981-323-557-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Atomic+Project%2C+The%3A+How+The+Soviet+Union+Obtained+The+Atomic+Bomb&rft.edition=109&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2018-07-25&rft.isbn=978-981-323-557-1&rft.aulast=Pondrom&rft.aufirst=Lee+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvlZoDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dboris%2Bgerasimovich%26pg%3DPA109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStone2000" class="citation book cs1">Stone, David R. 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University Press of Kansas. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1037-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1037-2"><bdi>978-0-7006-1037-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hammer+and+Rifle%3A+The+Militarization+of+the+Soviet+Union%2C+1926%E2%80%931933&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1037-2&rft.aulast=Stone&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsnTfAAAAMAAJ%26dq%3DPyotr%2BBogdanov%2Bexecuted%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvangelista2018" class="citation book cs1">Evangelista, Matthew (6 August 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zpRlDwAAQBAJ&dq=alexander+svechin+purge+1938&pg=PA191">Unarmed Forces: The Transnational Movement to End the Cold War</a>. Cornell University Press. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-2400-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-2400-8"><bdi>978-1-5017-2400-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unarmed+Forces%3A+The+Transnational+Movement+to+End+the+Cold+War&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2018-08-06&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-2400-8&rft.aulast=Evangelista&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzpRlDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dalexander%2Bsvechin%2Bpurge%2B1938%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvečin1992" class="citation book cs1">Svečin, Aleksandr A. 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Soviet Studies. 29 (3): 373–394. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668137708411134">10.1080/09668137708411134</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0038-5859">0038-5859</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/150306">150306</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soviet+Studies&rft.atitle=Alexei+Gastev+and+the+Soviet+Controversy+over+Taylorism%2C+1918-24&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=373-394&rft.date=1977&rft.issn=0038-5859&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F150306%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668137708411134&rft.aulast=Bailes&rft.aufirst=Kendall+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F150306&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham2015" class="citation book cs1">Graham, Loren R. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 318. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71788-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-71788-5"><bdi>978-0-521-71788-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Groups+and+Analysis%3A+The+Legacy+of+Hermann+Weyl&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008-10-16&rft.isbn=978-0-521-71788-5&rft.aulast=Tent&rft.aufirst=Katrin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdT2D5r-BMAsC%26dq%3Dfritz%2Bnoether%2Beinstein%2Blitvinov%26pg%3DPA318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBen-Menahem2009" class="citation book cs1">Ben-Menahem, Ari (6 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9tUrarQYhKMC&dq=fritz+noether+executed&pg=PA3460">Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences</a>. 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Dee, 1993, p. 285 </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Oleg V. Khlevniuk. Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300110669" title="Special:BookSources/0300110669">0300110669</a> p. xix </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-180"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_180-0">^</a> Marc Jansen, Nikita Vasilʹevich Petrov. Stalin's Loyal Executioner: People's Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940. <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Institution_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoover Institution Press">Hoover Institution Press</a>, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0817929029" title="Special:BookSources/0817929029">0817929029</a> p. 111 </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014232729/http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/mjellman/">Michael Ellman</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paulbogdanor.com/left/soviet/famine/ellman1933.pdf">Stalin and the Soviet Famine of 1932–33 Revisited</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014232729/http://www1.fee.uva.nl/pp/mjellman/">Archived</a> 14 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Europe–Asia Studies, <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. Vol. 59, No. 4, June 2007, 663–693. <a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a> file </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Getty & Naumov, The Road to Terror. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1999, p. 470 </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Quoted in <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Volkogonov" title="Dmitri Volkogonov">Dmitri Volkogonov</a>, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York, 1991), p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaabar1999" class="citation book cs1">Baabar, Bat-Ėrdėniĭn (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xXxxAAAAMAAJ">History of Mongolia</a>. 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South Asian Publishers. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881318-15-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-881318-15-6"><bdi>978-1-881318-15-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reign+of+Terror+in+Mongolia%2C+1920-1990&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=South+Asian+Publishers&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-881318-15-6&rft.aulast=Dashpu%CC%87r%C4%97v&rft.aufirst=Danzankhorloogi%C4%ADn&rft.au=Soni%2C+Sharad+Kumar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAw4cAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dstalin%2B100%2C000%2Border%2Bmongolia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_187-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_187-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFService2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)" title="Robert Service (historian)">Service, Robert</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hSWK6Dh4wRgC&pg=PA369">Stalin: A Biography</a>. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/30/world/europe/russia-soviet-repression-monument.html">the original</a> on 3 February 2024. Retrieved 6 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Critics+Scoff+as+Kremlin+Erects+Monument+to+the+Repressed&rft.date=2017-10-30&rft.aulast=MacFarquhar&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2017%2F10%2F30%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Frussia-soviet-repression-monument.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-58340805">"Stalin-era mass grave found in Ukraine"</a>. BBC. 26 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Stalin-era+mass+grave+found+in+Ukraine&rft.date=2021-08-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-58340805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGettyRitterspornZemskov1993" class="citation journal cs1">Getty, J. Arch; Rittersporn, Gabor T.; Zemskov, Viktor N. (October 1993). "Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence". The American Historical Review. 98 (4): 1030–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2166597">10.2307/2166597</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2166597">2166597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Victims+of+the+Soviet+Penal+System+in+the+Pre-War+Years%3A+A+First+Approach+on+the+Basis+of+Archival+Evidence&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1030-35&rft.date=1993-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2166597&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2166597%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Getty&rft.aufirst=J.+Arch&rft.au=Rittersporn%2C+Gabor+T.&rft.au=Zemskov%2C+Viktor+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutscher2015" class="citation book cs1">Deutscher, Isaac (5 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YGznDwAAQBAJ&q=isaac+deutscher+trotsky+the+prophet">The Prophet: The Life of Leon Trotsky</a>. Verso Books. p. 1370. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78168-721-5"><bdi>978-1-78168-721-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Prophet%3A+The+Life+of+Leon+Trotsky&rft.pages=1370&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2015-01-05&rft.isbn=978-1-78168-721-5&rft.aulast=Deutscher&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYGznDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Disaac%2Bdeutscher%2Btrotsky%2Bthe%2Bprophet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1937/08/stalinism.htm">"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)"</a>. www.marxists.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=Leon+Trotsky%3A+Stalinism+and+Bolshevism+%28August+1937%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Ftrotsky%2F1937%2F08%2Fstalinism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/trotsky/1937/08/stalinism.htm">"Leon Trotsky: Stalinism and Bolshevism (August 1937)"</a>. www.marxists.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=Leon+Trotsky%3A+Stalinism+and+Bolshevism+%28August+1937%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Ftrotsky%2F1937%2F08%2Fstalinism.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008121_which_cites_his_secret_speech-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008121_which_cites_his_secret_speech_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 121 which cites his secret speech. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConquest2008286-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConquest2008286_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConquest2008">Conquest 2008</a>, p. 286. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerezhkovMikheyev1994" class="citation book cs1">Berezhkov, V. M. (Valentin Mikhaĭlovich); Mikheyev, Sergei M. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atstalinsside00vmbe/page/10/mode/2up?view=theater">At Stalin's side : his interpreter's memoirs from the October Revolution to the fall of the dictator's empire</a>. Secaucus, NJ : Carol Pub. Group. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55972-212-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55972-212-4"><bdi>978-1-55972-212-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+Stalin%27s+side+%3A+his+interpreter%27s+memoirs+from+the+October+Revolution+to+the+fall+of+the+dictator%27s+empire&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Secaucus%2C+NJ+%3A+Carol+Pub.+Group&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-55972-212-4&rft.aulast=Berezhkov&rft.aufirst=V.+M.+%28Valentin+Mikha%C4%ADlovich%29&rft.au=Mikheyev%2C+Sergei+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatstalinsside00vmbe%2Fpage%2F10%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20172–4-208"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris20172%E2%80%934_208-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarris2017">Harris 2017</a>, pp. 2–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2016" class="citation web cs1">Harris, James (26 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/163498">"Historian James Harris says Russian archives show we've misunderstood Stalin"</a>. <a href="/wiki/History_News_Network" title="History News Network">History News Network</a>. Retrieved 1 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History+News+Network&rft.atitle=Historian+James+Harris+says+Russian+archives+show+we%27ve+misunderstood+Stalin&rft.date=2016-07-26&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorynewsnetwork.org%2Farticle%2F163498&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> Peter Whitewood, The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military (2015) Quoting pp. 12, 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> Ronald Grigor Suny, review, Historian (2018) 80#1: 177–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> For a critique of Whitewood see Alexander Hill, review, American Historical Review (2017) 122#5 pp. 1713–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Roger R. Reese, "Stalin Attacks the Red Army." Military History Quarterly 27.1 (2014): 38–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThurston1998xx-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThurston1998xx_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThurston1998">Thurston 1998</a>, p. xx. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin2000" class="citation book cs1">Andrew, Christopher; Mitrokhin, Vasili (2000) [1999]. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0465003129" title="Special:BookSources/978-0465003129"><bdi>978-0465003129</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sword+and+the+Shield%3A+The+Mitrokhin+Archive+and+the+Secret+History+of+the+KGB&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0465003129&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft.au=Mitrokhin%2C+Vasili&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest1987" class="citation book cs1">—— (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stalinkirovmurde00conq">Stalin and the Kirov Murder</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195055795" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195055795"><bdi>978-0195055795</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin+and+the+Kirov+Murder&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0195055795&rft.aulast=Conquest&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstalinkirovmurde00conq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest2008" class="citation book cs1">—— (2008) [1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC">The Great Terror: A Reassessment</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195317008" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195317008"><bdi>978-0195317008</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Terror%3A+A+Reassessment&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0195317008&rft.aulast=Conquest&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DubXQSk2qfXMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCourtois1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Courtois" title="Stéphane Courtois">Courtois, Stéphane</a> (1999). <a href="/wiki/The_Black_Book_of_Communism" title="The Black Book of Communism">The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression</a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674076082" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674076082"><bdi>978-0674076082</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Book+of+Communism%3A+Crimes%2C+Terror%2C+Repression&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0674076082&rft.aulast=Courtois&rft.aufirst=St%C3%A9phane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiges2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Figes" title="Orlando Figes">Figes, Orlando</a> (2007). The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin's Russia. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0713997026" title="Special:BookSources/978-0713997026"><bdi>978-0713997026</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Whisperers%3A+Private+Life+in+Stalin%27s+Russia&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0713997026&rft.aulast=Figes&rft.aufirst=Orlando&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrick2017" class="citation book cs1">Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2017). On Stalin's Team : The years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691175775" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691175775"><bdi>978-0691175775</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Stalin%27s+Team+%3A+The+years+of+Living+Dangerously+in+Soviet+Politics&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0691175775&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=Sheila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGellately2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gellately" title="Robert Gellately">Gellately, Robert</a> (2007). Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe. Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400040056" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400040056"><bdi>978-1400040056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lenin%2C+Stalin%2C+and+Hitler%3A+The+Age+of+Social+Catastrophe&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1400040056&rft.aulast=Gellately&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2017" class="citation book cs1">Harris, James (2017). The Great Fear: Stalin's Terror of the 1930s. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198797869" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198797869"><bdi>978-0198797869</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Fear%3A+Stalin%27s+Terror+of+the+1930s&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0198797869&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynesKlehr2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Haynes, John Earl</a>; <a href="/wiki/John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">Klehr, Harvey</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indenial00john">In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encounter_Books" title="Encounter Books">Encounter Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1893554726" title="Special:BookSources/978-1893554726"><bdi>978-1893554726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Denial%3A+Historians%2C+Communism%2C+and+Espionage&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1893554726&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=John+Earl&rft.au=Klehr%2C+Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findenial00john&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoestler1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Koestler" title="Arthur Koestler">Koestler, Arthur</a> (1940). Darkness at Noon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darkness+at+Noon&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Koestler&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuromiya2007" class="citation book cs1">Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2007). The Voices of the Dead: Stalin's Great Terror in the 1930s. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300123890" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300123890"><bdi>978-0300123890</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voices+of+the+Dead%3A+Stalin%27s+Great+Terror+in+the+1930s&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0300123890&rft.aulast=Kuromiya&rft.aufirst=Hiroaki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLoughlinMcDermott2002" class="citation book cs1">McLoughlin, Barry; McDermott, Kevin (2002). Stalin's Terror: High Politics and Mass Repression in the Soviet Union. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1403901194" title="Special:BookSources/978-1403901194"><bdi>978-1403901194</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Terror%3A+High+Politics+and+Mass+Repression+in+the+Soviet+Union&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1403901194&rft.aulast=McLoughlin&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft.au=McDermott%2C+Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParrish1996" class="citation book cs1">Parrish, Michael (1996). The Lesser Terror: Soviet state security, 1939–1953. Westport, CT: Praeger Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275951139" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275951139"><bdi>978-0275951139</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lesser+Terror%3A+Soviet+state+security%2C+1939%E2%80%931953&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Praeger+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0275951139&rft.aulast=Parrish&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolzhenitsyn1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn" title="Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn">Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I.