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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Description</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Description-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Description subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Skull" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skull"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Skull</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skull-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postcranial_skeleton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postcranial_skeleton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Postcranial skeleton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postcranial_skeleton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_and_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_and_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification and evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_and_evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification and evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_and_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Digit_homology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digit_homology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Digit homology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digit_homology-sublist" 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaure" title="Limusaure – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Limusaure" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus_inextricabilis" title="Limusaurus inextricabilis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Limusaurus inextricabilis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B1" title="لیموسور – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لیموسور" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus_inextricabilis" title="Limusaurus inextricabilis – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Limusaurus inextricabilis" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ലേമൂസോറസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ലേമൂസോറസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AA%E3%83%A0%E3%82%B5%E3%82%A6%E3%83%AB%E3%82%B9" title="リムサウルス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="リムサウルス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%80" title="Лимузавр – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лимузавр" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" title="Limusaurus – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Limusaurus" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%A5%E6%BD%AD%E9%BE%8D%E5%B1%AC" title="泥潭龍屬 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="泥潭龍屬" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> 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<div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. 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text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><i>Limusaurus</i><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: <a href="/wiki/Oxfordian_(stage)" title="Oxfordian (stage)">Oxfordian</a>, <span class="noprint"><span style="display:inline-block;"></span><span style="display:inline-block;">161–157 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a></span> <span style="display:inline-block;"></span><div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"> <div style="position:absolute; left:165.50769230769px; font-size:50%"><div style="position:relative; left:-0.42em">↓</div></div> </div> </div></span></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus_inextricabilis_skeleton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Limusaurus_inextricabilis_skeleton.jpg/240px-Limusaurus_inextricabilis_skeleton.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Limusaurus_inextricabilis_skeleton.jpg/360px-Limusaurus_inextricabilis_skeleton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Limusaurus_inextricabilis_skeleton.jpg/480px-Limusaurus_inextricabilis_skeleton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="923" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Skeletal diagram showing the preserved remains of the <a href="/wiki/Holotype_specimen" class="mw-redirect" title="Holotype specimen">holotype specimen</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <span class="plainlinks taxobox-edit-taxonomy skin-invert" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Limusaurus" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosauria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Saurischia" title="Saurischia">Saurischia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Clade</i>: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Family: </td> <td><span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;">†</span><a href="/wiki/Noasauridae" title="Noasauridae">Noasauridae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Subfamily: </td> <td><span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;">†</span><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaphrosaurinae">Elaphrosaurinae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genus: </td> <td><span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal;">†</span><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>Limusaurus</i></a><br /><small><a href="/wiki/Xu_Xing_(paleontologist)" title="Xu Xing (paleontologist)">Xu</a> <i>et al.</i>, 2009</small> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Species: </td> <td><div style="display:inline" class="species">†<i><b>L. inextricabilis</b></i></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">Binomial name</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><b><span class="binomial"><span style="font-weight:normal;">†</span><i>Limusaurus inextricabilis</i></span></b><br /><div style="font-size: 85%;">Xu <i>et al.</i>, 2009</div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> <p><i><b>Limusaurus</b></i> is a <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a> that lived in what is now China during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late Jurassic</a>, around 161 to 157 million years ago. The type and only species <i><b>Limusaurus inextricabilis</b></i> was described in 2009 from specimens found in the <a href="/wiki/Shishugou_Formation" title="Shishugou Formation">Upper Shishugou Formation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Junggar_Basin" title="Junggar Basin">Junggar Basin</a> of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Genus_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Genus name">genus name</a> consists of the Latin words for "mud" and "lizard", and the species name means "impossible to extricate", both referring to these specimens possibly dying after being mired. <i>Limusaurus</i> was a small, slender animal, about 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) in length and 15 kg (33 lb) in weight, which had a long neck and legs but very small forelimbs (with reduced first and fourth fingers). It underwent a drastic <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> transformation as it aged: while juveniles were toothed, these teeth were completely lost and replaced by a beak with age. Several of these features were <a href="/wiki/Convergently_similar" class="mw-redirect" title="Convergently similar">convergently similar</a> to the later <a href="/wiki/Ornithomimid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ornithomimid">ornithomimid</a> theropods as well as the earlier non-dinosaurian <a href="/wiki/Shuvosaurids" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuvosaurids">shuvosaurids</a>. </p><p><i>Limusaurus</i> was the first known member of the group <a href="/wiki/Ceratosauria" title="Ceratosauria">Ceratosauria</a> from Asia. It belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Noasauridae" title="Noasauridae">Noasauridae</a>, a family of small and lightly built <a href="/wiki/Ceratosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratosaur">ceratosaurs</a>, along with its closest relative <i><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurus" title="Elaphrosaurus">Elaphrosaurus</a></i>. The pattern of <a href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">digit</a> reduction in <i>Limusaurus</i> has been used to support the hypothesis that the three-fingered hand of <a href="/wiki/Tetanurae" title="Tetanurae">tetanuran</a> theropods is the result of the loss of the first and fifth digits from the ancestral five-fingered theropod hand, a contested hypothesis which is relevant to the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">evolution of birds</a>. The change to toothlessness in adults probably corresponded to a dietary shift from <a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">omnivory</a> to <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivory</a>, which is confirmed by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Gastroliths" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastroliths">gastroliths</a> (stomach stones) in adults. Since many specimens were found together, it is possible <i>Limusaurus</i> lived in groups. Its fossils were discovered in rocks dated to the <a href="/wiki/Oxfordian_(stage)" title="Oxfordian (stage)">Oxfordian</a> age. Specimens of <i>Limusaurus</i> (along with other small animals) appear to have been mired in mud pits created by the <a href="/wiki/Ichnite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnite">footprints</a> of giant <a href="/wiki/Sauropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropod">sauropod</a> dinosaurs. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery_and_naming">Discovery and naming</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Discovery and naming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wucaiwan_locality.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map showing the Wucaiwan locality" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Wucaiwan_locality.jpg/310px-Wucaiwan_locality.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Wucaiwan_locality.jpg/465px-Wucaiwan_locality.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Wucaiwan_locality.jpg/620px-Wucaiwan_locality.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1420" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Map showing the Wucaiwan locality (<span style="color:#FF0000">⬤</span>) in China, where all <i>Limusaurus</i> specimens have been found</figcaption></figure> <p>Between 2001 and 2006, a Chinese-American team of paleontologists examining the Wucaiwan locality in the <a href="/wiki/Shishugou_Formation" title="Shishugou Formation">Shishugou Formation</a>, in the northeastern <a href="/wiki/Dzungaria#dzungarian_basin" title="Dzungaria">Junggar Basin</a> of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, China, discovered three <a href="/wiki/Bone_beds" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone beds">bone beds</a> (numbered TBB 2001, TBB 2002, and TBB 2005, found by T. Yu and J. Mo). The bone beds were dominated by the remains of small <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> dinosaurs, representing at least three genera, with most belonging to a small <a href="/wiki/Ceratosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratosaur">ceratosaur</a>, the first member of this group found in Asia. Stacked skeletons from these bone beds were removed from the field in blocks, jacketed by plaster, and encased in crates. A <a href="/wiki/Resin_cast" class="mw-redirect" title="Resin cast">resin cast</a> of block TBB 2001 was made, making it available for study after the specimens had been extracted from the original <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(geology)" title="Matrix (geology)">matrix</a>. Except one, all specimens from this block are mounted in a cast of the block in its semi-<a href="/wiki/Fossil_preparation" title="Fossil preparation">prepared</a> state.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Museum exhibit of two skeletons in the original position in which they were found" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Limusaurus.jpg/220px-Limusaurus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Limusaurus.jpg/330px-Limusaurus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Limusaurus.jpg/440px-Limusaurus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>Holotype and assigned specimen (upper right) exhibited in <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 2009, the small ceratosaur was described by paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Xu_Xing_(paleontologist)" title="Xu Xing (paleontologist)">Xu Xing</a> and colleagues, who named it <i>Limusaurus inextricabilis</i>. The genus name consists of the words <i>limus</i>, Latin for "mud" or "mire", and <i>saurus</i>, Greek for "lizard", and the species name means "impossible to extricate"; both names refer to how these specimens appear to have died after being mired.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name has also been translated as "mire lizard who could not escape".<sup id="cite_ref-nsf_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The description incorporated data from two specimens both stored at the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Vertebrate_Paleontology_and_Paleoanthropology" title="Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology">Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology</a> (IVPP) in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Holotype" title="Holotype">holotype</a> (a subadult cataloged under the specimen number IVPP V 15923) is an almost complete and <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#articulated" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § articulated" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">articulated</span></a></dfn> (still connected) skeleton, missing only the hindmost tail vertebrae, and is preserved next to another specimen (a large juvenile, IVPP V 20098) which is missing the front part of the skeleton. The other (an adult, IVPP V 15304, inaccurately referred to by the number IVPP V 16134 in the original description) is a likewise almost complete and articulated specimen that is missing only the skull, and is larger than the holotype.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seventeen additional <i>Limusaurus</i> specimens were described by paleontologist Shuo Wang and colleagues in 2017, excavated from the same blocks as those described in 2009. These specimens include six juveniles (one year in age or less), ten subadults (two to six years in age), and one adult (more than six years in age). These specimens are also stored at the IVPP.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The toothless adults and toothed juveniles were initially thought to be different kinds of dinosaurs, and were studied separately, until it was realized they represent the same species.<sup id="cite_ref-CNN_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus_size.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram comparing the size of Limusaurus to a human" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Limusaurus_size.png/220px-Limusaurus_size.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Limusaurus_size.png/330px-Limusaurus_size.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Limusaurus_size.png/440px-Limusaurus_size.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Size of an adult and juvenile <i>Limusaurus</i> compared to a human</figcaption></figure> <p><i>Limusaurus</i> was a small and slender animal. The holotype (which was originally considered an adult based on the level of fusion of its bones, but later as a subadult when analyzed along with other specimens) is estimated to have been about 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) in length<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the weight of the animal has been estimated at 15 kg (33 lb). One adult specimen is estimated to have been 15% larger than the holotype.<sup id="cite_ref-gsp_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gsp-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several features of the animal, such as the small head with large <a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">orbits</a> (eye openings), toothless jaws, and the long neck and legs, were very similar to those of the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> <a href="/wiki/Ornithomimidae" title="Ornithomimidae">ornithomimid</a> theropods, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a> non-dinosaurian <a href="/wiki/Shuvosauridae" title="Shuvosauridae">shuvosaurids</a>, representing a significant case of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> among these three distinct groups of <a href="/wiki/Archosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Archosaurs">archosaurs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While <i>Limusaurus</i> has sometimes been depicted with <a href="/wiki/Protofeather" class="mw-redirect" title="Protofeather">feathers</a> and may have had them, there is no direct evidence of such structures.<sup id="cite_ref-nsf_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsf-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BBC_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skull">Skull</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Skull"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus-skull-diagram.