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Throughout the first 1,800 years of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Church history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> generally consumed <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverages</a> as a common part of everyday life and used "the fruit of the vine"<a href="#cite_note-fruit-1">[1]</a> in their central <a href="/wiki/Rite_(Christianity)" title="Rite (Christianity)">rite</a>—the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> or Lord's Supper.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> They held that both the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a> taught that <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> is a gift from <a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> that makes life more <a href="/wiki/Joy" title="Joy">joyous</a>, but that over-indulgence leading to <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">drunkenness</a> is <a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">sinful</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DomenicoHanley2006-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cobb2003-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Raymond_90-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eastons-7">[7]</a> However, the alcoholic content of ancient alcoholic beverages was significantly lower than that of modern alcoholic beverages.<a href="#cite_note-Quarles-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-rabbinic-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-scientific-10">[10]</a> The low alcoholic content was due to the limitations of fermentation and the nonexistence of distillation methods in the ancient world.<a href="#cite_note-sasson-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Quarles-8">[8]</a> Rabbinic teachers wrote acceptance criteria on consumability of ancient alcoholic beverages after significant dilution with water, and prohibited undiluted wine.<a href="#cite_note-rabbinic-9">[9]</a> In the mid-19th century, some <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant Christians</a> moved from a position of allowing moderate use of alcohol (sometimes called "'moderationism") to either deciding that not imbibing was wisest in the present circumstances ("abstentionism") or prohibiting all ordinary consumption of alcohol because it was believed to be a sin ("prohibitionism").<a href="#cite_note-Gentry-12">[12]</a> Many Protestant churches, particularly <a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodists</a>, advocated abstentionism or prohibitionism and were early leaders in the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance movement</a> of the 19th and 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell2011-13">[13]</a> Today, all three positions exist in Christianity, but the original position of alcohol consumption being permissible remains the most common and dominant view among Christians worldwide, in addition to the adherence by the largest bodies of Christian denominations, such as <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miller2014-14">[14]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alcohol_in_the_Bible">Alcohol in the Bible</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Alcohol in the Bible">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_the_Bible" title="Alcohol in the Bible">Alcohol in the Bible</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverages</a> appear in the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, both in usage and in <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetic</a> expression. The Bible is ambivalent towards alcohol, considering it both a blessing from God that brings merriment and a potential danger that can be unwisely and sinfully abused.<a href="#cite_note-WaltkeP127-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-RaymondP25-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-COE-17">[17]</a> Christian views on alcohol come from what the Bible says about it, along with Jewish and <a href="/wiki/Christian_traditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian traditions">Christian traditions</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Biblical_languages" title="Biblical languages">biblical languages</a> have several words for alcoholic beverages,<a href="#cite_note-Eastons-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> and though prohibitionists and some abstentionists dissent,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Earle-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bacchiocchi-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacArthurDrunk2-22">[22]</a> there is a broad consensus that the words did ordinarily refer to intoxicating drinks.<a href="#cite_note-Eastons-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-WaltkeP127-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-COE-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-SchaffHerzog-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-ASB-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacArthurQ&A-26">[26]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_da_Vinci_(1452-1519)_-_The_Last_Supper_(1495-1498).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg/220px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg/330px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg/440px-Leonardo_da_Vinci_%281452-1519%29_-_The_Last_Supper_%281495-1498%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5076" data-file-height="2645" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Leonardo)" title="The Last Supper (Leonardo)">The Last Supper</a> by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> Christ administered "the fruit of the vine".</figcaption></figure> The commonness and centrality of wine in daily life in biblical times is apparent from its many positive and negative <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphorical</a> uses throughout the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Positively, for example, wine is used as a <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbol</a> of abundance, and of physical blessing.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Negatively, wine is <a href="/wiki/Personification" title="Personification">personified</a> as a mocker and beer a brawler,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> and drinking a cup of strong wine to the dregs and getting drunk are sometimes presented as a symbol of God's judgment and wrath.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The Bible also speaks of wine in general terms as a bringer and concomitant of joy, particularly in the context of nourishment and feasting.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Wine was commonly drunk at meals,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and the Old Testament prescribed it for use in <a href="/wiki/Korban" title="Korban">sacrificial rituals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Festival" title="Festival">festal celebrations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eastons-7">[7]</a> The Gospel of John recorded the first <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracle</a> of Jesus: making copious amounts<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wedding_at_Cana" title="Wedding at Cana">wedding feast at Cana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Jesus instituted the ritual of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Last_Supper" title="Last Supper">Last Supper</a> during a <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a> celebration,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> he says that the "fruit of the vine"<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> is a "<a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a> in [his] blood,"<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> though Christians have differed on the implications of this statement (see <a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theologies_contrasted" class="mw-redirect" title="Eucharistic theologies contrasted">Eucharistic theologies contrasted</a>).<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Alcohol was also used for medicinal purposes in biblical times, and it appears in that context in several passages—as an oral anesthetic,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> a topical cleanser and soother,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> and a digestive aid.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drunkenness_of_Noah_bellini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Drunkenness_of_Noah_bellini.jpg/220px-Drunkenness_of_Noah_bellini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Drunkenness_of_Noah_bellini.jpg/330px-Drunkenness_of_Noah_bellini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Drunkenness_of_Noah_bellini.jpg/440px-Drunkenness_of_Noah_bellini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1654" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Drunkenness_of_Noah" title="Drunkenness of Noah">Drunkenness of Noah</a> by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Bellini" title="Giovanni Bellini">Giovanni Bellini</a></figcaption></figure> Kings and priests in the Old Testament were forbidden to partake of wine at various times.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Nazirite" title="Nazirite">Nazirite</a> from birth.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Nazirite vows excluded not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, and raisins.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> (Jesus evidently did not take such a vow during the three years of ministry depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">gospels</a>, but in fact was even accused by the Pharisees of eating and drinking with sinners).<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-RaymondP81-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">St. Paul</a> further instructs Christians regarding their duty toward immature Christians: "It is better not to eat meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother to fall."<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Jewish priests cannot bless a congregation after consuming alcohol.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Virtually all Christian traditions hold that the Bible condemns ordinary <a href="/wiki/Drunkenness" class="mw-redirect" title="Drunkenness">drunkenness</a> in many passages,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Easton%27s_Bible_Dictionary_(1897)" class="mw-redirect" title="Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)">Easton's Bible Dictionary</a> says, "The sin of drunkenness ... must have been not uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned either metaphorically or literally more than seventy times in the Bible."<a href="#cite_note-Eastons-7">[7]</a> Additionally, the consequences of the drunkenness of <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lot_(Bible)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lot (Bible)">Lot</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> "were intended to serve as examples of the dangers and repulsiveness of intemperance."<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">St. Paul</a> later chides the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Corinth" title="Ancient Corinth">Corinthians</a> for becoming drunk on wine served at their attempted celebrations of the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1Co11:20-22-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Winemaking_in_biblical_times">Winemaking in biblical times</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Winemaking in biblical times">edit</a>]</div> Both the <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> and land of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a>, where most of the Bible takes place, were well-suited to growing grapes,<a href="#cite_note-Ewing-56">[56]</a> and the wine that the vineyards produced was a valued commodity in ancient times, both for local consumption and for its value in trade.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Trade with Egypt was quite extensive. Jews were a wine-drinking culture well before the foundation of Rome. Vintage wines were found in the tomb of King Scorpion in Hierakonpolis. Archaeological evidence suggests that Semitic predecessors were thought to be responsible for the vintages that were found in the tomb.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Vineyards were protected from robbers and animals by walls, hedges, and manned <a href="/wiki/Watchtower" title="Watchtower">watchtowers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MigdalHaemek5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/MigdalHaemek5.jpg/220px-MigdalHaemek5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/MigdalHaemek5.jpg/330px-MigdalHaemek5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/MigdalHaemek5.jpg/440px-MigdalHaemek5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Ancient <a href="/wiki/Wine_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine press">wine press</a> in Israel with the pressing area in the center and the collection vat off to the bottom left.</figcaption></figure> In Hebrew, grape juice need not ferment before it is called wine: "When the grapes have been crushed and the wine [yayin] begins to flow, even though it has not descended into the cistern and is still in the wine press...".<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvest</a> time brought much joy and play,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> as "[m]en, women and children took to the vineyard, often accompanied by the sound of music and song, from late August to September to bring in the grapes."<a href="#cite_note-Wine_Making-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Some grapes were eaten immediately, while others were turned into raisins. Most of them, however, were put into the <a href="/wiki/Wine_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine press">wine press</a> where the men and boys trampled them, often to <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wine_Making-63">[63]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sukkot" title="Sukkot">Feast of Booths</a> was a prescribed holiday that immediately followed the harvest and pressing of the grapes.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The fermentation process started within six to twelve hours after pressing, and the <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a> was usually left in the collection vat for a few days to allow the initial, "tumultuous" stage of fermentation to pass. The wine makers soon transferred it either into large earthenware jars, which were then sealed, or, if the wine were to be transported elsewhere, into wineskins (that is, partially <a href="/wiki/Tanning_(leather)" title="Tanning (leather)">tanned</a> <a href="/wiki/Domestic_goat" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic goat">goat</a>-skins, sewn up where the legs and tail had protruded but leaving the opening at the neck).<a href="#cite_note-Ewing-56">[56]</a> After six weeks, fermentation was complete, and the wine was filtered into larger containers and either sold for consumption or stored in a <a href="/wiki/Basement" title="Basement">cellar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cistern" title="Cistern">cistern</a>, lasting for three to four years.<a href="#cite_note-Wine_Making-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Broshi26-66">[66]</a> Even after a year of aging, the vintage was still called "new wine," and more aged wines were preferred.<a href="#cite_note-Broshi26-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Spices and scents were often added to wine in order to hide "defects" that arose from storage that was often not sufficient to prevent all spoiling.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> One might expect about 10% of any given cellar of wine to have been ruined completely, but <a href="/wiki/Vinegar" title="Vinegar">vinegar</a> was also created intentionally for dipping bread<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> among other uses.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alcoholic_content_of_beverages_in_the_ancient_world">Alcoholic content of beverages in the ancient world</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Alcoholic content of beverages in the ancient world">edit</a>]</div> After the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Palestine_(region)" title="Palestine (region)">Palestine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic</a> custom of diluting wine had taken hold such that the author of <a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a> speaks of diluted wine as "a more pleasant drink" and of both undiluted wine and unmixed water as "harmful" or "distasteful."<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Alcoholic wine in the ancient world was significantly different than modern wines in that it had much lower alcohol content and was consumed after significant dilution with water (as attested by even other cultures surrounding Israel), thus rendering its alcoholic content negligible by modern standards.<a href="#cite_note-Quarles-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Britannica-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-scientific-10">[10]</a> The low alcoholic content was due to the limitations of fermentation in the ancient world.<a href="#cite_note-sasson-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Quarles-8">[8]</a> From the Mishnah and Talmuds, the common dilution rate for consumption for Jews 3 parts water to 1 part wine (3:1 dilution ratio).<a href="#cite_note-Quarles-8">[8]</a> Wine in the ancient world had a maximum possible alcoholic content of 11-12% (before dilution) and once diluted, it reduced to 2.75 or 3%.<a href="#cite_note-Quarles-8">[8]</a> Other after-dilution estimates of neighbors like the Greeks have dilution of 1:1 or 2:1 which place the alcohol content between 4-7%.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-73">[73]</a> The adjective “unmixed” (ἄκρατος) is used in the ancient texts to designate undiluted wine, but the New Testament never uses this adjective to describe the wine consumed by Jesus, the disciples or to describe the wine approved for use in moderation by Christians.<a href="#cite_note-rabbinic-9">[9]</a> Though ancient rabbis opposed the consumption of undiluted wine as a beverage, they taught that it was useful as a medicine.<a href="#cite_note-rabbinic-9">[9]</a> Common dilution ratios from the ancient world were compiled by Athenaus of Naucratis in <a href="/wiki/Deipnosophistae" title="Deipnosophistae">Deipnosophistae</a> (Banquet of the Learned; c. AD 228):<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Ancient source</th> <th>Dilution Ratio Water:Wine </th></tr> <tr> <td>Homer</td> <td>20:1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pliny</td> <td>8:1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Aristophanes</td> <td>2 or 3:1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hesiod</td> <td>3:1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Alexis</td> <td>4:1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Diocles</td> <td>2:1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ion</td> <td>3:1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nichochares</td> <td>5:2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anacreon</td> <td>2:1 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alcohol_in_Christian_history_and_tradition">Alcohol in Christian history and tradition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Alcohol in Christian history and tradition">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/St_Michael_the_Archangel%2C_Findlay%2C_OH_-_bread_and_wine_crop_1.jpg/150px-St_Michael_the_Archangel%2C_Findlay%2C_OH_-_bread_and_wine_crop_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/St_Michael_the_Archangel%2C_Findlay%2C_OH_-_bread_and_wine_crop_1.jpg/225px-St_Michael_the_Archangel%2C_Findlay%2C_OH_-_bread_and_wine_crop_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/St_Michael_the_Archangel%2C_Findlay%2C_OH_-_bread_and_wine_crop_1.jpg/300px-St_Michael_the_Archangel%2C_Findlay%2C_OH_-_bread_and_wine_crop_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1241" data-file-height="1105" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption"></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Elements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.15em 0.75em 0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_bread" title="Sacramental bread">Bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_wine" title="Sacramental wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Ritual and liturgy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.15em 0.75em 0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Liturgy" title="Divine Liturgy">Divine Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Qurobo" title="Holy Qurobo">Holy Qurobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Qurbana" title="Holy Qurbana">Holy Qurbana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_Service_(Lutheran)" title="Divine Service (Lutheran)">Divine Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">Mass</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Requiem" title="Requiem">Requiem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solemn_Mass" title="Solemn Mass">Solemn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consecration" class="mw-redirect" title="Consecration">Consecration</a>/<a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(liturgy)" title="Anaphora (liturgy)">Anaphora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epiclesis" title="Epiclesis">Epiclesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Words_of_Institution" title="Words of Institution">Words of Institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anamnesis_(Christianity)" title="Anamnesis (Christianity)">Anamnesis</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices and customs</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.15em 0.75em 0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_communion" title="Closed communion">Closed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Open_communion" title="Open communion">open table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communion_under_both_kinds" title="Communion under both kinds">Communion under both kinds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_adoration" title="Eucharistic adoration">Adoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_discipline" title="Eucharistic discipline">Discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving_after_Communion" title="Thanksgiving after Communion">Thanksgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_sacrament" title="Reserved sacrament">Reserved sacrament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feast_of_Corpus_Christi" title="Feast of Corpus Christi">Feast of Corpus Christi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Communion" title="First Communion">First Communion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_communion" title="Infant communion">Infant communion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viaticum" title="Viaticum">Viaticum</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li>Vessels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paten" title="Paten">Paten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalice" title="Chalice">Chalice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoon_(liturgy)" title="Spoon (liturgy)">Spoon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fraction_(religion)" title="Fraction (religion)">Fraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intinction" title="Intinction">Intinction</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.15em 0.75em 0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Eucharist" title="Origin of the Eucharist">Origin of the Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_roots_of_Catholic_eucharistic_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical roots of Catholic eucharistic theology">Catholic historical roots</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.15em 0.75em 0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Real_presence_of_Christ_in_the_Eucharist" title="Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist">Real presence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consubstantiation" title="Consubstantiation">Consubstantiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impanation" title="Impanation">Impanation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metousiosis" title="Metousiosis">Metousiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptionism" title="Receptionism">Receptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Sacramental union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transignification" title="Transignification">Transignification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">Transubstantiation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorialism" title="Memorialism">Memorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramentarians" title="Sacramentarians">Sacramentarians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacrament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinance_(Christianity)" title="Ordinance (Christianity)">Ordinance</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Denominational teachings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.15em 0.75em 0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_Anglicanism" title="Eucharist in Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Eucharist in the Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament_(LDS_Church)" title="Sacrament (LDS Church)">Latter-day Saint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist_in_Lutheranism" title="Eucharist in Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Supper_in_Reformed_theology" title="Lord's Supper in Reformed theology">Reformed</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.15em 0.75em 0.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agape_feast" title="Agape feast">Agape feast</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christian views on alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_miracle" title="Eucharistic miracle">Eucharistic miracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_desecration" title="Host desecration">Host desecration</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eucharist" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eucharist"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> It is not disputed whether the regular use of wine in the celebration of the Eucharist and in daily life were the virtually universal practice in Christianity for over 1,800 years; all written evidence shows that the Eucharist consisted of bread and wine, not grape juice.<a href="#cite_note-Antiquities-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-ProtTrans1-76">[76]</a> During the 19th and early 20th century, as a general sense of prohibitionism arose, many Christians, particularly some Protestants in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, came to believe that the Bible prohibited alcohol or that the wisest choice in modern circumstances was for the Christian to abstain from alcohol willingly. