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href="#Introduction_of_the_camel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Introduction of the camel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introduction_of_the_camel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Spread of Islam</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Spread_of_Islam-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Spread of Islam subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saharan_triangle_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saharan_triangle_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Saharan triangle trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saharan_triangle_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Islam_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Islam_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Spread of Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Islam_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline_of_trans-Saharan_trade_and_collapse_of_West_African_empires_and_kingdoms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline_of_trans-Saharan_trade_and_collapse_of_West_African_empires_and_kingdoms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Decline of trans-Saharan trade and collapse of West African empires and kingdoms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline_of_trans-Saharan_trade_and_collapse_of_West_African_empires_and_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_future_of_trans-Saharan_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_future_of_trans-Saharan_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The future of trans-Saharan trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_future_of_trans-Saharan_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Trans-Saharan trade</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%89" title="التجارة العابرة للصحراء الكبرى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التجارة العابرة للصحراء الكبرى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comerciu_transa%E1%B8%A5ariano" title="Comerciu transaḥariano – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Comerciu transaḥariano" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transs%C9%99hra_ticar%C9%99t_yolu" title="Transsəhra ticarət yolu – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Transsəhra ticarət yolu" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara-c%C9%9Bla_jago" title="Sahara-cɛla jago – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Sahara-cɛla jago" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Транссахарска търговия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Транссахарска търговия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comer%C3%A7_trans-sahari%C3%A0" title="Comerç trans-saharià – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Comerç trans-saharià" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%82%C4%83-%D0%B8%D0%BB%D3%B3_%C3%A7%D1%83%D0%BB%C4%95" title="Сахара сутă-илӳ çулĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Сахара сутă-илӳ çулĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharsk%C3%BD_obchod" title="Saharský obchod – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Saharský obchod" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Sahara-handelen" title="Trans-Sahara-handelen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Trans-Sahara-handelen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaharahandel" title="Transsaharahandel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Transsaharahandel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comercio_transahariano" title="Comercio transahariano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comercio transahariano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tra-sahara_komerco" title="Tra-sahara komerco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Tra-sahara komerco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharar_merkataritza" title="Trans-Saharar merkataritza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Trans-Saharar merkataritza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%B1" title="تجارت صحراگذر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تجارت صحراگذر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce_transsaharien" title="Commerce transsaharien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Commerce transsaharien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%95%98%EB%9D%BC_%EC%A2%85%EB%8B%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EC%97%AD" title="사하라 종단 무역 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사하라 종단 무역" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasuwancin_Trans-Sahara" title="Kasuwancin Trans-Sahara – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kasuwancin Trans-Sahara" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0" title="ट्रांस-सहारा व्यापार – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ट्रांस-सहारा व्यापार" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komerco-voyo_Trans-Saharana" title="Komerco-voyo Trans-Saharana – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Komerco-voyo Trans-Saharana" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharaverslunin" title="Saharaverslunin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Saharaverslunin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vie_commerciali_trans-sahariane" title="Vie commerciali trans-sahariane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vie commerciali trans-sahariane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%97%D7%A8_%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%94_%D7%A1%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%94" title="סחר חוצה סהרה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סחר חוצה סהרה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biashara_ya_ng%27ambo_ya_Sahara" title="Biashara ya ng'ambo ya Sahara – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Biashara ya ng'ambo ya Sahara" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsacharin%C4%97_prekyba" title="Transsacharinė prekyba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Transsacharinė prekyba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdagangan_rentas_Sahara" title="Perdagangan rentas Sahara – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perdagangan rentas Sahara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaharahandel" title="Transsaharahandel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Transsaharahandel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%8F%E3%83%A9%E4%BA%A4%E6%98%93" title="サハラ交易 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サハラ交易" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaharisk_handel" title="Transsaharisk handel – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Transsaharisk handel" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaharahandel" title="Transsaharahandel – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Transsaharahandel" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com%C3%A8rci_transsaharian" title="Comèrci transsaharian – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Comèrci transsaharian" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handel_transsaharyjski" title="Handel transsaharyjski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Handel transsaharyjski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com%C3%A9rcio_transaariano" title="Comércio transaariano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Comércio transaariano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Транссахарская торговля – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Транссахарская торговля" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cummerciu_tranzaharianu" title="Cummerciu tranzaharianu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cummerciu tranzaharianu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Trans-Saharan trade" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaharska_trgovina" title="Transsaharska trgovina – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Transsaharska trgovina" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transsaharahandel" title="Transsaharahandel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Transsaharahandel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans_Sahra_ticareti" title="Trans Sahra ticareti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Trans Sahra ticareti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%8F" title="Транссахарська торгівля – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Транссахарська торгівля" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%A8%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E8%B4%B8%E6%98%93" title="跨撒哈拉贸易 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="跨撒哈拉贸易" 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href="/wiki/File:French_language_map_of_Central_and_Eastern_Africa_1862.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/French_language_map_of_Central_and_Eastern_Africa_1862.jpg/220px-French_language_map_of_Central_and_Eastern_Africa_1862.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/French_language_map_of_Central_and_Eastern_Africa_1862.jpg/330px-French_language_map_of_Central_and_Eastern_Africa_1862.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/French_language_map_of_Central_and_Eastern_Africa_1862.jpg/440px-French_language_map_of_Central_and_Eastern_Africa_1862.