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Limusaurus-skull-diagram.png/220px-Limusaurus-skull-diagram.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Limusaurus-skull-diagram.png/330px-Limusaurus-skull-diagram.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Limusaurus-skull-diagram.png/440px-Limusaurus-skull-diagram.png 2x" data-file-width="3549" data-file-height="2280" /></a><figcaption>Labelled diagram showing the skull and its individual bones and openings</figcaption></figure> <p>The skull of <i>Limusaurus</i> was relatively tall and short, roughly half the length of the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> (upper thigh bone). The tip of its jaws was covered by a <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">beak</a>, a feature that was previously unknown in non-<a href="/wiki/Coelurosauria" title="Coelurosauria">coelurosaurian</a> theropods like <i>Limusaurus</i> (the coelurosaurs include the most bird-like dinosaurs). As in most dinosaurs, the skull featured five principal <a href="/wiki/Fenestra" title="Fenestra">fenestrae</a> (openings): the <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#external_naris" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § external naris" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">external naris</span></a></dfn> (bony nostril), orbit, <a href="/wiki/Antorbital_fenestra" title="Antorbital fenestra">antorbital fenestra</a> (between the nostril and eye), as well as the <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#upper_temporal_fenestra" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § upper temporal fenestra" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">upper</span></a></dfn> and <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#lower_temporal_fenestra" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § lower temporal fenestra" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">lower temporal fenestra</span></a></dfn> (on the top and on the side of the skull's rear, respectively). As in other ceratosaurians, parts of the bony nostril were formed by the <a href="/wiki/Maxilla" title="Maxilla">maxilla</a> (upper jaw bone); also, the antorbital fenestra was proportionally small, and the rear part of the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_bone" title="Nasal bone">nasal bone</a> formed parts of the cavity which contained this opening. The external naris was large and located in a hindwards position, similar to <a href="/wiki/Tetanuran" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetanuran">tetanuran</a> theropods. The orbit was large, while the lateral temporal fenestra was not as large as would be expected from more <a href="/wiki/Synapomorphy_and_apomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapomorphy and apomorphy">derived</a> (or "advanced") members of the Ceratosauria. Uniquely to <i>Limusaurus</i>, the inner bottom edge of the <a href="/wiki/Premaxilla" title="Premaxilla">premaxilla</a>, the frontmost bone of the upper jaw, was convex. The nasal bone was distinct in having a "shelf" on its side, was short, wide, less than one-third of the length of the <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#skull_roof" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § skull roof" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">skull roof</span></a></dfn>, and twice as long as it was wide. The lower part of the <a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_bone" title="Lacrimal bone">lacrimal</a>, the bone that formed the front margin of the eye opening, was unique in being strongly inclined forwards. The <a href="/wiki/Jugal_bone" title="Jugal bone">jugal bone</a>, which formed the floor of the eye opening, was slender, and its rami (or branches) were rod-like, which is also unique to this genus.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lower jaw of ceratosaurians was pierced by a generally large <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#mandibular_fenestra" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § mandibular fenestra" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">mandibular fenestra</span></a></dfn>. In <i>Limusaurus</i>, it was especially large, accounting for 40% of the length of the entire lower jaw, a distinguishing feature of the genus. The <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#dentary" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § dentary" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">dentary</span></a></dfn> (tooth-bearing bone at the front of the lower jaw) was short compared to the rest of the lower jaw, as in other ceratosaurians. The front end of the dentary was down-turned and had a convex inner margin, similar to the related <i><a href="/wiki/Masiakasaurus" title="Masiakasaurus">Masiakasaurus</a></i>. The angular bone of the lower jaw was positioned significantly forwards in relation to the hind end of the mandible, similar to other ceratosaurians. Juveniles had nine teeth in each side of the upper jaw and twelve in each side of the lower; they were gradually lost as they grew, disappearing by adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postcranial_skeleton">Postcranial skeleton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Postcranial skeleton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus_inextricabilis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Artistic life reconstruction of Limusaurus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Limusaurus_inextricabilis.jpg/220px-Limusaurus_inextricabilis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Limusaurus_inextricabilis.jpg/330px-Limusaurus_inextricabilis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Limusaurus_inextricabilis.jpg/440px-Limusaurus_inextricabilis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Life_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Life restoration">Life restoration</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#cervicals" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § cervicals" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">cervicals</span></a></dfn> (neck vertebrae) of <i>Limusaurus</i> were elongated as in the closely related <i><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurus" title="Elaphrosaurus">Elaphrosaurus</a></i>, and the neck itself was long. The <a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">axis</a> (second neck vertebra) lacked the <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#pleurocoel" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § pleurocoel" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">pleurocoel</span></a></dfn> (excavation) on its front end and the <a href="/wiki/Foramen" title="Foramen">foramina</a> (openings) in its <a href="/wiki/Neural_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural arch">neural arch</a> that are seen in derived ceratosaurians. As in other <a href="/wiki/Noasaurids" class="mw-redirect" title="Noasaurids">noasaurids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neural_spine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural spine">neural spines</a> of the cervicals were positioned more towards the front end of their vertebrae than is the case in other theropods.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Distinctively, the <a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapula</a> (shoulder blade) bore a prominent ridge at its front edge. It also had a comparatively high <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#acromion_process" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § acromion process" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">acromion process</span></a></dfn>. The <a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternum</a> was fused into a single, large, continuous plate, another feature that evolved independently in coelurosaurs (convergent evolution). <i>Limusaurus</i> also had a <a href="/wiki/Furcula" title="Furcula">furcula</a>, or wishbone, which previously was unknown among ceratosaurians. The head of the <a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">humerus</a> (upper arm bone) was bulging, and the <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#deltopectoral_crest" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § deltopectoral crest" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">deltopectoral crest</span></a></dfn>, a forward-directed bony flange of the humerus that served for muscle attachment, was long and angled; these features were typical for ceratosaurians. In the forearm, the <a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">radius</a> was longer than the <a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">ulna</a>, and the <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#olecranon_process" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § olecranon process" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">olecranon process</span></a></dfn>, a bony extension on the upper end of the ulna that served for muscle attachment, was absent in <i>Limusaurus</i>. Both features are considered distinctive features of the genus. As in other ceratosaurians, <a href="/wiki/Ossification" title="Ossification">ossified</a> <a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">wrist bones</a> were absent.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus-arm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Limusaurus-arm.png/220px-Limusaurus-arm.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Limusaurus-arm.png/330px-Limusaurus-arm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Limusaurus-arm.png/440px-Limusaurus-arm.png 2x" data-file-width="805" data-file-height="574" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the forelimb and <a href="/wiki/Pectoral_girdle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral girdle">pectoral girdle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As is typical for ceratosaurs, the arms and hands of <i>Limusaurus</i> were considerably reduced, even more so than in <i><a href="/wiki/Ceratosaurus" title="Ceratosaurus">Ceratosaurus</a></i>. <i>Limusaurus</i> had three fingers (the middle three), as compared to the five fingers of more basal relatives; it was unique in that the first finger was missing entirely, and the first <a href="/wiki/Metacarpal" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacarpal">metacarpal</a> was shorter than the other metacarpals. The second metacarpal was more robust than the other metacarpals, which is another distinctive feature of the genus. The second finger had three <a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">phalanges</a> (finger bones). The third finger also only had three phalanges, as opposed to four in other early theropods. Although the fourth finger is not preserved, the tip of the fourth metacarpal indicates the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Joint_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint (anatomy)">joint</a> and therefore the presence of a phalanx; it is likely that this was the only phalanx of the fourth finger.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BBC_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBC-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-terato_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#unguals" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § unguals" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">unguals</span></a></dfn> (claw bones) of the fingers were short, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stout" class="extiw" title="wikt:stout">stout</a>, and expanded at their base.<sup id="cite_ref-unguals_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unguals-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had two grooves on their sides, a feature also found in <i>Masiakasaurus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvic bones</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ilium_(bone)" title="Ilium (bone)">ilium</a> was small and tilted towards the midline of the body, as was the case in <i>Elaphrosaurus</i>. As in other ceratosaurians, the lower end ("boot") of the <a href="/wiki/Pubis_(bone)" title="Pubis (bone)">pubis</a> was large and expanded. Unique to the genus, it pointed backwards in a hook-like shape and had a ridge on each side. The elongated legs of <i>Limusaurus</i> had proportions that were well-adapted to running, with their lower segments much longer than the femur: the <a href="/wiki/Tibiotarsus" title="Tibiotarsus">tibiotarsus</a>, the fusion of the <a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a> (shin bone) and <a href="/wiki/Tarsal_bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsal bones">tarsal bones</a>, was 1.2 times the length of the femur, and the foot was 1.3 times the length of the femur. The legs were 1.8 times the length of the torso. The upper half of the femur was triangular in cross section, a feature shared with <i>Masiakasaurus</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">metatarsals</a> of the three weight-bearing toes were arranged in an arc, with the fourth metatarsal straight and adhering tightly to the third for its entire length; these features are unique to <i>Limusaurus</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Toe#Hallux" title="Toe">hallux</a> (the first toe or dewclaw) was reduced, being only 17% the length of the third metatarsal, another unique feature. As in other ceratosaurians, the unguals of the foot had two grooves on their sides.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_and_evolution">Classification and evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification and evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Limusaurus</i> was classified as a basal member of <a href="/wiki/Ceratosauria" title="Ceratosauria">Ceratosauria</a> by Xu and colleagues in 2009 (who also considered the closely related <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> as such). It had several skull features in common with basal theropods such as other ceratosaurs and <a href="/wiki/Coelophysoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Coelophysoids">coelophysoids</a>, but it also shared a number of traits, including the beak and the fused sternum, convergently with the later coelurosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2012 study by paleontologists Diego Pol and Oliver Rauhut also found <i>Limusaurus</i> and <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> to be basal ceratosaurians in their <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic analysis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-eoabeli_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eoabeli-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while a 2010 study by paleontologist Martin Ezcurra and colleagues placed them in the more derived group <a href="/wiki/Abelisauroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Abelisauroidea">Abelisauroidea</a> within Ceratosauria.<sup id="cite_ref-ezcurra_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ezcurra-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2016 study by paleontologists Oliver Rauhut and Matthew Carrano found <i>Limusaurus</i> to be more derived, grouping together with <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> within the abelisauroid family Noasauridae. Together with an as-of-yet unnamed taxon represented by specimen CCG 20011, and not included in other analyses, the two taxa formed the <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> <a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaphrosaurinae">Elaphrosaurinae</a>; <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> and CCG 20011 were closer to each other than to <i>Limusaurus</i> within this group. <i><a href="/wiki/Laevisuchus" title="Laevisuchus">Laevisuchus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Deltadromeus" title="Deltadromeus">Deltadromeus</a></i> were placed basal to the group of <a href="/wiki/Noasaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Noasaurinae">Noasaurinae</a> and Elaphrosaurinae within Noasauridae. The only known specimen of <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> is missing its skull and hands among other elements, and its affinities were long unclear (it was often considered an ornithomimosaur from 1928 well into the 1990s) until the more complete <i>Limusaurus</i> was found. The discovery of <i>Limusaurus</i> allowed the extrapolation of the complete length of <i>Elaphrosaurus</i>, 6.0–6.3 m (19.7–20.7 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-elaphrosaurus_2016_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elaphrosaurus_2016-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CCG_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CCG-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wang and colleagues, in 2017, also found <i>Limusaurus</i> and <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> to group in the clade Elaphrosaurinae, within the family Noasauridae. Variants of their analysis also recovered <i><a href="/wiki/Spinostropheus" title="Spinostropheus">Spinostropheus</a></i> as a possible additional elaphrosaurine. The Noasauridae was placed in a position outside <a href="/wiki/Neoceratosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoceratosauria">Neoceratosauria</a>, the group containing <i>Ceratosaurus</i> and <a href="/wiki/Abelisauridae" title="Abelisauridae">Abelisauridae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heterochronic_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heterochronic-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Italian paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Cristiano_Dal_Sasso" title="Cristiano Dal Sasso">Cristiano Dal Sasso</a> and colleagues, in 2018, found <i>Limusaurus</i> to be closely related to <i>Spinostropheus</i>, while <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> occupies a more basal position.