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_Christ">Before Christ</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Before Christ">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg/220px-Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg/330px-Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg/440px-Rembrandt_-_Belshazzar%27s_Feast_-_WGA19123.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1037" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rembrandt" title="Rembrandt">Rembrandt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Belshazzar%27s_Feast_(Rembrandt)" title="Belshazzar's Feast (Rembrandt)">Belshazzar's Feast</a> (1635) depicts the Babylonian king's drinking party the same night the kingdom fell to the sober Persians. "Lest they drink" (Prov. 31:5) Of course Daniel was absent. (Dan. 5:13) (<a href="/wiki/National_Gallery" title="National Gallery">National Gallery</a>, London)</figcaption></figure> The Hebraic opinion of wine in the time before Christ was decidedly positive: wine is part of the world God created and is thus "necessarily inherently good,"<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> though excessive use is soundly condemned. The Jews emphasized joy in the goodness of creation rather than the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">virtue of temperance</a>, which the <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophers</a> advocated.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Wine formed part of the sacrifices made daily to God. (<a href="/wiki/Leviticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Leviticus">Leviticus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Leviticus%2023:13&version=nrsv">23:13</a>) As the Jews returned from the Babylonian exile (starting in 537 BC) and the events of the Old Testament drew to a close, wine was "a common beverage for all classes and ages, including the very young; an important source of nourishment; a prominent part in the festivities of the people; a widely appreciated medicine; an essential provision and the wine that the vineyards produced was a valued commodity in ancient times, both for local consumption and for its value in trade or any fortress; and an important commodity," and it served as "a necessary element in the life of the Hebrews."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Wine was also used <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritualistically</a> to close the <a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Sabbath</a> and to celebrate weddings, <a href="/wiki/Circumcision_in_the_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumcision in the Bible">circumcisions</a>, and Passover.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Although some abstentionists argue that wine in the Bible was almost always cut with water greatly decreasing its potency for inebriation,<a href="#cite_note-MacArthurDrunk2-22">[22]</a> there is general agreement that, while Old Testament wine was sometimes mixed with various spices to enhance its flavor and stimulating properties, it was not usually diluted with water,<a href="#cite_note-GentryUndiluted-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> and wine mixed with water is used as an Old Testament <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a> for corruption.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Among the <a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Greeks</a>, however, the cutting of wine with water was a common practice used to reduce potency and improve taste.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> By the time of the writing of <a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a> (2nd or 1st century BC), the Greeks had conquered <a href="/wiki/Judea" title="Judea">Judea</a> under <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and the Hellenistic custom had apparently found acceptance with the Jews<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> and was carried into Jewish rituals in New Testament times.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, which had conquered Judea under <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Iudaea_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Iudaea Province">Iudaea Province</a>), the average adult male who was a <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">citizen</a> drank an estimated liter (about a quarter of a gallon, or a modern-day bottle and a third—about 35 oz.) of wine per day,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> though beer was more common in some parts of the world.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Church">Early Church</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early Church">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> make very little reference to wine.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Clement of Rome</a> (died 100) said: "Seeing, therefore, that we are the portion of the Holy One, let us do all those things which pertain to holiness, avoiding all evil-speaking, all abominable and impure embraces, together with all drunkenness, seeking after change, all abominable lusts, detestable adultery, and execrable pride."<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The earliest references from the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> make it clear that the <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Church</a> used in the Eucharist wine—which was customarily mixed with water.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Didache" title="Didache">Didache</a>, an early Christian treatise which is generally accepted to be from the late 1st century, instructs Christians to give a portion of their wine in support of a true <a href="/wiki/Prophet" title="Prophet">prophet</a> or, if they have no prophet resident with them, to the poor.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> (died c. 215) wrote in a chapter about drinking that he admired the young and the old who "abstain wholly from drink," who adopt an <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">austere life</a> and "flee as far as possible from wine, shunning it as they would the danger of fire." He strongly warned youth to "flee as far as possible" from it so as not to inflame their "wild impulses." He said Christ did not teach affected by it. "...the soul itself is wisest and best when dry." He also said wine is an appropriate symbol of Jesus' blood.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> He noted taking a little <a href="/wiki/Wine_as_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine as medicine">wine as medicine</a> is acceptable—lest it make the health worse. Even those who are "moored by reason and time" (such that they are not as much tempted by drunkenness after a day's work), he still encouraged to mix "as much water as possible" in with the wine to inhibit inebriation. For at all hours, let them keep their "reason unwavering, their memory active, and their body unmoved and unshaken by wine." <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> (died 220) insisted clergy must be sober in church, citing the biblical non-drinking precedent: "the Lord said to Aaron: 'Wine and spirituous liquor shall ye not drink, thou and thy son after thee, whenever ye shall enter the tabernacle, or ascend unto the sacrificial altar; and ye shall not die.' [Lev. 10:9] So true is it, that such as shall have ministered in the Church, being not sober, shall 'die.' Thus, too, in recent times He upbraids Israel: 'And ye used to give my sanctified ones wine to drink.' [Amos 2:12]"<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Some early Christian leaders focused on the strength and attributes of wines. They taught that two types of wine should be distinguished: wine causing joyousness and that causing <a href="/wiki/Gluttony" title="Gluttony">gluttony</a> (intoxicating and non-intoxicating). The hermit <a href="/wiki/John_of_Egypt" title="John of Egypt">John of Egypt</a> (died 395) said: "...if there is any sharp wine I excommunicate it, but I drink the good."<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory of Nyssa</a> (died 395) made the same distinction between types of wine, "not that wine which produces drunkenness, plots against the senses, and destroys the body, but such as gladdens the heart, the wine which the Prophet recommends".<a href="#cite_note-Gregory_of_Nyssa_395AD-99">[99]</a> Condemnation of drunkenness had increased by the late 4th century. Church rules against drinking entertainments are found in the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Laodicea" title="Council of Laodicea">Council of Laodicea</a> (363):<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <ol><li>Rule XXIV: "No one of the priesthood, from presbyters to deacons, and so on in the ecclesiastical order to subdeacons, readers, singers, exorcists, door-keepers, or any of the class of the Ascetics, ought to enter a tavern."</li> <li>Rule LV: "NEITHER members of the priesthood nor of the clergy, nor yet laymen, may club together for drinking entertainments."</li></ol> However, <a href="/wiki/Basil_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Basil the Great">Basil the Great</a> (died 379) repudiated the views of some <a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">dualistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretics</a> who abhorred marriage, rejected wine, and called God's creation "polluted"<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> and who substituted water for wine in the Eucharist.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> A minority of Christians abstained totally from alcoholic beverages. <a href="/wiki/Saint_Monica" title="Saint Monica">Monica of Hippo</a> (died 387) eagerly kept the strict rule of total abstinence, which her bishop <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a> required. She had never let herself drink much at all, not even "more than one little cup of wine, diluted according to her own temperate palate, which, out of courtesy, she would taste." But now she willingly drank none at all.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Augustine cited a reason for her bishop's rule: "even to those who would use it with moderation, lest thereby an occasion of excess might be given to such as were drunken." Ambrose of course expected leaders and deacons to practice the same rule too. He cited Paul's instructions to them about alcohol in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Tim3:2-4,3:8-10">1 Timothy 3:2-4 and 3:8-10</a>, and commented: "We note how much is required of us. The minister of the Lord should abstain from wine, so that he may be upheld by the good witness not only of the faithful but also by those who are without."<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Likewise, he said: "Let a widow, then, be temperate, pure in the first place from wine, that she may be pure from adultery. He will tempt you in vain, if wine tempts you not."<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a> (died 407) said: "they who do not drink take no thought of the drunken."<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> So Chrysostom insisted deacons cannot taste wine at all in his homily on 1 Timothy 3:8-10: "The discretion of the blessed Paul is observable. When he would exhort the Deacons to avoid excess in wine, he does not say, 'Be not drunken,' but 'not' even 'given to much wine.' A proper caution; for if those who served in the Temple did not taste wine at all, much more should not these, For wine produces disorder of mind, and where it does not cause drunkenness, it destroys the energies and relaxes the firmness of the soul."<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Of course he was aware that not all wines were intoxicating; they had opposite effects and were not all alike.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> His homily on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Ti5:23">1 Timothy 5:23</a> shows he was not as certain heretics and immature Christians who even "blame the fruit given them by God" when saying there should be no wine. He emphasized the goodness of God's creation and adjured: "Let there be no drunkenness; for wine is the work of God, but drunkenness is the work of the devil. Wine makes not drunkenness; but intemperance produces it. Do not accuse that which is the workmanship of God, but accuse the madness of a fellow mortal."<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The virtue of temperance passed from Greek philosophy into Christian ethics and became one of the four <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">St. Ambrose</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Drunkenness, on the other hand, is considered a manifestation of gluttony, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">seven deadly sins</a> as compiled by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory the Great</a> in the 6th century.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monk_tasting_wine_from_a_barrel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Monk_tasting_wine_from_a_barrel.jpg/220px-Monk_tasting_wine_from_a_barrel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Monk_tasting_wine_from_a_barrel.jpg/330px-Monk_tasting_wine_from_a_barrel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Monk_tasting_wine_from_a_barrel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption>A monk-cellarer tasting wine from a barrel while filling a jug (from an <a href="/wiki/Illuminated_manuscript" title="Illuminated manuscript">illuminated manuscript</a> of the 13th century)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a> brought with it a significant drop in the production and consumption of wine in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">central Europe</a>, but the Eastern and Western Church (particularly the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a>) preserved the practices of <a href="/wiki/Viticulture" title="Viticulture">viticulture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">winemaking</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Vitae Patrum (from the third and fourth centuries) states: "When abba Pastor was told of a certain monk who wouldn't drink wine he replied, 'A monk should have nothing to do with wine.'"<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Elias_I_of_Jerusalem" title="Elias I of Jerusalem">Elias</a> archbishop of Jerusalem [from 494], drank no wine, just as if he were a monk."<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Later <a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a> (died c. 547), who formulated the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_St._Benedict" class="mw-redirect" title="Rule of St. Benedict">monastic rules</a> governing the <a href="/wiki/Benedictine" class="mw-redirect" title="Benedictine">Benedictines</a>, still seems to prefer that monks should do without wine as a daily staple, but he indicates that the monks of his day found the old regulation too burdensome. Thus he offers the concession of a quarter liter (or perhaps, a half liter)<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> of wine per day as sufficient for nourishment, with allowance for more in special circumstances<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> and for none as a punishment for repeated tardiness.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Even so, he believes that abstinence is the best path for those who have a gift from God allowing them to restrain their bodily appetites.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Welsh Bishop <a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">David</a> (c. 500 – c. 589) was known as "David the water-drinker." He rejected any alcohol. The monasteries he established had water only.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Monks" class="mw-redirect" title="Monks">monks</a>, renowned as the finest creators of <a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-West-123">[123]</a> were allotted about 5 <a href="/wiki/Litre" title="Litre">liters</a> of beer per day, and were allowed to drink beer (but not wine) during <a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">fasts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> This was justified by the Church. Bread and water that made up ale's ingredients was considered to not be a sin like that of wine. Brewing in monasteries increased and a number of modern breweries can trace their origins back to medieval monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (died 1274), a <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> friar and the "Doctor Angelicus" of the Catholic Church, says that moderation in wine is sufficient for <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">salvation</a> but that for certain persons perfection requires abstinence, and this was dependent upon their circumstance.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> With regard to the Eucharist, he says that grape wine should be used and that "<a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a>", unlike juice from unripe grapes, qualifies as wine because its sweetness will naturally turn it into wine. So freshly <a href="/wiki/Pressed_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressed (wine)">pressed</a> must is indeed usable (preferably after filtering any impurities).<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Drinking among monks was not universal, however, and in 1319 <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Tolomei" title="Bernardo Tolomei">Bernardo Tolomei</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Olivetan_Order" class="mw-redirect" title="Olivetan Order">Olivetan Order</a>, initially following a much more ascetic Rule than Benedict's. The Olivetans uprooted all their vineyards, destroyed their wine-presses, and were "fanatical total abstainers," but the rule was soon relaxed.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Because the Catholic Church requires properly fermented wine in the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>,<a href="#cite_note-AltarWine-130">[130]</a> wherever Catholicism spread, the <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> also brought grapevines so they could make wine and celebrate the <a href="/wiki/Mass_(liturgy)" title="Mass (liturgy)">Mass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-West-123">[123]</a> The Catholic Church continues to celebrate a number of early and medieval <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saints</a> related to alcohol—for instance, <a href="/wiki/Adrian_of_Nicomedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Adrian of Nicomedia">St. Adrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patron_saint" title="Patron saint">patron saint</a> of beer; <a href="/wiki/Saint_Amand" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Amand">St. Amand</a>, patron saint of <a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">brewers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bartender" title="Bartender">barkeepers</a>, and wine <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">merchants</a>; <a href="/wiki/Martin_of_Tours" title="Martin of Tours">St. Martin</a>, the so-called patron saint of wine; <a href="/wiki/Vincent_of_Saragossa" title="Vincent of Saragossa">St. Vincent</a>, patron saint of <a href="/wiki/Vintner" class="mw-redirect" title="Vintner">vintners</a>.<a href="#cite_note-West-123">[123]</a> Wine has a place in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">divine services</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, not only in the celebration of the <a href="/wiki/Divine_Liturgy" title="Divine Liturgy">Divine Liturgy</a> (Eucharist), but also at the <a href="/wiki/Artoklassia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artoklassia">artoklassia</a> (blessing of bread, wine, wheat and oil during the <a href="/wiki/All_Night_Vigil" class="mw-redirect" title="All Night Vigil">All Night Vigil</a>) and in the "common cup" of wine which is shared by the bride and groom during an Orthodox <a href="/wiki/Wedding" title="Wedding">wedding</a> service. A small amount of warm wine (<a href="/wiki/Zapivka" title="Zapivka">zapivka</a>) is taken by the faithful together with a piece of <a href="/wiki/Antidoron" title="Antidoron">antidoron</a> after receiving <a href="/wiki/Holy_Communion" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Communion">Holy Communion</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian Orthodox Church</a> wine is used in the celebration of a service known as the <a href="/wiki/Slava_(tradition)" title="Slava (tradition)">Slava</a> on <a href="/wiki/Feast_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Feast day">feast days</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fasting#Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Fasting">fasting rules</a> of the Orthodox Church forbid the consumption of wine (and by extension, all alcoholic beverages) on most <a href="/wiki/Fasting#Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Fasting">fast days</a> throughout the year. The Orthodox celebrate <a href="/wiki/Tryphon,_Respicius,_and_Nympha" title="Tryphon, Respicius, and Nympha">St. Tryphon</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Patron_saint" title="Patron saint">patron saint</a> of vines and vineyard workers.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> "Of course, no events have been found in the life of the saint that show a special relationship among him and vineyard or wine."<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reformation">Reformation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reformation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_alcohol#Early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="History of alcohol">History of alcohol § Early modern period</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a> made wine but avoided drunkenness.<a href="#cite_note-Sauceman_2006_p._38-133">[133]</a> <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a> reformed Zurich in many ways; in 1530 he reduced the closing time of taverns to 9 pm.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> He warned: "Let every youth flee from intemperance as he would from a poison ... it makes furious the body, ... it brings on premature old age."<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> The monks under the Papacy refused to abstain from drinking: this astonished <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a>. He said they merely abstained from certain foods instead. He contrasted them against the dignified <a href="/wiki/Nazarites" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazarites">Nazarites</a> and the priests who were forbidden the use of wine in the Jewish Temple.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> With Calvin at Geneva, "Low taverns and drinking shops were abolished, and intemperance diminished."<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> However, Calvin's annual salary in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> included seven barrels of wine.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> <a href="/wiki/Formula_of_Concord" title="Formula of Concord">Formula of Concord</a> (1576)<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christian_confessions_of_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed Christian confessions of faith">Reformed Christian confessions of faith</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> make explicit mention of and assume the use of wine, as does the <a href="/wiki/1689_Baptist_Confession_of_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="1689 Baptist Confession of Faith">1689 Baptist Confession of Faith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Dordrecht_Confession_of_Faith" title="Dordrecht Confession of Faith">Dordrecht Confession of Faith</a> (1632), even the radical <a href="/wiki/Anabaptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptist">Anabaptists</a>, who sought to expunge every trace of Roman Catholicism and to rely only on the Bible, also assumed wine was to be used,<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> and despite their reputation as killjoys,<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> the English <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritans</a> were temperate partakers of "God's good gifts," including wine and ale.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_America">Colonial America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Colonial America">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_alcoholic_beverages#Colonial_America" class="mw-redirect" title="History of alcoholic beverages">History of alcoholic beverages § Colonial America</a></div> As the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrims_(Plymouth_Colony)" title="Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)">Pilgrims</a> set out for America, they brought a considerable amount of alcohol with them for the voyage (more than 28,617 <a href="/wiki/Litre" title="Litre">liters</a> = 7,560 <a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">gallons</a>, or 4 litres/person/day),<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> and once settled, they served alcohol at "virtually all functions, including ordinations, funerals, and regular Sabbath meals."<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> M. E. Lender summarizes the "colonists had assimilated alcohol use, based on Old World patterns, into their community lifestyles" and that "[l]ocal brewing began almost as soon as the colonists were safely ashore."<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Increase_Mather" title="Increase Mather">Increase Mather</a>, a prominent <a href="/wiki/Colonial_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial America">colonial</a> <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergyman</a> and president of <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a>, expressed the common view in a sermon against drunkenness: "Drink is in itself a good creature of God, and to be received with thankfulness, but the abuse of drink is from Satan; the wine is from God, but the drunkard is from the Devil."<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> This <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> attitude is likewise found among the early <a href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodists</a> (<a href="/wiki/Charles_Wesley" title="Charles Wesley">Charles Wesley</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Whitefield" title="George Whitefield">George Whitefield</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Clarke" title="Adam Clarke">Adam Clarke</a>,<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Coke_(bishop)" title="Thomas Coke (bishop)">Thomas Coke</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> (<a href="/wiki/John_Gill_(theologian)" title="John Gill (theologian)">John Gill</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Bunyan" title="John Bunyan">John Bunyan</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methodism">Methodism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Methodism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Paradise_-_Francis_Asbury_-_NPG.90.82_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/John_Paradise_-_Francis_Asbury_-_NPG.90.82_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg/220px-John_Paradise_-_Francis_Asbury_-_NPG.90.82_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/John_Paradise_-_Francis_Asbury_-_NPG.90.82_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg/330px-John_Paradise_-_Francis_Asbury_-_NPG.90.82_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/John_Paradise_-_Francis_Asbury_-_NPG.90.82_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg/440px-John_Paradise_-_Francis_Asbury_-_NPG.90.82_-_National_Portrait_Gallery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="597" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>18th-century Methodist bishop <a href="/wiki/Francis_Asbury" title="Francis Asbury">Francis Asbury</a> held that abstinence from alcoholic beverages is "highly necessary for the divine life."