</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gulagarchipelago00solz">The Gulag Archipelago, 1918–1956: In Three Volumes</a>. New York: Harper and Row.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gulag+Archipelago%2C+1918%E2%80%931956%3A+In+Three+Volumes&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+and+Row&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Solzhenitsyn&rft.aufirst=Aleksandr+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgulagarchipelago00solz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurston1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Thurston" title="Robert W. Thurston">Thurston, Robert</a> (1998) [1996]. Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300074420" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300074420"><bdi>978-0300074420</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+and+Terror+in+Stalin%27s+Russia%2C+1934%E2%80%931941&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0300074420&rft.aulast=Thurston&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft2000" class="citation journal cs1">—— (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-Comments_KEP_CNQ.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of Stalinist Repression and its Demographic Significance: On Comments by Keep and Conquest"</a> (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 52 (6): 1143–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668130050143860">10.1080/09668130050143860</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19326595">19326595</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205667754">205667754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+Stalinist+Repression+and+its+Demographic+Significance%3A+On+Comments+by+Keep+and+Conquest&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1143-59&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205667754%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19326595&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668130050143860&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-Comments_KEP_CNQ.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(18)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-18 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-18"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Stalinism_and_the_Soviet_Union#Terror,_famine_and_the_Gulag" title="Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union">Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union § Terror, famine and the Gulag</a></div> <ul><li>A. Artizov, Yu. Sigachev, I. Shevchuk, V. Khlopov under editorship of acad. A. N. Yakovlev. Rehabilitation: As It Happened. Documents of the CPSU CC Presidium and Other Materials. Vol. 2, February 1956–Early 1980s. Moscow, 2003.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChase2001" class="citation book cs1">Chase, William J. (2001). Enemies within the Gates?: The Comintern and the Stalinist Repression, 1934–1939. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08242-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08242-5"><bdi>978-0-300-08242-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enemies+within+the+Gates%3F%3A+The+Comintern+and+the+Stalinist+Repression%2C+1934%E2%80%931939&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08242-5&rft.aulast=Chase&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColton1998" class="citation book cs1">Colton, Timothy J. (1998). Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis. <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press">Belknap Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-58749-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-58749-6"><bdi>978-0-674-58749-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moscow%3A+Governing+the+Socialist+Metropolis&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-674-58749-6&rft.aulast=Colton&rft.aufirst=Timothy+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConquest1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Conquest" title="Robert Conquest">Conquest, Robert</a> (1973) [1968]. The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (Revised ed.). London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-527560-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-527560-7"><bdi>978-0-02-527560-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Terror%3A+Stalin%27s+Purge+of+the+Thirties&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-02-527560-7&rft.aulast=Conquest&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2017" class="citation cs2">Hill, Alexander (2017), The Red Army and the Second World War, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-2079-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-2079-5"><bdi>978-1-1070-2079-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Red+Army+and+the+Second+World+War&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-2079-5&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffman2003" class="citation book cs1">Hoffman, David L., ed. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=54ZJypH-7xcC">Stalinism: The Essential Readings</a>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22890-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22890-5"><bdi>978-0-631-22890-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalinism%3A+The+Essential+Readings&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-631-22890-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D54ZJypH-7xcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIlic2006" class="citation book cs1">Ilic, Melanie, ed. (2006). Stalin's Terror Revisited. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Terror+Revisited&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarlssonSchoenhals2008" class="citation book cs1">Karlsson, Klas-Göran; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100824031709/http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/forskningsinventering_EN.pdf">Crimes against humanity under communist regimes – Research review</a> (PDF). Forum for Living History. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-977487-2-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-977487-2-8"><bdi>978-91-977487-2-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.levandehistoria.se/files/forskningsinventering_EN.