Europe - World History Encyclopedia

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Its name may come from the Greek myth of Europa, but human habitation of the region predates that tale, going back over 150,000 years. It is the birthplace of Western Civilization and..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 09 June 2023 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/zh/1-35/" class="translation_link zh " rel="alternate">Chinese</a>, <a href="/trans/nl/1-35/europa/" class="translation_link nl " rel="alternate">Dutch</a>, <a href="/trans/fr/1-35/europe/" class="translation_link fr " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/it/1-35/europa/" class="translation_link it " rel="alternate">Italian</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-35/europa/" class="translation_link es " rel="alternate">Spanish</a>, <a href="/trans/tr/1-35/avrupa/" class="translation_link tr " rel="alternate">Turkish</a></div> </div> <div id="audio-outer-wrapper"> <iframe id="audio-frame-contents" data-src="/audioplayer/en/1-35/" height="80" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no"></iframe> </div> <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ let litPlayer = $('#audio-frame-contents'); if (litPlayer) { litPlayer.attr('src',litPlayer.attr('data-src')); } }); }); </script> <style> #audio-outer-wrapper { height: 80px; width: 100%; margin: 1em 0em; } #audio-frame-contents { background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; max-height: 80px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Europa+europe" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <span class="outline_button pdf_button" onclick="pdfButtonClicked();">PDF</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } function pdfButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ahe_dialogue('/template/files/print-to-pdf-dialogue.php?v='+AHE.lastDeploy,400,null,'PDF') }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/17528/prominent-cities-of-europe-from-antiquity-to-the-p/" title="Prominent Cities of Europe from Antiquity to the Present"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17528.png.webp?v=1686750928-1686750943 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/17528.png.webp?v=1686750928-1686750943 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17528.png?v=1686750928-1686750943 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/17528.png?v=1686750928-1686750943 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/17528.png?v=1686750928-1686750943" width="300" height="169" alt="Prominent Cities of Europe from Antiquity to the Present (by Simeon Netchev, CC BY-NC-ND)" title="Prominent Cities of Europe from Antiquity to the Present (by Simeon Netchev, CC BY-NC-ND)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Prominent Cities of Europe from Antiquity to the Present</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17528/prominent-cities-of-europe-from-antiquity-to-the-p/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17528/prominent-cities-of-europe-from-antiquity-to-the-p/","caption":"A map of Europe displaying important cities that shaped its history, from antiquity to the present. Cities on the map represent key centers throughout history. Each city represents a distinct period from Athens, Rome, and Constantinople (now Istanbul) in ancient times to Aachen, Krakow, Prague, and Vienna in the medieval era and Florence, Genoa, and Venice during the Renaissance. The map includes cities built on colonial riches, like London, Madrid, St. Petersburg, and Berlin. It features the capital cities of today and metropolises like Paris, Budapest, and Helsinki, reflecting Europe's changing political landscape.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/17528.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/500-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher, passionate about the human stories that shape the past. He believes every image should tell a story and invite interaction, while every map should lead on a journey \u2014 blending imagination with e","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2023-06-14T13:55:43+0000","datePublished":"2023-06-08T10:21:34+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Prominent Cities of Europe from Antiquity to the Present","height":2791,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17528/prominent-cities-of-europe-from-antiquity-to-the-p/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/17528/prominent-cities-of-europe-from-antiquity-to-the-p/","width":4961} </script> <p>Europe is a continent forming the westernmost part of the land mass of Eurasia and comprised of 49 sovereign states. Its name may come from the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> myth of <a href="/Europa/">Europa</a>, but human habitation of the region predates that tale, going back over 150,000 years. It is the birthplace of Western <a href="/civilization/">Civilization</a> and the modern concept of the state.</p> <p>Scholars regularly refer to Europe as a peninsula bounded by the Arctic Ocean (north), <a href="/disambiguation/mediterranean/">Mediterranean</a> Sea (south), and Atlantic Ocean (west) with Asia on its eastern border. Modern-day countries of Europe are usually classified according to the cardinal directions and include:</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <p><strong>Northern Europe</strong></p> <ul> <li>Denmark (including Faroe Islands and Greenland)</li> <li>Estonia</li> <li>Finland</li> <li>Iceland</li> <li><a href="/disambiguation/Ireland/">Ireland</a></li> <li>Latvia</li> <li>Lithuania</li> <li>Norway</li> <li>Sweden</li> <li>United Kingdom (including <a href="/disambiguation/england/">England</a>, Northern Ireland, <a href="/disambiguation/Scotland/">Scotland</a>, and Wales)</li> </ul> <p><strong>Southern Europe</strong></p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <ul> <li>Albania</li> <li>Andorra</li> <li>Bosnia and Herzegovina</li> <li>Croatia</li> <li><a href="/cyprus/">Cyprus</a></li> <li>Gibraltar (part of the UK)</li> <li><a href="/greece/">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/italy/">Italy</a></li> <li>Kosovo</li> <li>North Macedonia</li> <li>Malta</li> <li>Monaco</li> <li>Montenegro</li> <li>Portugal</li> <li>San Marino</li> <li>Serbia</li> <li>Slovenia</li> <li>Spain</li> <li><a href="/Asia_Minor/">Turkey</a> (west of the Bosporus)</li> <li>Vatican <a href="/Polis/">City State</a></li> </ul> <p><strong>Eastern Europe</strong></p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <ul> <li>Belarus</li> <li>Bulgaria</li> <li>Czech Republic</li> <li>Hungary</li> <li>Kazakhstan</li> <li>Moldova</li> <li>Poland</li> <li>Romania</li> <li>Russia (west of the Ural Mountains)</li> <li>Slovakia</li> <li>Ukraine</li> </ul> <p><strong>Western Europe</strong></p> <ul> <li>Austria</li> <li>Belgium</li> <li>France</li> <li>Germany</li> <li>Liechtenstein</li> <li>Luxembourg</li> <li>The Netherlands</li> <li>Switzerland</li> </ul> <p>From the earliest hominins, who first appear in the region over 1 million years ago, the population spread, eventually developing diverse cultures from the prehistoric period to the classical, late antiquity, Middle Ages, early modern, to the modern era.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <h3>Prehistory</h3> <p>Archaeological evidence places <em><a href="/Homo_Erectus/">Homo erectus</a></em> in Europe c. 600,000 years ago during the Lower <a href="/Paleolithic/">Paleolithic</a> Period and <a href="/Neanderthal/">Neanderthals</a> by c. 150,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic Period. Although Neanderthals have routinely been discounted in the past as brutes, they actually developed an impressive <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> which included cave art, <a href="/burial/">grave</a> goods (suggesting a belief in an afterlife), industry in making stone tools and hearths, textiles (clothing, cloaks, and blankets), boats, local and long-distance <a href="/disambiguation/trade/">trade</a>, the use of fire, and the development of <a href="/disambiguation/Music/">music</a>.