</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="line-height:1.4em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Methodism" title="Category:Methodism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;font-size:160%;"><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Wesley_clipped.png" class="mw-file-description" title="John Wesley"><img alt="John Wesley" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/John_Wesley_clipped.png/125px-John_Wesley_clipped.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/John_Wesley_clipped.png/188px-John_Wesley_clipped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/John_Wesley_clipped.png/250px-John_Wesley_clipped.png 2x" data-file-width="283" data-file-height="349" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption" style="padding-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Background</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Methodism#Origins" title="Methodism">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Methodism_in_the_United_States" title="History of Methodism in the United States">in the United States</a>)</div></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">Nonconformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_theology" title="Wesleyan theology">Wesleyan theology</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methodist_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist doctrine">Doctrine</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Doctrinal standards</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creeds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles' Creed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Religion_(Methodist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articles of Religion (Methodist)">Articles of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermons_on_Several_Occasions" class="mw-redirect" title="Sermons on Several Occasions">Sermons on Several Occasions</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_Notes_Upon_the_New_Testament" title="Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament">Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament</a></div></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> Distinctive beliefs and practices</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assurance_(theology)#John_Wesley_and_Methodism" title="Assurance (theology)">Assurance of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_preservation_of_the_saints" title="Conditional preservation of the saints">Conditional preservation of the saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priesthood_of_all_believers" title="Priesthood of all believers">Priesthood of all believers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_Quadrilateral" title="Wesleyan Quadrilateral">Four sources of theological authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_theology" title="Covenant theology">Covenant theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substitutionary_atonement" title="Substitutionary atonement">Substitutionary atonement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imparted_righteousness" title="Imparted righteousness">Imparted righteousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments#Methodist" title="Ten Commandments">Moral law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">New birth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will_in_theology#Classical_Arminianism_and_Wesleyan_Arminianism" title="Free will in theology">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outward_holiness" title="Outward holiness">Outward holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevenient_grace" title="Prevenient grace">Prevenient grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_presence_of_Christ_in_the_Eucharist#Methodist" title="Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist">Real presence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctification_in_Christianity#Methodist" title="Sanctification in Christianity">Sanctification (growth in grace)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunday_Sabbatarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunday Sabbatarianism">Sunday Sabbatarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_perfection" title="Christian perfection">Christian perfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_work_of_grace" title="Second work of grace">Second work of grace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_with_the_Holy_Spirit#Entire_sanctification" title="Baptism with the Holy Spirit">Baptism with the Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin#Methodist_views" title="Christian views on sin">Views on sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_piety" title="Works of piety">Works of piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_of_mercy" title="Works of mercy">Works of mercy</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methodist_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist worship">Worship</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Sunday_Service_of_the_Methodists" title="The Sunday Service of the Methodists">The Sunday Service of the Methodists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_Renewal_Service" title="Covenant Renewal Service">Covenant Renewal Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_meeting" title="Revival meeting">Revival service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altar_call" title="Altar call">Altar call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mourner%27s_bench" title="Mourner's bench">Mourner's bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle_(Methodist)" title="Tabernacle (Methodist)">Tabernacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tent_revival" title="Tent revival">Tent revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brush_arbour_revival" title="Brush arbour revival">Brush arbour revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agape_feast" title="Agape feast">Lovefeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watchnight_service" title="Watchnight service">Watchnight service</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Methodists" title="List of Methodists">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wesley" title="Charles Wesley">Charles Wesley</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Allen_(bishop)" title="Richard Allen (bishop)">Richard Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Asbury" title="Francis Asbury">Francis Asbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Coke_(bishop)" title="Thomas Coke (bishop)">Thomas Coke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Fletcher" title="John William Fletcher">John William Fletcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_Scott" title="Orange Scott">Orange Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Williams_Pantycelyn" title="William Williams Pantycelyn">William Williams Pantycelyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._T._Roberts" title="B. T. Roberts">Benjamin Titus Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Ashbel_Sellew" title="Walter Ashbel Sellew">Walter Ashbel Sellew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howell_Harris" title="Howell Harris">Howell Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Outler" title="Albert Outler">Albert Outler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Varick" title="James Varick">James Varick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selina_Hastings,_Countess_of_Huntingdon" title="Selina Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon">Countess of Huntingdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoebe_Palmer" title="Phoebe Palmer">Phoebe Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Whitefield" title="George Whitefield">George Whitefield</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Methodist_bishops" title="Category:Methodist bishops">Bishops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Methodist_theologians" title="List of Methodist theologians">Theologians</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Groups</li><li>Churches</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Methodist_Church_of_Great_Britain" title="Methodist Church of Great Britain">Methodist Church of Great Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Methodist_Church" title="Free Methodist Church">Free Methodist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Methodist_Church" title="United Methodist Church">United Methodist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Methodist_Council" title="World Methodist Council">World Methodist Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Methodist_Church" title="Global Methodist Church">Global Methodist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Methodist_denominations" title="List of Methodist denominations">Other Methodist denominations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Organization</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Connexionalism" title="Connexionalism">Connexionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Conference_(Methodism)" title="General Conference (Methodism)">General Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodist_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist Circuit">Methodist Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_charge" title="Pastoral charge">Pastoral charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Class meeting">Class meeting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penitent_band" title="Penitent band">Penitent band</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Related groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_holiness_movement" title="Conservative holiness movement">Conservative holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_Pentecostalism" title="Holiness Pentecostalism">Holiness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#f8e0e0;;background:#f8e0e0;;color: var(--color-base)">Other relevant topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saints_in_Methodism" title="Saints in Methodism">Saints in Methodism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Methodism">Methodist views on alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodist_local_preacher" title="Methodist local preacher">Methodist local preacher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_preacher" title="Itinerant preacher">Itinerant preacher</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_rider_(religious)" title="Circuit rider (religious)">Circuit rider</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steward_(Methodism)" title="Steward (Methodism)">Steward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_Methodism" title="Homosexuality and Methodism">Homosexuality and Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_of_women_in_Methodism" title="Ordination of women in Methodism">Ordination of women in Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishops_in_Methodism" title="Bishops in Methodism">Bishops in Methodism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> • <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Methodism" title="Template:Methodism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Methodism" title="Template talk:Methodism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Methodism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Methodism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> At the time that <a href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodist</a> founder <a href="/wiki/John_Wesley" title="John Wesley">John Wesley</a> lived, "alcohol was divided between '<a href="/wiki/Ardent_spirit" title="Ardent spirit">ardent spirits</a>,' which included whisky, rum, gin, and brandy, and fermented drinks, such as wine, cider, and beer."<a href="#cite_note-Semple1996-153">[153]</a> In a sermon he warned: "You see the wine when it sparkles in the cup, and are going to drink of it. I tell you there is poison in it! and, therefore, beg you to throw it away".<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> In an early letter to his mother Susanna, he simply dismissed those who thought she was unusual and too restrictive to have but one glass of wine.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> In a series of letters dated to 1789, he noted that experiments prove "ale without hops will keep just as well as the other"—thus he directly contradicted claims by vested interests, whom he likened to the pretentious silversmiths who stirred up violence: 'Sir, by this means we get our wealth.' (Acts 19:25). He rejected their claims of wholesomeness for this poisonous herb.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Wesley, beyond many in his era, deplored <a href="/wiki/Distilled_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled beverage">distilled beverages</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">brandy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Whisky" title="Whisky">whisky</a> when they were used non-medicinally, and he said the many <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillers</a> who sold indiscriminately to anyone were nothing more than poisoners and murderers accursed by God.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> In 1744, the directions the Wesleys gave to the Methodist <a href="/wiki/Governance_of_the_British_Methodist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Governance of the British Methodist Church">band societies</a> (small groups of Methodists intended to support living a holy life) required them "to taste no spirituous [i.e., <a href="/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">distilled</a>] liquor ... unless prescribed by a physician."<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Early advocacy for abstentionism in Methodism arose in America. At the 1780 <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</a> Conference in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, the churchmen opposed distilled liquors and determined to "disown those who would not renounce the practice" of producing it.<a href="#cite_note-Bangs-159">[159]</a> In opposing liquors, the American Methodists anticipated the first wave of the temperance movement that would follow.<a href="#cite_note-Bangs-159">[159]</a> They expanded their membership rule regarding alcohol to include other alcoholic beverages over the next century. Despite pressure from interested parties to relax rules of all kinds, the American Methodists afterwards reverted to Wesley's—namely, to avoid "[d]runkenness, buying or selling spirituous [i.e., distilled] liquors, or drinking them, unless in cases of extreme necessity".<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Bishops in America <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Coke_(bishop)" title="Thomas Coke (bishop)">Thomas Coke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Asbury" title="Francis Asbury">Francis Asbury</a> commented that frequent fasting and abstinence are "highly necessary for the divine life."<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> Asbury strongly urged citizens to lay aside the use of alcohol.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Likewise, the listed duties for Methodist preachers indicate that they should choose water as their common drink and use wine only in medicinal or <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacramental</a> contexts,<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Methodist Bible commentator <a href="/wiki/Adam_Clarke" title="Adam Clarke">Adam Clarke</a> held that the fruit of the vine at the Last Supper was pure and incomparable to what some think of as wine today.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Wesley's <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Religion_(Methodist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Articles of Religion (Methodist)">Articles of Religion</a>, adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Episcopal_Church" title="Methodist Episcopal Church">Methodist Episcopal Church</a> (a precursor of the <a href="/wiki/United_Methodist_Church" title="United Methodist Church">United Methodist Church</a>) in 1784, rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation of elements in the Lord's Supper (Article XVIII), and said the use of both bread and the cup together extends to all the people (Article XIX), not only one element for laymen and two for ministers as in the Catholic practice of the time.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Clarke" title="Adam Clarke">Adam Clarke</a> explained 1 Cor. 11:21-22: "One was hungry, and the other was drunken, μεθυει, was filled to the full; this is the sense of the word in many places of Scripture."<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Likewise, Coke and Asbury commented on it saying Paul's objection here concerned the Corinthians (including laymen) and "... their both eating and drinking most intemperately" thereby despising the Church of God and shaming those who have nothing.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Later, British Methodists, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Methodism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Primitive Methodism in the United Kingdom">Primitive Methodists</a>, took a leading role in the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Temperance movement in the United Kingdom">temperance movement in Britain</a> during the 19th and early-20th centuries. Methodists saw alcoholic beverages, and <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>, as the root of many <a href="/wiki/Social_ills" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ills">social ills</a> and tried to persuade people to abstain from these.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Temperance appealed strongly to the Methodist doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Christian_perfection" title="Christian perfection">sanctification and perfection</a>. This continues to be reflected in the teaching of certain Methodist denominations today. For example, ¶91 of the 2014 Discipline of the <a href="/wiki/Allegheny_Wesleyan_Methodist_Connection" title="Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection">Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection</a> states:<a href="#cite_note-AWMC2014-169">[169]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">We believe total abstinence from all intoxicating liquors as a beverage to be the duty of all Christians. We heartily favor moral suasion and the gospel remedy to save men from the drink habit. We believe that law must be an adjunct of moral means in order to suppress the traffic side of this evil. We believe that the State and the citizen each has solemn responsibilities and duties to perform in regard to this evil. We believe that for the State to enact any law to license or tax the traffic, or derive revenues therefrom, is contrary to the policy of good government, and brings the State into guilty complicity with the traffic and all the evils growing out of it, and is also unscriptural and sinful in principle and ought to be opposed by every Christian and patriot. We therefore believe that the only true and proper remedy for the gigantic evil of the liquor traffic is its entire suppression; and that all our people and true Christians everywhere should pray and vote against this evil, and not suffer themselves to be controlled by or support political parties which are managed in the interest of the drink traffic.<a href="#cite_note-AWMC2014-169">[169]</a></blockquote> However, in the mainline British Methodist Church, the Commission on Methodism and Total Abstinence in 1972 reported that only 30% of ministers affirmed their total abstention from alcohol. Discerning merits in both abstinent and non-abstinent perspectives, the report proposed evaluating alcohol concerns within the broader context of other drug-related issues. In a subsequent report to the <a href="/wiki/Methodist_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist Conference">Methodist Conference</a> in 1987 titled "Through a Glass Darkly", a more extensive reconsideration of attitudes was undertaken; it recommended that Methodists commit to either total abstinence or responsible drinking (moderationism).<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> The 2000 Methodist Conference re-affirmed the church's position on personal consumption and the prohibition of alcohol supply, sale or use on Methodist premises (except private residences).<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temperance_movement">Temperance movement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Temperance movement">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">Temperance movement</a></div> In the midst of the social upheaval accompanying the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> induced by the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, drunkenness was on the rise and was blamed as a major contributor to the increasing poverty, unemployment, and crime. Yet the temperate sentiments of the Methodists were shared only by a few others, until the publication of a tract by eminent physician and patriot <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a>, who argued against the use of "ardent spirits" (i.e., distilled alcohol), introduced the notion of addiction, and prescribed abstinence as the only cure.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Some prominent preachers like <a href="/wiki/Lyman_Beecher" title="Lyman Beecher">Lyman Beecher</a> picked up on Rush's theme and galvanized the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance movement</a> to action. Though losing influence during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, afterward the movement experienced its second wave, spearheaded by the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's Christian Temperance Union">Women's Christian Temperance Union</a>, and it was so successful in achieving its goals that <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Booth" title="Catherine Booth">Catherine Booth</a>, co-founder of the <a href="/wiki/Salvation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvation Army">Salvation Army</a>, could observe in 1879 that in America "almost every [Protestant] Christian minister has become an abstainer."<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> The movement saw the passage of anti-drinking laws in several states and peaked in its political power in 1919 with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, which established prohibition as the law of the entire country but which was repealed in 1933 by the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-first Amendment</a>. Initially the vast majority of the temperance movement had opposed only distilled alcohol,<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> which they saw as making drunkenness inexpensive and easy, and espoused moderation and temperance in the use of other alcoholic beverages. Fueled in part by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a>, which emphasized personal <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">holiness</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Christian_perfection" title="Christian perfection">perfectionism</a>, the temperance message changed to the outright elimination of alcohol.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-ProtTrans4-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Bramwell_Welch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Thomas_Bramwell_Welch.jpg/220px-Thomas_Bramwell_Welch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e0/Thomas_Bramwell_Welch.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="296" data-file-height="364" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bramwell_Welch" title="Thomas Bramwell Welch">Thomas Bramwell Welch</a> developed a <a href="/wiki/Pasteurization" title="Pasteurization">pasteurization</a> technique that prevented the fermentation of grape juice</figcaption></figure> Consequently, alcohol itself became an evil in the eyes of many (but not all) abstainers and so had to be expunged from Christian practice—especially from the holy rite of the Lord's Supper.<a href="#cite_note-ProtTrans4-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> The use of a grape-based drink other than wine for the Lord's Supper took a strong hold in many churches, including American Protestantism, though some churches had detractors who thought wine was to be given strong preference in the rite. Some denominational statements required "unfermented wine" for the Lord's Supper. For example, the Wesleyan Methodists (since founded 1843, some fifty years after Wesley's death) required "unfermented wine".<a href="#cite_note-TuckerKaren-181">[181]</a> Since grape juice begins naturally fermenting upon pressing, opponents of wine utilized alternate methods of creating their ritual drink such as reconstituting concentrated grape juice, boiling raisins, or adding preservatives to delay fermenting and souring.<a href="#cite_note-BacchiocchiSamuele-182">[182]</a> In 1869, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bramwell_Welch" title="Thomas Bramwell Welch">Thomas Bramwell Welch</a>, an ordained Wesleyan Methodist minister,<a href="#cite_note-HallettAnthony-183">[183]</a> discovered a way to <a href="/wiki/Pasteurization" title="Pasteurization">pasteurize</a> grape juice, and he used his particular preservation method to prepare juice for the Lord's Supper at a Methodist Episcopal church. From 1838 to 1845, <a href="/wiki/Theobald_Mathew_(temperance_reformer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theobald Mathew (temperance reformer)">Father Mathew</a>, the Irish apostle of temperance, administered an abstinence pledge to some three to four million of his countrymen, though his efforts had little permanent effect there, and then starting in 1849 to more than 500,000 Americans, chiefly his fellow Irish Catholics, who formed local temperance societies but whose influence was limited. In 1872 the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Total_Abstinence_Union_of_America" title="Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America">Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America</a> united these societies and by 1913 reached some 90,000 members including the juvenile, women's, and priestly contingents. The Union pursued a platform of "moral suasion" rather than legislative prohibition and received two papal commendations. In 1878 <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a> praised the Union's determination to abolish drunkenness and "all incentive to it," and in 1906 <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a> lauded its efforts in "persuading men to practise one of the principal Christian virtues — temperance."