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7575" data-file-height="8845" /></a><figcaption>French-language map showing the major trans-Saharan trade routes (1862)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Trans-Saharan trade</b> is <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a> between <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> that requires travel across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>. Though this trade began in <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric times</a>, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century CE. The Sahara once had a <a href="/wiki/Green_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Sahara">different climate and environment</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, from at least 7000 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a> (the herding of sheep and goats), large settlements and pottery were present. Cattle were introduced to the Central Sahara (<a href="/wiki/Ahaggar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar">Ahaggar</a>) between 4000 and 3500 BCE. Remarkable rock paintings (dated 3500 to 2500 BCE) in arid regions portray flora and fauna that are not present in the modern desert.<sup id="cite_ref-Shillington_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shillington-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a desert, the Sahara is now a hostile expanse that separates the Mediterranean economy from the economy of the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River Basin</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> points out, crossing such a zone, especially without mechanized transport, is worthwhile only when exceptional circumstances cause the expected gain to outweigh the cost and the danger.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade was conducted by <a href="/wiki/Camel_train" title="Camel train">caravans</a> of <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a>. According to Maghrebi explorer <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, who once traveled with a caravan, an average one would amount to 1,000 camels, but some caravans were as large as 12,000.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The caravans were guided by highly-paid <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a>, who knew the desert and could ensure protection from fellow desert <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomads</a>. The caravans' survival relied on careful coordination: runners would be sent ahead to <a href="/wiki/Oasis" title="Oasis">oases</a> for water to be shipped out to the caravan when it was still several days away, as the caravans could usually not carry enough to make the full journey. In the mid-14th century CE, Ibn Battuta crossed the desert from <a href="/wiki/Sijilmasa" title="Sijilmasa">Sijilmasa</a> via the salt mines at <a href="/wiki/Taghaza" title="Taghaza">Taghaza</a> to the oasis of <a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a>. A guide was sent ahead, and water was brought over a four-day journey from <a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a> to meet the caravan.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Culture and religion were also exchanged on the trans-Saharan trade routes. Many <a href="/wiki/West_African" class="mw-redirect" title="West African">West African</a> states eventually adopted <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> writing and the religion of North Africa, resulting in these states' absorption into the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_trans-Saharan_trade">Early trans-Saharan trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early trans-Saharan trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oualata_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Oualata_02.jpg/220px-Oualata_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Oualata_02.jpg/330px-Oualata_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Oualata_02.jpg/440px-Oualata_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A building in <a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a>, southeast <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oasis-Bilma.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Oasis-Bilma.jpg/220px-Oasis-Bilma.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Oasis-Bilma.jpg/330px-Oasis-Bilma.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Oasis-Bilma.jpg/440px-Oasis-Bilma.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bilma" title="Bilma">Bilma</a> oasis in northeast <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Kaouar" title="Kaouar">Kaouar</a> escarpment in the background</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient trade spanned the northeastern corner of the Sahara in the <a href="/wiki/Naqada" title="Naqada">Naqadan</a> era. <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">Predynastic Egyptians</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Naqada" title="Naqada">Naqada I period</a> traded with <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> to the south, the oases of the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Western Desert</a> to the west, and the cultures of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a> to the east. Many trading routes went from oasis to oasis to resupply on both food and water. These oases were very important.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also imported <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> from <a href="/wiki/History_of_Senegal" title="History of Senegal">Senegal</a> to shape blades and other objects.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overland route through the <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Hammamat" title="Wadi Hammamat">Wadi Hammamat</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> was known as early as <a href="/wiki/Predynastic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Predynastic Egypt">predynastic</a> times;<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> drawings depicting Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">reed boats</a> have been found along the path dating to 4000 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ancient <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a> dating to the <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a> arose along both its Nile and Red Sea junctions,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> testifying to the route's ancient popularity. It became a major route from <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_-_Exodus_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Sea - Exodus station">Red Sea port</a> of <a href="/wiki/Elim_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elim (Bible)">Elim</a>, where travelers then moved on to either <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, Arabia or the <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Records exist documenting knowledge of the route among <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a>, Seti, <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a> and also, later, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, especially for mining.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Darb_al-Arba%CA%BF%C4%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Darb al-Arbaʿīn">Darb al-Arbaʿīn</a> trade route, passing through <a href="/wiki/Kharga_Oasis" title="Kharga Oasis">Kharga</a> in the south and <a href="/wiki/Asyut" title="Asyut">Asyut</a> in the north, was used from as early as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a> for the transport and trade of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wheat" title="Wheat">wheat</a>, animals and plants.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Romans</a> would protect the route by lining it with varied forts and small outposts, some guarding large settlements complete with cultivation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Described by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> as a road "traversed ... in forty days", it became by his time an important land route facilitating trade between <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and subsequently became known as the Forty Days Road. From <a href="/wiki/Kobbei" title="Kobbei">Kobbei</a>, 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of <a href="/wiki/Al-Fashir" title="Al-Fashir">al-Fashir</a>, the route passed through the desert to Bir Natrum, another oasis and salt mine, to <a href="/wiki/Wadi_Howar" title="Wadi Howar">Wadi Howar</a> before proceeding to Egypt.<sup id="cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burr_and_Collins_6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Darb_al-Arba%CA%BF%C4%ABn" class="mw-redirect" title="Darb al-Arbaʿīn">Darb el-Arbain</a> trade route was the easternmost of the central routes. </p><p>The westernmost of the three central routes was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ghadames_Road&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ghadames Road (page does not exist)">Ghadames Road</a>, which ran from the <a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger River</a> at <a href="/wiki/Gao" title="Gao">Gao</a> north to <a href="/wiki/Ghat,_Libya" title="Ghat, Libya">Ghat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghadames" title="Ghadames">Ghadames</a> before terminating at <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tripoli%E2%80%93Murzuk%E2%80%93Lake_Chad_route_map_by_Monteil_1895.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Tripoli%E2%80%93Murzuk%E2%80%93Lake_Chad_route_map_by_Monteil_1895.jpg/220px-Tripoli%E2%80%93Murzuk%E2%80%93Lake_Chad_route_map_by_Monteil_1895.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="419" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Tripoli%E2%80%93Murzuk%E2%80%93Lake_Chad_route_map_by_Monteil_1895.jpg/330px-Tripoli%E2%80%93Murzuk%E2%80%93Lake_Chad_route_map_by_Monteil_1895.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Tripoli%E2%80%93Murzuk%E2%80%93Lake_Chad_route_map_by_Monteil_1895.jpg/440px-Tripoli%E2%80%93Murzuk%E2%80%93Lake_Chad_route_map_by_Monteil_1895.