</p> <div class="big_quote"><em><a href="/Homo_Sapiens/">Homo sapiens</a></em> arrived in Europe & replaced the Neanderthals some 50,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic Period.</div> <p><em>Homo sapiens </em>arrived in Europe and replaced the Neanderthals some 50,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic Period. They continued to use caves as communal shelters, as the Neanderthals had, and created the impressive <a href="/wall/">wall</a> paintings at <a href="/Chauvet_Cave/">Chauvet Cave</a> (dated to c. 32,000 years ago) and <a href="/Lascaux_Cave/">Lascaux Cave</a> (dated to c. 20,000 years ago), both located in modern-day France. By this time, dogs had already been domesticated (roughly 32,000 years ago), prior to the <a href="/First_Agricultural_Revolution/">First Agricultural Revolution</a> of c. 10,000 BCE. <a href="/Animal_Husbandry/">Animal husbandry</a> and agricultural developments led to semi-permanent and then permanent settlements as people moved away from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.</p> <p>During the Middle <a href="/Neolithic/">Neolithic Period</a> megaliths were constructed, probably for religious purposes, suggesting closely-knit communities which could raise a significant workforce. Among the oldest <a href="/disambiguation/megalithic/">megalithic</a> sites is the <a href="/Carnac/">Carnac</a> Stones in Brittany, dated to c. 4500 BCE, and among the oldest megalithic tombs is <a href="/Poulnabrone/">Poulnabrone</a> in Ireland, dated to c. 4200 BCE. The most famous megalithic site is <a href="/stonehenge/">Stonehenge</a> in Wiltshire, England, dated to between c. 3000-2400 BCE, but many other sites are older including <a href="/Newgrange/">Newgrange</a> in Ireland (3200 BCE) the <a href="/Ness_of_Brodgar/">Ness of Brodgar</a> in Scotland (c. 3500 BCE) or the Mnajdra <a href="/temple/">Temple</a> Complex in Malta, dated to c. 3600 BCE.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>The most famous example of the sort of <a href="/Neolithic/">Neolithic</a> community that would have built these temples, tombs, and monuments is <a href="/Skara_Brae/">Skara Brae</a> in Orkney, Scotland, dated to between c. 3100-2500 BCE. The Ancient <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> appear in the upper Danube region of Europe c. 1400 BCE. The <a href="/celt/">Celtic</a> Urnfield Culture was flourishing c. 1300 BCE, followed by the <a href="/Hallstatt_Culture/">Hallstatt culture</a> and the <a href="/La_Tene_Culture/">La Tène culture</a> (c. 1200 to c. 450 BCE and c. 450 BCE to c. 50 CE, respectively). How the people of the region, Celts or those who came before them, referred to their land is unknown.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="14458"> <a href="/image/14458/map-of-la-tene-culture/" title="Map of La Tène Culture" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14458.png.webp?v=1629791926 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/14458.png.webp?v=1629791926 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14458.png.webp?v=1629791926 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/14458.png.webp?v=1629791926 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14458.png?v=1629791926 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/14458.png?v=1629791926 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14458.png?v=1629791926 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/14458.png?v=1629791926 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14458.png?v=1629791926" alt="Map of La Tène Culture" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Map of La Tène Culture</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14458/map-of-la-tene-culture/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14458/map-of-la-tene-culture/","caption":"La T\u00e8ne culture was a European Iron Age culture. It existed from about 450 BCE to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BCE. It was a successor of the Hallstatt culture and is generally considered one of the root cultures of the Celtic people. It is named after the site of La T\u00e8ne on Lake Neuch\u00e2tel in Switzerland.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/14458.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/500-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher, passionate about the human stories that shape the past. He believes every image should tell a story and invite interaction, while every map should lead on a journey \u2014 blending imagination with e","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-04-10T13:03:06+0000","datePublished":"2021-08-24T06:38:50+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Map of La T\u00e8ne Culture","height":2790,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14458/map-of-la-tene-culture/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14458/map-of-la-tene-culture/","width":4959} </script> </p> <h3>Name & <a href="/Greek_Colonization/">Greek Colonization</a></h3> <p>The first appearance of <em>Europe</em> to designate the continent comes from Greece in the 6th century BCE, but it is unclear when the term was first used. The name may derive from the myth of Europa (known by the 8th century BCE when it is referenced in <a href="/homer/">Homer</a>'s<em> <a href="/iliad/">Iliad</a></em>) in which the Phoenician princess is abducted by <a href="/zeus/">Zeus</a>, king of the Greek gods, who, in the form of a bull, carries her off to <a href="/crete/">Crete</a> where she becomes queen of the first European civilization: the <a href="/disambiguation/Minoan/">Minoan</a>, which flourished from c. 2000 to c. 1500 BCE and, according to some scholars, created the first European written language.</p> <p>This claim regarding Europe's name has long been challenged, however, from the time of <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a> up to the present day. Herodotus writes:</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <blockquote> <p>As for Europe, not only does no one know whether it is surrounded by water, but the origin of its name is also uncertain (as is the identity of the man who named it), unless we say that it is named after Europa from <a href="/Tyre/">Tyre</a>, and that before her time the continent was after all as nameless as the other continents were. But it is clear that Europa came from Asia and never visited the land mass which the Greeks now call Europe; her travels were limited to going from <a href="/phoenicia/">Phoenicia</a> to Crete. (Book IV.45)</p> </blockquote> <p>Today, debate over the origin of the name continues. Theories include a Greek origin meaning "wide gazing" in reference to the breadth of the shoreline as seen from the sea or a Phoenician origin for the name meaning "evening" as in the place where the sun set. Europe was well known to the <a href="/phoenicia/">Phoenicians</a> who regularly sailed as far north as Cornwall in <a href="/britain/">Britain</a> to trade in tin, but they only knew ports along the coastline, nothing of the interior and, according to Greek writers, Europe was viewed as a "dark continent" of mystery.