<sup id="cite_ref-dalsasso2018_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dalsasso2018-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2019 study by paleontologist Max Langer and colleagues, which was based on the same data set used by the 2016 study, also grouped <i>Limusaurus</i> together with <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> and CCG 20011.<sup id="cite_ref-Langer2019_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Langer2019-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Argentinian paleontologist Mattia Baiano and colleagues, in 2020, found <i>Limusaurus</i> to form a clade with <i>Elaphrosaurus</i> as well as with the new genus <i><a href="/wiki/Huinculsaurus" title="Huinculsaurus">Huinculsaurus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-baiano2020_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baiano2020-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To test the influence of the extreme anatomical changes with growth in <i>Limusaurus</i>, Wang and colleagues, in their 2017 study, performed separate analyses that were based on only the adult anatomy or on both the adult and juvenile anatomy. In another analysis, each <i>Limusaurus</i> individual was treated as an independent unit. All the juvenile <i>Limusaurus</i> specimens grouped together to the exclusion of adult specimens, showing that their anatomy changed significantly through growth. The inclusion or exclusion of juvenile features had little effect on the placement of <i>Limusaurus</i> in the phylogenetic tree.<sup id="cite_ref-Heterochronic_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heterochronic-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</a> below shows the position of <i>Limusaurus</i> within Noasauridae according to Baiano and colleagues, 2020:<sup id="cite_ref-baiano2020_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baiano2020-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elaphrosaurus_bambergi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram showing a reconstructed skeleton of the related Elaphrosaurus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Elaphrosaurus_bambergi.jpg/220px-Elaphrosaurus_bambergi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Elaphrosaurus_bambergi.jpg/330px-Elaphrosaurus_bambergi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Elaphrosaurus_bambergi.jpg/440px-Elaphrosaurus_bambergi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="221" /></a><figcaption>Known bones of the related <i><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurus" title="Elaphrosaurus">Elaphrosaurus</a></i>, whose affinities and appearance were unclear until the discovery of <i>Limusaurus</i></figcaption></figure> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade" style="font-size:90%; line-height:90%"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Noasauridae" title="Noasauridae">Noasauridae</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Spinostropheus" title="Spinostropheus">Spinostropheus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaphrosaurinae">Elaphrosaurinae</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><b>Limusaurus</b></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurus" title="Elaphrosaurus">Elaphrosaurus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Huinculsaurus" title="Huinculsaurus">Huinculsaurus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Deltadromeus" title="Deltadromeus">Deltadromeus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Genusaurus" title="Genusaurus">Genusaurus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Afromimus" title="Afromimus">Afromimus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Velocisaurus" title="Velocisaurus">Velocisaurus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Masiakasaurus" title="Masiakasaurus">Masiakasaurus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Noasaurus" title="Noasaurus">Noasaurus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Laevisuchus" title="Laevisuchus">Laevisuchus</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>In addition to being the first definite ceratosaur known from Asia to be discovered, <i>Limusaurus</i> is also one of the earliest known members of the group, living during the <a href="/wiki/Oxfordian_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxfordian stage">Oxfordian stage</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> period (approximately 161-157 million years ago). According to Xu and colleagues, its discovery shows that the Asian dinosaur fauna was less <a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">endemic</a> during the Middle to Late Jurassic period than previously thought, and suggests a possible land connection between Asia and other continents during that period.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biologist Josef Stiegler and colleagues stated in a 2014 conference abstract that <i>Limusaurus</i> is the earliest known toothless theropod, as well as the only non-bird theropod known to have had strong <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilateral symmetry">bilateral</a> reduction of its digits (as the outer fingers were reduced in size).<sup id="cite_ref-Stiegler_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stiegler-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digit_homology">Digit homology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Digit homology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most basal <a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">theropods</a> had five <a href="/wiki/Digit_(anatomy)" title="Digit (anatomy)">digits</a> in the hand. Along the lineage that led to birds the number of digits in the hand decreased; by the emergence of the group <a href="/wiki/Tetanurae" title="Tetanurae">Tetanurae</a>, which includes birds, two digits had disappeared from the hand, leaving three. Traditionally, it has been hypothesized that the digits lost were the two outermost digits, i.e. digits IV and V, in a process known as Lateral Digit Reduction (LDR). According to this scenario, the three fingers retained by tetanurans were therefore <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologous</a> (evolutionary corresponding to) with digit I, II, and III of basal theropods, which would have implications for the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">evolution of birds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-homologyoverview_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homologyoverview-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_of_the_hand_in_Theropoda.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram showing the evolution of the theropod hand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Evolution_of_the_hand_in_Theropoda.png/220px-Evolution_of_the_hand_in_Theropoda.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Evolution_of_the_hand_in_Theropoda.png/330px-Evolution_of_the_hand_in_Theropoda.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Evolution_of_the_hand_in_Theropoda.png/440px-Evolution_of_the_hand_in_Theropoda.png 2x" data-file-width="2797" data-file-height="3822" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing the evolution of the <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> hand, including that of <i>Limusaurus</i>, as hypothesized by <a href="/wiki/Dal_Sasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Dal Sasso">Dal Sasso</a> and colleagues in 2018</figcaption></figure> <p>However, the hypothesis of LDR is in contradiction to some <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryological</a> studies on birds which show that, from five developmental sites, the digits that develop are the three middle digits (II, III, IV). This inconsistency has been a matter of debate for almost 200 years,<sup id="cite_ref-larsson_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-larsson-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has been used by paleornithologist <a href="/wiki/Alan_Feduccia" title="Alan Feduccia">Alan Feduccia</a> to support the hypothesis that birds are descended not from theropods but from some other group of archosaurs which had lost the first and fifth digits.<sup id="cite_ref-feduccia_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-feduccia-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mainstream view of bird origins among paleontologists is that birds are theropod dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-BAD_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BAD-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To explain the discrepancy between morphological and embryological data in the context of bird origins, an alternative scenario to LDR was developed by paleontologists <a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Thulborn" title="Richard A. Thulborn">Tony Thulborn</a> and Tim Hamley in 1982. In this scenario, the digits I and V of theropods were reduced in the process of Bilateral Digit Reduction (BDR), with the remaining digits developing to resemble the former digits I-III.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Limusaurus</i> was initially considered as evidence for the BDR hypothesis by Xu and colleagues in 2009 due to it—and other ceratosaurians—having a reduced first digit, with these researchers hypothesizing that a similar pattern of reduction occurred among the tetanurans (the <a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">sister group</a> of the ceratosaurians).<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several other hypotheses have been proposed to improve upon and reconcile the LDR and BDR hypotheses. One predominantly favored hypothesis, first developed by evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_P._Wagner" title="Günter P. Wagner">Günter P. Wagner</a> and paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Gauthier" title="Jacques Gauthier">Jacques Gauthier</a> in 1999,<sup id="cite_ref-frameshift0_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frameshift0-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> involves a "frameshift" of the digits; the first digit fails to grow in the first developmental site due to not receiving the necessary signals, which has the effect of shifting digits I-III to the positions of II-IV. Thus, while digits I-III from the ancestral theropod are retained, they do not grow in the same location.<sup id="cite_ref-terato_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-homologyoverview_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homologyoverview-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frameshift1_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frameshift1-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frameshift2_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frameshift2-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-frameshift3_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frameshift3-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-precedings_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-precedings-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A version of the frameshift hypothesis modified to incorporate both elements of BDR and fossil evidence from <i>Limusaurus</i> and other theropods, the "thumbs down" hypothesis of biologist Daniel Čapek and colleagues from 2014, suggests that this frameshift took place after the reduction of both the first and the fourth digits in the theropod lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-thumbsdown_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thumbsdown-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The main alternative hypothesis, supported by Xu and colleagues, known as the "lateral shift hypothesis", considers a partial, step-wise frameshift in which, from a four-fingered hand with reduced digits I and IV, I fully disappears while IV develops into a fully-fledged finger, with II-IV taking on the morphologies of the former I-III.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-homologyoverview_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homologyoverview-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-xu2011_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2011-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2009 response to Xu and colleague's description of <i>Limusaurus</i>, biologist Alexander Vargas, Wagner and Gauthier stated in 2009 that it is plausible that ceratosaurians underwent BDR independent of the tetanurans, and therefore have no bearing on the issue of avian digit homology.<sup id="cite_ref-precedings_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-precedings-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xu and colleagues replied in 2011 that they still found a step-wise shift more plausible than a hidden frameshift.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2011_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2011-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As demonstrated by a <a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">teratological</a> analysis by biologist Geoffrey Guinard in 2016, the abbreviation (<a href="/wiki/Mesomelia" title="Mesomelia">mesomelia</a>) and loss of digits (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypophalangia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hypophalangia (page does not exist)">hypophalangia</a>) in the forelimb of <i>Limusaurus</i> is likely the result of a developmental anomaly that appeared exclusively in and persisted throughout the evolutionary lineage of ceratosaurians, and is unconnected to the pattern of digital reduction and frameshift that occurred in tetanurans.<sup id="cite_ref-terato_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-terato-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carrano and paleontologist Jonah Choiniere suggested in 2016 that this is supported by the hands of the ceratosaurians <i>Ceratosaurus</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Berberosaurus" title="Berberosaurus">Berberosaurus</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Eoabelisaurus" title="Eoabelisaurus">Eoabelisaurus</a></i> having <a href="/wiki/Symplesiomorphy" class="mw-redirect" title="Symplesiomorphy">plesiomorphic</a> (i.e. more similar to the ancestral condition of theropods than to derived abelisaurs) metacarpal bones comparable to those of the more basal theropod <i><a href="/wiki/Dilophosaurus" title="Dilophosaurus">Dilophosaurus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-cerato_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cerato-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Xu and biologist Susan Mackem stated in 2013 that the divergent developmental pathways of ceratosaurians and tetanurans are associated with a difference in forelimb function; tetanurans utilized their hands for grasping prey, while the hands of ceratosaurians almost certainly played no role in predation.<sup id="cite_ref-homologyoverview_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-homologyoverview-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An ancestral states analysis (estimation of the original anatomy of a group) by Dal Sasso and colleagues in 2018 also found that the digit reduction seen in <i>Limusaurus</i> occurred independently from that in tetanurans. According to this analysis, an axis shift from digit position IV to III took place at the basis of Tetanurae after the fourth finger was lost.<sup id="cite_ref-dalsasso2018_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dalsasso2018-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paleobiology">Paleobiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Paleobiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth">Growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus_skull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of the skull of a juvenile Limusaurus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Limusaurus_skull.jpg/220px-Limusaurus_skull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Limusaurus_skull.jpg/330px-Limusaurus_skull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Limusaurus_skull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="374" data-file-height="222" /></a><figcaption>Skull of juvenile specimen IVPP 20093 V; the specimen has teeth, which were lost in adults</figcaption></figure> <p>Specimens of <i>Limusaurus</i> show 78 different anatomical changes that occurred as the animals grew. In particular, their heads became proportionally shallower, their middle <a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">hand bones</a> lengthened, and the "hook" of their pubis grew longer. The shaft of the <a href="/wiki/Quadrate_bone" title="Quadrate bone">quadrate bone</a> in the skull also straightened in adults, and the tips of their lower jaws became more downturned.<sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most obvious change that happened during the growth of <i>Limusaurus</i> was the complete loss of teeth from juveniles to adults. Juveniles began with one tooth in each premaxilla, eight in each maxilla, and at least twelve in each half of the lower jaw (at least 42 teeth in total). At the next stage, the first, sixth, and eighth teeth in each maxilla, as well as the sixth in each half of the lower jaw had all been lost, although the sockets were still present, and there was a small replacement tooth in the socket of the sixth lower tooth (leaving at least 34 teeth in total). During this stage, use of teeth and normal tooth replacement likely ceased or became reduced, since none of the still-erupted teeth bear any wear marks or <a href="/wiki/Tooth_resorption" title="Tooth resorption">resorption</a>. As the specimens grew, the transformation became more radical. In subadult and adult specimens older than one year, all the teeth were missing. <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scanning</a> shows that only five empty tooth sockets remained in the adult maxilla; all the sockets in the lower jaw were fused into a single, hollow canal, and the rest of the tooth sockets were obliterated.<sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The loss of teeth with age in <i>Limusaurus</i> is the most extreme case of tooth morphology changing with age recorded among dinosaurs. <i>Limusaurus</i> is one of the few known jawed vertebrates where teeth are completely lost during growth. The other known examples are the <a href="/wiki/Mullus_barbatus" title="Mullus barbatus">red mullet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Striped_red_mullet" title="Striped red mullet">striped red mullet</a>, several <a href="/wiki/Callichthyidae" title="Callichthyidae">armored catfish</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Platypus" title="Platypus">platypus</a>. Meanwhile, its complicated pattern of tooth loss, from both the front and the back, is most similar to that of the <a href="/wiki/Avialae" title="Avialae">avialan</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Jeholornis" title="Jeholornis">Jeholornis</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heterochronic_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heterochronic-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jeholornis1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeholornis1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early halt in tooth replacement possibly resulted from the regression of the replacement tooth buds during the first year, as in the <a href="/wiki/Veiled_chameleon" title="Veiled chameleon">veiled chameleon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Heterochronic_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heterochronic-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-chameleon_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chameleon-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The replacement of teeth by a beak through the growth of <i>Limusaurus</i> suggests that beaks in other lineages of theropods, and indeed beaked animals in general, may have evolved <a href="/wiki/Heterochrony" title="Heterochrony">heterochronically</a>, i.e. with beaks first occurring in adults and then gradually appearing in juveniles as these lineages evolved. This is in accordance with the presence of <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">genetic signal pathways</a> (molecular processes) which control the formation of teeth in birds.<sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Heterochronic_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heterochronic-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-birdodonto_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-birdodonto-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wang and colleagues analyzed growth rings (visible in bone cross-sections and analogous to the <a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology#Growth_rings" title="Dendrochronology">growth rings of trees</a>) of the tibiae from the various <a href="/wiki/Ontogeny" title="Ontogeny">developmental stages</a> of <i>Limusaurus</i> in 2017, and found that the animal was skeletally mature at six years of age. The bone tissue was primarily composed of fibrolamellar bone (where the internal fibres are disorganized<sup id="cite_ref-bonestructure_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bonestructure-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), indicating that <i>Limusaurus</i> grew quickly;<sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by contrast, the noasaurines <i>Masiakasaurus</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Vespersaurus" title="Vespersaurus">Vespersaurus</a></i> had parallel-fibred bone indicative of slower growth, possibly due to the drier and more resource-poor environments that they would have lived in.<sup id="cite_ref-noasaurineonto_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noasaurineonto-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In older specimens, the outermost growth rings are very close together (forming what is known as the external fundamental system), indicating that rapid growth had ceased in these individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feeding_and_diet">Feeding and diet</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Feeding and diet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus_runner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Artistic life reconstruction" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Limusaurus_runner.jpg/220px-Limusaurus_runner.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Limusaurus_runner.jpg/330px-Limusaurus_runner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Limusaurus_runner.jpg/440px-Limusaurus_runner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3474" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption>Restoration of a toothless adult</figcaption></figure> <p>Anatomical features of <i>Limusaurus</i> such as the small head with toothless jaws and long neck were interpreted as indicating a herbivorous diet by Xu and colleagues in 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Lindsay_E._Zanno" class="mw-redirect" title="Lindsay E. Zanno">Lindsay E. Zanno</a> and colleagues found in 2011 that adult specimens of <i>Limusaurus</i> show morphological traits associated with herbivory that are shared with other groups of herbivorous theropods, including the <a href="/wiki/Ornithomimosauria" title="Ornithomimosauria">Ornithomimosauria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Therizinosauria" title="Therizinosauria">Therizinosauria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oviraptorosauria" title="Oviraptorosauria">Oviraptorosauria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alvarezsauroidea" title="Alvarezsauroidea">Alvarezsauroidea</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Troodontidae" title="Troodontidae">troodontid</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Jinfengopteryx" title="Jinfengopteryx">Jinfengopteryx</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-herbeco_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-herbeco-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wang and colleagues pointed out that adult specimens in particular are characterized by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Gastrolith" title="Gastrolith">gastroliths</a> (ingested stones retained in the stomach), with older adults having gastroliths that are larger and more numerous than those of younger adults. The size and quantity of these gastroliths are comparable to those of birds in young adults, and those of ornithomimosaurs and oviraptorosaurs in older adults. These groups of theropods all used gastroliths in processing plant matter, suggesting that <i>Limusaurus</i> did the same; the increased number of gastroliths in older adults may be indicative of the gut's ability to process plant matter more finely as they aged. An <a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis" title="Isotope analysis">isotope analysis</a> of the available specimens of <i>Limusaurus</i> likewise showed that adults consistently match the isotope signatures of other herbivorous dinosaurs. In the same analysis, juveniles and subadults were found to vary greatly in their isotopic signatures; this indicates that juveniles were likely <a href="/wiki/Omnivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnivorous">omnivorous</a> (feeding on both animals and plants), but switched to strict herbivory as they aged. This is comparable to the diet shift experienced by the aforementioned mullets and armored catfish.<sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_behavior">Social behavior</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Social behavior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The paleontologist David A. Eberth and colleagues suggested in 2010 that the large number of <i>Limusaurus</i> specimens in the Shishugou Formation mud pits indicates they were either abundant among the small vertebrate animals in the area, or that the trapped individuals had been drawn there. They found it unlikely that animals were trapped on any basis other than size, and pointed out that it was difficult to explain why herbivores like <i>Limusaurus</i> would be attracted to sites where other animals were mired, so they considered it most likely that the larger number of <i>Limusaurus</i> fossils was due to their abundance. These authors also suggested that the abundance of <i>Limusaurus</i> inferred for the area and the evidence for successive, rapid burials of each individual made it possible that <i>Limusaurus</i> was gregarious, living in groups. There is some evidence for gregariousness in many small theropods and that there may have been social behaviours related to age, but it remains unknown whether the bone beds containing <i>Limusaurus</i> specimens preserve evidence of sociality and segregation related to age.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paleontologist Rafael Delcourt agreed in 2018 that since both <i>Limusaurus</i> and <i>Masiakasaurus</i> have been found in assemblages of multiple specimens each, this suggests these small ceratosaurs lived in groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Delcourt_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delcourt-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paleoenvironment">Paleoenvironment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Paleoenvironment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guanlong_and_Yinlong.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Artistic reconstruction of the habitat of Limusaurus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Guanlong_and_Yinlong.jpg/220px-Guanlong_and_Yinlong.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Guanlong_and_Yinlong.jpg/330px-Guanlong_and_Yinlong.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Guanlong_and_Yinlong.jpg/440px-Guanlong_and_Yinlong.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1556" data-file-height="2147" /></a><figcaption>Restoration of two <i><a href="/wiki/Guanlong" title="Guanlong">Guanlong</a></i> and a <i><a href="/wiki/Yinlong" title="Yinlong">Yinlong</a></i>, contemporaries of <i>Limusaurus</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Shishugou_Formation" title="Shishugou Formation">Shishugou Formation</a></figcaption></figure> <p>All known <i>Limusaurus</i> fossils were recovered from the Shishugou Formation, a succession of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a> that were <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposited</a> at the northeastern margin of the Junggar <a href="/wiki/Foreland_basin" title="Foreland basin">foreland basin</a> and is about 350–400 m (1,150–1,310 ft) in thickness. The formation is dated to the <a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late Jurassic</a>, around 161 to 157 million years ago. <i>Limusaurus</i> occurs in the upper part of the formation, which represents a variety of environments, including <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">alluvial fans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">streams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>, and shallow <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>. During the time when <i>Limusaurus</i> lived, the environment would have been relatively warm and dry, judging by the abundance of coal and carbon-rich deposits.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-xu2009_2-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-xu2009-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shieco_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shieco-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The climate was probably highly seasonal due to <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoonal</a> influences, with warm, wet summers and dry winters.<sup id="cite_ref-monsoon_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-monsoon-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The climate enabled the growth of a richly forested environment; the forest would have been dominated by <i><a href="/wiki/Araucaria" title="Araucaria">Araucaria</a></i> trees, with the undergrowth being occupied by <i><a href="/wiki/Coniopteris" title="Coniopteris">Coniopteris</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anglopteris&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anglopteris (page does not exist)">Anglopteris</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Osmunda" title="Osmunda">Osmunda</a></i> ferns, <i><a href="/wiki/Equisetaceae" title="Equisetaceae">Equisetites</a></i> horsetails, and <i><a href="/wiki/Elatocladus" title="Elatocladus">Elatocladus</a></i> shrubs.<sup id="cite_ref-plants_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plants-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The environment of the Shishugou Formation hosted a diverse assemblage of animals. More than 35 species of vertebrates are known from fossils, including at least 14 dinosaur species.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Contemporaries of <i>Limusaurus</i> in the Wucaiwan locality include the theropods <i><a href="/wiki/Haplocheirus" title="Haplocheirus">Haplocheirus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Zuolong" title="Zuolong">Zuolong</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Guanlong" title="Guanlong">Guanlong</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Aorun_zhaoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Aorun zhaoi">Aorun</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Shishugounykus" title="Shishugounykus">Shishugounykus</a></i>; the <a href="/wiki/Sauropoda" title="Sauropoda">sauropod</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mamenchisaurus" title="Mamenchisaurus">Mamenchisaurus</a></i>; the <a href="/wiki/Ornithischia" title="Ornithischia">ornithischians</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Gongbusaurus" title="Gongbusaurus">Gongbusaurus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Yinlong" title="Yinlong">Yinlong</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Hualianceratops" title="Hualianceratops">Hualianceratops</a></i>; the <a href="/wiki/Cynodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynodont">cynodont</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Yuanotherium" title="Yuanotherium">Yuanotherium</a></i>; the mammal <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Acuodulodon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acuodulodon (page does not exist)">Acuodulodon</a></i>; the <a href="/wiki/Crocodyliformes" title="Crocodyliformes">crocodyliform</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Nominosuchus" title="Nominosuchus">Nominosuchus</a></i> and another unnamed crocodyliform found with the holotype specimen of <i>Limusaurus</i>; and the turtles <i><a href="/wiki/Xinjiangchelys" title="Xinjiangchelys">Xinjiangchelys</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Annemys&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Annemys (page does not exist)">Annemys</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-fauna_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fauna-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fauna-sinraptor_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fauna-sinraptor-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Small theropod dinosaurs are generally rare in the fossil record. According to Eberth and colleagues, the high incidence of <i>Limusaurus</i> indicates that the abundance of small theropods is underestimated elsewhere as these animals are generally less likely to fossilize.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Taphonomy">Taphonomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Taphonomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus_slab_colour_coded.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photograph of fossil specimens in live position, and interpretative diagram highlighting the skeletons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Limusaurus_slab_colour_coded.jpg/220px-Limusaurus_slab_colour_coded.