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1428" /></a><figcaption>Tripoli–Murzuk–Lake Chad route map by <a href="/wiki/Parfait-Louis_Monteil" title="Parfait-Louis Monteil">Parfait-Louis Monteil</a> (1895)</figcaption></figure> <p>Next was the easiest of the three routes: the <a href="/wiki/Garamantes" title="Garamantes">Garamantean</a> Road, named after the former rulers of the land it passed through and also called the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bilma_Trail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bilma Trail (page does not exist)">Bilma Trail</a>. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Garamantean_Road&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Garamantean Road (page does not exist)">Garamantean Road</a> passed south of the desert near <a href="/wiki/Murzuk" title="Murzuk">Murzuk</a> before turning north to pass between the <a href="/wiki/Ahaggar_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar Mountains">Alhaggar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibesti_Mountains" title="Tibesti Mountains">Tibesti Mountains</a> before reaching the oasis at <a href="/wiki/Kawar" class="mw-redirect" title="Kawar">Kawar</a>. From Kawar, caravans would pass over the great sand dunes of <a href="/wiki/Bilma" title="Bilma">Bilma</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Halite" title="Halite">rock salt</a> was mined in great quantities for trade, before reaching the savanna north of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the shortest of the routes, and the primary exchanges were <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">slaves</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> from the south for salt. One early 20th century researcher wrote of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tripoli-Murzuk-Lake_Chad_route&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tripoli-Murzuk-Lake Chad route (page does not exist)">Tripoli-Murzuk-Lake Chad route</a>, "Most of the [trans-Saharan] traffic from the Mediterranean coast during the last 2,000 years has passed along this road."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another Libyan route was <a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Benghazi</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kufra" title="Kufra">Kufra</a> to the lands of the <a href="/wiki/Wadai_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Wadai Empire">Wadai Empire</a> between Lake Chad and Darfur.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The western routes were the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walata_Road&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walata Road (page does not exist)">Walata Road</a> past present-day <a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata, Mauritania</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9n%C3%A9gal_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Sénégal River">Sénégal River</a>, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Taghaza_Trail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taghaza Trail (page does not exist)">Taghaza Trail</a>, from the Niger River, past the salt mines of <a href="/wiki/Taghaza" title="Taghaza">Taghaza</a>, north to the great trading center of <a href="/wiki/Sijilmasa" title="Sijilmasa">Sijilmasa</a>, situated in <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> just north of the desert.<sup id="cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burr_and_Collins_6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth of the city of <a href="/wiki/Aoudaghost" title="Aoudaghost">Aoudaghost</a>, founded in the 5th century BCE, was stimulated by its position at the southern end of a trans-Saharan trade route.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To the east, three ancient routes connected the south to the Mediterranean. The herdsmen of the <a href="/wiki/Fezzan" title="Fezzan">Fezzan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, known as the Garamantes, controlled these routes as early as 1500 BCE. From their capital of <a href="/wiki/Germa" title="Germa">Germa</a> in the Wadi Ajal, the Garamantean Empire raided north to the sea and south into the Sahel. By the 4th century BCE, the independent city-states of <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> had expanded their control to the territory and routes once held by the Garamantes.<sup id="cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burr_and_Collins_6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shillington states that existing contact with the Mediterranean received added incentive with the growth of the port city of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>. Founded c. 800 BCE, Carthage became one terminus for West African gold, ivory, and slaves. West Africa received salt, cloth, beads, and metal goods. Shillington proceeds to identify this trade route as the source for West African iron smelting.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trade continued into Roman times. Although there are Classical references to direct travel from the Mediterranean to West Africa (Daniels, p. 22f), most of this trade was conducted through middlemen, inhabiting the area and aware of passages through the drying lands.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Legio_III_Augusta" title="Legio III Augusta">Legio III Augusta</a> subsequently secured these routes on behalf of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a> by the 1st century CE, safeguarding the southern border of the empire for two and half centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burr_and_Collins_6-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Garamantes also engaged in the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a>. The Garamantes used slaves in their own communities to construct and maintain underground irrigation systems known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Foggara" class="mw-redirect" title="Foggara">foggara</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early records of <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a> come from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> in the 5th century BCE, who records the Garamantes enslaving cave-dwelling Egyptians in Sudan.<sup id="cite_ref-apuleius_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apuleius-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-exports_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exports-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two records of Romans accompanying the Garamantes on slave raiding expeditions are recorded - the first in 86 CE and the second a few years later to <a href="/wiki/Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-apuleius_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apuleius-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-exports_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exports-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initial sources of slaves were the <a href="/wiki/Toubou_people" title="Toubou people">Toubou people</a>, but by the <a href="/wiki/1st_century" title="1st century">1st century</a> CE, the Garamantes were obtaining slaves from modern day <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-exports_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exports-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the city of <a href="/wiki/Lepcis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepcis">Lepcis</a> established a <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave market</a> to buy and sell slaves from the African interior.<sup id="cite_ref-apuleius_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apuleius-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The empire imposed <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_taxes#Slave_taxes" title="List of Roman taxes">customs tax</a> on the trade of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-apuleius_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-apuleius-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 5th century CE, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Carthage" title="Roman Carthage">Roman Carthage</a> was trading in black slaves brought across the Sahara.<sup id="cite_ref-exports_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exports-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black slaves seem to have been valued in the Mediterranean as household slaves for their exotic appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-exports_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exports-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some historians argue that the scale of slave trade in this period may have been higher than medieval times due to high demand of slaves in the Roman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-exports_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exports-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction_of_the_camel">Introduction of the camel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Introduction of the camel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caravane_hoggar1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Caravane_hoggar1.jpg/220px-Caravane_hoggar1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Caravane_hoggar1.jpg/330px-Caravane_hoggar1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Caravane_hoggar1.jpg/440px-Caravane_hoggar1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1196" /></a><figcaption>Modern-day camel caravan near the <a href="/wiki/Ahaggar_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahaggar Mountains">Ahaggar Mountains</a> in the central Sahara, 2006</figcaption></figure> <p>Herodotus wrote of the Garamantes hunting Ethiopian <a href="/wiki/Troglodytae" title="Troglodytae">Troglodytes</a> from <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a>; this account was associated with depictions of horses drawing chariots in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Cave_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Cave art">cave art</a> in southern Morocco and the <a href="/wiki/Fezzan" title="Fezzan">Fezzan</a>, giving origin to a theory that the Garamantes or some other Saharan people had created chariot routes to provide <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> and Carthage with gold and ivory. However, it has been argued that no horse skeletons have been found dating from this early period in the region, and chariots would have been unlikely vehicles for trading purposes due to their small capacity.