<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> By the time the Eighteenth Amendment was up for consideration, however, <a href="/wiki/Sebastian_Gebhard_Messmer" title="Sebastian Gebhard Messmer">Archbishop Messmer</a> of <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee" title="Milwaukee">Milwaukee</a> denounced the prohibition movement as being founded on an "absolutely false principle" and as trying to undermine the Church's "most sacred mystery," the Eucharist, and he forbade pastors in his <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">archdiocese</a> from assisting the movement but suggested they preach on moderation.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> In the end, Catholicism was largely unaffected in doctrine and practice by the movements to eliminate alcohol from church life,<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> and it retained its emphasis on the virtue of temperance in all things.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Similarly, while the <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> churches felt some pressure, they did not alter their moderationist position. Even the English <a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">denominational</a> temperance societies refused to make abstention a requirement for membership, and their position remained moderationist in character.<a href="#cite_note-Crusade-189">[189]</a> It was non-Lutheran Protestantism from which the temperance movement drew its greatest strength.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-Engs-191">[191]</a> Many Methodists, Presbyterians,<a href="#cite_note-presbyterians-alcohol-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> and other Protestants signed on to the prohibitionist platform. The 1881 assembly of the <a href="/wiki/United_Presbyterian_Church_of_North_America" title="United Presbyterian Church of North America">United Presbyterian Church of North America</a> said "the common traffic in, and the moderate use of intoxicants as a beverage are the source of all these evils."<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> In 1843, the <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" title="Presbyterian Church in the United States of America">Presbyterian Church in the United States of America</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_general_assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian general assembly">general assembly</a> (generally considered part of the conservative <a href="/wiki/Old_School%E2%80%93New_School_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Old School–New School Controversy">Old School</a>) considered and narrowly rejected making the selling of alcoholic beverages grounds for <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunication</a> from the church.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> (Religious Society of Friends) came to be a strong influence for the temperance cause.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> By the 1830s, Quakers were in agreement with the dominant moral philosophy of this era in regarding distilling spirits as sinful while accepting beer brewing.<a href="#cite_note-Mathias299-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> Several prominent Quaker families in this era were involved in large London breweries.<a href="#cite_note-Mathias299-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> The legislative and social effects resulting from the temperance movement peaked in the early 20th century and began to decline afterward.<a href="#cite_note-DrinkWhat-200">[200]</a> The effects on church practice were primarily a phenomenon in American Protestantism and to a lesser extent in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nordic_countries" title="Nordic countries">Nordic countries</a>, and a few other places.<a href="#cite_note-Engs-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> The practice of the Protestant churches were slower to revert, and some bodies, though now rejecting their formerly prohibitionist platform, still retain vestiges of it such as using grape juice alone or beside wine in the Lord's Supper. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_views">Current views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Current views">edit</a>]</div> Today, the views on alcohol in Christianity can be divided into moderationism, abstentionism, and prohibitionism. Abstentionists and prohibitionists are sometimes lumped together as "<a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">teetotalers</a>", sharing some similar arguments. However, prohibitionists abstain from alcohol as a matter of law (that is, they believe God requires abstinence in all ordinary circumstances), while abstentionists abstain as a matter of prudence (that is, they believe total abstinence is the wisest and most loving way to live in the present circumstances).<a href="#cite_note-Gentry-12">[12]</a> Some groups of Christians fall entirely or virtually entirely into one of these categories, while others are divided between them. Fifty-two percent of <a href="/wiki/Evangelicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelicals">Evangelical</a> leaders around the world say drinking alcohol is incompatible with being a good Evangelical. Even now, nominally "Christian" countries still have 42% who say it is incompatible.<a href="#cite_note-Global-Survey-Evangelical-Protestant-Leaders-202">[202]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Christian_Temperance_Union" title="Woman's Christian Temperance Union">Woman's Christian Temperance Union</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">ecumenical</a> Christian organization with members from various <a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">denominational</a> backgrounds that work together to promote <a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">teetotalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rollins2005-203">[203]</a> Within the Catholic Church, the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Total_Abstinence_Association" title="Pioneer Total Abstinence Association">Pioneer Total Abstinence Association</a> is a <a href="/wiki/List_of_temperance_organizations" title="List of temperance organizations">teetotal temperance organization</a> that requires of its members complete abstinence from alcoholic drink as an expression of devotion to the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Heart" title="Sacred Heart">Sacred Heart of Jesus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Martin2014-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moderationism">Moderationism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Moderationism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">Moderation</a></div> The moderationist position is held by <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholics">Roman Catholics</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a>,<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> and within Protestantism, it is accepted by <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-COE-17">[17]</a> Lutherans<a href="#cite_note-ELCA-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Reformed_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed churches">Reformed churches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-UCC-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-CRCNA-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> Moderationism is also accepted by <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Moderationism argues that, according to the biblical and traditional witness, (1) alcohol is a good gift of God that is rightly used in the Eucharist and for making the heart merry, and (2) while its dangers are real, it may be used wisely and moderately rather than being shunned or prohibited because of potential abuse.<a href="#cite_note-ProtTrans1-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-ProtTrans4-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meyers1-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meyers2-215">[215]</a> Moderationism holds that temperance (that is, moderation or self-control) in all of one's behavior, not abstinence, is the biblical norm.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gonzales-217">[217]</a> On the first point, moderationists reflect the Hebrew mindset that all creation is good.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Canons_of_the_Apostles" class="mw-redirect" title="Canons of the Apostles">Canons of the Apostles</a>, which became part of <a href="/wiki/Canon_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon Law">Canon Law</a> in the eastern and western Churches, likewise allows Church leaders and laity to abstain from wine for <a href="/wiki/Mortification_of_the_flesh" title="Mortification of the flesh">mortification of the flesh</a> but requires that they not "abominate" or detest it, which attitude "blasphemously abuses" the good creation.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Going further, <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> says that "it is lawful to use wine not only in cases of necessity, but also thereby to make us merry,"<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> and in his Genevan Catechism, he answers that wine is appropriate in the Lord's Supper because "by wine the hearts of men are gladdened, their strength recruited, and the whole man strengthened, so by the blood of our Lord the same benefits are received by our souls."<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> On the second point, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> employs a <a href="/wiki/Reductio_ad_absurdum" title="Reductio ad absurdum">reductio ad absurdum</a> to counter the idea that abuse should be met with disuse: "[W]e must not ... reject [or] condemn anything because it is abused ... [W]ine and women bring many a man to misery and make a fool of him (<a href="/wiki/Sirach" class="mw-redirect" title="Sirach">Ecclus</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ecclesiasticus%2019:2&version=nrsvae">19:2</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Ecclesiasticus%2031:30&version=nrsvae">31:30</a>); so [we would need to] kill all the women and pour out all the wine."<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> In dealing with drunkenness at the <a href="/wiki/Agape_feast" title="Agape feast">love feast</a> in <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-1Co11:20-22-55">[55]</a> St. Paul does not require total abstinence from drink but love for one another that would express itself in moderate, selfless behavior.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> However, moderationists approve of voluntary abstinence in several cases, such as for a person who finds it too difficult to drink in moderation and for the benefit of the "weaker brother," who would err because of a stronger Christian exercising their liberty to drink.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> While all moderationists approve of using (fermented) wine in the Eucharist in principle (Catholics, the Orthodox, and Anglicans require it),<a href="#cite_note-AltarWine-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-EucharistWine-226">[226]</a> because of prohibitionist heritage and a sensitivity to those who wish to abstain from alcohol, many offer either grape juice or both wine and juice at their celebrations of the Lord's Supper.<a href="#cite_note-ELCA-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-UCC-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-CRCNA-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> Some Christians mix some water with the wine following ancient tradition, and some attach a <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystical</a> significance to this practice.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comparison">Comparison</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Comparison">edit</a>]</div> In addition to lexical and historical differences,<a href="#cite_note-Meyers1-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> moderationism holds that prohibitionism errs by confusing the Christian virtues of temperance and moderation with abstinence and prohibition and by locating the evil in the object that is abused rather than in the heart and deeds of the abuser.<a href="#cite_note-RaymondP25-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-ProtTrans4-177">[177]</a> Moreover, moderationists suggest that the prohibitionist and abstentionist positions denigrate God's creation and his good gifts and deny that it is not what goes into a man that makes him evil but what comes out (that is, what he says and does).<a href="#cite_note-RaymondP81-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> The Bible never uses the word 'wine' of communion. Yet moderationists hold that in banishing wine from communion and dinner tables, prohibitionists and abstentionists go against the 'witness of the Bible' and the church throughout the ages and implicitly adopt a <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisaical</a> <a href="/wiki/Moralism" title="Moralism">moralism</a> that is at odds with what moderationists consider the right approach to biblical <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> and the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanctification" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctification">sanctification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Meyers2-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abstentionism">Abstentionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Abstentionism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">Teetotalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abstinence" title="Abstinence">Abstinence</a></div> The abstentionist position is held by many <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a>,<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Methodists" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodists">Methodists</a>,<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Nazarene" title="Church of the Nazarene">Nazarenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentecostals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostals">Pentecostals</a>,<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Evangelical" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelical">evangelical</a> <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> groups including the <a href="/wiki/Salvation_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvation Army">Salvation Army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SalvArmy-237">[237]</a> Prominent proponents of abstentionism include <a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a>,<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_F._MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. MacArthur">John F. MacArthur</a>,<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> <a href="/wiki/R._Albert_Mohler,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="R. Albert Mohler, Jr.">R. Albert Mohler, Jr.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Piper_(theologian)" title="John Piper (theologian)">John Piper</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Piper-241">[241]</a> Abstentionists believe that although alcohol consumption is not inherently sinful or necessarily to be avoided in all circumstances, it is generally not the wisest or most prudent choice.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Many abstentionists do not require abstinence from alcohol for membership in their churches, though they do often require it for leadership positions (as with many Baptist churches), while other abstentionist denominations require abstinence from alcohol for all their members, both clergy and laypersons (as with the <a href="/wiki/Bible_Methodist_Connection_of_Churches" title="Bible Methodist Connection of Churches">Bible Methodist Connection of Churches</a>).<a href="#cite_note-MacArthurQ&A-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Piper-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-Akin-243">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Some reasons commonly given for voluntary abstention are: <ol><li>The Bible warns that alcohol can hinder moral discretion. Proverbs 31:4-5 warns kings and rulers that they might "forget what is decreed, and pervert the rights of all the afflicted." Some abstentionists speak of alcohol as "corrupt[ing]" the body and as a substance that can "impair my judgment and further distract me from God's will for my life."<a href="#cite_note-Land-245">[245]</a></li> <li>Christians must be sensitive to the "weaker brother", that is, the Christian who believes imbibing to be a sin. On this point MacArthur says, "[T]he primary reason I don't do a lot of things I could do, including drinking wine or any alcoholic beverage, [is] because I know some believers would be offended by it ... [M]any Christians will drink their beer and wine and flaunt their liberty no matter what anyone thinks. Consequently, there is a rift in the fellowship."<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a></li> <li>Christians should make a public statement against drunkenness because of the negative consequences it can have on individuals, families, and society as a whole. Some abstentionists believe that their witness as persons of <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">moral character</a> is also enhanced by this choice.<a href="#cite_note-Akin-243">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-Land-245">[245]</a></li></ol> Additionally, abstentionists argue that while drinking may have been more acceptable in ancient times (for instance, using wine to purify <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">polluted</a> drinking water),<a href="#cite_note-MacArthurQ&A-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> modern circumstances have changed the nature of a Christian's responsibility in this area. First, some abstentionists argue that wine in biblical times was weaker and diluted with water such that drunkenness was less common,<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> though few non-abstentionists accept this claim as wholly accurate<a href="#cite_note-GentryUndiluted-81">[81]</a> or conclusive.<a href="#cite_note-Gonzales-217">[217]</a> Also, the invention of more efficient distillation techniques has led to more potent and cheaper alcohol, which in turn has lessened the economic barrier to drinking to excess compared to biblical times.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comparison_2">Comparison</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Comparison">edit</a>]</div> On historical and lexical grounds, many abstentionists reject the argument of prohibitionists that wine in the Bible was not alcoholic and that imbibing is nearly always a sin.<a href="#cite_note-SchaffHerzog-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-MacArthurQ&A-26">[26]</a> Piper summarizes the abstentionist position on this point: <dl><dd>The consumption of food and drink is in itself no basis for judging a person's standing with God ... [The Apostle Paul's] approach to these abuses [of food and drink] was never to forbid food or drink. It was always to forbid what destroyed God's temple and injured faith. He taught the principle of love, but did not determine its application with regulations in matters of food and drink.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a></dd></dl> Abstentionists also reject the position of moderationists that in many circumstances Christians should feel free to drink for pleasure because abstentionists see alcohol as inherently too dangerous and not "a necessity for life or good living,"<a href="#cite_note-MacArthurDrunk2-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Akin-243">[243]</a> with some even going so far as to say, "Moderation is the cause of the liquor problem."<a href="#cite_note-Akin-243">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prohibitionism">Prohibitionism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Prohibitionism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">Teetotalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">Prohibition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abstinence" title="Abstinence">Abstinence</a></div> Most <a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadian Pietist Lutheran</a> congregations ("Finnish Lutherans"), such as the First Apostolic Lutheran Church, dominated by Finns in Michigan and Minnesota, are ambivalently against alcoholic consumption, as the Church has roots as a <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">U.S. Prohibition</a> movement during the early twentieth century, many Finnish Lutherans were elected to <a href="/wiki/65th_United_States_Congress" title="65th United States Congress">Congress</a>, propelling the earliest stages towards the <a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">ratification</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eighteenth Amendment</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">United States Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Certain Methodist denominations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Methodist_Church_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelical Methodist Church Conference">Evangelical Methodist Church Conference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allegheny_Wesleyan_Methodist_Connection" title="Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection">Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection</a>, teach prohibitionism.<a href="#cite_note-EMCC2017-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-AWMC2014-169">[169]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist Church</a>, members must also abide by a health code that includes not drinking alcohol or consuming any other recreational drugs.<a href="#cite_note-:0-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-255">[255]</a> North American Adventist health study recruitments from 2001-2007 found that 93.4% of Adventists <a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">abstained from drinking alcohol</a>, 98.9% were non-smokers, and only 54% ate meat.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Studies have also shown that Adventist members are healthier and live longer. <a href="/wiki/Dan_Buettner" title="Dan Buettner">Dan Buettner</a> has named <a href="/wiki/Loma_Linda,_California" title="Loma Linda, California">Loma Linda, California</a> a "<a href="/wiki/Blue_Zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue Zone">Blue Zone</a>" of longevity, and attributes that to the large concentration of Seventh-day Adventists and their health practices.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a>, the largest body of the <a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a>, teaches that "God has spoken against the use of ... [a]lcohol". The church's leaders base this teaching on a revelation received by the prophet <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Smith" title="Joseph Smith">Joseph Smith</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Word_of_Wisdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Word of Wisdom">Word of Wisdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Benson-259">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Influential_organizations">Influential organizations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Influential organizations">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Williambooth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Williambooth.jpg/170px-Williambooth.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Williambooth.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>William Booth of the Salvation Army</figcaption></figure>Other prohibitionist organizations advocate for the cause prohibition but do not require their members to follow the rule,<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> and the prohibitionist position has experienced a general reduction of support since the days of the <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance movement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prohibitionism" title="Prohibitionism">prohibitionism</a>, with many advocates instead becoming abstentionists.<a href="#cite_note-DrinkWhat-200">[200]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention" title="Southern Baptist Convention">Southern Baptist Convention</a> resolved that their "churches be urged to give their full moral support to the prohibition cause, and to give a more liberal financial support to dry organizations which stand for the united action of our people against the liquor traffic."<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-sbc-264">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> Influential Baptist preacher <a href="/wiki/Charles_Spurgeon" title="Charles Spurgeon">Charles Spurgeon</a> wrote: "I wish the man who made the law to open them had to keep all the families that they have brought to ruin. Beer shops are the enemies of the home; therefore, the sooner their licenses are taken away, the better."<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> The founder of <a href="/wiki/The_Salvation_Army" title="The Salvation Army">The Salvation Army</a><a href="#cite_note-SalvArmy-237">[237]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Booth" title="William Booth">William Booth</a> was a prohibitionist, and saw alcohol as evil in itself and not safe for anyone to drink in moderation.<a href="#cite_note-BoothWilliam-268">[268]</a> In 1990, the Salvation Army re-affirms: "It would be inconsistent for any Salvationist to drink while at the same time seeking to help others to give it up."<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Wilkerson" title="David Wilkerson">David Wilkerson</a> founder of the <a href="/wiki/Teen_Challenge" class="mw-redirect" title="Teen Challenge">Teen Challenge</a> rehabilitation organization, said similar things to <a href="/wiki/Assemblies_of_God" title="Assemblies of God">Assemblies of God</a>: "a little alcohol is too much since drinking in moderation provides Satan an opening to cruel deception."<a href="#cite_note-AOG-270">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilkerson-271">[271]</a> <a href="/wiki/Billy_Sunday" title="Billy Sunday">Billy Sunday</a>, an influential <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelical Christian">evangelical Christian</a>, said: "After all is said that can be said on the liquor traffic, its influence is degrading on the individual, the family, politics and business and upon everything that you touch in this old world."<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bible_interpretations">Bible interpretations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bible interpretations">edit</a>]</div> Prohibitionists such as Stephen Reynolds<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-275">[275]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jack_Van_Impe" title="Jack Van Impe">Jack Van Impe</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> hold that the Bible forbids partaking of alcohol altogether, with some arguing that the alleged medicinal use of wine in 1 Timothy 5:23 is a reference to unfermented grape juice.<a href="#cite_note-Bacchiocchi-21">[21]</a> They argue that the words for alcoholic beverages in the Bible can also refer to non-alcoholic versions such as unfermented grape juice, and for this reason the context must determine which meaning is required.<a href="#cite_note-Earle-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-275">[275]</a> In passages where the beverages are viewed negatively, prohibitionists understand them to mean the alcoholic drinks, and where they are viewed positively, they understand them to mean non-alcoholic drinks.