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="6232"> <a href="/image/6232/europa--zeus/" title="Europa & Zeus" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/6232.jpg.webp?v=1710237783 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/6232.jpg.webp?v=1710237783 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/6232.jpg?v=1710237783 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/6232.jpg?v=1710237783 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/6232.jpg?v=1710237783" alt="Europa & Zeus" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="332" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Europa & Zeus</div><div class="figauthor">Carole Raddato (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/6232/europa--zeus/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/6232/europa--zeus/","caption":"A red-figure vase depicting the abduction of Europa by Zeus, disguised as a bull. 350-340 BCE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/6232.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Carole Raddato - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Carole Raddato"},"creditText":"Carole Raddato / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-10T13:03:06+0000","datePublished":"2017-01-10T09:34:57+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Europa & Zeus","height":530,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Monsters._Fantastic_Creatures_of_Fear_and_Myth_Exhibition,_Palazzo_Massimo_alle_Terme,_Rome_(12930459294).jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/6232/europa--zeus/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/6232/europa--zeus/","width":800} </script> </p> <p>The <a href="/Minoan_Civilization/">Minoan civilization</a>, like the Phoenicians, was a seafaring people with trade contacts throughout the Mediterranean. The Minoans competed with the <a href="/Mycenaean_Civilization/">Mycenaean Civilization</a> (c. 1700-1100 BCE) in trade, and Minoan and Mycenean artifacts have been discovered in <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Anatolia</a>, <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>, Cyprus, the <a href="/levant/">Levant</a>, <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a>, and <a href="/sicily/">Sicily</a>, among other places. The <a href="/disambiguation/Archaic/">Archaic</a> Greeks (c. 800-480 BCE) continued to follow these trade routes but went further and established colonies from southern Italy to Anatolia up toward the Black Sea. Among these was the colony of Massalia (modern-day Marseille, France), the birthplace of Pytheas (l. c. 350 BCE) the geographer, who is said to have produced the work <a href="/article/1078/on-the-ocean-the-famous-voyage-of-pytheas/">On the Ocean: the famous voyage of Pytheas</a> exploring Europe c. 325 BCE.</p> <p>Pytheas' work, detailing his travels to Britain, the northeastern coastline of Europe, and possibly Iceland and the Arctic Ocean among other areas, has not survived save through references and passages in the works of later writers, but it does not seem he explored Europe's interior, only the coast. To place European history in a global perspective, by c. 325 BCE, the <a href="/Indus_Valley_Civilization/">Indus Valley Civilization</a> had already risen and fallen, the <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerians</a> of Mesopotamia and the Assyrian <a href="/empire/">Empire</a> had come and gone, the <a href="/disambiguation/Persian_Empire/">Persian Empire</a> had already fallen to <a href="/Alexander_the_Great/">Alexander the Great</a>, and Egypt was at the tail end of its Late Period with the greatest of its achievements behind it. The <a href="/pyramid/">pyramids</a> of <a href="/giza/">Giza</a> were already over 2,000 years old by the time of Pytheas' voyage and Chinese culture had been established for over 4,000 years.</p><div class="intext_6 ahe-ad book_rec_banner"></div> <p>Greek <a href="/disambiguation/colonization/">colonization</a> spread <a href="/Hellenic_World/">Hellenistic</a> culture and values, establishing concepts such as <a href="/Athenian_Democracy/">Athenian democracy</a>, forming the basis of Western Civilization. Permanent settlements increased trade – which led to further towns, <a href="/city/">cities</a>, and ports – but, again, these communities were along the coast. The interior was unknown to the Mediterranean world until the rise of the Romans.</p> <h3><a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> Expansion</h3> <p><a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> was a small port on the banks of the Tiber River, founded in 753 BCE, which initially expanded through trade and came in contact with the Greek colonies to the south along modern-day Italy's coast. The <a href="/Etruscan_Civilization/">Etruscan civilization</a>, to the north, and the southern Greeks both significantly influenced early Roman culture and civilization. Rome developed between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE, deposed their last king in 509 BCE, and founded the <a href="/Roman_Republic/">Roman Republic</a> that same year. By this time, the Romans had established themselves firmly through other colonies in Italy but expanded further during the <a href="/Punic_Wars/">Punic Wars</a> (264-146 BCE) after which they controlled the regions of Spain, Portugal, and <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a> (modern-day Belgium and France) among others. <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a> invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BCE but established no permanent presence there.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="16762"> <a href="/image/16762/territorial-expansion-of-the-roman-republic-c-260/" title="Territorial Expansion of the Roman Republic (c. 260 - 30 BCE)" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/16762.png.webp?v=1741845187-1670225058 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/16762.png.webp?v=1741845187-1670225058 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/16762.png.webp?v=1741845187-1670225058 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/16762.png.webp?v=1741845187-1670225058 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/16762.png?v=1741845187-1670225058 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/16762.png?v=1741845187-1670225058 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/16762.png?v=1741845187-1670225058 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/16762.png?v=1741845187-1670225058 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/16762.png?v=1741845187-1670225058" alt="Territorial Expansion of the Roman Republic (c. 260 - 30 BCE)" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Territorial Expansion of the Roman Republic (c. 260 - 30 BCE)</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16762/territorial-expansion-of-the-roman-republic-c-260/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16762/territorial-expansion-of-the-roman-republic-c-260/","caption":"A map illustrating the expansion of the Roman Republic from its origins as a loose confederacy of allies and those called Latins in Italy (after the Latin War of 340 - 338 BCE) through more than 230 years of alliances, wars, and annexations until the fall of Egypt and the emergence of Augustus Caesar as a Roman emperor.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/16762.