<sup id="cite_ref-Masonen_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masonen-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest evidence for domesticated <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camels</a> in the region dates from the 3rd century. Used by the <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a>, they enabled more regular contact across the entire width of the Sahara, but regular trade routes did not develop until the beginnings of the Islamic conversion of West Africa in the 7th and 8th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Masonen_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masonen-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two main trade routes developed. The first ran through the western desert from modern Morocco to the Niger bend, the second from modern <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a> area. These stretches were relatively short and had the essential network of occasional oases that established the routing as inexorably as pins in a map. Further east of the Fezzan with its trade route through the valley of <a href="/wiki/Kaouar" title="Kaouar">Kaouar</a> to Lake Chad, Libya was impassable due to its lack of oases and fierce sandstorms.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spread_of_Islam">Spread of Islam</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Spread of Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several trade routes became established, perhaps the most important terminating in <a href="/wiki/Sijilmasa" title="Sijilmasa">Sijilmasa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> to the north. There, and in other North African cities, Berber traders had increased contact with Islam, encouraging conversions, and by the 8th century, Muslims were traveling to Ghana. Many in Ghana converted to Islam, and it is likely that the Empire's trade was privileged as a result. Around 1050, Ghana lost <a href="/wiki/Aoudaghost" title="Aoudaghost">Aoudaghost</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Almoravids" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravids">Almoravids</a>, but new goldmines around <a href="/wiki/Bambouk" title="Bambouk">Bure</a> reduced trade through the city, instead benefiting the <a href="/wiki/Malinke" class="mw-redirect" title="Malinke">Malinke</a> of the south, who later founded the <a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali Empire</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG/750px-Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG" decoding="async" width="750" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Niger_saharan_medieval_trade_routes.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>Saharan trade routes circa 1400, with the modern territory of <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> highlighted</figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike Ghana, Mali was a Muslim kingdom since its foundation, and under it, the gold–salt trade continued. Other, less important trade goods were slaves, <a href="/wiki/Kola_nut" title="Kola nut">kola nuts</a> from the south and <a href="/wiki/Slave_beads" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave beads">slave beads</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cowry_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Cowry shell">cowry shells</a> from the north (for use as currency). It was under Mali that the great cities of the <a href="/wiki/River_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="River Niger">Niger</a> bend—including <a href="/wiki/Gao" title="Gao">Gao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9" title="Djenné">Djenné</a>—prospered, with <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> in particular becoming known across Europe for its great wealth. Important trading centers in southern West Africa developed at the transitional zone between the forest and the savanna; examples include <a href="/wiki/Begho" title="Begho">Begho</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bono_Manso" class="mw-redirect" title="Bono Manso">Bono Manso</a> (in present-day Ghana) and <a href="/wiki/Bondoukou" title="Bondoukou">Bondoukou</a> (in present-day <a href="/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>). Western trade routes continued to be important, with <a href="/wiki/Ouadane" title="Ouadane">Ouadane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oualata" title="Oualata">Oualata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinguetti" title="Chinguetti">Chinguetti</a> being the major trade centres in what is now Mauritania, while the <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg</a> towns of <a href="/wiki/Assod%C3%A9" title="Assodé">Assodé</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Agadez" title="Agadez">Agadez</a> grew around a more easterly route in what is now <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trans-Saharan_routes_early.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Trans-Saharan_routes_early.svg/220px-Trans-Saharan_routes_early.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Trans-Saharan_routes_early.svg/330px-Trans-Saharan_routes_early.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Trans-Saharan_routes_early.svg/440px-Trans-Saharan_routes_early.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="597" /></a><figcaption>Trade routes of the Western Sahara c. 1000–1500. Goldfields are indicated by light brown shading: <a href="/wiki/Bambuk" class="mw-redirect" title="Bambuk">Bambuk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siguiri" title="Siguiri">Bure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaoua" title="Gaoua">Lobi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tarkwa" title="Tarkwa">Akan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The eastern trans-Saharan route led to the development of the long-lived <a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem–Bornu Empire</a> as well as the Ghana, Mali, and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a> empires, centred on the Lake Chad area. This trade route was somewhat less efficient and only rose to great prominence when there was turmoil in the west such as during the <a href="/wiki/Almohad" class="mw-redirect" title="Almohad">Almohad</a> conquests. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, established in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Antiquity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-exports_21-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-exports-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> continued during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. The slaves brought from across the Sahara were mainly used by wealthy families as domestic servants,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and concubines.<sup id="cite_ref-Austen_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austen-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some served in the military forces of Egypt and Morocco.<sup id="cite_ref-Austen_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austen-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the 17th century sultan <a href="/wiki/Mawlay_Ismail" class="mw-redirect" title="Mawlay Ismail">Mawlay Ismail</a> himself was the son of slave, and relied on an army of black slaves for support. The West African states imported highly trained slave soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Austen_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austen-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been estimated that from the 10th to the 19th century some 6,000 to 7,000 <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">enslaved people</a> were transported north each year.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (August 2020)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> Perhaps as many as nine million enslaved people were exported along the trans-Saharan caravan route.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saharan_triangle_trade">Saharan triangle trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Saharan triangle trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a>, in what is now <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, and southern <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, accompanied the increase in trans-Saharan trade. Northern economies were short of gold but at times controlled salt mines such as <a href="/wiki/Taghaza" title="Taghaza">Taghaza</a> in the Sahara, whereas West African countries like <a href="/wiki/Soninke_Wangara" title="Soninke Wangara">Wangara</a> had plenty of gold but needed salt. Taghaza, a trading and mining outpost where <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> recorded the buildings were made of salt, rose to preeminence in the salt trade under the hegemony of the <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The salt was mined by slaves and purchased with manufactured goods from Sijilmasa.