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Limusaurus_slab_colour_coded.jpg/330px-Limusaurus_slab_colour_coded.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Limusaurus_slab_colour_coded.jpg/440px-Limusaurus_slab_colour_coded.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="3751" /></a><figcaption>Block containing the holotype (green), <a href="/wiki/Gastroliths" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastroliths">gastroliths</a> (red), an assigned specimen (blue), and <a href="/wiki/Upper_Shishugou_crocodyliform" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Shishugou crocodyliform">an unnamed</a> <a href="/wiki/Crocodyliform" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodyliform">crocodyliform</a> (purple)</figcaption></figure> <p>The known fossil material of <i>Limusaurus</i> consists of large assemblages of individuals mired in mud pits, which were also referred to as "dinosaur death pits" in the 2010 article by Eberth and colleagues that examined the <a href="/wiki/Taphonomy" title="Taphonomy">taphonomy</a> of the specimens within them (changes that happened during their decay and fossilization), as well as in media reporting.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CNN_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CNN-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DeathPits_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeathPits-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two of the mud pits containing <i>Limusaurus</i> specimens were found at the same <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Stratigraphic">stratigraphic</a> level, while a third was some 6.5 m (21 ft) higher in the <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic_column" title="Stratigraphic column">stratigraphic column</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mud pits are around 2 m (6 ft 7 in) wide and range in depth from 1 to 2 m (3 ft 3 in to 6 ft 7 in). The mud pits occur within distinctive rock layers that can be followed for hundreds of meters to kilometers. These layers, though not the pits themselves, comprise pale-colored laminated successions of mudstone 0.5 to 2 m (1 ft 8 in to 6 ft 7 in) in thickness. The mudstones probably accumulated either in standing water or a water-saturated substrate; <a href="/wiki/Rhizolith" title="Rhizolith">root traces</a> at the top of the layers indicate a <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marsh</a>-like environment. One of the layers is topped by a crust-like mudstone layer that indicates <a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedogenesis">soil formation</a> and exposure to air. <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">Volcanic</a> minerals found within the mudstone layers indicate volcanic events during deposition. The mud pits themselves show a tan-colored, silty to sandy claystone with abundant plant fragments and root traces. At their margins, the <a href="/wiki/Lamination_(geology)" title="Lamination (geology)">laminae</a> of the surrounding mudstone are deformed or truncated, suggesting that the mudstone was partly fluid, plastic, and brittle at the time when the skeletons were deposited. Fragments of the crust topping one of the mudstone layers were found within the pits, indicating that the crust collapsed downwards into the pits.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The deformation structures and the consistent size of the pits suggest that they represent the <a href="/wiki/Ichnite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnite">footprints</a> of giant sauropods such as <i>Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum</i>, which was likewise found in the Shishugou Formation and would have had a mass of over 20 t (22 short tons) and a limb length of over 3 m (9.8 ft). Other possible explanations, including <a href="/wiki/Sand_boil" title="Sand boil">sand volcanoes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes</a>, can be ruled out because characteristic sedimentological features are lacking. The possibility that the encased dinosaurs could have created the pits themselves can likewise be ruled out given their small size; the largest dinosaur found in the pits, <i>Guanlong</i>, would have been merely 66 cm (26 in) tall. When creating the pits, the footsteps of the sauropods could have led to <a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">soil liquefaction</a>, resulting in smaller animals such as <i>Limusaurus</i> becoming stuck. In contrast to other incidences of miring in dinosaurs, where much larger individuals likely became stuck in a highly viscous sediment and got preserved in their original death positions, the mud pits containing <i>Limusaurus</i> were of a more liquid mud in which the carcasses floated before settling at the bottom. The size of these assemblages can be attributed to the tendency of smaller animals to become trapped in mud.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mamenchisaurus_in_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Reconstructed skeleton of the giant sauropod Mamenchisaurus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Mamenchisaurus_in_Japan.jpg/220px-Mamenchisaurus_in_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Mamenchisaurus_in_Japan.jpg/330px-Mamenchisaurus_in_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Mamenchisaurus_in_Japan.jpg/440px-Mamenchisaurus_in_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="767" /></a><figcaption>The mud pits that trapped specimens of <i>Limusaurus</i> and other small animals probably represent the <a href="/wiki/Ichnite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichnite">footprints</a> of giant <a href="/wiki/Sauropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropods">sauropods</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Mamenchisaurus" title="Mamenchisaurus">Mamenchisaurus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Limusaurus</i> is the most abundant dinosaur found in the mud pits. One of the three pits, TBB2001, contained five <i>Limusaurus</i> individuals while other species are absent. TBB2002, on the other hand, contained five theropod dinosaur skeletons including two <i>Limusaurus</i>, two <i>Guanlong</i> and one individual of a not yet described species. The third pit, TBB2005, contained twelve <i>Limusaurus</i> individuals, including the holotype, but also the tail of a small ornithischian dinosaur as well as two <a href="/wiki/Crocodyliforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodyliforms">crocodyliforms</a>, two mammals, a turtle and three <a href="/wiki/Tritylodontidae" title="Tritylodontidae">tritylodontid</a> cynodonts.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-onto_4-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onto-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The completeness of the skeletons is variable; at least half of the theropod skeletons are complete, with missing parts due to recent erosion. Rear parts of the skeletons tend to be more common than front parts. Most individuals were embedded laying on their sides, though some lie on their backs or undersides. In pits TBB2001 and TBB2002 the skeletons lie one above the other. Bones pertaining to the same individual often lie upon each other in direct contact, while there is no direct contact between bones of separate individuals. This indicates that sediment settled within the mud pits between the burial events. These observations led Eberth and colleagues to conclude that the skeletons must have accumulated within the mud pits over an extended time span rather than during a short-term death event.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The completeness and articulation (connectedness) of the skeletons suggest rapid burial, though the presence of isolated body parts also suggests that some carcasses were exposed to the air for days or months. Evidence for <a href="/wiki/Scavenging" class="mw-redirect" title="Scavenging">scavenging</a>, such as isolated bones, tooth marks on bones, or <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_dinosaur_anatomy#shed_teeth" title="Glossary of dinosaur anatomy"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of dinosaur anatomy § shed teeth" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">shed teeth</span></a></dfn> of theropods, is lacking. However, it is possible that scavengers carried whole body parts away, as feeding at the pits might not have been possible. Eberth and colleagues speculated that the two <i>Guanlong</i> specimens preserved at the top of pit TBB2002 could have been scavenging on the mired carcasses before getting mired themselves. The horizontal orientation of the skeletons within the pits suggests that the mud was soft. The neck and tail of one specimen are bent upwards, suggesting that the carcass was pushed down towards the bottom of the pit by trampling of another animal that became trapped at a later time. Specimens typically show flexed hind limbs, indicating that the individuals died in a resting pose within the pits. The typical <a href="/wiki/Death_pose" class="mw-redirect" title="Death pose">death poses</a> seen in many other dinosaur skeletons, where the head and tail are drawn above the body, are absent. Eberth and colleagues found it likely that the burial of all individuals occurred in less than a year, based on the seasonality of the local climate and the similarity of the sediments of the three pits.<sup id="cite_ref-tapho_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limusaurus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-tapho-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tapho_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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(2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjes-2019-0231">"Dental anatomy of the apex predator <i>Sinraptor dongi</i> (Theropoda: Allosauroidea) from the Late Jurassic of China"</a>. <i>Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences</i>. <b>57</b> (9): 1127–1147. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020CaJES..57.1127H">2020CaJES..57.1127H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjes-2019-0231">10.1139/cjes-2019-0231</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11336%2F143527">11336/143527</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Earth+Sciences&rft.atitle=Dental+anatomy+of+the+apex+predator+Sinraptor+dongi+%28Theropoda%3A+Allosauroidea%29+from+the+Late+Jurassic+of+China&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1127-1147&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11336%2F143527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1139%2Fcjes-2019-0231&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020CaJES..57.1127H&rft.aulast=Hendrickx&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Stiegler%2C+J.&rft.au=Currie%2C+P.J.&rft.au=Han%2C+F.&rft.au=Xu%2C+X.&rft.au=Choiniere%2C+J.N.&rft.au=Wu%2C+X.-C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1139%252Fcjes-2019-0231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimusaurus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeathPits-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DeathPits_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHandwerk2010" class="citation web cs1">Handwerk, B. (January 20, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200628081403/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/1/100119-dinosaur-fossil-death-pits-footprints/">"Dinosaur "death pits" created by giant's footprints?"</a>. <i>National Geographic News</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/1/100119-dinosaur-fossil-death-pits-footprints/">the original</a> on June 28, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 26,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+News&rft.atitle=Dinosaur+%22death+pits%22+created+by+giant%27s+footprints%3F&rft.date=2010-01-20&rft.aulast=Handwerk&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fnews%2F2010%2F1%2F100119-dinosaur-fossil-death-pits-footprints%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimusaurus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Theropoda" title="Template:Theropoda"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Theropoda" title="Template talk:Theropoda"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Theropoda" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Theropoda"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Theropoda" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="*_Kingdom:_Animalia_*_Phylum:_Chordata_*_Class:_Sauropsida_*_Clade:_Avemetatarsalia_*_Clade:_Dinosauria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span style="font-size:85%;"> <ul><li>Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li>Phylum: <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a></li> <li>Class: <a href="/wiki/Sauropsida" title="Sauropsida">Sauropsida</a></li> <li><i>Clade</i>: <a href="/wiki/Avemetatarsalia" title="Avemetatarsalia">Avemetatarsalia</a></li> <li><i>Clade</i>: <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosauria</a></li></ul> </span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Avemetatarsalia" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Avemetatarsalia" title="Avemetatarsalia">Avemetatarsalia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see <a href="/wiki/Template:Avemetatarsalia" title="Template:Avemetatarsalia">Avemetatarsalia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see below↓</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Theropoda" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Theropoda" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chindesaurus" title="Chindesaurus">Chindesaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daemonosaurus" title="Daemonosaurus">Daemonosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eodromaeus" title="Eodromaeus">Eodromaeus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erythrovenator" title="Erythrovenator">Erythrovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guaibasaurus" title="Guaibasaurus">Guaibasaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nhandumirim" title="Nhandumirim">Nhandumirim</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tawa_hallae" title="Tawa hallae">Tawa</a></i>?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Herrerasauridae" title="Herrerasauridae">Herrerasauria</a></b>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Neotheropoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotheropoda">Neotheropoda</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dilophosaurus" title="Dilophosaurus">Dilophosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dolichosuchus" title="Dolichosuchus">Dolichosuchus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dracovenator" title="Dracovenator">Dracovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gojirasaurus" title="Gojirasaurus">Gojirasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepidus_praecisio" title="Lepidus praecisio">Lepidus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Liliensternus" title="Liliensternus">Liliensternus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lophostropheus" title="Lophostropheus">Lophostropheus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Notatesseraeraptor" title="Notatesseraeraptor">Notatesseraeraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarcosaurus" title="Sarcosaurus">Sarcosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuangbaisaurus" title="Shuangbaisaurus">Shuangbaisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinosaurus" title="Sinosaurus">Sinosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tachiraptor" title="Tachiraptor">Tachiraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Velocipes" title="Velocipes">Velocipes</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zupaysaurus" title="Zupaysaurus">Zupaysaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coelophysoidea" title="Coelophysoidea">Coelophysoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dracoraptor" title="Dracoraptor">Dracoraptor</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panguraptor" title="Panguraptor">Panguraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pendraig" title="Pendraig">Pendraig</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Podokesaurus" title="Podokesaurus">Podokesaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Powellvenator" title="Powellvenator">Powellvenator</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coelophysidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Coelophysidae">Coelophysidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Camposaurus" title="Camposaurus">Camposaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coelophysis" title="Coelophysis">Coelophysis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucianovenator" title="Lucianovenator">Lucianovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Megapnosaurus" title="Megapnosaurus">Megapnosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panguraptor" title="Panguraptor">Panguraptor</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Procompsognathus" title="Procompsognathus">Procompsognathus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pterospondylus" title="Pterospondylus">Pterospondylus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Segisaurus" title="Segisaurus">Segisaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Averostra" class="mw-redirect" title="Averostra">Averostra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see below↓</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dubious neotheropods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Teinurosaurus" title="Teinurosaurus">Teinurosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Halticosaurus" title="Halticosaurus">Halticosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coelophysis_Jeff_Martz_(flipped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coelophysis bauri"><img alt="Coelophysis bauri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coelophysis_Jeff_Martz_%28flipped%29.jpg/140px-Coelophysis_Jeff_Martz_%28flipped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coelophysis_Jeff_Martz_%28flipped%29.jpg/210px-Coelophysis_Jeff_Martz_%28flipped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coelophysis_Jeff_Martz_%28flipped%29.jpg/280px-Coelophysis_Jeff_Martz_%28flipped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="2105" /></a></span></div> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Dilophosaurus_wetherilli.