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crimes+against+humanity+under+communist+regimes+%E2%80%93+Research+review&rft.pub=Forum+for+Living+History&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-91-977487-2-8&rft.aulast=Karlsson&rft.aufirst=Klas-G%C3%B6ran&rft.au=Schoenhals%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.levandehistoria.se%2Ffiles%2Fforskningsinventering_EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyons1937" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Lyons" title="Eugene Lyons">Lyons, Eugene</a> (1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.89424">Assignment in Utopia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Harcourt_Trade_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harcourt Trade Publishers">Harcourt Brace and Company</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Assignment+in+Utopia&rft.pub=Harcourt+Brace+and+Company&rft.date=1937&rft.aulast=Lyons&rft.aufirst=Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.89424&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerridale2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Merridale" title="Catherine Merridale">Merridale, Catherine</a> (2002). Night of Stone: Death and Memory in Twentieth-Century Russia. London: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200063-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-200063-2"><bdi>978-0-14-200063-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Night+of+Stone%3A+Death+and+Memory+in+Twentieth-Century+Russia&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-14-200063-2&rft.aulast=Merridale&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaimark2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Naimark" title="Norman Naimark">Naimark, Norman M.</a> (2010). Stalin's Genocides (Human Rights and Crimes against Humanity). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14784-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14784-0"><bdi>978-0-691-14784-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stalin%27s+Genocides+%28Human+Rights+and+Crimes+against+Humanity%29&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14784-0&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogovin1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vadim_Rogovin" title="Vadim Rogovin">Rogovin, Vadim</a> (1996). Two Lectures: Stalin's Great Terror: Origins and Consequences – Leon Trotsky and the Fate of Marxism in the USSR. Mehring books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-929087-83-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-929087-83-2"><bdi>978-0-929087-83-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Two+Lectures%3A+Stalin%27s+Great+Terror%3A+Origins+and+Consequences+%E2%80%93+Leon+Trotsky+and+the+Fate+of+Marxism+in+the+USSR&rft.pub=Mehring+books&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-929087-83-2&rft.aulast=Rogovin&rft.aufirst=Vadim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogovin1998" class="citation book cs1">—— (1998). 1937: Stalin's Year of Terror. Mehring Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-929087-77-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-929087-77-1"><bdi>978-0-929087-77-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=1937%3A+Stalin%27s+Year+of+Terror&rft.pub=Mehring+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-929087-77-1&rft.aulast=Rogovin&rft.aufirst=Vadim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosefielde2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Rosefielde" title="Steven Rosefielde">Rosefielde, Steven</a> (2009). Red Holocaust. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77757-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77757-5"><bdi>978-0-415-77757-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Red+Holocaust&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77757-5&rft.aulast=Rosefielde&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Timothy_D._Snyder" class="mw-redirect" title="Timothy D. Snyder">Snyder, Timothy</a> (2005). Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10670-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10670-1"><bdi>978-0-300-10670-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sketches+from+a+Secret+War%3A+A+Polish+Artist%27s+Mission+to+Liberate+Soviet+Ukraine&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10670-1&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2010" class="citation book cs1">—— (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZCP6WKJwVr8C">Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin</a>. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00239-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00239-9"><bdi>978-0-465-00239-9</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloodlands%3A+Europe+Between+Hitler+and+Stalin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00239-9&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZCP6WKJwVr8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTzouliadis2008" class="citation book cs1">Tzouliadis, Tim (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/forsakenamerican00tzou">The Forsaken: An American Tragedy in Stalin's Russia</a>. London: Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-168-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-168-4"><bdi>978-1-59420-168-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forsaken%3A+An+American+Tragedy+in+Stalin%27s+Russia&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-168-4&rft.aulast=Tzouliadis&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fforsakenamerican00tzou&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Watt, Donald Cameron. "Who plotted against whom? Stalin's purge of the soviet high command revisited." Journal of Soviet Military Studies 3.1 (1990): 46–65.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheatcroft1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_G._Wheatcroft" title="Stephen G. Wheatcroft">Wheatcroft, Stephen</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sovietinfo.tripod.com/WCR-German_Soviet.pdf">"The Scale and Nature of German and Soviet Repression and Mass Killings, 1930–45"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Europe-Asia_Studies" title="Europe-Asia Studies">Europe-Asia Studies</a>. 