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/500-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher, passionate about the human stories that shape the past. He believes every image should tell a story and invite interaction, while every map should lead on a journey \u2014 blending imagination with e","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2022-12-05T07:24:18+0000","datePublished":"2022-12-05T07:24:18+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Territorial Expansion of the Roman Republic (c. 260 - 30 BCE)","height":2790,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16762/territorial-expansion-of-the-roman-republic-c-260/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/16762/territorial-expansion-of-the-roman-republic-c-260/","width":4959} </script> </p> <p>The Roman Republic became the <a href="/Roman_Empire/">Roman Empire</a> under <a href="/augustus/">Augustus</a> in 27 BCE, and under the <a href="/Roman_Emperor/">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/claudius/">Claudius</a>, Britain was taken, beginning in 43 CE. By this time, the interior of regions like Spain and Gaul were well known to the Romans who established towns, ports, cities, religious sites, public baths, <a href="/aqueduct/">aqueducts</a>, and built <a href="/article/758/roman-roads/">Roman roads</a> throughout their territories as they had elsewhere. They proceeded with this same policy in <a href="/Roman_Britain/">Roman Britain</a> and, although they met with considerable resistance – especially from the <a href="/picts/">Picts</a> of modern-day Scotland and from the Iceni queen <a href="/Boudicca/">Boudicca</a> who led a major revolt against Rome in 60/61 CE – made Britain a province of the empire and held it until 410.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <p>Roman expansion throughout Europe united formerly disparate regions through trade and a common cultural base. The <a href="/Western_Roman_Empire/">Western Roman Empire</a> was in decline, but the <a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (<a href="/Byzantine_Empire/">Byzantine Empire</a>), with its capital at <a href="/Constantinople/">Constantinople</a>, remained stable even during the so-called <a href="/Migration_Age/">Migration Age</a> when the <a href="/Avars/">Avars</a>, Bulgars, <a href="/Goths/">Goths</a> – <a href="/ostrogoth/">Ostrogoths</a> and <a href="/visigoth/">Visigoths</a> – <a href="/Huns/">Huns</a>, <a href="/Vandals/">Vandals</a>, and others moved across Europe.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="14250"> <a href="/image/14250/migration-period-in-europe-during-the-4th--5th-cen/" title="Migration Period in Europe During the 4th & 5th Century" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14250.png.webp?v=1733100425 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/14250.png.webp?v=1733100425 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14250.png.webp?v=1733100425 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/14250.png.webp?v=1733100425 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14250.png?v=1733100425 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/14250.png?v=1733100425 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14250.png?v=1733100425 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/14250.png?v=1733100425 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/14250.png?v=1733100425" alt="Migration Period in Europe During the 4th & 5th Century" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Migration Period in Europe During the 4th & 5th Century</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14250/migration-period-in-europe-during-the-4th--5th-cen/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14250/migration-period-in-europe-during-the-4th--5th-cen/","caption":"A map illustrating migrations of various peoples across fractured Europe and Western Asia after the division of the Roman Empire at the end of the 4th Century CE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/14250.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/500-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher, passionate about the human stories that shape the past. He believes every image should tell a story and invite interaction, while every map should lead on a journey \u2014 blending imagination with e","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-04-10T13:03:06+0000","datePublished":"2021-06-16T00:26:57+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Migration Period in Europe During the 4th & 5th Century","height":2790,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14250/migration-period-in-europe-during-the-4th--5th-cen/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14250/migration-period-in-europe-during-the-4th--5th-cen/","width":4959} </script> </p> <p><a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a> had been introduced to the region via the epistles and missionary work of St. <a href="/Paul_the_Apostle/">Paul the Apostle</a> in Greece in the 1st century and was legitimized in 313 by the emperor <a href="/Constantine_I/">Constantine I</a> through his Edict of Milan, decreeing religious tolerance. After <a href="/article/1737/constantines-conversion-to-christianity/">Constantine’s conversion to Christianity</a>, the new faith would eventually replace the older pagan religions of Europe and further provide cultural unity through a common religious belief system, especially after the Council of Nicaea of 325 established the orthodox vision.</p> <h3>Rise of the State, Church & <a href="/Vikings/">Vikings</a></h3> <div class="big_quote">By the High Middle Ages & Late Middle Ages, European kingdoms had, more or less, become countries with a central government.</div> <p>By the time the Western Roman Empire fell in 476, Christianity was well established in Europe. Kings such as <a href="/Odoacer/">Odoacer</a> of Italy (r. 476-493) and <a href="/Theodoric_the_Great/">Theodoric the Great</a> (r. 493-526) considered themselves Christian kings as did <a href="/Clovis_I/">Clovis I</a> of the <a href="/Franks/">Franks</a> (r. 481-511) and <a href="/Alboin/">Alboin</a> of the <a href="/Lombards/">Lombards</a> (r. 560-572). After the <a href="/article/835/fall-of-the-western-roman-empire/">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, leaders like these arose, and through military campaigns and treaties, they established kingdoms during the Early Middle Ages (476-1000) that would develop into states through the High Middle Ages (1000-1300) and Late Middle Ages (1300-1500) until European kingdoms had, more or less, become countries with a central government. These kings, and their subjects, adhered to the vision of the Roman Catholic Church which had split from the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Great Schism of 1054.</p> <p>The <a href="/Medieval_Church/">medieval Church</a> was understood as <a href="/God/">God</a>'s representative on earth and informed the lives of the people of Europe. Even though the common people did not understand Latin, the language of the Church, and did not always respect their parish priest, most people recognized its authority as the only path to redemption and eternal life in heaven. Those who did not conform were thought to spend eternity in hell or a certain time in purgatory where their sins were burned away through various tortures. Some people rejected the Church's vision, however, and these were branded as heretics and persecuted by the Church beginning with the Paulicians in the 7th-9th century.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-6"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_8' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>The Church encouraged cultural and religious unity through these persecutions as it made clear there was only one true faith all people needed to follow. After the rise of <a href="/islam/">Islam</a> in the 7th century, the Church – and Christian European monarchs – found another 'enemy of the faith' to unify believers against, and this policy gained greater momentum after the <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">Battle</a> of Tours in 732 in which the Franks turned back a Muslim invasion of Europe.