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Prohibitionists also accuse most Bible translators of exhibiting a bias in favor of alcohol that obscures the meaning of the original texts.<a href="#cite_note-Bacchiocchi-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-275">[275]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_dietary_laws" title="Christian dietary laws">Christian dietary laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_wine" title="Noah's wine">Noah's wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_alcohol" title="Religion and alcohol">Religion and alcohol</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_views_on_alcohol&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-fruit-1"><a href="#cite_ref-fruit_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJesus_Christ" class="citation web cs1">Jesus Christ. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2026:29;Mark%2014:25;Luke%2022:18&version=NIV">"Matthew 26:29;Mark 14:25;Luke 22:18"</a>. <q>I tell you, I will not drink from this fruit of the vine from now on until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father's kingdom.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Matthew+26%3A29%3BMark+14%3A25%3BLuke+22%3A18&rft.au=Jesus+Christ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DMatthew%252026%3A29%3BMark%252014%3A25%3BLuke%252022%3A18%26amp%3Bversion%3DNIV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._V._Pierard1984" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">R. V. Pierard (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evangelicaldicti00elwe/page/28">"Alcohol, Drinking of"</a>. In Walter A. Elwell (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Dictionary_of_Theology" title="Evangelical Dictionary of Theology">Evangelical Dictionary of Theology</a>. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evangelicaldicti00elwe/page/28">28f</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8010-3413-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8010-3413-2"><bdi>0-8010-3413-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alcohol%2C+Drinking+of&rft.btitle=Evangelical+Dictionary+of+Theology&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pages=28f&rft.pub=Baker+Book+House&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-8010-3413-2&rft.au=R.+V.+Pierard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevangelicaldicti00elwe%2Fpage%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFF._L._Cross_and_E._A._Livingstone2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">F. L. Cross and E. A. Livingstone, ed. (2005). "Wine". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. p. 1767. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3"><bdi>978-0-19-280290-3</bdi></a>. <q>[W]ine has traditionally been held to be one of the essential materials for a valid Eucharist, though some have argued that unfermented grape-juice fulfils the Dominical [that is, Jesus'] command.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.pages=1767&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280290-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DomenicoHanley2006-4"><a href="#cite_ref-DomenicoHanley2006_4-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomenicoHanley2006" class="citation book cs1">Domenico, Roy P.; Hanley, Mark Y. (1 January 2006). Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32362-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32362-1"><bdi>978-0-313-32362-1</bdi></a>. <q>Drunkenness was biblically condemned, and all denominations disciplined drunken members.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Modern+Christian+Politics&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32362-1&rft.aulast=Domenico&rft.aufirst=Roy+P.&rft.au=Hanley%2C+Mark+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cobb2003-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Cobb2003_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobb2003" class="citation book cs1">Cobb, John B. (2003). Progressive Christians Speak: A Different Voice on Faith and Politics. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22589-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-22589-6"><bdi>978-0-664-22589-6</bdi></a>. <q>For most of Christian history, as in the Bible, moderate drinking of alcohol was taken for granted while drunkenness was condemned.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progressive+Christians+Speak%3A+A+Different+Voice+on+Faith+and+Politics&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-664-22589-6&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Raymond_90-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Raymond_90_6-0">^</a> Raymond, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-Eastons-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eastons_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eastons_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eastons_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eastons_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eastons_7-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/easton/ebd2.w.html?term=Wine">"Wine"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Easton%27s_Bible_Dictionary_(1897)" class="mw-redirect" title="Easton's Bible Dictionary (1897)">Easton's Bible Dictionary</a>. 1897. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine&rft.btitle=Easton%27s+Bible+Dictionary&rft.date=1897&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Feaston%2Febd2.w.html%3Fterm%3DWine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Quarles-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Quarles_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Quarles_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Quarles_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Quarles_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Quarles_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Quarles_8-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuarles2021" class="citation web cs1">Quarles, Charles L. (23 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cfc.sebts.edu/faith-and-culture/was-new-testament-wine-alcoholic/">"Was New Testament Wine Alcoholic?"</a>. Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. <q>First, ancient beverages did not contain distilled alcohol like modern alcoholic beverages often do. Distillation was invented by Arab alchemists in the 8th century long after the New Testament era. The strongest alcoholic beverage that was accessible to the New Testament authors and their original readers was natural wine that had an alcoholic content of 11-12% (before dilution). Second, ancient wine was normally diluted. Even ancient pagans considered drinking wine full strength to be a barbaric practice. They typically diluted wine with large amounts of water before the wine was consumed. A careful study of the Mishnah and Talmuds shows that the normal dilution rate among the Jews was 3 parts water to 1 part wine...This dilution rate reduces the alcohol content of New Testament wine to 2.75 to 3.0% ...Certainly, it was fermented and had a modest alcohol content. But the alcohol content was negligible by modern standards.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Was+New+Testament+Wine+Alcoholic%3F&rft.pub=Southeastern+Baptist+Theological+Seminary&rft.date=2021-07-23&rft.aulast=Quarles&rft.aufirst=Charles+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcfc.sebts.edu%2Ffaith-and-culture%2Fwas-new-testament-wine-alcoholic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-rabbinic-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rabbinic_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rabbinic_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rabbinic_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-rabbinic_9-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuarles2021" class="citation web cs1">Quarles, Charles L. (28 July 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cfc.sebts.edu/faith-and-culture/new-testament-wine-justify-modern-alcoholic-beverages/">"Does Approval of the Use of New Testament Wine Justify Use of Modern Alcoholic Beverages?"</a>. Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. <q>When the ancients referred to undiluted wine, they specified this by adding the adjective "unmixed" (ἄκρατος) which indicated that the wine had not been poured into the krater, the large mixing bowl where the wine and water were combined (Rev 14:10; Jer 32:15 LXX; Ps 74:9 LXX; Ps. Sol 8:14). The New Testament never uses this adjective to describe the wine consumed by Jesus and the disciples or to describe the wine approved for use in moderation by Christians. New Testament wine is typically heavily diluted wine...Ancient rabbis clearly prohibited consumption of undiluted wine as a beverage. Some rabbis prohibited reciting the normal blessing over wine at mealtime "until one puts water into it so that it may be drunk" (m. Ber. 7:4–5). The rabbis of the Talmud taught that undiluted wine was useful only for the preparation of medicines (b. Ber. 50b; cf. b. Nid 67b; 69b).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Does+Approval+of+the+Use+of+New+Testament+Wine+Justify+Use+of+Modern+Alcoholic+Beverages%3F&rft.pub=Southeastern+Baptist+Theological+Seminary&rft.date=2021-07-28&rft.aulast=Quarles&rft.aufirst=Charles+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcfc.sebts.edu%2Ffaith-and-culture%2Fnew-testament-wine-justify-modern-alcoholic-beverages%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-scientific-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scientific_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scientific_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVallee2015" class="citation web cs1">Vallee, Bert L. (June 1, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-conflicted-history-of-alcohol-in-western-civilization/">"The Conflicted History of Alcohol in Western Civilization"</a>. Scientific American. <q>The beverages of ancient societies may have been far lower in alcohol than their current versions, but people of the time were aware of the potentially deleterious behavioral effects of drinking. The call for temperance began quite early in Hebrew, Greek and Roman cultures and was reiterated throughout history. The Old Testament frequently disapproves of drunkenness, and the prophet Ezra and his successors integrated wine into everyday Hebrew ritual, perhaps partly to moderate undisciplined drinking, thus creating a religiously inspired and controlled form of prohibition.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Conflicted+History+of+Alcohol+in+Western+Civilization&rft.date=2015-06-01&rft.aulast=Vallee&rft.aufirst=Bert+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-conflicted-history-of-alcohol-in-western-civilization%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sasson-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sasson_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sasson_11-1">b</a> Sasson, Jack M. "The Blood of Grapes: Viticulture and Intoxication in the Hebrew Bible." Drinking in Ancient Societies; History and Culture of Drinks in the Ancient Near East. Ed. Lucio Milano. Padua: Sargon srl, 1994. 399-419. "Here is the third point: Israel, as did its neighbors, probably manufactured brandy, liqueurs and cordials by perfuming, flavoring, or sweetening its wines; and such products may too have fallen under the term 'sekar', but until the Hellenistic period there is no direct evidence that it distilled them to raise their alcoholic content. The only method our documents know about raising the alcoholic level is to augment the sugar content of grapes by drying them in the sun before they are processed for fermentation. It is possible that the same result was obtained by boiling mashed pulp; in either case, however, the wine of Hebrew carousers was relatively mild alcoholically; and to fully earn the condemnations of Hebrew prophets and moralists, revellers must drink hard and long." </li> <li id="cite_note-Gentry-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gentry_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gentry_12-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGentry2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Gentry" title="Kenneth Gentry">Gentry, Kenneth</a> (2001). God Gave Wine. Oakdown. pp. 3ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9700326-6-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-9700326-6-8"><bdi>0-9700326-6-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+Gave+Wine&rft.pages=3ff&rft.pub=Oakdown&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-9700326-6-8&rft.aulast=Gentry&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell2011-13"><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell2011_13-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2011" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Ted A. (1 December 2011). Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials. Abingdon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4267-1364-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4267-1364-4"><bdi>978-1-4267-1364-4</bdi></a>. <q>Prohibition: Methodists supported efforts for the prohibition of alcoholic beverages as a social extension of their concern for temperance or abstinence</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methodist+Doctrine%3A+The+Essentials&rft.pub=Abingdon+Press&rft.date=2011-12-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4267-1364-4&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Ted+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller2014-14"><a href="#cite_ref-Miller2014_14-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2014" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Stephen M. (15 April 2014). 100 Tough Questions about God and the Bible. <a href="/wiki/Baker_Academic" class="mw-redirect" title="Baker Academic">Baker Academic</a>. p. 225. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441263520" title="Special:BookSources/9781441263520"><bdi>9781441263520</bdi></a>. <q>Most, however, preach moderation: Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, and Eastern Orthodox.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=100+Tough+Questions+about+God+and+the+Bible&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Baker+Academic&rft.date=2014-04-15&rft.isbn=9781441263520&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WaltkeP127-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WaltkeP127_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WaltkeP127_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaltke2005" class="citation book cs1">Waltke, Bruce (2005). "Commentary on 20:1". The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 15-31. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2776-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2776-0"><bdi>978-0-8028-2776-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Commentary+on+20%3A1&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Proverbs%3A+Chapters+15-31&rft.pages=127&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2776-0&rft.aulast=Waltke&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzsimmonds1982" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fitzsimmonds, F. S. (1982). "Wine and Strong Drink". In Douglas, J. D. (ed.). New Bible Dictionary (2nd ed.). Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press. p. 1255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8308-1441-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8308-1441-8"><bdi>0-8308-1441-8</bdi></a>. <q>These two aspects of wine, its use and its abuse, its benefits and its curse, its acceptance in God's sight and its abhorrence, are interwoven into the fabric of the [Old Testament] so that it may gladden the heart of man (Ps. 104:15) or cause his mind to err (Is. 28:7), it can be associated with merriment (Ec. 10:19) or with anger (Is. 5:11), it can be used to uncover the shame of Noah (Gn. 9:21) or in the hands of Melchizedek to honour Abraham (Gn. 14:18) ... The references [to alcohol] in the [New Testament] are very much fewer in number, but once more the good and the bad aspects are equally apparent ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine+and+Strong+Drink&rft.btitle=New+Bible+Dictionary&rft.place=Downers+Grove%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=1255&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-8308-1441-8&rft.aulast=Fitzsimmonds&rft.aufirst=F.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClintockStrong1891" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_McClintock_(theologian)" title="John McClintock (theologian)">McClintock, James</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_Strong_(theologian)" title="James Strong (theologian)">Strong, James</a> (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EchvNjm6alIC&pg=PP14">"Wine (eds.)"</a>. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Vol. X. New York: Harper and Brothers. p. 1016. <q>But while liberty to use wine, as well as every other earthly blessing, is conceded and maintained in the Bible, yet all abuse of it is solemnly condemned.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine+%28eds.%29&rft.btitle=Cyclopaedia+of+Biblical%2C+Theological%2C+and+Ecclesiastical+Literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1016&rft.pub=Harper+and+Brothers&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=McClintock&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Strong%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEchvNjm6alIC%26pg%3DPP14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RaymondP25-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RaymondP25_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RaymondP25_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaymond1970" class="citation book cs1">Raymond, I. W. (1970) [1927]. The Teaching of the Early Church on the Use of Wine and Strong Drink. AMS Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-404-51286-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-404-51286-6"><bdi>978-0-404-51286-6</bdi></a>. <q>This favourable view [of wine in the Bible], however, is balanced by an unfavourable estimate ... The reason for the presence of these two conflicting opinions on the nature of wine [is that the] consequences of wine drinking follow its use and not its nature. Happy results ensue when it is drunk in its proper measure and evil results when it is drunk to excess. The nature of wine is indifferent.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Teaching+of+the+Early+Church+on+the+Use+of+Wine+and+Strong+Drink&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=AMS+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-404-51286-6&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=I.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-COE-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-COE_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-COE_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-COE_17-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEthical_Investment_Advisory_Group2005" class="citation web cs1">Ethical Investment Advisory Group (January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070226082402/http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/ethical/policystatements/policyalcohol.pdf">"Alcohol: An inappropriate investment for Anglicanism"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/ethical/policystatements/policyalcohol.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2007-02-26. Retrieved 2007-02-08. <q>Christians who are committed to total abstinence have sometimes interpreted biblical references to wine as meaning unfermented grape juice, but this is surely inconsistent with the recognition of both good and evil in the biblical attitude to wine. It is self-evident that human choice plays a crucial role in the use or abuse of alcohol.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alcohol%3A+An+inappropriate+investment+for+Anglicanism&rft.pub=Church+of+England&rft.date=2005-01&rft.au=Ethical+Investment+Advisory+Group&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cofe.anglican.org%2Finfo%2Fethical%2Fpolicystatements%2Fpolicyalcohol.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Fitzsimmonds, pp. 1254f. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1989" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Stephen M. (1989). The Biblical Approach to Alcohol. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <q>[W]herever oinos [Greek for 'wine'] appears in the New Testament, we may understand it as unfermented grape juice unless the passage clearly indicates that the inspired writer was speaking of an intoxicating drink.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Biblical+Approach+to+Alcohol&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Stuart, Moses". Encyclopedia of Temperance and Prohibition. New York: Funk and Wagnalls. 1891. p. 621. <q>Wherever the Scriptures speak of wine as a comfort, a blessing or a libation to God, and rank it with such articles as corn and oil, they mean—they can mean only—such wine as contained no alcohol that could have a mischievous tendency; that wherever they denounce it, prohibit it and connect it with drunkenness and reveling, they can mean only alcoholic or intoxicating wines.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stuart%2C+Moses&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Temperance+and+Prohibition&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=621&rft.pub=Funk+and+Wagnalls&rft.date=1891&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> Quoted in Reynolds, The Biblical Approach to Alcohol. </li> <li id="cite_note-Earle-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Earle_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Earle_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarle1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_H._Earle" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph H. Earle">Earle, Ralph</a> (1986). "1 Timothy 5:13". Word Meanings in the New Testament. Kansas City, Missouri: Beacon Hill Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8341-1176-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8341-1176-4"><bdi>0-8341-1176-4</bdi></a>. <q>Oinos is used in the Septuagint for both fermented and unfermented grape juice. Since it can mean either one, it is valid to insist that in some cases it may simply mean grape juice and not fermented wine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1+Timothy+5%3A13&rft.btitle=Word+Meanings+in+the+New+Testament&rft.place=Kansas+City%2C+Missouri&rft.pub=Beacon+Hill+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-8341-1176-4&rft.aulast=Earle&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeesDawson_Burns1870" class="citation book cs1">Lees, Frederic Richard; <a href="/wiki/Dawson_Burns" title="Dawson Burns">Dawson Burns</a> (1870). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/temperancebiblec00leesrich">"Appendix C-D"</a>. The Temperance Bible-Commentary. New York: <a href="/wiki/National_Temperance_Society_and_Publishing_House" title="National Temperance Society and Publishing House">National Temperance Society and Publishing House</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/temperancebiblec00leesrich/page/431">431</a>–446.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix+C-D&rft.btitle=The+Temperance+Bible-Commentary&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=431-446&rft.pub=National+Temperance+Society+and+Publishing+House&rft.date=1870&rft.aulast=Lees&rft.aufirst=Frederic+Richard&rft.au=Dawson+Burns&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftemperancebiblec00leesrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatton1871" class="citation book cs1">Patton, William (1871). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lawsoffermentati00pattrich/page/85/mode/1up">"Christ Eating and Drinking"</a>. Laws of Fermentation and the Wines of the Ancients. New York: National Temperance Society and Publishing House. p. 85. Retrieved 2008-03-25. <q>Oinos is a generic word, and, as such, includes all kinds of wine and all stages of the juice of the grape, and sometimes the clusters and even the vine ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christ+Eating+and+Drinking&rft.btitle=Laws+of+Fermentation+and+the+Wines+of+the+Ancients&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=National+Temperance+Society+and+Publishing+House&rft.date=1871&rft.aulast=Patton&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flawsoffermentati00pattrich%2Fpage%2F85%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLauchlin1973" class="citation book cs1">McLauchlin, G. A. (1973) [1913]. Commentary on Saint John. Salem, Ohio: Convention Book Store H. E. Schmul. p. 32. <q>There were ... two kinds of wine. We have no reason to believe that Jesus used the fermented wine unless we can prove it ... God is making unfermented wine and putting in skin cases and hanging it upon the vines in clusters every year.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Commentary+on+Saint+John&rft.place=Salem%2C+Ohio&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Convention+Book+Store+H.+E.+Schmul&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=McLauchlin&rft.aufirst=G.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bacchiocchi-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bacchiocchi_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bacchiocchi_21-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bacchiocchi_21-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacchiocchi" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Samuele_Bacchiocchi" title="Samuele Bacchiocchi">Bacchiocchi, Samuele</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202114834/http://www.biblicalperspectives.com/books/wine_in_the_bible/1.html">"A Preview of Wine in the Bible"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblicalperspectives.com/books/wine_in_the_bible/1.html">the original</a> on 2007-02-02. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Preview+of+Wine+in+the+Bible&rft.aulast=Bacchiocchi&rft.aufirst=Samuele&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalperspectives.com%2Fbooks%2Fwine_in_the_bible%2F1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacArthurDrunk2-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacArthurDrunk2_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacArthurDrunk2_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacArthurDrunk2_22-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur" class="citation web cs1">MacArthur, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblebb.com/files/MAC/sg1937.htm">"Living in the Spirit: Be Not Drunk with Wine--Part 2"</a>. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Living+in+the+Spirit%3A+Be+Not+Drunk+with+Wine--Part+2&rft.aulast=MacArthur&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblebb.com%2Ffiles%2FMAC%2Fsg1937.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEwing1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ewing, W. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/hastings/dict2/Page_824.html">"Wine"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/James_Hastings" title="James Hastings">James Hastings</a> (ed.). Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels. Vol. 2. Edinburgh: T & T Clark. p. 824. Retrieved 2007-03-14. <q>There is nothing known in the East of anything called 'wine' which is unfermented ... [The Palestinian Jews'] attitude towards the drinker of unfermented grape juice may be gathered from the saying in Pirke Aboth (iv. 28), 'He who learns from the young, to what is he like? to one who eats unripe grapes and drinks wine from his vat [that is, unfermented juice].'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Christ+and+the+Gospels&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=824&rft.pub=T+%26+T+Clark&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Ewing&rft.aufirst=W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fhastings%2Fdict2%2FPage_824.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> (Emphasis in original.) • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Hodge" title="Charles Hodge">Hodge, Charles</a> (1940) [1872]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/hodge/theology3.iii.vi.xv.html#iii.vi.xv-Page_616">"The Lord's Supper"</a>. Systematic Theology. Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 3:616. Retrieved 2007-01-22. <q>That [oinos] in the Bible, when unqualified by such terms as new, or sweet, means the fermented juice of the grape, is hardly an open question. It has never been questioned in the Church, if we except a few Christians of the present day. And it may safely be said that there is not a scholar on the continent of Europe, who has the least doubt on the subject.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lord%27s+Supper&rft.btitle=Systematic+Theology&rft.pages=3%3A616&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1940&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fhodge%2Ftheology3.iii.vi.xv.html%23iii.vi.xv-Page_616&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodge" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._A._Hodge" class="mw-redirect" title="A. A. Hodge">Hodge, A. A.</a> Evangelical Theology. p. 347f. <q>'Wine,' according to the absolutely unanimous, unexceptional testimony of every scholar and missionary, is in its essence 'fermented grape juice.' Nothing else is wine ... There has been absolutely universal consent on this subject in the Christian Church until modern times, when the practice has been opposed, not upon change of evidence, but solely on prudential considerations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evangelical+Theology&rft.pages=347f&rft.aulast=Hodge&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> Quoted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathison2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mathison" title="Keith Mathison">Mathison, Keith</a> (January 8–14, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/kei_mathison/TH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.3.html">"Protestant Transubstantiation - Part 3: Historic Reformed & Baptist Testimony"</a>. IIIM Magazine Online. 3 (2). Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IIIM+Magazine+Online&rft.atitle=Protestant+Transubstantiation+-+Part+3%3A+Historic+Reformed+%26+Baptist+Testimony&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2001-01-08%2F2001-01-14&rft.aulast=Mathison&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthirdmill.org%2Fnewfiles%2Fkei_mathison%2FTH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SchaffHerzog-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SchaffHerzog_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SchaffHerzog_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeecher" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Beecher, W. J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc11/Page_472.html">"Total abstinence"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Schaff-Herzog_Encyclopedia_of_Religious_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge">The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge</a>. p. 472. Retrieved 2007-01-22. <q>The Scriptures, rightly understood, are thus the strongest bulwark of a true doctrine of total abstinence, so false exegesis of the Scriptures by temperance advocates, including false theories of unfermented wine, have done more than almost anything else to discredit the good cause. The full abandonment of these bad premises would strengthen the cause immeasurably.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Total+abstinence&rft.btitle=The+New+Schaff-Herzog+Encyclopedia+of+Religious+Knowledge&rft.pages=472&rft.aulast=Beecher&rft.aufirst=W.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fencyc11%2FPage_472.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ASB-25"><a href="#cite_ref-ASB_25-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Kaiser_and_Duane_Garrett2006" class="citation book cs1">William Kaiser and Duane Garrett, ed. (2006). "Wine and Alcoholic Beverages in the Ancient World". Archaeological Study Bible. Zondervan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-92605-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-310-92605-4"><bdi>978-0-310-92605-4</bdi></a>. <q>[T]here is no basis for suggesting that either the Greek or the Hebrew terms for wine refer to unfermented grape juice.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine+and+Alcoholic+Beverages+in+the+Ancient+World&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Study+Bible&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-310-92605-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacArthurQ&A-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacArthurQ&A_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacArthurQ&A_26-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacArthurQ&A_26-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacArthurQ&A_26-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_F._MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="John F. MacArthur">MacArthur, John F.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblebb.com/files/macqa/70-11-3.htm">"GC 70-11: "Bible Questions and Answers""</a>. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=GC+70-11%3A+%22Bible+Questions+and+Answers%22&rft.aulast=MacArthur&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblebb.com%2Ffiles%2Fmacqa%2F70-11-3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • Pierard, p. 28: "No evidence whatsoever exists to support the notion that the wine mentioned in the Bible was unfermented grape juice. When juice is referred to, it is not called wine (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ge40:11">Gen. 40:11</a>). Nor can 'new wine' ... mean unfermented juice, because the process of chemical change begins almost immediately after pressing." </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDommershausen1990" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dommershausen, W. (1990). "Yayin". In G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren (ed.). Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Vol. VI. trans. David E. Green. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2330-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-2330-0"><bdi>0-8028-2330-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yayin&rft.btitle=Theological+Dictionary+of+the+Old+Testament&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-8028-2330-0&rft.aulast=Dommershausen&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Raymond, p. 24: "The numerous allusions to the vine and wine in the Old Testament furnish an admirable basis for the study of its estimation among the people at large." </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ge27:28;Ge49:9-12;Dt7:13;11:14;15:14;33:28;Pr3:9-10;Jr31:10-12;Ho2:21-22;Jl2:19,24,3:18;Am9:13-14;2Ki18:31-32;2Ch32:28;Ne5:11;13:12">Ge 27:28; 49:9-12; Dt 7:13; 11:14; 15:14; compare 33:28; Pr 3:9f; Jr 31:10-12; Ho 2:21-22; Jl 2:19,24; 3:18; Am 9:13f; compare 2Ki 18:31-32; 2Ch 32:28; Ne 5:11; 13:12</a>; etc. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Pr20:1">Pr 20:1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jb21:20;Ps60:3;75:8;Is51:17-23;63:6;Jr13:12-14;25:15-29;49:12;51:7;La4:21-22;Ezk23:28-33;Na1:9-10;Hab2:15-16;Zc12:2;Mt20:22;26:39,42;Lk22:42;Jn18:11;Re14:10;16:19">Ps 60:3; 75:8; Is 51:17-23; 63:6; Jr 13:12-14; 25:15-29; 49:12; 51:7; La 4:21f; Ezk 23:28-33; Na 1:9f; Hab 2:15f; Zc 12:2; Mt 20:22; 26:39, 42; Lk 22:42; Jn 18:11; Re 14:10; 16:19</a>; compare <a href="/wiki/Psalms_of_Solomon" title="Psalms of Solomon">Ps Sol</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goodnewsinc.net/othbooks/psalmsol.html">8:14</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jg9:13;Ps4:7,104:15;Ec9:7,10:19;Zc9:17,10:7">Jg 9:13; Ps 4:7; 104:15; Ec 9:7; 10:19; Zc 9:17; 10:7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Drunkenness". Illustrated Dictionary of Bible Life & Times. Pleasantville, New York: The Reader's Digest Association. 1997. pp. 374–376.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Drunkenness&rft.btitle=Illustrated+Dictionary+of+Bible+Life+%26+Times&rft.place=Pleasantville%2C+New+York&rft.pages=374-376&rft.pub=The+Reader%27s+Digest+Association&rft.date=1997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Six pots of thirty-nine <a href="/wiki/Litre" title="Litre">liters</a> each = 234 liters = 61.8 <a href="/wiki/Gallon" title="Gallon">gallons</a>, according to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeesemann1967" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Seesemann, Heinrich (1967). "οινος". In <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Kittel" title="Gerhard Kittel">Kitte, Gerhard</a>; Pitkin, Ronald E. (eds.). Theological Dictionary of the New Testament. Vol. V. Translated by Bromiley, Geoffrey W. Wm. B. Eerdmans. p. 163. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2247-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-2247-9"><bdi>0-8028-2247-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82&rft.btitle=Theological+Dictionary+of+the+New+Testament&rft.pages=163&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-8028-2247-9&rft.aulast=Seesemann&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jn+2:1-11,4:46">Jn 2:1-11; 4:46</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mt26:17-19;Mk14:12-16;Lk22:7-13">Mt 26:17-19; Mk 14:12-16; Lk 22:7-13</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a> offers some difficulties when compared with the <a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptists'</a> accounts on whether the meal was part of the Passover proper. In any case, it seems that the Last Supper was most likely somehow associated with Passover, even if it was not the paschal feast itself. See the discussion in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leon_Morris" title="Leon Morris">Morris, Leon</a> (1995). "Additional Note H: The Last Supper and the Passover". The Gospel According to John. New International Commentary on the New Testament (revised ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans. pp. 684–695. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2504-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2504-9"><bdi>978-0-8028-2504-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Additional+Note+H%3A+The+Last+Supper+and+the+Passover&rft.btitle=The+Gospel+According+to+John&rft.series=New+International+Commentary+on+the+New+Testament&rft.pages=684-695&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-2504-9&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Leon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Seesemann, p. 162: "Wine is specifically mentioned as an integral part of the passover meal no earlier than <a href="/wiki/Jubilees" class="mw-redirect" title="Jubilees">Jub.</a> 49:6 ['... all Israel was eating the flesh of the paschal lamb, and drinking the wine ...'], but there can be no doubt that it was in use long before." P. 164: "In the accounts of the Last Supper the term [wine] occurs neither in the <a href="/wiki/Synoptic_Gospels" title="Synoptic Gospels">Synoptists</a> nor Paul. It is obvious, however, that according to custom Jesus was proffering wine in the cup over which He pronounced the blessing; this may be seen especially from the solemn [fruit of the vine] (Mark 14:25 and par.) which was borrowed from Judaism." Compare "fruit of the vine" as a formula in the <a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/tbr/tbr38.htm">"Tractate Berakoth 6.1"</a>. Retrieved 2007-03-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tractate+Berakoth+6.1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fjud%2Ftbr%2Ftbr38.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Raymond, p. 80: "All the wines used in basic religious services in Palestine were fermented." </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mt+26:26-29;Mk+14:22-25;Lk+22:17-20;1Co+10:16;11:23-25">Mt 26:26-29; Mk 14:22-25; Lk 22:17-20; 1 Co 10:16; 11:23-25</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLincoln2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lincoln, Bruce (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2/page/848">"Beverages"</a>. In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2/page/848">848</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865733-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865733-2"><bdi>978-0-02-865733-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beverages&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.pages=848&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MacMillan+Reference+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865733-2&rft.aulast=Lincoln&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2%2Fpage%2F848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Pr31:4-7;Mt27:34,48;Mk15:23,36;Lk23:36;Jn19:28-30">Pr 31:4-7; Mt 27:34,48; Mk 15:23,36; Lk 23:36; Jn 19:28–30</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lk10:34">Lk 10:34</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Ti5:23">1 Ti 5:23</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Pr31:4-5;Lv10:9;Ez44:21">Pr 31:4f; Lv 10:9; compare Ez 44:21</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lk+1:15">Lk 1:15</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Nu6:2-4;Jg13:4-5;Am2:11-12;Jr35">Nu 6:2-4 (compare Jg 13:4-5; Am 2:11f); Jr 35</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mt+11:18-19;Lk+7:33-34;Mk14:25;Lk22:17-18">Mt 11:18f; Lk 7:33f; compare Mk 14:25; Lk 22:17f</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-RaymondP81-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RaymondP81_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RaymondP81_48-1">b</a> I. W. Raymond p. 81: "Not only did Jesus Christ Himself use and sanction the use of wine but also ... He saw nothing intrinsically evil in wine.[footnote citing <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mt15:11">Mt 15:11</a> ]" </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ro14:21">Ro 14:21</a>.Raymond understands this to mean that "if an individual by drinking wine either causes others to err through his example or abets a social evil which causes others to succumb to its temptations, then in the interests of Christian love he ought to forego the temporary pleasures of drinking in the interests of heavenly treasures" (p. 87). </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosner" class="citation web cs1">Posner, Rabbi Menachem. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/581082/jewish/What-is-Judaisms-take-on-alcohol-consumption.htm">"What is Judaism's take on alcohol consumption? - Questions & Answers"</a>. <q>Even today, [Jewish] priests may not bless the congregation after having even a single glass of wine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Judaism%27s+take+on+alcohol+consumption%3F+-+Questions+%26+Answers&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Rabbi+Menachem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chabad.org%2Flibrary%2Farticle_cdo%2Faid%2F581082%2Fjewish%2FWhat-is-Judaisms-take-on-alcohol-consumption.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> For instance, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Pr20:1;Is5:11-12;Ho5:2-5;Ro13:13;Ep5:18;1Ti3:2-3">Pr 20:1; Is 5:11f; Ho 5:2,5; Ro 13:13; Ep 5:18; 1 Ti 3:2-3</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ge+9:20-27">Ge 9:20-27</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ge19:31-38">Ge 19:31-38</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroshi1984" class="citation journal cs1">Broshi, Magen (1984). "Wine in Ancient Palestine — Introductory Notes". Israel Museum Journal. III: 33.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Museum+Journal&rft.atitle=Wine+in+Ancient+Palestine+%E2%80%94+Introductory+Notes&rft.volume=III&rft.pages=33&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Broshi&rft.aufirst=Magen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-1Co11:20-22-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-1Co11:20-22_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-1Co11:20-22_55-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Co11:20-22">1Co 11:20-22</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ewing-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ewing_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ewing_56-1">b</a> Ewing, p. 824. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> See Broshi, passim (for instance, p. 29: Palestine was "a country known for its good wines"). </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Ch2:3,10">2Ch 2:3,10</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGately2008" class="citation book cs1">Gately, Iain (2008). Drink: a Cultural History of Alcohol (1st ed.). New York: Gotham Books. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-592-40464-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-592-40464-3"><bdi>978-1-592-40464-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drink%3A+a+Cultural+History+of+Alcohol&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=41&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Gotham+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-592-40464-3&rft.aulast=Gately&rft.aufirst=Iain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ps80:8-15;Is5:1-2;Mk12:1;SS2:15">Ps 80:8-15; Is 5:1f; Mk 12:1; compare SS 2:15</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Sefer Kedushah, MaAchalot Assurot, Ch. 11, Halacha 11 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Is16:10;Jr48:33">Compare Is 16:10; Jr 48:33</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wine_Making-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Making_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Making_63-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_Making_63-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Wine Making". Illustrated Dictionary of Bible Life & Times. pp. 374f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine+Making&rft.btitle=Illustrated+Dictionary+of+Bible+Life+%26+Times&rft.pages=374f&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Broshi, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Dt16:13-15">Dt 16:13-15</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Broshi26-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Broshi26_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Broshi26_66-1">b</a> Broshi, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lk5:39;Is25:6">Lk 5:39; compare Is 25:6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Dommershausen, pp. 60-62. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Broshi, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ru2:14">Ru 2:14</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Broshi, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> 2 Maccabees 15:40 </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica_73-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/alcohol-consumption/Alcohol-and-society">"Alcohol consumption - Alcohol and society"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <q>The Greco-Roman classics abound with descriptions of drinking and often of drunkenness. The wine of the ancient Greeks, like that of the Hebrews of the same time, was usually drunk diluted with an equal part or two parts of water, and so the alcohol strength of the beverage was presumably between 4 and 7%.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Alcohol+consumption+-+Alcohol+and+society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Falcohol-consumption%2FAlcohol-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Quarles, Charles L. (23 July 2021). "Was New Testament Wine Alcoholic?". Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary. "One of the most helpful discussions of dilution rates appears in a work by Athenaus of Naucratis called Deipnosophistae (Banquet of the Learned; c. AD 228). Athenaus mentions several different dilution rates that he culled from ancient works." </li> <li id="cite_note-Antiquities-75"><a href="#cite_ref-Antiquities_75-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBingham1720" class="citation book cs1">Bingham, Joseph (1720). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3OIsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA82">Origines Ecclesiasticæ: Or, The Antiquities of the Christian Church</a>. Retrieved 2014-08-20. <q>'The Canons had also a great Respect to the external and publick Behaviour of the Clergy; obliging them to walk circumspectly, and abstain from things of ill Fame, though otherwise innocent and indifferent in themselves; that they might cut off all Occasions of Obloquy, by avoiding all suspicious Actions and All Appearances of Evil. In regard to which they not only censured them for Rioting and Drunkenness (which were vices not to be tolerated even in laymen) but forbad them to so much as eat or appear in a publick Inn or Tavern, except they were upon a Journey, or some such necessary Occasion required them to do it under Pain of ecclesiastical censure. The Council of Laodecia [b] and the third council of Carthage [c] forbid it universally to all Orders of the Clergy; and the Apostolic Canons [d] more expressly, with a Denunciation of Censure...'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origines+Ecclesiastic%C3%A6%3A+Or%2C+The+Antiquities+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.date=1720&rft.aulast=Bingham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3OIsAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA82&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ProtTrans1-76">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ProtTrans1_76-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ProtTrans1_76-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathison2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mathison" title="Keith Mathison">Mathison, Keith</a> (December 4–10, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/kei_mathison/TH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.1.html">"Protestant Transubstantiation - Part 1: Thesis; Biblical Witness"</a>. IIIM Magazine Online. 2 (49). Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IIIM+Magazine+Online&rft.atitle=Protestant+Transubstantiation+-+Part+1%3A+Thesis%3B+Biblical+Witness&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=49&rft.date=2000-12-04%2F2000-12-10&rft.aulast=Mathison&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthirdmill.org%2Fnewfiles%2Fkei_mathison%2FTH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Raymond, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Raymond, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_J._Hanson" title="David J. Hanson">Hanson, David J.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AWk8FGoJwWAC">Preventing Alcohol Abuse: Alcohol, Culture and Control</a>. Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94926-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94926-6"><bdi>978-0-275-94926-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Preventing+Alcohol+Abuse%3A+Alcohol%2C+Culture+and+Control&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-275-94926-6&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAWk8FGoJwWAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroshi1986" class="citation journal cs1">Broshi, Magen (1986). "The Diet of Palestine in the Roman Period — Introductory Notes". Israel Museum Journal. V: 46. <q>In the biblical description of the agricultural products of the Land, the triad 'cereal, wine, and oil' recurs repeatedly (Deut. 28:51 and elsewhere). These were the main products of ancient Palestine, in order of importance. The fruit of the vine was consumed both fresh and dried (raisins), but it was primarily consumed as wine. Wine was, in antiquity, an important food and not just an embellishment to a feast ... Wine was essentially a man's drink in antiquity, when it became a significant dietary component. Even slaves were given a generous wine ration. Scholars estimate that in ancient Rome an adult consumed a liter of wine daily. Even a minimal estimate of 700<a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">g</a>. per day means that wine constituted about one quarter of the caloric intake (600 out of 2,500 cal.) and about one third of the minimum required intake of iron.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Museum+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Diet+of+Palestine+in+the+Roman+Period+%E2%80%94+Introductory+Notes&rft.volume=V&rft.pages=46&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Broshi&rft.aufirst=Magen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • Raymond, p. 23: "[Wine] was a common beverage for all classes and ages, even for the very young. Wine might be part of the simpelest meal as well as a necessary article in the households of the rich. • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeoffrey_Wigoder2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Geoffrey Wigoder; et al., eds. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000unse_i8k6/page/798">"Wine"</a>. The New Encyclopedia of Judaism. New York University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newencyclopediao0000unse_i8k6/page/798">798f</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9388-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-9388-6"><bdi>978-0-8147-9388-6</bdi></a>. <q>As a beverage, it regularly accompanied the main meal of the day. Wherever the Bible mentions 'cup' — for example, 'my cup brims over' (Ps. 23:5)—the reference is to a cup of wine ... In the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">talmudic</a> epoch ... [i]t was customary to dilute wine before drinking by adding one-third water. The main meal of the day, taken in the evening (only breakfast and supper were eaten in talmudic times), consisted of two courses, with each of which a cup of wine was drunk.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine&rft.btitle=The+New+Encyclopedia+of+Judaism&rft.pages=798f&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-9388-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewencyclopediao0000unse_i8k6%2Fpage%2F798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Wigoder, p. 799. </li> <li id="cite_note-GentryUndiluted-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GentryUndiluted_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GentryUndiluted_81-1">b</a> Gentry, God Gave Wine, pp. 143-146: "[R]ecognized biblical scholars of every stripe are in virtual agreement on the nondiluted nature of wine in the Old Testament." </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Clarke, commentary on Is 1:22: "It is remarkable that whereas the Greeks and Latins by mixed wine always understood wine diluted and lowered with water, the Hebrews on the contrary generally mean by it wine made stronger and more inebriating by the addition of higher and more powerful ingredients, such as honey, spices, defrutum, (or wine inspissated by boiling it down to two-thirds or one- half of the quantity,) myrrh, mandragora, opiates, and other strong drugs." </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Is1:22">Is 1:22</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRayburn2001" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Rayburn" title="Robert S. Rayburn">Rayburn, Robert S.