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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Commentarii de Bello Civili</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Записки за Гражданската война – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Записки за Гражданската война" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili" title="Commentarii de bello civili – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Commentarii de bello civili" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comentaris_de_la_Guerra_Civil" title="Comentaris de la Guerra Civil – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comentaris de la Guerra Civil" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_bello_civili" title="De bello civili – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="De bello civili" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_bello_civili" title="De bello civili – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="De bello civili" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili" title="Commentarii de bello civili – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Commentarii de bello civili" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C" title="در باب جنگ داخلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="در باب جنگ داخلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentaires_sur_la_guerre_civile" title="Commentaires sur la guerre civile – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Commentaires sur la guerre civile" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%B4%EB%9E%80%EA%B8%B0" title="내란기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="내란기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili" title="Commentarii de bello civili – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Commentarii de bello civili" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili" title="Commentarii de Bello Civili – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Commentarii de Bello Civili" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili" title="Commentarii de bello civili – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Commentarii de bello civili" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%99%D7%9D_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8_(%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8)" title="מלחמת האזרחים של יוליוס קיסר (ספר) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מלחמת האזרחים של יוליוס קיסר (ספר)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_bello_civili" title="De bello civili – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="De bello civili" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili" title="Commentarii de bello civili – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Commentarii de bello civili" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili" title="Commentarii de bello civili – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Commentarii de bello civili" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%85%E4%B9%B1%E8%A8%98" title="内乱記 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="内乱記" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili" title="Commentarii de Bello Civili – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Commentarii de Bello Civili" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/O_wojnie_domowej" title="O wojnie domowej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="O wojnie domowej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Bello_Civili" title="De Bello Civili – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="De Bello Civili" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Записки о гражданской войне – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Записки о гражданской войне" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbi_luft%C3%ABn_civile" title="Mbi luftën civile – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Mbi luftën civile" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili" title="Commentarii de bello civili – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Commentarii de bello civili" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Bello_Civili" title="De Bello Civili – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="De Bello Civili" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0%C3%A7_Sava%C5%9F_(J%C3%BCl_Sezar)" title="İç Savaş (Jül Sezar) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İç Savaş (Jül Sezar)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%83_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Нотатки про громадянську війну – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нотатки про громадянську війну" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%87%B1%E6%92%92%E6%88%B0%E8%A8%98" title="凱撒戰記 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="凱撒戰記" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q544948#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the epic poem by Lucan called <i>de Bello civili</i>, see <a href="/wiki/Pharsalia" title="Pharsalia">Pharsalia</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%; font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Commentarii de Bello Civili<br />(Commentaries on the Civil War) <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+Bello+Civili%3Cbr%3E%28Commentaries+on+the+Civil+War%29&rft.author=%5B%5BJulius+Caesar%5D%5D&rft.date=46+BC&rft.pub=Julius+Caesar"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico.jpg/220px-Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico.jpg/330px-Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico.jpg/440px-Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="509" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">1783 edition of the Commentaries on the Gallic War and the Civil War</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">Classical Latin</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">Military history</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Genre</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publisher</th><td class="infobox-data">Julius Caesar</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Publication date</div></th><td class="infobox-data">46 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a> </i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Followed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Alexandrino" title="De Bello Alexandrino">de Bello Alexandrino</a> </i></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><i><b><a href="/wiki/Commentarii" title="Commentarii">Commentarii</a> de Bello Civili</b></i> <i>(Commentaries on the Civil War)</i>, or <i><b>Bellum Civile</b></i>, is an account written by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> of <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">his war</a> against <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_Magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus">Gnaeus Pompeius</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>. It consists of three books covering the events of 49–48 BC, from shortly before Caesar's invasion of Italy to Pompey's defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Battle of Pharsalus</a> and flight to <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Egypt</a>. It was preceded by the much longer account of Caesar's <a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">campaigns in Gaul</a> and was followed by similar works covering the ensuing wars against the remnants of Pompey's armies in <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Alexandrino" title="De Bello Alexandrino">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Africo" title="De Bello Africo">North Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Hispaniensi" title="De Bello Hispaniensi">Spain</a>. Caesar's authorship of the <i>Commentarii de Bello Civili</i> is not disputed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, while the three later works are believed to have been written by contemporaries of Caesar.