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="11662"> <a href="/image/11662/battle-of-tours-732/" title="Battle of Tours, 732" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11662.png.webp?v=1741933808 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11662.png.webp?v=1741933808 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11662.png?v=1741933808 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11662.png?v=1741933808 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11662.png?v=1741933808" alt="Battle of Tours, 732" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="412" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Battle of Tours, 732</div><div class="figauthor">Charles de Steuben (Public Domain)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11662/battle-of-tours-732/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11662/battle-of-tours-732/","caption":"\"Bataille de Poitiers, en octobre 732\" (French for \"Battle of Poitiers, in October 732\") by Charles de Steuben (1788 - 1856). The painting is a romanticized depiction of the Frankish general Charles Martel (718-741) fighting against the Umayyad general Abd al-Rehamn Al Ghafiqi at the Battle of Tours (also known as the \"Battle of Poitiers\", and the \"Highway of the Martyrs\") in 732. The one-on-one fight depicted never occurred, as Abd al-Rehman was killed by a lance and his forces led a disorganized retreat.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11662.png","copyrightNotice":"Charles de Steuben - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Charles de Steuben"},"creditText":"Charles de Steuben / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2025-04-10T13:03:06+0000","datePublished":"2020-01-07T10:01:48+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Battle of Tours, 732","height":658,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Steuben_-_Bataille_de_Poitiers.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11662/battle-of-tours-732/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11662/battle-of-tours-732/","width":800} </script> </p> <p><a href="/Charlemagne/">Charlemagne</a> (King of the Franks 768-814 and Holy Roman Emperor 800-814) became the champion of the Church, unifying the Franks and Lombards in 774 and suppressing European paganism through the <a href="/Saxon_Wars/">Saxon Wars</a> (772-804). The <a href="/article/1407/monastic-orders-of-the-middle-ages/">monastic orders of the Middle Ages</a> developed further under Charlemagne, and the <a href="/Medieval_Monastery/">medieval monastery</a> became an important center of learning and culture copying and preserving written works while also producing the famous <a href="/Illuminated_Manuscripts/">illuminated manuscripts</a> of Europe. A major threat to the monasteries, especially those along the coast, began in 793 through <a href="/article/1197/viking-raids-in-britain/">Viking raids in Britain</a>, Francia, Ireland, and elsewhere, continuing up through the reign of <a href="/Alfred_the_Great/">Alfred the Great</a>, King of Wessex (871-899), famous for his victories over the Vikings as well as encouraging literacy in Britain.</p> <p>The Vikings settled in parts of Britain and France, some converting to Christianity and contributing to cultural developments, while others continued military campaigns up through 1066 when the <a href="/Vikings/">Viking</a> leader Harald Hardrada was defeated at the <a href="/article/1306/battle-of-stamford-bridge/">Battle of Stamford Bridge</a>, ending the <a href="/collection/29/the-viking-age/">Viking Age</a>. This was also the year of the Norman invasion of Britain under <a href="/William_the_Conqueror/">William the Conqueror</a> (r. 1066-1087), the great-great-great-grandson of <a href="/Rollo_of_Normandy/">Rollo of Normandy</a> (l. c. 860 to c. 930), the Viking chieftain who founded Normandy. The Norman <a href="/warfare/">conquest</a> made French the language of the court, the upper class, and finance, and established French culture and customs throughout Britain, linking it with France and the other states of the European continent.</p> <h3>Renaissance & <a href="/disambiguation/Reformation/">Reformation</a></h3> <p>The kingdoms and principalities of Europe had diverse languages, customs, and goals but were united – at least nominally – through religious belief and the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1095, when Pope Urban II called the <a href="/First_Crusade/">First Crusade</a> to free the Holy Land from Muslim rule, people from all over Europe answered. Except for the first, the <a href="/Crusades/">crusades</a> between 1095-1270 ultimately failed in their objective but significantly altered the European cultural and political landscape. The crusades led to the rise of nation-states and monarchies supported by wider trade (and the need to protect trade routes), the establishment of more ports and trade centers, and the rise of the mercantile class. It also decreased the number of serfs working on the estate of nobles, weakening <a href="/Feudalism/">feudalism</a> and empowering the monarchy.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="15382"> <a href="/image/15382/the-first-three-crusades-and-the-12th-century-lati/" title="The First Three Crusades and the 12th-Century Latin East (Outremer)" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15382.png.webp?v=1736269753 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15382.png.webp?v=1736269753 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15382.png.webp?v=1736269753 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/15382.png.webp?v=1736269753 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/15382.png?v=1736269753 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/15382.png?v=1736269753 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15382.png?v=1736269753 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/15382.png?v=1736269753 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/15382.png?v=1736269753" alt="The First Three Crusades and the 12th-Century Latin East (Outremer)" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="422" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The First Three Crusades and the 12th-Century Latin East (Outremer)</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15382/the-first-three-crusades-and-the-12th-century-lati/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15382/the-first-three-crusades-and-the-12th-century-lati/","caption":"Maps illustrating the trajectory of a series of early military campaigns initiated by the medieval Church between 1096\u20131192, aiming at liberating the \"Holy Land\" (roughly located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River) from Muslim control. Those were known as Crusades and resulted in establishing several Roman Catholic Kingdoms in the Near East (most notably - the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem.)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/15382.