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Miners cut thin rectangular slabs of salt directly out of the desert floor, and caravan merchants transported them south, charging a transportation fee of almost 80% of the salt's value.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The salt was traded at the market of <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> almost weight for weight with gold.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The gold, in the form of bricks, bars, blank coins, and gold dust went to <a href="/wiki/Sijilmasa" title="Sijilmasa">Sijilmasa</a>, from which it went out to Mediterranean ports and in which it was struck into <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dinar" title="Almoravid dinar">Almoravid dinars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_Islam_2">Spread of Islam</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Spread of Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The spread of Islam to sub-Saharan African was linked to trans-Saharan trade. Islam spread via trade routes, and Africans converting to Islam increased trade and commerce which increased the trade's population.<sup id="cite_ref-nigeria_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nigeria-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians give many reasons for the spread of Islam facilitating trade. Islam established common values and rules upon which trade was conducted.<sup id="cite_ref-nigeria_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nigeria-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It created a network of believers who trust each other and therefore trade with each other even if they do not personally know each other.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such trade networks existed before Islam but on a much smaller scale. The spread of Islam increased the number of nodes in the network and decreased its vulnerability.<sup id="cite_ref-network_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-network-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of Arabic as a common language of trade and the increase of literacy through <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Quranic schools</a>, also facilitated commerce.<sup id="cite_ref-strobel_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strobel-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Muslim merchants conducting commerce also gradually spread Islam along their trade network. Social interactions with Muslim merchants led many Africans to convert to Islam, and many merchants married local women and raised their children as Muslims.<sup id="cite_ref-strobel_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strobel-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Islam spread into Western Sudan by the end of the <a href="/wiki/10th_century" title="10th century">10th century</a>, into Chad by the <a href="/wiki/11th_century" title="11th century">11th century</a>, and into <a href="/wiki/Hausa_Kingdoms" title="Hausa Kingdoms">Hausa</a> lands in <a href="/wiki/12th_century" title="12th century">12th</a> and <a href="/wiki/13th_century" title="13th century">13th centuries</a>. By 1200, many ruling elites in Western Africa had converted to Islam, and from 1200 to 1500 saw a significant conversion to Islam in Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline_of_trans-Saharan_trade_and_collapse_of_West_African_empires_and_kingdoms">Decline of trans-Saharan trade and collapse of West African empires and kingdoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Decline of trans-Saharan trade and collapse of West African empires and kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese forays</a> along the West African coast opened up new avenues for trade between Europe and West Africa. By the early 16th century, European trading bases, the <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">factories</a> established on the coast since 1445, and trade with Europeans became of prime importance to West Africa.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="At what specific times and with which European traders. (June 2022)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> North Africa had declined in both political and economic importance, while the Saharan crossing remained long and treacherous. However, the major blow to trans-Saharan trade was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tondibi" title="Battle of Tondibi">Battle of Tondibi</a> of 1591–92. In a major <a href="/wiki/Saadian_invasion_of_the_Songhai_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Saadian invasion of the Songhai Empire">military expedition</a> organized by the <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadian</a> sultan <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Mansur" title="Ahmad al-Mansur">Ahmad al-Mansur</a>, Morocco sent troops across the Sahara and attacked Timbuktu, Gao and some other important trading centres, destroying buildings and property and exiling prominent citizens. This disruption to trade led to a dramatic decline in the importance of these cities and the resulting animosity reduced trade considerably. </p><p>Although much reduced, trans-Saharan trade continued. But trade routes to the West African coast became increasingly easy, particularly after the <a href="/wiki/French_West_Africa" title="French West Africa">French invasion of the Sahel</a> in the 1890s and subsequent construction of railways to the interior. A railway line from <a href="/wiki/Dakar" title="Dakar">Dakar</a> to <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> via the Niger bend was planned but never constructed. With the independence of nations in the region in the 1960s, the north–south routes were severed by national boundaries. National governments were hostile to <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_people" title="Tuareg people">Tuareg</a> nationalism and so made few efforts to maintain or support trans-Saharan trade, and the <a href="/wiki/Tuareg_rebellion_(1990%E2%80%931995)" title="Tuareg rebellion (1990–1995)">Tuareg rebellion</a> of the 1990s and <a href="/wiki/Algerian_Civil_War" title="Algerian Civil War">Algerian Civil War</a> further disrupted these routes, closing many. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg/220px-Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg/330px-Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg/440px-Bilma-Salzkarawane1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Azalai" title="Azalai">Azalai</a> salt caravan from <a href="/wiki/Agadez" title="Agadez">Agadez</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bilma" title="Bilma">Bilma</a>, 1985</figcaption></figure> <p>Traditional caravan routes are largely void of camels, but the shorter <a href="/wiki/Azalai" title="Azalai">Azalai</a> routes from <a href="/wiki/Agadez" title="Agadez">Agadez</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bilma" title="Bilma">Bilma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> to <a href="/wiki/Taoudenni" title="Taoudenni">Taoudenni</a> are still regularly—if lightly—used. Some members of the Tuareg still use the traditional trade routes, often traveling 2,400 km (1,500 mi) and six months out of every year by camel across the Sahara trading in salt carried from the desert interior to communities on the desert edges.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_future_of_trans-Saharan_trade">The future of trans-Saharan trade</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The future of trans-Saharan trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs to be <b>updated</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_Development_Bank" title="African Development Bank">African Development Bank</a> support the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Sahara_Highway" title="Trans-Sahara Highway">Trans-Sahara Highway</a> from <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a> to <a href="/wiki/Lagos" title="Lagos">Lagos</a> via <a href="/wiki/Tamanrasset" title="Tamanrasset">Tamanrasset</a>, to stimulate economic development, and the latter noted an increase in traffic at the border with Chad due to exports to Algeria crossing Niger.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The route is paved except for a 120 mi (200 km) section in northern Niger, but border restrictions still hamper traffic. Only a few <a href="/wiki/Truck" title="Truck">trucks</a> carry trans-Saharan trade, particularly <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a> and salt. Three other highways across the Sahara are proposed: for further details see <a href="/wiki/Trans-African_Highway_network" title="Trans-African Highway network">Trans-African Highways</a>. Building the highways is difficult because of sandstorms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Sahara_Highway" title="Trans-Sahara Highway">Trans-Sahara Highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Subpluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic Subpluvial">Neolithic Subpluvial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Shillington-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shillington_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShillington1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Shillington" title="Kevin Shillington">Shillington, Kevin</a> (1995) [1989]. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofafrica00shil"><i>History of Africa</i></a></span> (Second ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofafrica00shil/page/32">32</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-59957-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-59957-8"><bdi>0-333-59957-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=32&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-333-59957-8&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofafrica00shil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraudel1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Braudel, Fernand</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/big-history-project/agriculture-civilization/first-cities-states/a/the-ghana-empire-1"><i>The Ghana Empire (article)</i></a>. Civilization and Capitalism. Vol. III. <a href="/wiki/Harper_(publisher)" title="Harper (publisher)">Harper & Row</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ghana+Empire+%28article%29&rft.series=Civilization+and+Capitalism&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fpartner-content%2Fbig-history-project%2Fagriculture-civilization%2Ffirst-cities-states%2Fa%2Fthe-ghana-empire-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouge2007" class="citation news cs1">Rouge, David (21 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL1621182">"Saharan salt caravans ply ancient route"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Saharan+salt+caravans+ply+ancient+route&rft.date=2007-02-21&rft.aulast=Rouge&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FlatestCrisis%2FidUSL1621182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/2007/2/07.02.06.x.html">"An African Pilgrim-King and a World-Traveler: Mansa Musa and Ibn Battuta"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=An+African+Pilgrim-King+and+a+World-Traveler%3A+Mansa+Musa+and+Ibn+Battuta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yale.edu%2Fynhti%2Fcurriculum%2Funits%2F2007%2F2%2F07.02.06.x.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbBeckingham1994" class="citation book cs1">Gibb, H.A.R.; Beckingham, C.F., eds. (1994). <i>The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, A.D. 1325–1354</i>. Vol. 4. London: Hakluyt Society. pp. <span class="nowrap">948–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904180-37-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904180-37-4"><bdi>978-0-904180-37-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Travels+of+Ibn+Ba%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%AD%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa%2C+A.D.+1325%E2%80%931354&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E948-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.pub=Hakluyt+Society&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-904180-37-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBovill1958" class="citation book cs1">Bovill, E.W. (1958). <i>Golden Trade of the Moors</i>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Golden+Trade+of+the+Moors&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.aulast=Bovill&rft.aufirst=E.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw2002" class="citation book cs1">Shaw, Ian (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronicleofphara00clay/page/61"><i>The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt</i></a></span>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chronicleofphara00clay/page/61">61</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-05074-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-05074-0"><bdi>0-500-05074-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-500-05074-0&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchronicleofphara00clay%2Fpage%2F61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAstonHarrellShaw2000" class="citation book cs1">Aston, Barbara G.; Harrell, James A.; Shaw, Ian (2000). "Stone". In Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (eds.). <i>Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology</i>. Cambridge. pp. 5–77 [pp. 46–47]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-45257-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-45257-0"><bdi>0-521-45257-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stone&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Materials+and+Technology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=5-77+pp.+46-47&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-45257-0&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Barbara+G.&rft.au=Harrell%2C+James+A.&rft.au=Shaw%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span> Also note: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAston1994" class="citation book cs1">Aston, Barbara G. (1994). <i>Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels</i>. Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens. Vol. 5. Heidelberg. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-927552-12-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-927552-12-7"><bdi>3-927552-12-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Egyptian+Stone+Vessels&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.series=Studien+zur+Arch%C3%A4ologie+und+Geschichte+Alt%C3%A4gyptens&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E26&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=3-927552-12-7&rft.aulast=Aston&rft.aufirst=Barbara+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span> (See on-line posts: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/stone/obsidian.html">[1]</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/foreignrelations/obsidian.html">[2]</a>.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1079/trade-in-ancient-egypt/">"Trade in Ancient Egypt"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Trade+in+Ancient+Egypt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2Farticle%2F1079%2Ftrade-in-ancient-egypt%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/ship">"Ship - History of ships"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Ship+-+History+of+ships&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftechnology%2Fship&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJobbins2003" class="citation journal cs1">Jobbins, Jenny (13–19 November 2003). "The 40 days' nightmare". <i>Al-Ahram</i> (664). Cairo, Egypt.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al-Ahram&rft.atitle=The+40+days%27+nightmare&rft.issue=664&rft.date=2003-11-13%2F2003-11-19&rft.aulast=Jobbins&rft.aufirst=Jenny&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Tyson_Smith" title="Stuart Tyson Smith">Smith, Stuart Tyson</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/stsmith/research/nubia_history.html">"Nubia: History"</a>. University of California Santa Barbara, Department of Anthropology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 21,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nubia%3A+History&rft.pub=University+of+California+Santa+Barbara%2C+Department+of+Anthropology&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Stuart+Tyson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.anth.ucsb.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fstsmith%2Fresearch%2Fnubia_history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burr_and_Collins_6-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burr_and_Collins_6_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrCollins2006" class="citation book cs1">Burr, J. 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Princeton: Markus Wiener. pp. <span class="nowrap">6–</span>7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55876-405-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-55876-405-4"><bdi>1-55876-405-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Darfur%3A+The+Long+Road+to+Disaster&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6-%3C%2Fspan%3E7&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-55876-405-4&rft.aulast=Burr&rft.aufirst=J.+Millard&rft.au=Collins%2C+Robert+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVischer1909" class="citation journal cs1">Vischer, Hanns (1909-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1776898">"A Journey from Tripoli across the Sahara to Lake Chad"</a>. <i>The Geographical Journal</i>. <b>33</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">241–</span>264. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1909GeogJ..33..241V">1909GeogJ..33..241V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1776898">10.2307/1776898</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1776898">1776898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Geographical+Journal&rft.atitle=A+Journey+from+Tripoli+across+the+Sahara+to+Lake+Chad&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E241-%3C%2Fspan%3E264&rft.date=1909-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1776898%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1776898&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1909GeogJ..33..241V&rft.aulast=Vischer&rft.aufirst=Hanns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1776898&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaw1929" class="citation journal cs1">Shaw, W.B.K. (1929). "Darb el Arba'in. The forty days' road". <i>Sudan Notes and Records</i>. <b>12</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">63–</span>71. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41719405">41719405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sudan+Notes+and+Records&rft.atitle=Darb+el+Arba%27in.+The+forty+days%27+road&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E63-%3C%2Fspan%3E71&rft.date=1929&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41719405%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=W.B.