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Title">Title</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Title"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> title <i>Commentarii de Bello Civili</i> is often retained as the title of the book in English translations of the work. The title itself is Latin for "Commentaries on the Civil War". It is sometimes shortened to just "Civil Wars", "About the Civil Wars", and "The Civil War", in English translations.<sup id="cite_ref-hvii_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvii-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_and_motivations">Background and motivations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background and motivations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_campaigns_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Military campaigns of Julius Caesar">Military campaigns of Julius Caesar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Caesar's Civil War</a></div> <p>Following his consulship in 59 BCE, Caesar served an unprecedented ten-year term as governor of <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Gallia Cisalpina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Illyricum_(Roman_province)" title="Illyricum (Roman province)">Illyricum</a>. During this time he conducted a series of devastating military campaigns against the various groups of people inhabiting Gaul (primarily present-day France and Belgium) culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Battle of Alesia</a> and the annexation of all of Gaul. As a result of nearly ten years of conquest, Caesar had not only amassed enormous wealth but had established himself as a formidable military and political rival to Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Crassus</a>, had earlier formed a political alliance known as the <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a>. This alliance had overthrown many of the formal legal institutions of the state, through their combined command of the Senate, the <a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate Assembly</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_Assembly_of_the_Plebs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tribal Assembly of the Plebs (page does not exist)">Tribal Assembly of the Plebs</a>. This friendship of convenience came to an end with the death of Crassus in 53 BCE, and Pompey's marriage to Cornelia Metella, the daughter of a fierce opponent of Caesar. Amid a fresh outbreak of political violence in Rome, Pompey was appointed sole consul in 52 and solidified his support among the Optimates in the Senate. Caesar, meanwhile, had concluded his conquest of Gaul and, aided by the publication of his <i>Commentarii de Bello Gallico</i>, had become a champion of the people. The Senate, whose authority Caesar had defied in obtaining his post as governor, recognized that Caesar posed a serious political threat and demanded that he disband his army in order to be allowed to stand for the consulship. Caesar agreed provided that Pompey do the same, but this only further enraged the Senate. As his term as governor came to an end, Pompey and the Senate demanded that Caesar disband his army and return to Rome, and they forbade him to run for consul <i>in absentia</i>. Knowing that he would be ruined by his political opponents without either the protection provided by his army or the immunity offered by the consulship, Caesar ignored the demands of the Senate and, by <a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Rubicon" title="Crossing the Rubicon">entering into Italy at the head of his army on January 10, 49 BCE</a>, provoked the Senate to declare him an enemy of the Roman people. </p><p>In the text, Caesar presents himself as the victim of a conspiracy occurring in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> led by his political enemies, including <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Pompeius_Magnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus">Gnaeus Pompeius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Pius_Scipio_Nasica" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica">Scipio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Cicero">Marcus Cicero</a>. Throughout the commentaries he presents his cause as a noble one to restore order and return peace to the Roman people, while showing how his actions were justified. He also commonly presents himself as a humane liberal on the <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">epicurean</a> model. Caesar omits many details of the military campaigns, focusing in large part on the larger strategic situation and the reasoning behind the actions occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-hvii_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hvii-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contents">Contents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Contents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Caesar organized his commentaries into three separate books, at that time written on individual <a href="/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">scrolls</a>. Each book is subdivided into numbered paragraphs. The books cover a two-year period discussing the Roman Civil War during 49 and 48 BC. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_I">Book I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Book I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Written as a narrative, the book begins with the expiration of Caesar's term as governor of Gaul and the party dominating the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a> ordering him to return to the city to face charges of misconduct and possible execution.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caesar explains how he was wronged by Pompeius and his cohorts, who refused to permit him the <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a> that was traditionally permitted to victorious generals. He proceeds with his army to invade <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> from Gaul. Pompeius attempts to raise an army in southern Italy, but is forced to retreat with the army to Greece. Caesar continually points to his efforts to reach an accommodation with Pompeius, and attempts to portray Pompeius as a jealous man only interested in perpetuating a rule in which he and his inner circle control the Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_II">Book II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Book II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Caesar's lieutenant <a href="/wiki/Trebonius" class="mw-redirect" title="Trebonius">Gaius Trebonius</a> besieges <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Massilia</a>. After a long siege, the Massilians finally surrender to Caesar, who shows his typical leniency to the vanquished. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Scribonius_Curio_(praetor_49_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Scribonius Curio (praetor 49 BC)">Curio</a> sets out for Africa and establishes camp near Utica. He routs the troops of <a href="/wiki/Publius_Attius_Varus" title="Publius Attius Varus">Publius Attius Varus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Numidia" title="Numidia">Numidian</a> King <a href="/wiki/Juba_II" title="Juba II">Juba</a> sends reinforcements to Varus. Curio is overly confident; his poor decision-making leads to his army being trapped and slaughtered by the Numidians. Juba takes several Roman senators captive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_III">Book III</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Book III"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Caesar and his army follow Pompeius across the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic Sea</a> to Greece after a mop up operation in Italy and in Spain. In Greece Pompeius initially has the stronger position, with more troops, controlling many of the strategic areas.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caesar writes a lengthy monologue about the superiority of his army of elite veterans of the <a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">pacification of Gaul</a>, and dismisses Pompeius' tactics and the strength of his army. He points out that Pompeius' army was drawn largely from the provinces and was poorly trained. After Caesar successfully outmanoeuvred Pompeius's army in the eastern Balkans, Pompeius and his army gradually fall back into <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a>. Caesar then writes another monologue portraying Pompeius as a coward because of his refusal to make a stand against Caesar, whose army was beginning to have supply problems, and pointed to Scipio as the primary obstacle to peace. Caesar describes Scipio as a maniacal and untrustworthy but weak villain concerned only with destroying Caesar. Scipio raises a personal army of his own from his provinces in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and moves to reinforce Pompeius.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The book climaxes with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Battle of Pharsalus</a> in June 48. The lengthy battle and siege resulted in a decisive victory by Caesar's army. Pompeius and his cohorts flee to other areas of the Republic in an attempt to reverse their fortunes. Caesar then leads his army across the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> in pursuit of Pompeius, who had landed in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There Pompeius was murdered, according to Caesar, by the Egyptians. Caesar ends the book with an epilogue on the Egyptians' lack of justification for killing Pompeius. He then proceeds to explain his reasoning for occupying Egypt with his army, using a succession crisis among the Egyptian royal family as his pretence. The Egyptians resisted and Caesar seized the <a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Pharos</a>. The book ended with the line "Haec initia belli Alexandrini fuerunt." ("These things were the beginning of the Alexandrian war").<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The events of the book were followed by the books <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Alexandrino" title="De Bello Alexandrino">Alexandrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Africo" title="De Bello Africo">African</a> and <a href="/wiki/De_Bello_Hispaniensis" class="mw-redirect" title="De Bello Hispaniensis">Hispanic</a> wars, written most likely by officers of Caesar's armies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism_and_revival">Criticism and revival</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criticism and revival"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern historians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2017)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> lament the fact that Caesar omits many important details about the military events, primarily because the book is the only source known to exist for many of the events that occurred in it, but also because it was written from the unique perspective of the most powerful figure in the Republic and one of the most notable generals in human history. </p><p>The book was for a time lost, but was rediscovered in Italian city archives in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The oldest known manuscripts of the commentaries date to the tenth century AD. Parts of the book have remained lost though, with at least sixteen passages known to be missing.<sup id="cite_ref-hx_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hx-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given its much shorter length when compared to Caesar's other works, and its abrupt ending, it is possible that he never finished the work, or that a significant part may still be missing. In 1469 the commentaries were republished in Rome, from which edition most modern copies are now derived. In 1809 <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I">Napoleon I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_the_French" title="Emperor of the French">Emperor of the French</a>, ordered a detailed look at the works of Caesar. The <i>Commentarii de Bello Civili</i>, along with his other works, were compiled into the <i>Histoire de Jules Cesar</i>, and served as an important history that renewed interest in Caesar.<sup id="cite_ref-hx_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hx-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Commentarii de Bello Civili</i>, along with Caesar's other literary works, became staple reading for Latin studies around the world because of their quality and simplicity and because of the excellent grammar employed by Caesar in his writings.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-3"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Twelve_Caesars" title="The Twelve Caesars">Lives of the Twelve Caesars</a></i>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#56"><i>Julius</i> 56</a> who suggests <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Hirtius" title="Aulus Hirtius">Aulus Hirtius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Oppius" title="Gaius Oppius">Gaius Oppius</a> as possible authors.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hvii-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hvii_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hvii_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson, p. vii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar, 1.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar, 1.5–8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar, 1.23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar, 2.