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Dilophosaurus wetherilli"><img alt="Dilophosaurus wetherilli" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dilophosaurus_wetherilli.PNG/140px-Dilophosaurus_wetherilli.PNG" decoding="async" width="140" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dilophosaurus_wetherilli.PNG/210px-Dilophosaurus_wetherilli.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Dilophosaurus_wetherilli.PNG/280px-Dilophosaurus_wetherilli.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1098" data-file-height="385" /></a></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Averostra" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Averostra" class="mw-redirect" title="Averostra">Averostra</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Averostra" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Averostra" class="mw-redirect" title="Averostra">Averostra</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dornraptor" title="Dornraptor">Dornraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lophostropheus" title="Lophostropheus">Lophostropheus</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Ceratosauria" title="Ceratosauria">Ceratosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Berberosaurus" title="Berberosaurus">Berberosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fosterovenator" title="Fosterovenator">Fosterovenator</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jubbulpuria" title="Jubbulpuria">Jubbulpuria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lukousaurus" title="Lukousaurus">Lukousaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saltriovenator" title="Saltriovenator">Saltriovenator</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ceratosauridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratosauridae">Ceratosauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ceratosaurus" title="Ceratosaurus">Ceratosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Genyodectes" title="Genyodectes">Genyodectes</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Abelisauroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Abelisauroidea">Abelisauroidea</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Betasuchus" title="Betasuchus">Betasuchus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lametasaurus" title="Lametasaurus">Lametasaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ornithomimoides" title="Ornithomimoides">Ornithomimoides</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ozraptor" title="Ozraptor">Ozraptor</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noasauridae" title="Noasauridae">Noasauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Afromimus" title="Afromimus">Afromimus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Austrocheirus" title="Austrocheirus">Austrocheirus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Berthasaura" title="Berthasaura">Berthasaura</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compsosuchus" title="Compsosuchus">Compsosuchus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dahalokely" title="Dahalokely">Dahalokely</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deltadromeus" title="Deltadromeus">Deltadromeus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Genusaurus" title="Genusaurus">Genusaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kiyacursor" title="Kiyacursor">Kiyacursor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ligabueino" title="Ligabueino">Ligabueino</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spinostropheus" title="Spinostropheus">Spinostropheus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaphrosaurinae">Elaphrosaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Elaphrosaurus" title="Elaphrosaurus">Elaphrosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huinculsaurus" title="Huinculsaurus">Huinculsaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Limusaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noasaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Noasaurinae">Noasaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Laevisuchus" title="Laevisuchus">Laevisuchus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Masiakasaurus" title="Masiakasaurus">Masiakasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Noasaurus" title="Noasaurus">Noasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Velocisaurus" title="Velocisaurus">Velocisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vespersaurus" title="Vespersaurus">Vespersaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Abelisauridae" title="Abelisauridae">Abelisauridae</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chenanisaurus" title="Chenanisaurus">Chenanisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dryptosauroides" title="Dryptosauroides">Dryptosauroides</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eoabelisaurus" title="Eoabelisaurus">Eoabelisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indosuchus" title="Indosuchus">Indosuchus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kryptops" title="Kryptops">Kryptops</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kurupi_itaata" title="Kurupi itaata">Kurupi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rugops" title="Rugops">Rugops</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spectrovenator" title="Spectrovenator">Spectrovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarascosaurus" title="Tarascosaurus">Tarascosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tralkasaurus" title="Tralkasaurus">Tralkasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xenotarsosaurus" title="Xenotarsosaurus">Xenotarsosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Majungasaurinae" title="Majungasaurinae">Majungasaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arcovenator" title="Arcovenator">Arcovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dahalokely" title="Dahalokely">Dahalokely</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Genusaurus" title="Genusaurus">Genusaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indosaurus" title="Indosaurus">Indosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Majungasaurus" title="Majungasaurus">Majungasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rahiolisaurus" title="Rahiolisaurus">Rahiolisaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rajasaurus" title="Rajasaurus">Rajasaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carnotaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnotaurinae">Carnotaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Majungasaurinae" title="Majungasaurinae">Majungasaurinae</a></b>?</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Brachyrostra" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brachyrostra" title="Brachyrostra">Brachyrostra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dahalokely" title="Dahalokely">Dahalokely</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ekrixinatosaurus" title="Ekrixinatosaurus">Ekrixinatosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elemgasem" title="Elemgasem">Elemgasem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guemesia" title="Guemesia">Guemesia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ilokelesia" title="Ilokelesia">Ilokelesia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Llukalkan" title="Llukalkan">Llukalkan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Niebla_antiqua" title="Niebla antiqua">Niebla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rahiolisaurus" title="Rahiolisaurus">Rahiolisaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skorpiovenator" title="Skorpiovenator">Skorpiovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thanos_simonattoi" title="Thanos simonattoi">Thanos</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Furileusauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Furileusauria">Furileusauria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abelisaurus" title="Abelisaurus">Abelisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aucasaurus" title="Aucasaurus">Aucasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Caletodraco" title="Caletodraco">Caletodraco</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carnotaurus" title="Carnotaurus">Carnotaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elemgasem" title="Elemgasem">Elemgasem</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Koleken" title="Koleken">Koleken</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pycnonemosaurus" title="Pycnonemosaurus">Pycnonemosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quilmesaurus" title="Quilmesaurus">Quilmesaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Viavenator" title="Viavenator">Viavenator</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tetanurae" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tetanurae" title="Tetanurae">Tetanurae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see below↓</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceratosaurus_nasicornis_DB.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ceratosaurus nasicornis"><img alt="Ceratosaurus nasicornis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Ceratosaurus_nasicornis_DB.jpg/140px-Ceratosaurus_nasicornis_DB.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Ceratosaurus_nasicornis_DB.jpg/210px-Ceratosaurus_nasicornis_DB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Ceratosaurus_nasicornis_DB.jpg/280px-Ceratosaurus_nasicornis_DB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="939" data-file-height="334" /></a></span></div> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Limusaurus_runner_(flipped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Limusaurus inextricabilis"><img alt="Limusaurus inextricabilis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Limusaurus_runner_%28flipped%29.jpg/140px-Limusaurus_runner_%28flipped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Limusaurus_runner_%28flipped%29.jpg/210px-Limusaurus_runner_%28flipped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Limusaurus_runner_%28flipped%29.jpg/280px-Limusaurus_runner_%28flipped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3474" data-file-height="1496" /></a></span></div> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rajasaurus_restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rajasaurus narmadensis"><img alt="Rajasaurus narmadensis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Rajasaurus_restoration.jpg/140px-Rajasaurus_restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Rajasaurus_restoration.jpg/210px-Rajasaurus_restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Rajasaurus_restoration.jpg/280px-Rajasaurus_restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="680" /></a></span></div> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aucasaurus_garridoi_by_Paleocolour.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aucasaurus garridoi"><img alt="Aucasaurus garridoi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Aucasaurus_garridoi_by_Paleocolour.jpg/140px-Aucasaurus_garridoi_by_Paleocolour.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Aucasaurus_garridoi_by_Paleocolour.jpg/210px-Aucasaurus_garridoi_by_Paleocolour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Aucasaurus_garridoi_by_Paleocolour.jpg/280px-Aucasaurus_garridoi_by_Paleocolour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="564" /></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Tetanurae" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Tetanurae" title="Tetanurae">Tetanurae</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tetanurae" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Tetanurae" title="Tetanurae">Tetanurae</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Calamospondylus" title="Calamospondylus">Calamospondylus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chienkosaurus" title="Chienkosaurus">Chienkosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chilesaurus" title="Chilesaurus">Chilesaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chuandongocoelurus" title="Chuandongocoelurus">Chuandongocoelurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cruxicheiros" title="Cruxicheiros">Cruxicheiros</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cryolophosaurus" title="Cryolophosaurus">Cryolophosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kaijiangosaurus" title="Kaijiangosaurus">Kaijiangosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kayentavenator" title="Kayentavenator">Kayentavenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monolophosaurus" title="Monolophosaurus">Monolophosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pandoravenator" title="Pandoravenator">Pandoravenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinosaurus" title="Sinosaurus">Sinosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Szechuanosaurus" title="Szechuanosaurus">Szechuanosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vectaerovenator" title="Vectaerovenator">Vectaerovenator</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Orionides" class="mw-redirect" title="Orionides">Orionides</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Megalosauroidea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Megalosauroidea" title="Megalosauroidea">Megalosauroidea</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Yunyangosaurus" title="Yunyangosaurus">Yunyangosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Piatnitzkysauridae" title="Piatnitzkysauridae">Piatnitzkysauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Condorraptor" title="Condorraptor">Condorraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marshosaurus" title="Marshosaurus">Marshosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piatnitzkysaurus" title="Piatnitzkysaurus">Piatnitzkysaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xuanhanosaurus" title="Xuanhanosaurus">Xuanhanosaurus</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Megalosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalosauria">Megalosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Streptospondylus" title="Streptospondylus">Streptospondylus</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megalosauridae" title="Megalosauridae">Megalosauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eustreptospondylus" title="Eustreptospondylus">Eustreptospondylus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megalosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalosaurinae">Megalosaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Duriavenator" title="Duriavenator">Duriavenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Megalosaurus" title="Megalosaurus">Megalosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Torvosaurus" title="Torvosaurus">Torvosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wiehenvenator" title="Wiehenvenator">Wiehenvenator</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afrovenatorinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrovenatorinae">Afrovenatorinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Afrovenator" title="Afrovenator">Afrovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dubreuillosaurus" title="Dubreuillosaurus">Dubreuillosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leshansaurus" title="Leshansaurus">Leshansaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magnosaurus" title="Magnosaurus">Magnosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piveteausaurus" title="Piveteausaurus">Piveteausaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Poekilopleuron" title="Poekilopleuron">Poekilopleuron</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Spinosauridae" title="Spinosauridae">Spinosauridae</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Camarillasaurus" title="Camarillasaurus">Camarillasaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cristatusaurus" title="Cristatusaurus">Cristatusaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Iberospinus" title="Iberospinus">Iberospinus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ostafrikasaurus" title="Ostafrikasaurus">Ostafrikasaurus</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baryonychinae" title="Baryonychinae">Baryonychinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Baryonyx" title="Baryonyx">Baryonyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Protathlitis" title="Protathlitis">Protathlitis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riojavenatrix" title="Riojavenatrix">Riojavenatrix</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suchosaurus" title="Suchosaurus">Suchosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vallibonavenatrix" title="Vallibonavenatrix">Vallibonavenatrix</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ceratosuchopsini" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratosuchopsini">Ceratosuchopsini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ceratosuchops" title="Ceratosuchops">Ceratosuchops</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Riparovenator" title="Riparovenator">Riparovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suchomimus" title="Suchomimus">Suchomimus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spinosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinosaurinae">Spinosaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Camarillasaurus" title="Camarillasaurus">Camarillasaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ichthyovenator" title="Ichthyovenator">Ichthyovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Irritator" title="Irritator">Irritator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oxalaia" title="Oxalaia">Oxalaia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siamosaurus" title="Siamosaurus">Siamosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spinosaurini" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinosaurini">Spinosaurini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sigilmassasaurus" title="Sigilmassasaurus">Sigilmassasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Spinosaurus" title="Spinosaurus">Spinosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Avetheropoda" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Avetheropoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Avetheropoda">Avetheropoda</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see below↓</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Piatnitzkysaurus_floresi_by_Paleocolour.