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLydon2009" class="citation cs2">Lydon, Ghislaine (2009), "On trans-Saharan trails", <i>On Trans-Saharan Trails: Islamic Law, Trade Networks, and Cross-Cultural Exchange in Nineteenth-Century Western Africa</i>, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, pp. <span class="nowrap">387–</span>400, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fcbo9780511575457.010">10.1017/cbo9780511575457.010</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-57545-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-57545-7"><bdi>978-0-511-57545-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+trans-Saharan+trails&rft.btitle=On+Trans-Saharan+Trails%3A+Islamic+Law%2C+Trade+Networks%2C+and+Cross-Cultural+Exchange+in+Nineteenth-Century+Western+Africa&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E387-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fcbo9780511575457.010&rft.isbn=978-0-511-57545-7&rft.aulast=Lydon&rft.aufirst=Ghislaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shillington (1995). p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels1970" class="citation book cs1">Daniels, Charles (1970). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/garamantesofsout0000dani"><i>The Garamantes of Southern Libya</i></a></span>. North Harrow, Middlesex: Oleander. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/garamantesofsout0000dani/page/22">22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-902675-04-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-902675-04-4"><bdi>0-902675-04-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Garamantes+of+Southern+Libya&rft.place=North+Harrow%2C+Middlesex&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Oleander&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-902675-04-4&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgaramantesofsout0000dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Mattingly" class="citation book cs1">David Mattingly. "The Garamantes and the Origins of Saharan Trade". <i>Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">27–</span>28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Garamantes+and+the+Origins+of+Saharan+Trade&rft.btitle=Trade+in+the+Ancient+Sahara+and+Beyond&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E28&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.au=David+Mattingly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-apuleius-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-apuleius_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-apuleius_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-apuleius_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-apuleius_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith_R._Bradley" class="citation book cs1">Keith R. Bradley. "Apuleius and the sub-Saharan slave trade". <i>Apuleius and Antonine Rome: Historical Essays</i>. p. 177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Apuleius+and+the+sub-Saharan+slave+trade&rft.btitle=Apuleius+and+Antonine+Rome%3A+Historical+Essays&rft.pages=177&rft.au=Keith+R.+Bradley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-exports-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-exports_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports_21-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-exports_21-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_Wilson" class="citation book cs1">Andrew Wilson. "Saharan Exports to the Roman World". <i>Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">192–</span>3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saharan+Exports+to+the+Roman+World&rft.btitle=Trade+in+the+Ancient+Sahara+and+Beyond&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E192-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.au=Andrew+Wilson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Masonen-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Masonen_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masonen_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasonen1997" class="citation book cs1">Masonen, Pekka (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19981206194916/http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html">"Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World"</a>. In Sabour, M'hammad; Vikør, Knut S. (eds.). <i>Ethnic Encounter and Culture Change</i>. Bergen. pp. <span class="nowrap">116–</span>142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85065-311-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85065-311-9"><bdi>1-85065-311-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html">the original</a> on 1998-12-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trans-Saharan+Trade+and+the+West+African+Discovery+of+the+Mediterranean+World&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Encounter+and+Culture+Change&rft.place=Bergen&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E116-%3C%2Fspan%3E142&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-85065-311-9&rft.aulast=Masonen&rft.aufirst=Pekka&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hf-fak.uib.no%2Finstitutter%2Fsmi%2Fpaj%2FMasonen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewicki1994" class="citation book cs1">Lewicki, T. (1994). "The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in Relationships between North and South". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000077974"><i>UNESCO General History of Africa</i></a>. Vol. 3. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-601709-6" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-601709-6"><bdi>92-3-601709-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+the+Sahara+and+Saharians+in+Relationships+between+North+and+South&rft.btitle=UNESCO+General+History+of+Africa&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=92-3-601709-6&rft.aulast=Lewicki&rft.aufirst=T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000077974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="i cant find "sandstorm" in this book (May 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100609184636/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/ibn_battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Twelve.html">"Ibn Battuta's Trip<i>: Part Twelve – Journey to West Africa (1351–1353)"</i></a><i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Twelve.html">the original</a> on June 9, 2010.</i></cite><i><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ibn+Battuta%27s+Trip%3A+Part+Twelve+%E2%80%93+Journey+to+West+Africa+%281351%E2%80%931353%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sfusd.k12.ca.us%2Fschwww%2Fsch618%2FIbn_Battuta%2FBattuta%27s_Trip_Twelve.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Austen-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Austen_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Austen_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Austen_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRalph_A._Austen" class="citation book cs1">Ralph A. Austen. <i>Trans-Saharan Africa in World History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trans-Saharan+Africa+in+World+History&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.au=Ralph+A.+Austen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFage2001" class="citation book cs1">Fage, J. D. (2001). <i>A History of Africa</i> (4th ed.). Routledge. p. 256. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25247-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-25247-4"><bdi>0-415-25247-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Africa&rft.pages=256&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-25247-4&rft.aulast=Fage&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa">"The impact of the slave trade on Africa"</a>. April 1998.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+impact+of+the+slave+trade+on+Africa&rft.date=1998-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmondediplo.com%2F1998%2F04%2F02africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMessier2015" class="citation book cs1">Messier, Ronald A. (15 June 2015). <i>The Last Civilized Place : Sijilmasa and its Saharan Destiny</i>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4773-1135-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4773-1135-6"><bdi>978-1-4773-1135-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Civilized+Place+%3A+Sijilmasa+and+its+Saharan+Destiny&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2015-06-15&rft.isbn=978-1-4773-1135-6&rft.aulast=Messier&rft.aufirst=Ronald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nigeria-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nigeria_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nigeria_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToyin_Falola,_Matthew_M._Heaton" class="citation book cs1">Toyin Falola, Matthew M. Heaton. <i>A History of Nigeria</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">32–</span>33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Nigeria&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.au=Toyin+Falola%2C+Matthew+M.+Heaton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnne_Haour" class="citation book cs1">Anne Haour. "What made Islamic Trade Distinctive, as Compared to Pre-Islamic Trade?". <i>Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">82–</span>83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+made+Islamic+Trade+Distinctive%2C+as+Compared+to+Pre-Islamic+Trade%3F&rft.btitle=Trade+in+the+Ancient+Sahara+and+Beyond&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E82-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.au=Anne+Haour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-network-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-network_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnne_Haour" class="citation book cs1">Anne Haour. "What made Islamic Trade Distinctive, as Compared to Pre-Islamic Trade?". <i>Trade in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">95–</span>96.