</a> (2001-01-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121015184244/http://sermons.faithtacoma.org/Revising_Communion/Revising_FPC_Lords_Supper_No.2_Wine_No.1_Jan.28.2001.htm">"Revising the Practice of the Lord's Supper at Faith Presbyterian Church No. 2, Wine, No. 1"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sermons.faithtacoma.org/Revising_Communion/Revising_FPC_Lords_Supper_No.2_Wine_No.1_Jan.28.2001.htm">the original</a> on 2012-10-15. Retrieved 2012-04-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Revising+the+Practice+of+the+Lord%27s+Supper+at+Faith+Presbyterian+Church+No.+2%2C+Wine%2C+No.+1&rft.date=2001-01-28&rft.aulast=Rayburn&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsermons.faithtacoma.org%2FRevising_Communion%2FRevising_FPC_Lords_Supper_No.2_Wine_No.1_Jan.28.2001.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Dommershausen, p. 61: "The custom of drinking wine mixed with water—probably in the ratio of two or three to one—seems to have made its first appearance in the Hellenistic era." • <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Archaeological Study Bible. <q>Wine diluted with water was obviously considered to be of inferior quality (Isa.1:22), although the Greeks, considering the drinking of pure wine to be an excess, routinely diluted their wine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeological+Study+Bible&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> • Raymond, p.47: "The regulations of the Jewish banquets in Hellenistic times follow the rules of Greek etiquette and custom." • Compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nccbuscc.org/nab/bible/2maccabees/2maccabees15.htm#v39">2 Mac 15:39</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723221535/http://www.nccbuscc.org/nab/bible/2maccabees/2maccabees15.htm">Archived</a> 2011-07-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Vulgate numbering: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2Mac15:40;&version=63">2 Mac 15:40</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Compare the later Jewish views described in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=201&letter=W">"Wine"</a>. Jewish Encyclopedia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine&rft.btitle=Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D201%26letter%3DW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger1981" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Unger, Merrill F. (1981) [1966]. "Wine". Unger's Bible Dictionary (3rd ed.). Chicago: Moody Press. p. 1169. <q>The use of wine at the paschal feast [that is, Passover] was not enjoined by the law, but had become an established custom, at all events in the post-Babylonian period. The wine was mixed with warm water on these occasions.... Hence in the early Christian Church it was usual to mix the sacramental wine with water.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine&rft.btitle=Unger%27s+Bible+Dictionary&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=1169&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Moody+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Merrill+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Broshi, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Broshi, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Raymond, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClement_of_Rome" class="citation web cs1">Clement of Rome. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171207192643/http://saintclementofrome.blogspot.com.au/p/letter-to-corinthians.html">"Letter to the Corinthians"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://saintclementofrome.blogspot.com.au/p/letter-to-corinthians.html">the original</a> on 2017-12-07. Retrieved 2014-08-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Letter+to+the+Corinthians&rft.au=Clement+of+Rome&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsaintclementofrome.blogspot.com.au%2Fp%2Fletter-to-corinthians.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_Apology" class="mw-redirect" title="First Apology">First Apology</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxv.html">"Chapter LXV. Administration of the sacraments"</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxvii.html">"Chapter LXVII. Weekly worship of the Christians"</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a> (died 235) says, "By thanksgiving the bishop shall make the bread into an image of the body of Christ, and the cup of wine mingled with water according to the likeness of the blood." Quoted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathison2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mathison" title="Keith Mathison">Mathison, Keith</a> (January 1–7, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/kei_mathison/TH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.2.html">"Protestant Transubstantiation - Part 2: Historical Testimony"</a>. IIIM Magazine Online. 3 (1). Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IIIM+Magazine+Online&rft.atitle=Protestant+Transubstantiation+-+Part+2%3A+Historical+Testimony&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2001-01-01%2F2001-01-07&rft.aulast=Mathison&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthirdmill.org%2Fnewfiles%2Fkei_mathison%2FTH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070528025425/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/didache-hoole.html#13">"Didache, chapter 13"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/didache-hoole.html#13">the original</a> on May 28, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Didache%2C+chapter+13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlychristianwritings.com%2Ftext%2Fdidache-hoole.html%2313&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClement_of_Alexandria" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf02.vi.iii.ii.ii.html">"On Drinking"</a>. The Instructor, book 2, chapter 2. Retrieved 2007-03-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Instructor%2C+book+2%2C+chapter+2&rft.atitle=On+Drinking&rft.au=Clement+of+Alexandria&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fanf02.vi.iii.ii.ii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Compare the summary in Raymond, pp. 97-104. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTertullian" class="citation web cs1">Tertullian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian33.html">"On Fasting, Ch. 9., From Fasts Absolute Tertullian Comes to Partial Ones And Xerophagies"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Fasting%2C+Ch.+9.%2C+From+Fasts+Absolute+Tertullian+Comes+to+Partial+Ones+And+Xerophagies&rft.au=Tertullian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlychristianwritings.com%2Ftext%2Ftertullian33.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalladius" class="citation web cs1">Palladius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/pearse/morefathers/files/palladius_lausiac_02_text.htm">""Life of the Holy Fathers", Ch. XXXV"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Life+of+the+Holy+Fathers%22%2C+Ch.+XXXV&rft.au=Palladius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fpearse%2Fmorefathers%2Ffiles%2Fpalladius_lausiac_02_text.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gregory_of_Nyssa_395AD-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_of_Nyssa_395AD_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory_of_Nyssa395" class="citation web cs1">Gregory of Nyssa (395). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf205.xii.ii.html">"Funeral Oration on Meletius"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Funeral+Oration+on+Meletius&rft.date=395&rft.au=Gregory+of+Nyssa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf205.xii.ii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170106152252/http://ewtn.com/library/PATRISTC/PII14-2.TXT">"Synod of Laodicea"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/PATRISTC/PII14-2.TXT">the original</a> on 2017-01-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Synod+of+Laodicea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ewtn.com%2Flibrary%2FPATRISTC%2FPII14-2.TXT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasil_the_Great1895" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Basil_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Basil the Great">Basil the Great</a> (1895). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.ix.cc.html">"Letter CXCIX: To Amphilochius, concerning the Canons"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.html">Basil: Letters and Select Works</a>. Philip Schaff (ed.). Retrieved 2008-04-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Letter+CXCIX%3A+To+Amphilochius%2C+concerning+the+Canons&rft.btitle=Basil%3A+Letters+and+Select+Works&rft.date=1895&rft.au=Basil+the+Great&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf208.ix.cc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllert1999" class="citation journal cs1">Allert, Craig D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081011113559/http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/pdf/bbr/tatian_allert.pdf">"The State of the New Testament Canon in the Second Century: Putting Tatian's Diatessaron in Perspective"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Bulletin_for_Biblical_Research" title="Bulletin for Biblical Research">Bulletin for Biblical Research</a> (9): 5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/pdf/bbr/tatian_allert.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2008-10-11. Retrieved 2008-04-16. <q>Also among the beliefs of the [heretical] Encratites is the rejection of the drinking of wine. In fact, the Encratites even went so far as to substitute water for wine in the Eucharist service.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+for+Biblical+Research&rft.atitle=The+State+of+the+New+Testament+Canon+in+the+Second+Century%3A+Putting+Tatian%27s+Diatessaron+in+Perspective&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=5&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Allert&rft.aufirst=Craig+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.earlychurch.org.uk%2Fpdf%2Fbbr%2Ftatian_allert.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAugustine" class="citation web cs1">Augustine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/110106.htm">""Confessions", Book VI, Ch. 2"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22Confessions%22%2C+Book+VI%2C+Ch.+2&rft.au=Augustine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F110106.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose" class="citation cs2">Ambrose, "On the Duties of the Clergy", Ch. 50, section 256</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22On+the+Duties+of+the+Clergy%22%2C+Ch.+50%2C+section+256&rft.au=Ambrose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose" class="citation cs2">Ambrose, "Concerning Widows", Ch. 7, section 40</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Concerning+Widows%22%2C+Ch.+7%2C+section+40&rft.au=Ambrose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrysostom" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom, John</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170610192320/http://catholicprimer.org/chrysostom/matthew/homily057.htm">"Homilies on the Gospel of St. Matthew"</a>. pp. Homily LVII. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholicprimer.org/chrysostom/matthew/homily057.htm">the original</a> on 2017-06-10. Retrieved 2014-08-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Homilies+on+the+Gospel+of+St.+Matthew&rft.pages=Homily+LVII&rft.aulast=Chrysostom&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholicprimer.org%2Fchrysostom%2Fmatthew%2Fhomily057.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrysostom" class="citation web cs1">Chrysostom, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bible.ca/history/fathers/NPNF1-13/npnf1-13-92.htm">"Homilies on the First Epistle of St. Paul to Timothy, Homily XI, 1 Timothy 3:8-10"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Homilies+on+the+First+Epistle+of+St.+Paul+to+Timothy%2C+Homily+XI%2C+1+Timothy+3%3A8-10&rft.aulast=Chrysostom&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bible.ca%2Fhistory%2Ffathers%2FNPNF1-13%2Fnpnf1-13-92.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrysostom" class="citation web cs1">Chrysostom. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf113.iii.iv.xx.html">"Homilies on Ephesians, Homily XIX, Ephesians v. 15, 16, 17"</a>. <q>Like his contemporaries, Chrysostom distinguished between types of wine, saying 'it cannot be that one and the same thing should work opposite effects.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Homilies+on+Ephesians%2C+Homily+XIX%2C+Ephesians+v.+15%2C+16%2C+17&rft.au=Chrysostom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf113.iii.iv.xx.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrysostom" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom, John</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf109.xix.iii.html">"First Homily on the Statues"</a>. pp. paras 11f. Retrieved 2008-06-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+Homily+on+the+Statues&rft.pages=paras+11f&rft.aulast=Chrysostom&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf109.xix.iii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf210.iv.i.ii.xliii.html">"Book I, chapter XLIII"</a>. On the Duties of the Clergy. Retrieved 2007-03-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On+the+Duties+of+the+Clergy&rft.atitle=Book+I%2C+chapter+XLIII&rft.au=Ambrose&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf210.iv.i.ii.xliii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAugustine" class="citation web cs1">Augustine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf104.iv.ix.xxiv.html">"Augustine: The Writings Against the Manichaeans and Against the Donatists, Book XXII, Ch. 44"</a>. <q>'... for the drunkard is not always drunk, and a man may be drunk on one occasion without being a drunkard. However, in the case of a righteous man, we require to account for even one instance of drunkenness.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Augustine%3A+The+Writings+Against+the+Manichaeans+and+Against+the+Donatists%2C+Book+XXII%2C+Ch.+44&rft.au=Augustine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf104.iv.ix.xxiv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAugustine_of_Hippo" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf104.iv.iv.xxi.html">"Chapter 19"</a>. On the Morals of the Catholic Church. Retrieved 2007-03-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On+the+Morals+of+the+Catholic+Church&rft.atitle=Chapter+19&rft.au=Augustine+of+Hippo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf104.iv.iv.xxi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Raymond, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory the Great</a>. <a href="/wiki/Moralia_in_Job" title="Moralia in Job">Moralia in Job</a>, book 31, chapter 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Wine/WineHistory.html">"Wine History"</a>. Macedonian Heritage. 2003. Retrieved 2007-02-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wine+History&rft.pub=Macedonian+Heritage&rft.date=2003&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.macedonian-heritage.gr%2FWine%2FWineHistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Chapter 4.31". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vitae-patrum.org.uk/page81.html">Vitae Patrum,</a>. Vol. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4.31&rft.btitle=Vitae+Patrum%2C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vitae-patrum.org.uk%2Fpage81.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Chapter 35 - The life of ELIAS, archbishop of Jerusalem, and of Flavian, patriarch of Antioch". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vitae-patrum.org.uk/page143.html">Vitae Patrum,</a>. Vol. 10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+35+-+The+life+of+ELIAS%2C+archbishop+of+Jerusalem%2C+and+of+Flavian%2C+patriarch+of+Antioch&rft.btitle=Vitae+Patrum%2C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vitae-patrum.org.uk%2Fpage143.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> That is, either about half a <a href="/wiki/Pint" title="Pint">pint</a> or a full pint. See <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_units_of_measurement#Liquid_measure" title="Ancient Roman units of measurement">Ancient Roman units of measurement - Liquid_measures</a> and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaynard1945" class="citation book cs1">Maynard, Theodore (1945). "Saint Benedict". Pillars of the Church. Ayer Publishing. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8369-1940-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8369-1940-8"><bdi>0-8369-1940-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Saint+Benedict&rft.btitle=Pillars+of+the+Church&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Ayer+Publishing&rft.date=1945&rft.isbn=0-8369-1940-8&rft.aulast=Maynard&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedict_of_Nursia" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/benedict/rule.xlii.html">"Chapter XL - Of the Quantity of Drink"</a>. Holy Rule of St. Benedict.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+XL+-+Of+the+Quantity+of+Drink&rft.btitle=Holy+Rule+of+St.+Benedict&rft.au=Benedict+of+Nursia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fbenedict%2Frule.xlii.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedict_of_Nursia" class="citation book cs1">Benedict of Nursia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/benedict/rule.xlv.html">"Chapter XLIII - Of Those Who Are Tardy in Coming to the Work of God or to Table"</a>. Holy Rule of St. Benedict. Retrieved 2008-04-18. <q>If [a monk] doth not amend after [being twice tardy], let him not be permitted to eat at the common table; but separated from the company of all, let him eat alone, his portion of wine being taken from him, until he hath made satisfaction and hath amended.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+XLIII+-+Of+Those+Who+Are+Tardy+in+Coming+to+the+Work+of+God+or+to+Table&rft.btitle=Holy+Rule+of+St.+Benedict&rft.au=Benedict+of+Nursia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fbenedict%2Frule.xlv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Holy Rule of St. Benedict, Chapter XL. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrookes2013" class="citation web cs1">Brookes, Andrew (1 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.english.op.org/godzdogz/st-david-patron-of-wales/">"St David, Patron of Wales"</a>. <q>The monks were to drink only water...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=St+David%2C+Patron+of+Wales&rft.date=2013-03-01&rft.aulast=Brookes&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.english.op.org%2Fgodzdogz%2Fst-david-patron-of-wales%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-West-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-West_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-West_123-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-West_123-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest2003" class="citation book cs1">West, Jim (2003). Drinking with Calvin and Luther!. Oakdown Books. p. 22ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9700326-0-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9700326-0-9"><bdi>0-9700326-0-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drinking+with+Calvin+and+Luther%21&rft.pages=22ff&rft.pub=Oakdown+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-9700326-0-9&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch2006" class="citation journal cs1">Lynch, Kevin (September 20 – October 3, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061112204103/http://www.thewavemag.com/pagegen.php?pagename=article&articleid=26032">"Sin & Tonic: Making beer, wine, and spirits is not the Devil's work"</a>. The Wave Magazine. 6 (19). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thewavemag.com/pagegen.php?pagename=article&articleid=26032">the original</a> on November 12, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Wave+Magazine&rft.atitle=Sin+%26+Tonic%3A+Making+beer%2C+wine%2C+and+spirits+is+not+the+Devil%27s+work&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=19&rft.date=2006-09-20%2F2006-10-03&rft.aulast=Lynch&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thewavemag.com%2Fpagegen.php%3Fpagename%3Darticle%26articleid%3D26032&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a> describes the customs of <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> in the late Middle Ages: "a gallon of beer per day was the usual allowance per person, even for nuns" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant1957" class="citation book cs1">Durant, Will (1957). The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 113.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988">) </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGately2008" class="citation book cs1">Gately, Iain (2008). A Cultural History of Alcohol. New York, New York: Penguine Group Inc. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-592-40464-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-592-40464-3"><bdi>978-1-592-40464-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Cultural+History+of+Alcohol&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Penguine+Group+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-592-40464-3&rft.aulast=Gately&rft.aufirst=Iain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas, Thomas</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.SS_Q149_A3.html">"Second Part of the Second Part, Question 149, Article 3 - Whether the use of wine is altogether unlawful?"</a>. Summa Theologica. Retrieved 2008-04-17. <q>A man may have wisdom in two ways. First, in a general way, according as it is sufficient for salvation: and in this way it is required, in order to have wisdom, not that a man abstain altogether from wine, but that he abstain from its immoderate use. Secondly, a man may have wisdom in some degree of perfection: and in this way, in order to receive wisdom perfectly, it is requisite for certain persons that they abstain altogether from wine, and this depends on circumstances of certain persons and places.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Second+Part+of+the+Second+Part%2C+Question+149%2C+Article+3+-+Whether+the+use+of+wine+is+altogether+unlawful%3F&rft.btitle=Summa+Theologica&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Faquinas%2Fsumma.SS_Q149_A3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas, Thomas</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/summa.TP_Q74_A5.html">"Third Part, Question 74, Article 5 - Whether wine of the grape is the proper matter of this sacrament?"</a>. Summa Theologica. Retrieved 2008-04-17. <q>This sacrament can only be performed with wine from the grape.... Now that is properly called wine, which is drawn from the grape, whereas other liquors are called wine from resemblance to the wine of the grape.... Must, however, has already the species of wine, for its sweetness indicates fermentation which is 'the result of its natural heat' (<a href="/wiki/Meteorology_(Aristotle)" title="Meteorology (Aristotle)">Meteor</a> . iv); consequently this sacrament can be made from must.... It is furthermore forbidden to offer must in the chalice, as soon as it has been squeezed from the grape, since this is unbecoming owing to the impurity of the must. But in case of necessity it may be done.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Third+Part%2C+Question+74%2C+Article+5+-+Whether+wine+of+the+grape+is+the+proper+matter+of+this+sacrament%3F&rft.btitle=Summa+Theologica&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Faquinas%2Fsumma.TP_Q74_A5.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmond1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Almond, J. C. (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11244c.htm">"Olivetans"</a>. Catholic Encyclopedia. <q>St. Bernard Ptolomei's idea of monastic reform was that which had inspired every founder of an order or congregation since the days of St. Benedict—a return to the primitive life of solitude and austerity. Severe corporal mortifications were ordained by rule and inflicted in public. The usual ecclesiastical and conventual fasts were largely increased and the daily food was bread and water ... They were also fanatical total abstainers; not only was St. Benedict's kindly concession of a hemina of wine rejected, but the vineyards were rooted up and the wine-presses and vessels destroyed ... Truly, relaxation was inevitable. It was never reasonable that the heroic austerities of St. Bernard and his companions should be made the rule, then and always, for every monk of the order ... It was always the custom for each one to dilute the wine given him.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Olivetans&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.date=1913&rft.aulast=Almond&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F11244c.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AltarWine-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AltarWine_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AltarWine_130-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbermann1913" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Altar_Wine">"Altar Wine" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a>. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Altar+Wine&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/Wine/WineReligionCulture.html">"Wine, Religion and Culture"</a>. Macedonian Heritage. 2003. Retrieved 2007-02-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wine%2C+Religion+and+Culture&rft.pub=Macedonian+Heritage&rft.date=2003&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.macedonian-heritage.gr%2FWine%2FWineReligionCulture.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180206045332/http://www.zarariswines.gr/saint_en.html">"St. Tryphon and wine"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zarariswines.gr/saint_en.html">the original</a> on 2018-02-06. Retrieved 2016-10-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=St.+Tryphon+and+wine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.zarariswines.gr%2Fsaint_en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sauceman_2006_p._38-133"><a href="#cite_ref-Sauceman_2006_p._38_133-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSauceman2006" class="citation book cs1">Sauceman, F.W. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rZGlCQY9qpMC&pg=PA38">The Place Setting: Timeless Tastes of the Mountain South, from Bright Hope to Frog Level</a>. The Place Setting: Timeless Tastes of the Mountain South, from Bright Hope to Frog Level. Mercer University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-140-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-140-4"><bdi>978-0-88146-140-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2023-03-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Place+Setting%3A+Timeless+Tastes+of+the+Mountain+South%2C+from+Bright+Hope+to+Frog+Level&rft.series=The+Place+Setting%3A+Timeless+Tastes+of+the+Mountain+South%2C+from+Bright+Hope+to+Frog+Level&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-88146-140-4&rft.aulast=Sauceman&rft.aufirst=F.