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/500-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher, passionate about the human stories that shape the past. He believes every image should tell a story and invite interaction, while every map should lead on a journey \u2014 blending imagination with e","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-04-10T13:03:06+0000","datePublished":"2022-03-14T19:14:50+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"The First Three Crusades and the 12th-Century Latin East (Outremer)","height":2790,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15382/the-first-three-crusades-and-the-12th-century-lati/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/15382/the-first-three-crusades-and-the-12th-century-lati/","width":4961} </script> </p> <p>The <a href="/Black_Death/">Black Death</a> of 1347-1352 would decrease the population further, ending the feudal system, and also weakening the authority of the Church whose efforts to end the <a href="/disambiguation/plague/">plague</a> repeatedly failed. The Crusades and Black <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">Death</a> encouraged people to question the Church and the established order, and the rediscovery of ancient <a href="/Greek_Literature/">Greek literature</a> and Roman texts led to the Renaissance and an increased focus on life on earth rather than what waited after death. The Renaissance encouraged the <a href="/Protestant_Reformation/">Protestant Reformation</a> (1517-1648), spearheaded by <a href="/Martin_Luther/">Martin Luther</a> (l. 1483-1546) and enabled by the printing press of <a href="/Johannes_Gutenberg/">Johannes Gutenberg</a> (l. c. 1398-1468), invented c. 1450. The <a href="/article/1632/the-printing-revolution-in-renaissance-europe/">printing revolution in Renaissance Europe</a> allowed for the wide dissemination of Luther's – and then others' – works challenging the status quo and ecclesiastical authority. The <a href="/article/2039/the-printing-press--the-protestant-reformation/">printing press and the Protestant Reformation</a> encouraged greater literacy and independence of thought, contributing to the Age of Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries.</p> <h3>Conclusion</h3> <p>The <a href="/disambiguation/Byzantine/">Byzantine</a> Empire fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 who then closed the <a href="/Silk_Road/">Silk Road</a>, ending European land trade with the East and encouraging greater maritime trade, which launched the Age of Exploration. The colonization of the Americas began in 1492 and was encouraged, not only by the European need to find alternative routes to the East but also by European history. The Crusades had established a paradigm of conquest in the name of Christianity while rivalry between Catholic and Protestant nations encouraged countries and religious communities to claim lands in the name of their respective faiths.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-7"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_9' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="14972"> <a href="/image/14972/religions-in-europe-in-the-16th-century/" title="Religions in Europe in the 16th Century" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14972.png.webp?v=1738186805 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/14972.png.webp?v=1738186805 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14972.png?v=1738186805 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/14972.png?v=1738186805 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/14972.png?v=1738186805" alt="Religions in Europe in the 16th Century" class="in_text_image" width="501" height="381" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Religions in Europe in the 16th Century</div><div class="figauthor">Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14972/religions-in-europe-in-the-16th-century/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14972/religions-in-europe-in-the-16th-century/","caption":"A map illustrating the dominant religious divisions in Europe as the Reformation revolution in the Catholic church burned through Europe in the 16th century. Meanwhile, at the edges of the continent, the Islam introduced to the Balkans by the Turks in the lands of the Ottoman Empire coexisted and competed with Orthodox Christianity for the hearts and minds of the believers.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/14972.png","copyrightNotice":"Simeon Netchev - CC BY-NC-ND - This licence only allows others to download this content and share it with others as long as the author is credited, but they can't change the content in any way or use it commercially. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/#person","name":"Simeon Netchev","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/simeonnetchev/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/simeon-netchev/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/500-simeonnetchev.jpg","description":"Simeon is a freelance visual designer and history teacher, passionate about the human stories that shape the past. He believes every image should tell a story and invite interaction, while every map should lead on a journey \u2014 blending imagination with e","jobTitle":"Graphic Designer","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Simeon Netchev / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-04-10T13:03:06+0000","datePublished":"2021-12-09T08:37:36+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Religions in Europe in the 16th Century","height":2786,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14972/religions-in-europe-in-the-16th-century/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/14972/religions-in-europe-in-the-16th-century/","width":3660} </script> </p> <p>The Age of Exploration established European culture in the so-called New World between 1492-1620 with greater numbers of colonists arriving up through 1720 and even more afterwards into the early 20th century. The Dutch, English, and French – among others – also established colonies elsewhere, such as <a href="/india/">India</a>, the <a href="/Near_East/">Near East</a>, and <a href="/disambiguation/africa/">Africa</a> – spreading European culture around the world. The benefits of imperialism and colonization went unquestioned by Europeans of the time but have been increasingly challenged since the mid-20th century. For better or worse, however, European history, culture, and political policies affected the development of a number of regions around the globe, influencing the establishment of many of the socio-political and religious paradigms of the modern world.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Europa+europe" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This human-authored article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__cfc8d2a2cad8c2f8141d8159af275611"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0198207344/" rel="sponsored">Collins, R. <i>Early Modern Europe: 300-1000.</i> Palgrave MacMillan, 2010.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__2ac611c039d2678b41008fb9dcd72b93"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/europe.htm" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="Countries of Europe">Countries of Europe</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 5 Jun 2023.</span></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__2c73333c1229ab740000db9800629567"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0142002542/" rel="sponsored">Cunliffe, B. <i>The Extraordinary Voyage of Pytheas the Greek.</i> Penguin Books, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__9a9d0c9af1fd0b21b38e5cb4e805a394"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0192854410/" rel="sponsored">Cunliffe, B. <i>The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe.</i> Oxford University Press, 2001.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__c8b4787ac9b2ef18454f2448ce159cdc"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B000FSP7LE/" rel="sponsored">Grant, M. <i>Readings in the Classical Historians.</i> Scribners Publishing, 2002.