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar, 3.103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caesar, 3.112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hx-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hx_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hx_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson, p. x</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Henderson, pp. ix–x</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCaesar" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Caesar, Gaius Julius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/commentariidebe01caesgoog"><i>Commentarii de Bello Civili</i></a> (in Latin). B.G. Teubner.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentarii+de+Bello+Civili&rft.pub=B.G.+Teubner&rft.aulast=Caesar&rft.aufirst=Gaius+Julius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcommentariidebe01caesgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommentarii+de+Bello+Civili" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson,_Jeffery2006" class="citation book cs1">Henderson, Jeffery (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilwars00caes_0"><i>Civil Wars</i></a></span>. Edward's Brother's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-99043-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-99043-9"><bdi>0-674-99043-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+Wars&rft.pub=Edward%27s+Brother%27s&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-674-99043-9&rft.au=Henderson%2C+Jeffery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilwars00caes_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommentarii+de+Bello+Civili" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamon2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Damon" title="Cynthia Damon">Damon, Cynthia</a> (2015). <i>C. Iuli Caesaris Commentariorum libri III de bello civili</i> (First ed.). Oxford Classical Texts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965974-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-965974-6"><bdi>978-0-19-965974-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=C.+Iuli+Caesaris+Commentariorum+libri+III+de+bello+civili&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Oxford+Classical+Texts&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-965974-6&rft.aulast=Damon&rft.aufirst=Cynthia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommentarii+de+Bello+Civili" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamon2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Damon" title="Cynthia Damon">Damon, Cynthia</a> (2015). <i>Studies on the Text of Caesar's Bellum Civile</i> (First ed.). Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872406-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-872406-3"><bdi>978-0-19-872406-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+the+Text+of+Caesar%27s+Bellum+Civile&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=First&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-872406-3&rft.aulast=Damon&rft.aufirst=Cynthia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommentarii+de+Bello+Civili" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDamon2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Damon" title="Cynthia Damon">Damon, Cynthia</a>, ed. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hWSyDAAAQBAJ"><i>Caesar: Civil War</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>. Vol. 39. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99703-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99703-5"><bdi>978-0-674-99703-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar%3A+Civil+War&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99703-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhWSyDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommentarii+de+Bello+Civili" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Commentarii_de_Bello_Civili&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikisource-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Civil_War_(Caesar)" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Civil War (Caesar)"><i>The Civil War</i> (Caesar)</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>At <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Caes.+Civ.+toc"><i>Caesar's Civil War</i>- <i>De Bello Civili</i></a>, English translation by William Duncan, ed.; also includes a Latin text edition</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/caesar/bc1.shtml">Latin only</a>; also includes books 2 and 3.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mcgoodwin.net/pages/otherbooks/jc_civilwar.html">Summary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>: <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentaries_on_the_Civil_War" class="extiw" title="s:Commentaries on the Civil War">Commentaries on the Civil War</a></i>, translated by William Alexander McDevitte and W. S. Bohn (1869); Supplement of <i>Dionysius Vossius</i>, Book 1, Book 2, and Book 3.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>: <i><a class="external text" href="https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_civili">Commentarii de Bello Civili</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>); Liber I, II, and III.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Julius_Caesar298" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Julius_Caesar" title="Template:Julius Caesar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Julius_Caesar" title="Template talk:Julius Caesar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Julius_Caesar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Julius Caesar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Julius_Caesar298" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major life events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Early life and career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallic wars">Gallic wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_war" title="Caesar's civil war">Caesar's civil war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Rubicon" title="Crossing the Rubicon">Crossing the Rubicon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Assassination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_campaigns_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Military campaigns of Julius Caesar">Military campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mytilene_(81_BC)" title="Siege of Mytilene (81 BC)">Mytilene</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Wars" title="Gallic Wars">Gallic Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Arar" title="Battle of the Arar">Arar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bibracte" title="Battle of Bibracte">Bibracte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vosges_(58_BC)" title="Battle of Vosges (58 BC)">Vosges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Axona" title="Battle of the Axona">Axona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Sabis" title="Battle of the Sabis">Sabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_the_Atuatuci" title="Siege of the Atuatuci">Atuatuci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Octodurus" title="Battle of