48 (8): 1319–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09668139608412415">10.1080/09668139608412415</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/152781">152781</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Europe-Asia+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Scale+and+Nature+of+German+and+Soviet+Repression+and+Mass+Killings%2C+1930%E2%80%9345&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1319-53&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09668139608412415&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F152781%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wheatcroft&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsovietinfo.tripod.com%2FWCR-German_Soviet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Whitewood, Peter. The Red Army and the Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Soviet Military (2015)</li> <li>Whitewood, Peter. "The Purge of the Red Army and the Soviet Mass Operations, 1937–38." Slavonic & East European Review 93.2 (2015): 286–314. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ray.yorksj.ac.uk/id/eprint/958/1/slaveasteurorev2.93.2.0286.pdf">online</a></li> <li>—— "Subversion in the Red Army and the Military Purge of 1937–1938." Europe-Asia Studies 67.1 (2015): 102–22.</li> <li>—— "In the shadow of the war: Bolshevik perceptions of polish subversive and military threats to the Soviet Union, 1920–32." Journal of Strategic Studies (2019): 1–24.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYakovlev1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Nikolaevich_Yakovlev" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev">Yakovlev, Alexander N.</a>, ed. (1991). Реабилитация. Политические процессы 30–50-х годов [Rehabilitation: Political Trials of the 1930s–50s]. Moscow: <a href="/wiki/ROSSPEN" title="ROSSPEN">ROSSPEN</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F.+%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B+30%E2%80%9350-%D1%85+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=ROSSPEN&rft.date=1991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYakovlev2004" class="citation book cs1">—— (2004) [2002]. A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10322-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10322-9"><bdi>978-0-300-10322-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Century+of+Violence+in+Soviet+Russia&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-300-10322-9&rft.aulast=Yakovlev&rft.aufirst=Alexander+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGreat+Purge" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Film">Film</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Film" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li>Pultz, David, dir. 1997. Eternal Memory: Voices from the Great Terror [81:00, documentary film]. Narrated by <a href="/wiki/Meryl_Streep" title="Meryl Streep">Meryl Streep</a>. US</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(19)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-19 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-19"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 12px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="12" data-height="16" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Great_Purge" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Great Purge">Great Purge</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/bukharin/works/1938/trial/">The Case of Bukharin</a> – Transcript of Nikolai Bukharin's testimonies and last plea; from "The Case of the Anti-Soviet Block of Rights and Trotskyites", Red Star Press, 1973, pp. 369–439, 767–79</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=25JpnWlEfvE">Actual video footage from Third Moscow Trial</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Werth" title="Nicolas Werth">Nicolas Werth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.massviolence.org/The-NKVD-Mass-Secret-Operation-no-00447-August-1937">Case Study: The NKVD Mass Secret Operation n° 00447 (August 1937 – November 1938)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historians.org/perspectives/issues/1999/9905/9905arc2.cfm">"Documenting the Death Toll: Research into the Mass Murder of Foreigners in Moscow, 1937–38"</a> by Barry McLoughlin, American Historical Association, 1999</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=mobile" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&oldid=1259666089">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&oldid=1259666089</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 26 November 2024, at 11:58 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groot_Suiwering" title="Groot Suiwering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Groot Suiwering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fer_Terror_(Sowjetunion)" title="Großer Terror (Sowjetunion) – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Großer Terror (Sowjetunion)" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B1" title="التطهير الكبير – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التطهير الكبير" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Purga" title="Gran Purga – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Gran Purga" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6y%C3%BCk_t%C9%99mizl%C9%99m%C9%99" title="Böyük təmizləmə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Böyük təmizləmə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A4%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9_%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%84%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D9%87" title="بؤیوک تمیزله‌مه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بؤیوک تمیزله‌مه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%81i-siok-chheng" title="Tāi-siok-chheng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tāi-siok-chheng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Оло террор – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Оло террор" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Голяма чистка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Голяма чистка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spurjadenno%C3%B9_Bras" title="Spurjadennoù Bras – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Spurjadennoù Bras" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Purga" title="Gran Purga – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gran Purga" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velk%C3%A1_%C4%8Distka" title="Velká čistka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Velká čistka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_store_udrensning" title="Den store udrensning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den store udrensning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fer_Terror_(Sowjetunion)" title="Großer Terror (Sowjetunion) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Großer Terror (Sowjetunion)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suur_terror" title="Suur terror – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Suur