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__34fbe99a56cc864c8a51b5ed71b22322"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0415669944/" rel="sponsored">Logan, F D. <i>A History of the Church in the Middle Ages.</i> Routledge, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__178dd0affa4f5ac69f1d2ede2271b26e"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1933648767/" rel="sponsored">Osborne, R. <i>Civilization: A New History of the Western World.</i> Pegasus Books, 2008.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__cfafe1dca0bb730a2e26e02a53096ddf"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0192853651/" rel="sponsored">Sawyer, P. <i>The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings .</i> Oxford University Press, 2000.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__29f6a92de0a31b52c5a0e69280ff2382"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0674992741/" rel="sponsored">Tacitus & Moore, C. H. <i>Tacitus Annals.</i> Harvard University Press, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__015630d09c7449494c76612137a69293"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1932350209/" rel="sponsored">Waterfield, R. <i>Herodotus: The Histories.</i> Oxford University Press, 2008.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339" title="Joshua J. Mark" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="translations_notice"> <h2 class="translations">Translations</h2> <a href="/trans/zh/1-35/" class="translation_link zh outline_button" rel="alternate">Chinese</a> <a href="/trans/nl/1-35/europa/" class="translation_link nl outline_button" rel="alternate">Dutch</a> <a href="/trans/fr/1-35/europe/" class="translation_link fr outline_button" rel="alternate">French</a> <a href="/trans/it/1-35/europa/" class="translation_link it outline_button" rel="alternate">Italian</a> <a href="/trans/es/1-35/europa/" class="translation_link es outline_button" rel="alternate">Spanish</a> <a href="/trans/tr/1-35/avrupa/" class="translation_link tr outline_button" rel="alternate">Turkish</a> <p>We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and <a href="/trans/x/1-35/edit/" class="translation_add_button" rel="nofollow">translate this definition</a> into another language!</p> </div> <div class="faq"> <h2>Questions & Answers</h2> <dl> <dt><h4>What is Europe?</h4></dt> <dd>Europe is a continent forming the westernmost part of Eurasia. It is often referred to by scholars as a peninsula of the Eurasian land mass but is not considered a part of Asia.</dd> <dt><h4>Where does the name "Europe" come from?</h4></dt> <dd>The origin of the name of Europe is unknown. It is thought to have come from the myth of Europa, a Phoenician princess abducted by Zeus who became the first queen of the Minoans, but this claim has been challenged for centuries.</dd> <dt><h4>How many countries are there in Europe?</h4></dt> <dd>There are 50 countries in Europe, although, according to some definitions, only 44.</dd> <dt><h4>When does "Europe" first appear in writing in reference to the continent?</h4></dt> <dd>"Europe" first appears in writing in the 6th century BCE in Greece referencing the continent of Europe, but the origin of the name is unclear.</dd> </dl> </div> <style> .faq h4 { font-family: "Libre Baskerville", "Palatino Linotype", "Book Antiqua", Palatino, serif; } .faq { margin-bottom: 40px; } </style> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Related Content</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"> <span class="filter_label">Filters:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type 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type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9362.jpg?v=1645820102 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/9362.jpg?v=1645820102 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9362.jpg?v=1645820102" width="360" height="202" alt="Europa" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Europa</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Europa is a figure from Greek mythology who later gave her name... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/image/9362/europa--the-bull-of-zeus/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_3 " id="3-9362" data-score="262253" data-ci-type-id="3"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9362.jpg.webp?v=1645820102 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/9362.jpg.webp?v=1645820102 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9362.jpg?v=1645820102 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/9362.jpg?v=1645820102 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/9362.jpg?v=1645820102" width="360" height="202" alt="Europa & the Bull of Zeus" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__3"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Image </div> <h3>Europa & the Bull of Zeus</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> An illustration from a 5th century BCE Greek red-figure pottery... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/image/12684/krater-with-europa-pleading-for-the-life-of-sarped/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_3 " id="3-12684" data-score="254107" data-ci-type-id="3"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12684.jpg.webp?v=1645820103 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/12684.jpg.webp?v=1645820103 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12684.jpg?v=1645820103 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/12684.jpg?v=1645820103 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12684.jpg?v=1645820103" width="360" height="202" alt="Krater with Europa Pleading for the Life of Sarpedon" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__3"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Image </div> <h3>Krater with Europa Pleading for the Life of Sarpedon</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Terracotta bell-krater (mixing bowl) attributed to the Sarpedon... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/image/6232/europa--zeus/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_3 " id="3-6232" data-score="238948" data-ci-type-id="3"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/6232.jpg.webp?v=1710237783 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/6232.jpg.webp?v=1710237783 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/6232.jpg?v=1710237783 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/6232.jpg?v=1710237783 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/6232.jpg?v=1710237783" width="360" height="202" alt="Europa & Zeus" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__3"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Image </div> <h3>Europa & Zeus</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> A red-figure vase depicting the abduction of Europa by Zeus, disguised... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/image/17655/cadmus-asks-the-delphic-oracle-where-he-can-find-h/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_3 " id="3-17655" data-score="238911" data-ci-type-id="3"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/17655.jpg.webp?v=1693288563-1689841254 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/17655.jpg.webp?v=1693288563-1689841254 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/17655.jpg?v=1693288563-1689841254 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/17655.jpg?v=1693288563-1689841254 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/17655.jpg?v=1693288563-1689841254" width="360" height="202" alt="Cadmus Asks the Delphic Oracle Where He Can Find his Sister, Europa" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__3"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Image </div> <h3>Cadmus Asks the Delphic Oracle Where He Can Find his Sister, Europa</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Cadmus Asks the Delphic Oracle Where He Can Find his Sister, Europa... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Cadmus/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-15612" data-score="198852" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/17654.jpg.webp?v=1721763784-1689840631 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J. (2023, June 09). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/" class="no_external">Europe</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/" class="no_external">Europe</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified June 09, 2023. https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/europe/" class="no_external">Europe</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 09 Jun 2023. Web. 10 Apr 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 09 June 2023. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=europe&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_5177" title=""> <div class="date">c. 45000 BCE</div> Potential earliest arrival of <a href="/Homo_Sapiens/">Homo sapiens</a> in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2434" title=""> <div class="date">30000 BCE - 12000 BCE</div> Cave art <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_898" title=""> <div class="date">c. 20000 BCE</div> Cave painting flourishes in Spain and France, the most famous being the Cave of <a href="/Lascaux_Cave/">Lascaux</a> in France. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_37" title=""> <div class="date">5000 BCE</div> Hierarchical societies emerge in southeast <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_741" title=""> <div class="date">c. 5000 BCE</div> Cultivation of peas in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_44" title=""> <div class="date">4300 BCE</div> First <a href="/disambiguation/megalithic/">megalithic</a> tombs in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_48" title=""> <div class="date">3500 BCE</div> Farming has spread across <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4789" title=""> <div class="date">c. 3300 BCE - c. 1200 BCE</div> The <a href="/disambiguation/Bronze_Age/">Bronze Age</a>, lasting from c. 3300 BCE- c. 1200 BCE in the <a href="/Near_East/">Near East</a> and South Asia and c. 600 BCE in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_60" title=""> <div class="date">2800 BCE - 1900 BCE</div> Bell beaker <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> in western <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_66" title=""> <div class="date">2300 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/bronze/">Bronze</a> is used in the <a href="/aegean/">Aegean</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_900" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2000 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Bronze_Age/">Bronze Age</a> begins in Northern <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_76" title=""> <div class="date">2000 BCE - 1500 BCE</div> Wessex <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> introduces <a href="/disambiguation/bronze/">bronze</a> working to <a href="/britain/">Britain</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_96" title=""> <div class="date">1500 BCE</div> Pastoral farming spreads across Eurasian steppes. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4117" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1400 BCE</div> The beginning of <a href="/celt/">Celtic</a> <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a> in the upper Danube region of central <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_12365" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1200 BCE - c. 450 BCE</div> Widest date range accepted by scholars for the <a href="/Hallstatt_Culture/">Hallstatt culture</a> in central <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_111" title=""> <div class="date">1100 BCE</div> Dorian peoples occupy <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_113" title=""> <div class="date">1100 BCE</div> Hillforts in western <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_116" title=""> <div class="date">1000 BCE</div> Iron working in southern <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1648" title=""> <div class="date">c. 900 BCE</div> <a href="/celt/">Celtic</a> Migration begins in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a> with many <a href="/celt/">Celts</a> landing in <a href="/disambiguation/Scotland/">Scotland</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_660" title=""> <div class="date">c. 800 BCE - c. 600 BCE</div> The Early <a href="/disambiguation/Iron_Age/">Iron Age</a> <a href="/Hallstatt_Culture/">Hallstatt culture</a> is at its peak in central <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_144" title=""> <div class="date">700 BCE</div> Iron in wide use across <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_732" title=""> <div class="date">c. 513 BCE - c. 512 BCE</div> <a href="/Darius_I/">Darius I</a> of <a href="/Persia/">Persia</a> campaigns against <a href="/Scythians/">Scythians</a> into European <a href="/Scythians/">Scythia</a>, past the Danube River, Scythians refuse to fight and <a href="/disambiguation/darius/">Darius</a> is forced to abandon the campaign due to lack of provisions. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_12366" title=""> <div class="date">c. 450 BCE - c. 50 BCE</div> Period of the <a href="/La_Tene_Culture/">La Tène culture</a> in northern/western/central <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_629" title=""> <div class="date">193 BCE</div> The Boii are defeated by the Romans, suffering, according to <a href="/livy/">Livy</a>, 14,000 dead. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_903" title=""> <div class="date">58 BCE</div> <a href="/Julius_Caesar/">Julius Caesar</a> invades <a href="/gaul/">Gaul</a>. <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> influence on the European tribes begins in earnest. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_904" title=""> <div class="date">300 CE - 700 CE</div> <a href="/Migration_Age/">Migration Age</a> in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_7340" title=""> <div class="date">c. 476 CE - 1500 CE</div> The Catholic Church holds supreme power in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a> during the Middle Ages. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6676" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1050 CE - c. 1250 CE</div> <a href="/Feudalism/">Feudalism</a> is the dominant system of land ownership in northern medieval <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_6108" title=""> <div class="date">1347 CE - 1352 CE</div> The <a href="/Black_Death/">Black Death</a> <a href="/disambiguation/plague/">plague</a> sweeps across <a href="/europe/">Europe</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_11559" title=""> <div class="date">1453 CE</div> The <a href="/Ottoman_Empire/">Ottoman Empire</a> closes the overland <a href="/Silk_Road/">Silk Road</a> <a href="/disambiguation/trade/">trade</a> routes between <a href="/europe/">Europe</a> and the East, initiating the European Age of Discovery. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership" class="no_membership_only"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1744189012" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. 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