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+made+Islamic+Trade+Distinctive%2C+as+Compared+to+Pre-Islamic+Trade%3F&rft.btitle=Trade+in+the+Ancient+Sahara+and+Beyond&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E95-%3C%2Fspan%3E96&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.au=Anne+Haour&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-strobel-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-strobel_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-strobel_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristoph_Strobel2015" class="citation book cs1">Christoph Strobel (11 February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0q-gBgAAQBAJ&q=trans-sahara+trade+spread+islam&pg=PA27"><i>The Global Atlantic: 1400 to 1900</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317525523" title="Special:BookSources/9781317525523"><bdi>9781317525523</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Global+Atlantic%3A+1400+to+1900&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015-02-11&rft.isbn=9781317525523&rft.au=Christoph+Strobel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0q-gBgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dtrans-sahara%2Btrade%2Bspread%2Bislam%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatricia_Pearson" class="citation book cs1">Patricia Pearson. "The World of Atlantic before the "Atlantic World"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". In Toyin Falola, Kevin David Roberts (ed.). <i>The Atlantic World, 1450-2000</i>. <a href="/wiki/Indiana_University_Press" title="Indiana University Press">Indiana University Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">10–</span>11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+World+of+Atlantic+before+the+%22Atlantic+World%22&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+World%2C+1450-2000&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E10-%3C%2Fspan%3E11&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.au=Patricia+Pearson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1">"Desert Odyssey". <i>Africa</i>. Episode 2. 2001. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Channel" class="mw-redirect" title="National Geographic Channel">National Geographic Channel</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Africa&rft.series=Episode+2&rft.date=2001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span> This episode follows a Tuareg tribe across the Sahara for six months by camel.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/interviews/trans-sahara-highway-niger-section-almost-complete-and-offers-new-economic-opportunities-population-alberic-houssou-project-manager-niger-african-development-bank-59304">"Trans-Sahara Highway: "The Niger section is almost complete and offers new economic opportunities for the population", Alberic Houssou, Project Manager in Niger for the African Development Bank"</a> (in English, French, Arabic, and Portuguese). African Development Bank Group. February 13, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trans-Sahara+Highway%3A+%22The+Niger+section+is+almost+complete+and+offers+new+economic+opportunities+for+the+population%22%2C+Alberic+Houssou%2C+Project+Manager+in+Niger+for+the+African+Development+Bank&rft.pub=African+Development+Bank+Group&rft.date=2023-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.afdb.org%2Fen%2Fnews-and-events%2Finterviews%2Ftrans-sahara-highway-niger-section-almost-complete-and-offers-new-economic-opportunities-population-alberic-houssou-project-manager-niger-african-development-bank-59304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans-Saharan_trade&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoahen1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Adu_Boahen" title="Albert Adu Boahen">Boahen, Albert Adu</a> (1964). <i>Britain, the Sahara and the Western Sudan 1788–1861</i>. Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britain%2C+the+Sahara+and+the+Western+Sudan+1788%E2%80%931861&rft.place=Oxford&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Boahen&rft.aufirst=Albert+Adu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBovill1995" class="citation book cs1">Bovill, Edward William (1995). <i>The Golden Trade of the Moors</i>. Princeton: Markus Wiener. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55876-091-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55876-091-1"><bdi>1-55876-091-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Trade+of+the+Moors&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1-55876-091-1&rft.aulast=Bovill&rft.aufirst=Edward+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarden1971" class="citation book cs1">Harden, Donald (1971) [1962]. <i>The Phoenicians</i>. Harmondsworth: Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phoenicians&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Harden&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShillington2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Shillington" title="Kevin Shillington">Shillington, Kevin</a>, ed. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.routledge-ny.com/ref/africanhist/tuareg.html">"Tuareg: Takedda and trans-Saharan trade"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_African_History" title="Encyclopedia of African History">Encyclopedia of African History</a></i>. Fitzroy Dearborn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-57958-245-1"><bdi>1-57958-245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tuareg%3A+Takedda+and+trans-Saharan+trade&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History&rft.pub=Fitzroy+Dearborn&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-57958-245-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge-ny.com%2Fref%2Fafricanhist%2Ftuareg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarmington1964" class="citation book cs1">Warmington, B. H. (1964) [1960]. <i>Carthage</i>. Harmondsworth: Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Warmington&rft.aufirst=B.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasonen1997" class="citation book cs1">Masonen, Pekka (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19981206194916/http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html">"Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World"</a>. In Sabour, M'hammad; Vikør, Knut S. (eds.). <i>Ethnic Encounter and Culture Change</i>. Bergen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85065-311-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85065-311-9"><bdi>1-85065-311-9</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hf-fak.uib.no/institutter/smi/paj/Masonen.html">the original</a> on 1998-12-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trans-Saharan+Trade+and+the+West+African+Discovery+of+the+Mediterranean+World&rft.btitle=Ethnic+Encounter+and+Culture+Change&rft.place=Bergen&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-85065-311-9&rft.aulast=Masonen&rft.aufirst=Pekka&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hf-fak.uib.no%2Finstitutter%2Fsmi%2Fpaj%2FMasonen.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss2011" class="citation book cs1">Ross, Eric (2011). "A historical geography of the trans-Saharan trade". In Krätli, Graziano; Lydon, Ghislaine (eds.). <i>The Trans-Saharan Book Trade: Manuscript Culture, Arabic Literacy and Intellectual History in Muslim Africa</i>. Leiden: Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18742-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18742-9"><bdi>978-90-04-18742-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+historical+geography+of+the+trans-Saharan+trade&rft.btitle=The+Trans-Saharan+Book+Trade%3A+Manuscript+Culture%2C+Arabic+Literacy+and+Intellectual+History+in+Muslim+Africa&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E34&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18742-9&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gold/hd_gold.htm">"The Trans-Saharan Gold Trade 7th–14th Century"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Modern_Art" title="Museum of Modern Art">Museum of Modern Art</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Museum+of+Modern+Art&rft.atitle=The+Trans-Saharan+Gold+Trade+7th%E2%80%9314th+Century&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fgold%2Fhd_gold.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChegrouche2010" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chegrouche, Lagha (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101130140835/http://www.editionstechnip.com/F/revue_geopolitique_medias_pouvoirs_1693.asp">"Géopolitique transsaharienne de l'énergie"</a>. <i>Revue Géopolitique</i> (in French). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.editionstechnip.com/F/revue_geopolitique_medias_pouvoirs_1693.asp">the original</a> on November 30, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revue+G%C3%A9opolitique&rft.atitle=G%C3%A9opolitique+transsaharienne+de+l%27%C3%A9nergie&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Chegrouche&rft.aufirst=Lagha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.editionstechnip.com%2FF%2Frevue_geopolitique_medias_pouvoirs_1693.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChegrouche2010" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Chegrouche, Lagha (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.editecom.com/index2.php?refRevue=RE&numero=593">"Géopolitique transsaharienne de l'énergie, le jeu et l'enjeu?"</a>. <i>Revue de l'énergie, Etude</i> (in French).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Revue+de+l%27%C3%A9nergie%2C+Etude&rft.atitle=G%C3%A9opolitique+transsaharienne+de+l%27%C3%A9nergie%2C+le+jeu+et+l%27enjeu%3F&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Chegrouche&rft.aufirst=Lagha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.editecom.com%2Findex2.php%3FrefRevue%3DRE%26numero%3D593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATrans-Saharan+trade" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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