terror" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%95%CE%BA%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Μεγάλη Εκκαθάριση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεγάλη Εκκαθάριση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Purga" title="Gran Purga – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gran Purga" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granda_purigo" title="Granda purigo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Granda purigo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purga_Handia" title="Purga Handia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Purga Handia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%B2%D8%B1%DA%AF" title="پاکسازی بزرگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پاکسازی بزرگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandes_Purges" title="Grandes Purges – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grandes Purges" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_Purga" title="Gran Purga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gran Purga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EC%88%99%EC%B2%AD" title="대숙청 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대숙청" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930-%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A2%D5%BC%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B3%D5%B6%D5%B7%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="1930-ականների բռնաճնշում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="1930-ականների բռնաճնշում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="महान शुद्धिकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महान शुद्धिकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_%C4%8Distka" title="Velika čistka – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Velika čistka" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granda_purigo" title="Granda purigo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Granda purigo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembersihan_Besar-Besaran" title="Pembersihan Besar-Besaran – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pembersihan Besar-Besaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hreinsanirnar_miklu" title="Hreinsanirnar miklu – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Hreinsanirnar miklu" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandi_purghe" title="Grandi purghe – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Grandi purghe" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9D" title="הטיהורים הגדולים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הטיהורים הגדולים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%93%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%90" title="დიდი წმენდა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დიდი წმენდა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lielais_terors" title="Lielais terors – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Lielais terors" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didysis_valymas" title="Didysis valymas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Didysis valymas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagy_tisztogat%C3%A1s" title="Nagy tisztogatás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nagy tisztogatás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D" title="ഗ്രേറ്റ് പർജ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗ്രേറ്റ് പർജ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembersihan_Besar-Besaran" title="Pembersihan Besar-Besaran – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembersihan Besar-Besaran" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grote_Zuivering" title="Grote Zuivering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Grote Zuivering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%B2%9B%E6%B8%85" title="大粛清 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="大粛清" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_store_terroren" title="Den store terroren – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Den store terroren" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_store_utreinskinga" title="Den store utreinskinga – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Den store utreinskinga" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A4" title="ਮਹਾਨ ਦਹਿਸ਼ਤ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮਹਾਨ ਦਹਿਸ਼ਤ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%AF%DB%81%D8%B4%D8%AA" title="عظيم دہشت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عظيم دہشت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wielki_terror_(ZSRR)" title="Wielki terror (ZSRR) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wielki terror (ZSRR)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_Expurgo" title="Grande Expurgo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grande Expurgo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marea_Epurare" title="Marea Epurare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Marea Epurare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%88%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Большой террор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Большой террор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Great Purge" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C4%BEk%C3%BD_teror" title="Veľký teror – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Veľký teror" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_%C4%8Distka" title="Velika čistka – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Velika čistka" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Велика чистка – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Велика чистка" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velika_%C4%8Distka" title="Velika čistka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Velika čistka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinin_vainot" title="Stalinin vainot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Stalinin vainot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stora_utrensningen" title="Stora utrensningen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stora utrensningen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பெரும் துப்புரவாக்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பெரும் துப்புரவாக்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zur_terror" title="Zur terror – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Zur terror" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%8D%E0%B9%88" title="การกวาดล้างใหญ่ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การกวาดล้างใหญ่" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Temizlik" title="Büyük