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Piatnitzkysaurus floresi"><img alt="Piatnitzkysaurus floresi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Piatnitzkysaurus_floresi_by_Paleocolour.jpg/140px-Piatnitzkysaurus_floresi_by_Paleocolour.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Piatnitzkysaurus_floresi_by_Paleocolour.jpg/210px-Piatnitzkysaurus_floresi_by_Paleocolour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Piatnitzkysaurus_floresi_by_Paleocolour.jpg/280px-Piatnitzkysaurus_floresi_by_Paleocolour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="589" /></a></span></div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Torvosaurus_tanneri_Reconstruction_(cropped).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Torvosaurus tanneri"><img alt="Torvosaurus tanneri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Torvosaurus_tanneri_Reconstruction_%28cropped%29.png/140px-Torvosaurus_tanneri_Reconstruction_%28cropped%29.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Torvosaurus_tanneri_Reconstruction_%28cropped%29.png/210px-Torvosaurus_tanneri_Reconstruction_%28cropped%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Torvosaurus_tanneri_Reconstruction_%28cropped%29.png/280px-Torvosaurus_tanneri_Reconstruction_%28cropped%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1842" data-file-height="576" /></a></span> </p> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spinosaurus_aegyptiacus.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Spinosaurus aegyptiacus"><img alt="Spinosaurus aegyptiacus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Spinosaurus_aegyptiacus.png/140px-Spinosaurus_aegyptiacus.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Spinosaurus_aegyptiacus.png/210px-Spinosaurus_aegyptiacus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Spinosaurus_aegyptiacus.png/280px-Spinosaurus_aegyptiacus.png 2x" data-file-width="4485" data-file-height="2764" /></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Avetheropoda" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Avetheropoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Avetheropoda">Avetheropoda</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Avetheropoda" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Avetheropoda" class="mw-redirect" title="Avetheropoda">Avetheropoda</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gasosaurus" title="Gasosaurus">Gasosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lourinhanosaurus" title="Lourinhanosaurus">Lourinhanosaurus</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Carnosauria" title="Carnosauria">Carnosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Altispinax" title="Altispinax">Altispinax</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monolophosaurus" title="Monolophosaurus">Monolophosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Megalosauridae" title="Megalosauridae">Megalosauridae</a></b>?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Spinosauridae" title="Spinosauridae">Spinosauridae</a></b>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Allosauroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Allosauroidea">Allosauroidea</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Asfaltovenator" title="Asfaltovenator">Asfaltovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Erectopus" title="Erectopus">Erectopus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xuanhanosaurus" title="Xuanhanosaurus">Xuanhanosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Piatnitzkysauridae" title="Piatnitzkysauridae">Piatnitzkysauridae</a></b>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metriacanthosauridae" title="Metriacanthosauridae">Metriacanthosauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Xuanhanosaurus" title="Xuanhanosaurus">Xuanhanosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yangchuanosaurus" title="Yangchuanosaurus">Yangchuanosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metriacanthosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Metriacanthosaurinae">Metriacanthosaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alpkarakush" title="Alpkarakush">Alpkarakush</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metriacanthosaurus" title="Metriacanthosaurus">Metriacanthosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shidaisaurus" title="Shidaisaurus">Shidaisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siamotyrannus" title="Siamotyrannus">Siamotyrannus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinraptor" title="Sinraptor">Sinraptor</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Allosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Allosauria">Allosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Allosauridae" title="Allosauridae">Allosauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Allosaurus" title="Allosaurus">Allosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antrodemus" title="Antrodemus">Antrodemus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epanterias" title="Epanterias">Epanterias</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saurophaganax" title="Saurophaganax">Saurophaganax</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carcharodontosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcharodontosauria">Carcharodontosauria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Datanglong" title="Datanglong">Datanglong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lusovenator" title="Lusovenator">Lusovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siamraptor" title="Siamraptor">Siamraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siats" title="Siats">Siats</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ulughbegsaurus" title="Ulughbegsaurus">Ulughbegsaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veterupristisaurus" title="Veterupristisaurus">Veterupristisaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neovenatoridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Neovenatoridae">Neovenatoridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chilantaisaurus" title="Chilantaisaurus">Chilantaisaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gualicho" title="Gualicho">Gualicho</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neovenator" title="Neovenator">Neovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siats" title="Siats">Siats</a></i>?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Megaraptora" title="Megaraptora">Megaraptora</a></b>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carcharodontosauridae" title="Carcharodontosauridae">Carcharodontosauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Acrocanthosaurus" title="Acrocanthosaurus">Acrocanthosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Altispinax" title="Altispinax">Altispinax</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concavenator" title="Concavenator">Concavenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eocarcharia" title="Eocarcharia">Eocarcharia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kelmayisaurus" title="Kelmayisaurus">Kelmayisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lajasvenator" title="Lajasvenator">Lajasvenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sauroniops" title="Sauroniops">Sauroniops</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shaochilong" title="Shaochilong">Shaochilong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ulughbegsaurus" title="Ulughbegsaurus">Ulughbegsaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Veterupristisaurus" title="Veterupristisaurus">Veterupristisaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carcharodontosaurinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcharodontosaurinae">Carcharodontosaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Carcharodontosaurus" title="Carcharodontosaurus">Carcharodontosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Giganotosaurini" class="mw-redirect" title="Giganotosaurini">Giganotosaurini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Giganotosaurus" title="Giganotosaurus">Giganotosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mapusaurus" title="Mapusaurus">Mapusaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meraxes" title="Meraxes">Meraxes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Taurovenator" title="Taurovenator">Taurovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyrannotitan" title="Tyrannotitan">Tyrannotitan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megaraptora" title="Megaraptora">Megaraptora</a>?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aoniraptor" title="Aoniraptor">Aoniraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bahariasaurus" title="Bahariasaurus">Bahariasaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deltadromeus" title="Deltadromeus">Deltadromeus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fukuiraptor" title="Fukuiraptor">Fukuiraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phuwiangvenator" title="Phuwiangvenator">Phuwiangvenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rapator" title="Rapator">Rapator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siats" title="Siats">Siats</a>?</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chilantaisaurus" title="Chilantaisaurus">Chilantaisaurus</a>?</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megaraptoridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaraptoridae">Megaraptoridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aerosteon" title="Aerosteon">Aerosteon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australovenator" title="Australovenator">Australovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maip" title="Maip">Maip</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Megaraptor" title="Megaraptor">Megaraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Murusraptor" title="Murusraptor">Murusraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orkoraptor" title="Orkoraptor">Orkoraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tratayenia" title="Tratayenia">Tratayenia</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coelurosauria" title="Coelurosauria">Coelurosauria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see below↓</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Xuanhanosaurus_qilixiaensis.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Xuanhanosaurus qilixiaensis"><img alt="Xuanhanosaurus qilixiaensis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Xuanhanosaurus_qilixiaensis.png/140px-Xuanhanosaurus_qilixiaensis.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Xuanhanosaurus_qilixiaensis.png/210px-Xuanhanosaurus_qilixiaensis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Xuanhanosaurus_qilixiaensis.png/280px-Xuanhanosaurus_qilixiaensis.png 2x" data-file-width="5602" data-file-height="2311" /></a></span> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Allosaurus_Revised.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Allosaurus fragilis"><img alt="Allosaurus fragilis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Allosaurus_Revised.jpg/140px-Allosaurus_Revised.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Allosaurus_Revised.jpg/210px-Allosaurus_Revised.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Allosaurus_Revised.jpg/280px-Allosaurus_Revised.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4570" data-file-height="2093" /></a></span></div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Neovenator.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Neovenator salerii"><img alt="Neovenator salerii" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Neovenator.png/140px-Neovenator.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Neovenator.png/210px-Neovenator.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Neovenator.png/280px-Neovenator.png 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carcharodontosaurus.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Carcharodontosaurus saharicus"><img alt="Carcharodontosaurus saharicus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Carcharodontosaurus.png/140px-Carcharodontosaurus.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Carcharodontosaurus.png/210px-Carcharodontosaurus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Carcharodontosaurus.png/280px-Carcharodontosaurus.png 2x" data-file-width="4057" data-file-height="1609" /></a></span> </p> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Australovenator.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Australovenator wintonensis"><img alt="Australovenator wintonensis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Australovenator.jpg/140px-Australovenator.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Australovenator.jpg/210px-Australovenator.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Australovenator.jpg/280px-Australovenator.jpg 2x" data-file-width="937" data-file-height="328" /></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Coelurosauria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Coelurosauria" title="Coelurosauria">Coelurosauria</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Coelurosauria" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Coelurosauria" title="Coelurosauria">Coelurosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aratasaurus" title="Aratasaurus">Aratasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Asiamericana" title="Asiamericana">Asiamericana</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bahariasaurus" title="Bahariasaurus">Bahariasaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bicentenaria" title="Bicentenaria">Bicentenaria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chilantaisaurus" title="Chilantaisaurus">Chilantaisaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gualicho" title="Gualicho">Gualicho</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Richardoestesia" title="Richardoestesia">Richardoestesia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sciurumimus" title="Sciurumimus">Sciurumimus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vayuraptor" title="Vayuraptor">Vayuraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xinjiangovenator" title="Xinjiangovenator">Xinjiangovenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zuolong" title="Zuolong">Zuolong</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Tyrannoraptora" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrannoraptora">Tyrannoraptora</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Tyrannosauroidea" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosauroidea" title="Tyrannosauroidea">Tyrannosauroidea</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chingkankousaurus" title="Chingkankousaurus">Chingkankousaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Labocania" title="Labocania">Labocania</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coeluridae" title="Coeluridae">Coeluridae</a>?