Octodurus">Octodurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Morbihan" title="Battle of Morbihan">Morbihan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_invasions_of_Britain" title="Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain">Invasions of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiorix%27s_revolt" title="Ambiorix's revolt">Ambiorix's revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avaricum" title="Avaricum">Avaricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gergovia" title="Battle of Gergovia">Gergovia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alesia" title="Battle of Alesia">Alesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Uxellodunum" title="Siege of Uxellodunum">Uxellodunum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Civil War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corfinium" title="Siege of Corfinium">Corfinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Brundisium" title="Siege of Brundisium">Brundisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ilerda" title="Battle of Ilerda">Ilerda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dyrrhachium_(48_BC)" title="Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)">Dyrrhachium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Pharsalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_war" title="Alexandrian war">Alexandrian war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(47_BC)" title="Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile_(47_BC)" title="Battle of the Nile (47 BC)">Battle of the Nile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zela" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Zela">Zela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ruspina" title="Battle of Ruspina">Ruspina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corduba" title="Siege of Corduba">Corduba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thapsus" title="Battle of Thapsus">Thapsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Munda" title="Battle of Munda">Munda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_Parthian_Empire" title="Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire">Planned invasion of the Parthian Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Julia_de_maiestate" title="Lex Julia de maiestate">Lex Julia de maiestate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Roscia" title="Lex Roscia">Lex Roscia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Constitutional reforms of Julius Caesar">Constitutional reforms</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">Dictator perpetuo</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudatio_Iuliae_amitae" title="Laudatio Iuliae amitae">Laudatio Iuliae amitae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anticato" title="Anticato">Anticato</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Commentarii de Bello Civili</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">Commentarii de Bello Gallico</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_analogia" title="De analogia">De analogia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poems_by_Julius_Caesar" title="Poems by Julius Caesar">Poems by Julius Caesar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Quotes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alea_iacta_est" title="Alea iacta est">Alea iacta est</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veni,_vidi,_vici" title="Veni, vidi, vici">Veni, vidi, vici</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ut_est_rerum_omnium_magister_usus" title="Ut est rerum omnium magister usus">Ut est rerum omnium magister usus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_words_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Last words of Julius Caesar">Last words</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buildings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forum_of_Caesar" title="Forum of Caesar">Forum of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basilica_Julia" title="Basilica Julia">Basilica Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Venus_Genetrix" title="Temple of Venus Genetrix">Temple of Venus Genetrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Rhine_bridges" title="Caesar's Rhine bridges">Caesar's Rhine bridges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portraits</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tusculum_portrait" title="Tusculum portrait">Tusculum portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiaramonti_Caesar" title="Chiaramonti Caesar">Chiaramonti Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Caesar" title="Green Caesar">Green Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_bust" title="Arles bust">Arles bust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Julii_Caesares" title="Julii Caesares">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Wives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cossutia" title="Cossutia">Cossutia (disputed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelia_(wife_of_Caesar)" title="Cornelia (wife of Caesar)">Cornelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeia_(wife_of_Caesar)" title="Pompeia (wife of Caesar)">Pompeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calpurnia_(wife_of_Caesar)" title="Calpurnia (wife of Caesar)">Calpurnia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Children</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julia_(daughter_of_Caesar)" title="Julia (daughter of Caesar)">Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Caesarion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus (adopted)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Caesar_(proconsul_of_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia)">Gaius Julius Caesar (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_(mother_of_Caesar)" title="Aurelia (mother of Caesar)">Aurelia (mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Major_(sister_of_Caesar)" title="Julia Major (sister of Caesar)">Julia Major (sister)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julia_Minor_(grandmother_of_Augustus)" title="Julia Minor (grandmother of Augustus)">Julia Minor (sister)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Caesar_(Plutarch)" title="Life of Caesar (Plutarch)"><i>Life of Caesar</i> by Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar">Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Caesar" title="Temple of Caesar">Temple of Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Comet" title="Caesar's Comet">Caesar's Comet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesarism" title="Caesarism">Caesarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar (title)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julia_gens" title="Julia gens">Julia gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servilia_(mother_of_Brutus)" title="Servilia (mother of Brutus)">Servilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" title="Marcus Junius Brutus">Marcus Junius Brutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_of_Pompey" title="Curia of Pompey">Curia of Pompey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" 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