Temizlik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Büyük Temizlik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Великий терор – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Великий терор" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%AF%DB%81%D8%B4%D8%AA" title="عظيم دہشت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عظيم دہشت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_thanh_tr%E1%BB%ABng" title="Đại thanh trừng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đại thanh trừng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E6%B4%97" title="大清洗 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="大清洗" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E6%B4%97" title="大清洗 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="大清洗" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakkerd%C4%B1%C5%9Fo_G%C4%B1rd" title="Pakkerdışo Gırd – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Pakkerdışo Gırd" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E6%B4%97" title="大清洗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="大清洗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 26 November 2024, at 11:58 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a 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href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Purge&mobileaction=toggle_view_desktop" data-event-name="switch_to_desktop">Desktop</a></li> </ul> </div> </footer> </div> </div> <div class="mw-notification-area" data-mw="interface"></div>  <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-5c59558b9d-4qhwh","wgBackendResponseTime":274,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.265","walltime":"2.610","ppvisitednodes":{"value":20544,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":620262,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":31360,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":41,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":686940,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2120.018 1 -total"," 37.75% 800.383 1 Template:Reflist"," 18.60% 394.391 98 Template:Cite_book"," 9.42% 199.610 50 Template:Sfn"," 7.94% 168.386 18 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.31% 154.972 2 Template:Infobox"," 6.95% 147.428 1 Template:Infobox_civilian_attack"," 6.87% 145.547 39 Template:Cite_web"," 5.88% 124.600 23 Template:Fix"," 4.49% 95.258 2 Template:Langx"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.293","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":20172419,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAgriculture1925\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrewMitrokhin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndrew_D._W._Forbes1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaabar1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailes1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBen-Menahem2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerezhkovMikheyev1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergmannSabbata2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBetz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrett_Homkes2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBronstein2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroué\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChase2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChertok2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColton1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConquest1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConquest1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConquest2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCourtois1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDashpu̇rėvSoni1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeutscher2015\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFDewey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyck2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllman2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEvangelista2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaccarelloIzumo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiges2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzpatrick2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFrançois-Xavier2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFred_Weir2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreeze2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGellately2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGetty1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGettyGetty1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGettyNaumov2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGettyRitterspornZemskov1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGetzler2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuo2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarward2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaynesKlehr2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelen_Rappaport1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHomkes2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward_Fast1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumbert-Droz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIlic2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarlssonSchoenhals2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKharchenko2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKishkovsky2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnickerbocker,_H.R.1941\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKocho-Williams2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoestler1940\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKotkin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKotkinElleman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrausz2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhr1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuijper2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuromiya2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuromiyaPepłoński2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLankford2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLyons1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacFarquhar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagill2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMartin,_Terry1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLoughlinMcDermott2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMccauley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerridale2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichał_Jasiński2010\"] = 1,\n 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