</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coelurus" title="Coelurus">Coelurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tanycolagreus" title="Tanycolagreus">Tanycolagreus</a></i>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Proceratosauridae" title="Proceratosauridae">Proceratosauridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Guanlong" title="Guanlong">Guanlong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kileskus" title="Kileskus">Kileskus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proceratosaurus" title="Proceratosaurus">Proceratosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinotyrannus" title="Sinotyrannus">Sinotyrannus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yutyrannus" title="Yutyrannus">Yutyrannus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Pantyrannosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pantyrannosauria">Pantyrannosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alectrosaurus" title="Alectrosaurus">Alectrosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aviatyrannis" title="Aviatyrannis">Aviatyrannis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bagaraatan" title="Bagaraatan">Bagaraatan</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dilong_paradoxus" title="Dilong paradoxus">Dilong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eotyrannus" title="Eotyrannus">Eotyrannus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jinbeisaurus" title="Jinbeisaurus">Jinbeisaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juratyrant" title="Juratyrant">Juratyrant</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moros_intrepidus" title="Moros intrepidus">Moros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santanaraptor" title="Santanaraptor">Santanaraptor</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Stokesosaurus" title="Stokesosaurus">Stokesosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Suskityrannus" title="Suskityrannus">Suskityrannus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timimus" title="Timimus">Timimus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timurlengia" title="Timurlengia">Timurlengia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xiongguanlong" title="Xiongguanlong">Xiongguanlong</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Megaraptora" title="Megaraptora">Megaraptora</a></b>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Eutyrannosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutyrannosauria">Eutyrannosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Appalachiosaurus" title="Appalachiosaurus">Appalachiosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bistahieversor" title="Bistahieversor">Bistahieversor</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dryptosaurus" title="Dryptosaurus">Dryptosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosauridae" title="Tyrannosauridae">Tyrannosauridae</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Albertosaurinae" title="Albertosaurinae">Albertosaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Albertosaurus" title="Albertosaurus">Albertosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgosaurus" title="Gorgosaurus">Gorgosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurinae" title="Tyrannosaurinae">Tyrannosaurinae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Asiatyrannus" title="Asiatyrannus">Asiatyrannus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanuqsaurus" title="Nanuqsaurus">Nanuqsaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alioramini" title="Alioramini">Alioramini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alioramus" title="Alioramus">Alioramus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qianzhousaurus" title="Qianzhousaurus">Qianzhousaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Daspletosaurini" title="Daspletosaurini">Daspletosaurini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Daspletosaurus" title="Daspletosaurus">Daspletosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thanatotheristes" title="Thanatotheristes">Thanatotheristes</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Teratophoneini" class="mw-redirect" title="Teratophoneini">Teratophoneini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bistahieversor" title="Bistahieversor">Bistahieversor</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dynamoterror" title="Dynamoterror">Dynamoterror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Labocania" title="Labocania">Labocania</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lythronax" title="Lythronax">Lythronax</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Teratophoneus" title="Teratophoneus">Teratophoneus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurini" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrannosaurini">Tyrannosaurini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tarbosaurus" title="Tarbosaurus">Tarbosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zhuchengtyrannus" title="Zhuchengtyrannus">Zhuchengtyrannus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Maniraptoromorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maniraptoromorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Maniraptoromorpha">Maniraptoromorpha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see below↓</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dubious_coelurosaurs" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dubious coelurosaurs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Iliosuchus" title="Iliosuchus">Iliosuchus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kakuru" title="Kakuru">Kakuru</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrolosaurus" title="Phaedrolosaurus">Phaedrolosaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shanyangosaurus" title="Shanyangosaurus">Shanyangosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Zuolong_salleei.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zuolong salleei"><img alt="Zuolong salleei" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Zuolong_salleei.jpg/140px-Zuolong_salleei.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Zuolong_salleei.jpg/210px-Zuolong_salleei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Zuolong_salleei.jpg/280px-Zuolong_salleei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2735" data-file-height="1431" /></a></span> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stokesosaurus_by_Tom_Parker.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Stokesosaurus clevelandi"><img alt="Stokesosaurus clevelandi" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Stokesosaurus_by_Tom_Parker.png/140px-Stokesosaurus_by_Tom_Parker.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Stokesosaurus_by_Tom_Parker.png/210px-Stokesosaurus_by_Tom_Parker.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Stokesosaurus_by_Tom_Parker.png/280px-Stokesosaurus_by_Tom_Parker.png 2x" data-file-width="2262" data-file-height="867" /></a></span></div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alioramus_Life_Restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Alioramus remotus"><img alt="Alioramus remotus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Alioramus_Life_Restoration.jpg/140px-Alioramus_Life_Restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Alioramus_Life_Restoration.jpg/210px-Alioramus_Life_Restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Alioramus_Life_Restoration.jpg/280px-Alioramus_Life_Restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3548" data-file-height="2009" /></a></span> </p> <div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tarbosaurus_Steveoc86_flipped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tarbosaurus bataar"><img alt="Tarbosaurus bataar" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Tarbosaurus_Steveoc86_flipped.jpg/140px-Tarbosaurus_Steveoc86_flipped.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Tarbosaurus_Steveoc86_flipped.jpg/210px-Tarbosaurus_Steveoc86_flipped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Tarbosaurus_Steveoc86_flipped.jpg/280px-Tarbosaurus_Steveoc86_flipped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="366" /></a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Maniraptoromorpha" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Maniraptoromorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Maniraptoromorpha">Maniraptoromorpha</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Maniraptoromorpha" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Maniraptoromorpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Maniraptoromorpha">Maniraptoromorpha</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coelurus" title="Coelurus">Coelurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Juravenator" title="Juravenator">Juravenator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ornitholestes" title="Ornitholestes">Ornitholestes</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Neocoelurosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Neocoelurosauria">Neocoelurosauria</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aniksosaurus" title="Aniksosaurus">Aniksosaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Compsognathidae" title="Compsognathidae">Compsognathidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aniksosaurus" title="Aniksosaurus">Aniksosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aristosuchus" title="Aristosuchus">Aristosuchus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Beipiaognathus" title="Beipiaognathus">Beipiaognathus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Compsognathus" title="Compsognathus">Compsognathus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Huaxiagnathus" title="Huaxiagnathus">Huaxiagnathus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mirischia" title="Mirischia">Mirischia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scipionyx" title="Scipionyx">Scipionyx</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinocalliopteryx" title="Sinocalliopteryx">Sinocalliopteryx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinosauropteryx" title="Sinosauropteryx">Sinosauropteryx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xunmenglong" title="Xunmenglong">Xunmenglong</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="position:absolute;-webkit-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-moz-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);-o-transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);transform:translate(-50%,-50%) rotate(270deg);"><a href="/wiki/Maniraptoriformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Maniraptoriformes">Maniraptoriformes</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Compsognathidae" title="Compsognathidae">Compsognathidae</a></b>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ornithomimosauria" title="Ornithomimosauria">Ornithomimosauria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Arkansaurus" title="Arkansaurus">Arkansaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aviatyrannis" title="Aviatyrannis">Aviatyrannis</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Calamosaurus" title="Calamosaurus">Calamosaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hexing" title="Hexing">Hexing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kinnareemimus" title="Kinnareemimus">Kinnareemimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nedcolbertia" title="Nedcolbertia">Nedcolbertia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nqwebasaurus" title="Nqwebasaurus">Nqwebasaurus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thecocoelurus" title="Thecocoelurus">Thecocoelurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Valdoraptor" title="Valdoraptor">Valdoraptor</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macrocheiriformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocheiriformes">Macrocheiriformes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Harpymimus" title="Harpymimus">Harpymimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pelecanimimus" title="Pelecanimimus">Pelecanimimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shenzhousaurus" title="Shenzhousaurus">Shenzhousaurus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deinocheiridae" title="Deinocheiridae">Deinocheiridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Beishanlong" title="Beishanlong">Beishanlong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Deinocheirus" title="Deinocheirus">Deinocheirus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garudimimus" title="Garudimimus">Garudimimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harpymimus" title="Harpymimus">Harpymimus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paraxenisaurus" title="Paraxenisaurus">Paraxenisaurus</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyrannomimus" title="Tyrannomimus">Tyrannomimus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ornithomimidae" title="Ornithomimidae">Ornithomimidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aepyornithomimus" title="Aepyornithomimus">Aepyornithomimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anserimimus" title="Anserimimus">Anserimimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Archaeornithomimus" title="Archaeornithomimus">Archaeornithomimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%22Coelosaurus%22_antiquus" title=""Coelosaurus" antiquus">"Coelosaurus"</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dromiceiomimus" title="Dromiceiomimus">Dromiceiomimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gallimimus" title="Gallimimus">Gallimimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ornithomimus" title="Ornithomimus">Ornithomimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Qiupalong" title="Qiupalong">Qiupalong</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rativates" title="Rativates">Rativates</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinornithomimus" title="Sinornithomimus">Sinornithomimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Struthiomimus" title="Struthiomimus">Struthiomimus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tototlmimus" title="Tototlmimus">Tototlmimus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maniraptora" title="Maniraptora">Maniraptora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li>see <a href="/wiki/Template:Maniraptora" title="Template:Maniraptora">Maniraptora</a></li> <li>includes <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><div style="display: inline-block; transform: scaleX(-1);"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinosauropteryx_color_(without_scale_bar).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sinosauropteryx prima"><img alt="Sinosauropteryx prima" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sinosauropteryx_color_%28without_scale_bar%29.jpg/140px-Sinosauropteryx_color_%28without_scale_bar%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sinosauropteryx_color_%28without_scale_bar%29.jpg/210px-Sinosauropteryx_color_%28without_scale_bar%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Sinosauropteryx_color_%28without_scale_bar%29.jpg/280px-Sinosauropteryx_color_%28without_scale_bar%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="380" /></a></span></div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Deinocheirus_NT.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Deinocheirus mirificus"><img alt="Deinocheirus mirificus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Deinocheirus_NT.png/130px-Deinocheirus_NT.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Deinocheirus_NT.png/195px-Deinocheirus_NT.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Deinocheirus_NT.png/260px-Deinocheirus_NT.png 2x" data-file-width="753" data-file-height="382" /></a></span> </p> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qiupalong_Restoration.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Qiupalong henanensis"><img alt="Qiupalong henanensis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Qiupalong_Restoration.png/130px-Qiupalong_Restoration.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Qiupalong_Restoration.png/195px-Qiupalong_Restoration.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Qiupalong_Restoration.png/260px-Qiupalong_Restoration.png 2x" data-file-width="5177" data-file-height="2829" /></a></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;"><i>Limusaurus</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q132375" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q132375">Q132375</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <span class="uid"><span class="external"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Limusaurus" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Limusaurus">Limusaurus</a></span></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/47459118">47459118</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/4966179">4966179</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1474556">1474556</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=4143389">4143389</a></span></span></li> <li><span style="white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=148870">148870</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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