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrZGlCQY9qpMC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zuerich.com/en/visit/500-years-of-reformation">"500 Years of Reformation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=500+Years+of+Reformation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zuerich.com%2Fen%2Fvisit%2F500-years-of-reformation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZwingli1899" class="citation book cs1">Zwingli, Ulrich (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/christianeducati00zwin">The Christian education of youth</a>. Collegeville, Pa., Thompson bros.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+education+of+youth&rft.pub=Collegeville%2C+Pa.%2C+Thompson+bros.&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=Zwingli&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchristianeducati00zwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvin" class="citation book cs1">Calvin, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/calvin/cc03/cc03065.htm">Calvin's Commentaries, Harmony of the Law, Numbers 6</a>. Vol. 3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calvin%27s+Commentaries%2C+Harmony+of+the+Law%2C+Numbers+6&rft.aulast=Calvin&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fchr%2Fcalvin%2Fcc03%2Fcc03065.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaff" class="citation book cs1">Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church, Volume VIII: Modern Christianity. The Swiss Reformation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Christian+Church%2C+Volume+VIII%3A+Modern+Christianity.+The+Swiss+Reformation&rft.aulast=Schaff&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest2000" class="citation journal cs1">West, Jim (March–April 2000). "A Sober Assessment of Reformational Drinking". <a href="/wiki/Modern_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Reformation">Modern Reformation</a>. 9 (2).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Reformation&rft.atitle=A+Sober+Assessment+of+Reformational+Drinking&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2000-03%2F2000-04&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Jim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> Viewed 2007-01-22. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iii.iv.html#iii.iv-p25.766">Article 7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Belgic_Confession" title="Belgic Confession">Belgic Confession</a> (1561), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iv.viii.html#iv.viii-p7.1780">article 35</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg_Catechism" title="Heidelberg Catechism">Heidelberg Catechism</a> (1563), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iv.vi.html#iv.vi-p0.1627">questions 78-80</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thirty-Nine_Articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirty-Nine Articles">Thirty-Nine Articles</a> (1571), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iv.xi.html#iv.xi-p40.50">article 28</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Confession_of_Faith" title="Westminster Confession of Faith">Westminster Confession of Faith</a> (1647), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iv.xvii.ii.html#iv.xvii.ii-p9.760">chapter 29, paragraph 3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/creeds/bcf/bcfc30.htm#chapter30">Chapter 30, paragraph 3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/D674.html#X">Article 10</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniels1996" class="citation book cs1">Daniels, Bruce C. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/puritansatplayle00dani/page/3">Puritans at Play</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/puritansatplayle00dani/page/3">3ff</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-16124-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-16124-7"><bdi>0-312-16124-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Puritans+at+Play&rft.pages=3ff&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-312-16124-7&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Bruce+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpuritansatplayle00dani%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> West, Drinking, pp. 68ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> West, Drinking, pp. 79ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> West, Drinking, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLender1987" class="citation book cs1">Lender, M. E. (1987). Drinking In America. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-918570-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-918570-X"><bdi>0-02-918570-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drinking+In+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-02-918570-X&rft.aulast=Lender&rft.aufirst=M.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Increase Mather (1673)."Wo to Drunkards." </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1832" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clarke" title="Adam Clarke">Clarke, Adam</a> (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.studylight.org/com/acc/view.cgi?book=ps&chapter=104">"Commentary on Psalm 104:15"</a>. The Adam Clarke Commentary. Retrieved 2008-05-19. <q>Wine, in moderate quantity, has a wondrous tendency to revive and invigorate the human being. Ardent spirits exhilarate, but they exhaust the strength; and every dose leaves man the worse. Unadulterated wine, on the contrary, exhilarates and invigorates: it makes him cheerful, and provides for the continuance of that cheerfulness by strengthening the muscles, and bracing the nerves. This is its use. Those who continue drinking till wine inflames them, abase this mercy of God.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Commentary+on+Psalm+104%3A15&rft.btitle=The+Adam+Clarke+Commentary&rft.date=1832&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.studylight.org%2Fcom%2Facc%2Fview.cgi%3Fbook%3Dps%26chapter%3D104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Semple1996-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Semple1996_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSemple1996" class="citation book cs1">Semple, Neil (1996). The Lord's Dominion: The History of Canadian Methodism. McGill-Queen's Press. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-1400-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7735-1400-3"><bdi>978-0-7735-1400-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lord%27s+Dominion%3A+The+History+of+Canadian+Methodism&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=McGill-Queen%27s+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7735-1400-3&rft.aulast=Semple&rft.aufirst=Neil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesley" class="citation book cs1">Wesley, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/the-sermons-of-john-wesley-1872-edition/sermon-140-on-public-diversions/">"Sermon 140, On Public Diversions"</a>. Sermons of John Wesley. Retrieved 2013-11-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sermon+140%2C+On+Public+Diversions&rft.btitle=Sermons+of+John+Wesley&rft.aulast=Wesley&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwesley.nnu.edu%2Fjohn-wesley%2Fthe-sermons-of-john-wesley-1872-edition%2Fsermon-140-on-public-diversions%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesley" class="citation book cs1">Wesley, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/the-letters-of-john-wesley/wesleys-letters-1735/">"To his Mother OXON, January 13, 1735"</a>. The Letters of John Wesley. Retrieved 2016-11-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=To+his+Mother+OXON%2C+January+13%2C+1735&rft.btitle=The+Letters+of+John+Wesley&rft.aulast=Wesley&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwesley.nnu.edu%2Fjohn-wesley%2Fthe-letters-of-john-wesley%2Fwesleys-letters-1735%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesley" class="citation book cs1">Wesley, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161011074709/http://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/the-letters-of-john-wesley/wesleys-letters-1789b/">To the Printer of the 'Bristol Gazette'BRISTOL, HORSEFAIR, September 7, 1789</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/the-letters-of-john-wesley/wesleys-letters-1789b/">the original</a> on October 11, 2016. Retrieved 2016-11-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+the+Printer+of+the+%27Bristol+Gazette%27BRISTOL%2C+HORSEFAIR%2C+September+7%2C+1789.&rft.aulast=Wesley&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwesley.nnu.edu%2Fjohn-wesley%2Fthe-letters-of-john-wesley%2Fwesleys-letters-1789b%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesley1999" class="citation book cs1">Wesley, John (1999) [1872]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080530124627/http://wesley.nnu.edu/john_wesley/sermons/050.htm">"On the Use of Money"</a>. In Thomas Jackson (ed.). The Sermons of John Wesley. Wesley Center for Applied Theology at Northwest Nazarene University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wesley.nnu.edu/john_wesley/sermons/050.htm">the original</a> on 2008-05-30. Retrieved 2008-05-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Use+of+Money&rft.btitle=The+Sermons+of+John+Wesley&rft.pub=Wesley+Center+for+Applied+Theology+at+Northwest+Nazarene+University&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Wesley&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwesley.nnu.edu%2Fjohn_wesley%2Fsermons%2F050.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMethodist_Episcopal_Church1798" class="citation book cs1">Methodist Episcopal Church (1798). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zOoCAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA150">"Directions given to the Band-Societies. December 25th, 1744."</a>. Doctrines and Discipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church. with explanatory notes by Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury (10th ed.). p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Directions+given+to+the+Band-Societies.+December+25th%2C+1744.&rft.btitle=Doctrines+and+Discipline+of+the+Methodist+Episcopal+Church&rft.pages=150&rft.edition=10th&rft.date=1798&rft.au=Methodist+Episcopal+Church&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzOoCAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bangs-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bangs_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bangs_159-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBangs1838" class="citation book cs1">Bangs, Nathan (1838). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vSURAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA134">A History of the Methodist Episcopal Church</a>. Vol. 1. New York: T. Mason and G. Lane for the Methodist Episcopal Church. p. 134f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Methodist+Episcopal+Church&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=134f&rft.pub=T.+Mason+and+G.+Lane+for+the+Methodist+Episcopal+Church&rft.date=1838&rft.aulast=Bangs&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvSURAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoxHoyt1852" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Henry J.; Hoyt, William B. (1852). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foxandhoytsquad00foxgoog">"Rule Respecting Intoxicating Liquors"</a>. Quadrennial Register of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Connecticut: Case, Tiffany & Co. p. 200f.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rule+Respecting+Intoxicating+Liquors&rft.btitle=Quadrennial+Register+of+the+Methodist+Episcopal+Church&rft.place=Connecticut&rft.pages=200f&rft.pub=Case%2C+Tiffany+%26+Co.&rft.date=1852&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Henry+J.&rft.au=Hoyt%2C+William+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoxandhoytsquad00foxgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Coke and Asbury, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zOoCAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA150#PPA93,M1">Note 6 on Section XIII</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAsbury1802" class="citation book cs1">Asbury, Francis (30 December 1802). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160626100807/http://wesley.nnu.edu/other-theologians/francis-asbury/the-journal-and-letters-of-francis-asbury-volume-ii/francis-asbury-the-letters-chapter-8/">To George Roberts, Pastor of Light Street Church in Baltimore</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wesley.nnu.edu/other-theologians/francis-asbury/the-journal-and-letters-of-francis-asbury-volume-ii/francis-asbury-the-letters-chapter-8/">the original</a> on 2016-06-26. Retrieved 2013-11-15. <q>I have had one thought about our citizens in general. I wish they would lay aside the use of wine and strong drink in general. God would suddenly and certainly work. I am determined not to go out of my way on that matter for five hundred presidents and all the bishops in the world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+George+Roberts%2C+Pastor+of+Light+Street+Church+in+Baltimore&rft.date=1802-12-30&rft.aulast=Asbury&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwesley.nnu.edu%2Fother-theologians%2Ffrancis-asbury%2Fthe-journal-and-letters-of-francis-asbury-volume-ii%2Ffrancis-asbury-the-letters-chapter-8%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Methodist Episcopal Church, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zOoCAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA150#PPA91,M1">"Section XIII: Of the Duty of Preachers"</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke1808" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Adam (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o_9bAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA62">A discourse on the nature, design, and institution of the holy eucharist</a>. p. 62. <q>it was widely different from that medicated and sophisticated beverage which goes now under that name. The yayin of the Hebrews, the oinos of the Greeks, and vinum of the ancient Romans, meant simply the expressed juice of the grape, sometimes drunk just after it was expressed ... at other times after fermentation... By the ancient Hebrews, I believe it was chiefly drunk in its first or simple state; hence it was termed among them the fruit of the vine; ... The matters made use of by Jesus Christ, on this solemn occasion, were unleavened bread, and the produce of the vine, i.e. pure wine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+discourse+on+the+nature%2C+design%2C+and+institution+of+the+holy+eucharist&rft.pages=62&rft.date=1808&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do_9bAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.v.vi.html#v.vi-p42">Article 18</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke" class="citation book cs1">Clarke, Adam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.studylight.org/commentaries/acc/1-corinthians-11.html">Adam Clarke's Commentary, 1 Corinthians 11</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Adam+Clarke%27s+Commentary%2C+1+Corinthians+11&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.studylight.org%2Fcommentaries%2Facc%2F1-corinthians-11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Coke and Asbury, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zOoCAAAAQAAJ&pg=RA1-PA150#PPA24,M1">notes on Article XIX</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarradice2012" class="citation web cs1">Carradice, Phil (29 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/wales/posts/the-temperance-movement-in-wales">"The temperance movement in Wales"</a>. BBC. Retrieved 20 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+temperance+movement+in+Wales&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2012-08-29&rft.aulast=Carradice&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fblogs%2Fwales%2Fposts%2Fthe-temperance-movement-in-wales&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AWMC2014-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AWMC2014_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AWMC2014_169-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AWMC2014_169-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference). <a href="/wiki/Salem,_Ohio" title="Salem, Ohio">Salem</a>: <a href="/wiki/Allegheny_Wesleyan_Methodist_Connection" title="Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection">Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection</a>. 2014. p. 37.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discipline+of+the+Allegheny+Wesleyan+Methodist+Connection+%28Original+Allegheny+Conference%29&rft.place=Salem&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Allegheny+Wesleyan+Methodist+Connection&rft.date=2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Clough, D. (2004). "Theology through social and political action". In C. Marsh et al. (Ed.), Unmasking Methodist theology (pp. 41–47). London, United Kingdom: Continuum. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dmbi.online/index.php?do=app.entry&id=2704">"Temperance"</a>. dmbi.online. A Dictionary of Methodism in Britain and Ireland. Retrieved 23 January 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dmbi.online&rft.atitle=Temperance&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdmbi.online%2Findex.php%3Fdo%3Dapp.entry%26id%3D2704&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamson1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._I._Williamson" title="G. I. Williamson">Williamson, G. I.</a> (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170319181217/http://www.nethtc.net/~giwopc/Wine_Book.pdf">Wine in the Bible and the Church</a> (PDF). Pilgrim Publishing. p. 6. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nethtc.net/~giwopc/Wine_Book.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2017-03-19. Retrieved 2008-04-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wine+in+the+Bible+and+the+Church&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Pilgrim+Publishing&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Williamson&rft.aufirst=G.+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nethtc.net%2F~giwopc%2FWine_Book.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120719082354/http://wch.uhs.wisc.edu/01-Prevention/01-Prev-Historical.html">"Historical Overview"</a>. Wisconsin Clearinghouse for Prevention Resources. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wch.uhs.wisc.edu/01-Prevention/01-Prev-Historical.html">the original</a> on 2012-07-19. Retrieved 2008-04-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historical+Overview&rft.pub=Wisconsin+Clearinghouse+for+Prevention+Resources&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwch.uhs.wisc.edu%2F01-Prevention%2F01-Prev-Historical.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBooth1879" class="citation book cs1">Booth, Catherine (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100803093934/http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp/booth/practrel.html#p29">"Strong Drink Versus Christianity"</a>. Papers on Practical Religion. London: S.W. Partridge and Co. p. 29. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp/booth/practrel.html#p29">the original</a> on 2010-08-03. Retrieved 2008-04-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Strong+Drink+Versus+Christianity&rft.btitle=Papers+on+Practical+Religion&rft.place=London&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=S.W.+Partridge+and+Co.&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiana.edu%2F~letrs%2Fvwwp%2Fbooth%2Fpractrel.html%23p29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcClintockStrong1891" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_McClintock_(theologian)" title="John McClintock (theologian)">McClintock, John</a>; <a href="/wiki/James_Strong_(theologian)" title="James Strong (theologian)">Strong, James</a> (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EchvNjm6alIC&pg=PP14">"Temperance Reform (eds.)"</a>. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Vol. X. New York: Harper and Brothers. p. 245f. <q>In January, 1826, Rev. Calvin Chapin published in the Connecticut Observer a series of articles in which he took the ground that the only real antidote for the evils deprecated is total abstinence, not only from distilled spirits, but from all intoxicating beverages. His position, however, was generally regarded as extreme, and he had few immediate converts to his opinions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Temperance+Reform+%28eds.%29&rft.btitle=Cyclopaedia+of+Biblical%2C+Theological%2C+and+Ecclesiastical+Literature&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=245f&rft.pub=Harper+and+Brothers&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=McClintock&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Strong%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEchvNjm6alIC%26pg%3DPP14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement#United_States" title="Temperance movement">Temperance movement#United States</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-ProtTrans4-177">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ProtTrans4_177-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ProtTrans4_177-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ProtTrans4_177-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ProtTrans4_177-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathison2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Mathison" title="Keith Mathison">Mathison, Keith</a> (January 22–28, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thirdmill.org/newfiles/kei_mathison/TH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.4.html">"Protestant Transubstantiation - Part 4: Origins of and Reasons for the Rejection of Wine"</a>. IIIM Magazine Online. 3 (4). Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IIIM+Magazine+Online&rft.atitle=Protestant+Transubstantiation+-+Part+4%3A+Origins+of+and+Reasons+for+the+Rejection+of+Wine&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2001-01-22%2F2001-01-28&rft.aulast=Mathison&rft.aufirst=Keith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthirdmill.org%2Fnewfiles%2Fkei_mathison%2FTH.Mathison.Prot.Transub.4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcLaughlin" class="citation web cs1">McLaughlin, Ra. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424202842/http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/99906.qna/category/ch/page/questions/site/iiim">"Protestant Transubstantiation (History of)"</a>. Third Millennium Ministries. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thirdmill.org/answers/answer.asp/file/99906.qna/category/ch/page/questions/site/iiim">the original</a> on 2016-04-24. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Protestant+Transubstantiation+%28History+of%29&rft.pub=Third+Millennium+Ministries&rft.aulast=McLaughlin&rft.aufirst=Ra&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthirdmill.org%2Fanswers%2Fanswer.asp%2Ffile%2F99906.qna%2Fcategory%2Fch%2Fpage%2Fquestions%2Fsite%2Fiiim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Pierard, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoogan1993" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Coogan, M. D. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/799">"Wine"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Metzger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruce Metzger">Bruce Metzger</a> and M. D. Coogan (ed.). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/799">799f</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504645-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-504645-8"><bdi>978-0-19-504645-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wine&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+Bible&rft.pages=799f&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-19-504645-8&rft.aulast=Coogan&rft.aufirst=M.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195046458%2Fpage%2F799&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-TuckerKaren-181"><a href="#cite_ref-TuckerKaren_181-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2001" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Karen B. Westerfield (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I1TDD5-CLlEC&q=unfermented&pg=PA151">"The Lord's Supper"</a>. American Methodist Worship. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-512698-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-512698-X"><bdi>0-19-512698-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Lord%27s+Supper&rft.btitle=American+Methodist+Worship&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-512698-X&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Karen+B.+Westerfield&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI1TDD5-CLlEC%26q%3Dunfermented%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BacchiocchiSamuele-182"><a href="#cite_ref-BacchiocchiSamuele_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacchiocchi1989" class="citation book cs1">Bacchiocchi, Samuele (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121228173516/http://www.biblicalperspectives.com/books/wine_in_the_bible/3.html">"The Preservation of Grape Juice"</a>. Wine in the Bible. Signal Press & Biblical Perspectives. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-930987-07-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-930987-07-2"><bdi>1-930987-07-2</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblicalperspectives.com/books/wine_in_the_bible/3.html">the original</a> on 2012-12-28. Retrieved 2008-10-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Preservation+of+Grape+Juice&rft.btitle=Wine+in+the+Bible&rft.pub=Signal+Press+%26+Biblical+Perspectives&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=1-930987-07-2&rft.aulast=Bacchiocchi&rft.aufirst=Samuele&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalperspectives.com%2Fbooks%2Fwine_in_the_bible%2F3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HallettAnthony-183"><a href="#cite_ref-HallettAnthony_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallettHallett1997" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hallett, Anthony; Hallett, Diane (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2PJICBnrpDgC&pg=PA481">"Thomas B. Welch, Charles E. Welch"</a>. Entrepreneur Magazine Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurs. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 481–483. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-17536-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-17536-6"><bdi>0-471-17536-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thomas+B.+Welch%2C+Charles+E.+Welch&rft.btitle=Entrepreneur+Magazine+Encyclopedia+of+Entrepreneurs&rft.pages=481-483&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-471-17536-6&rft.aulast=Hallett&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Hallett%2C+Diane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2PJICBnrpDgC%26pg%3DPA481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLieseKeatingShanley1912" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Liese, W.; Keating, J.; Shanley, W. (1912). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14482a.htm">"Temperance Movements"</a>. The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-05-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Temperance+Movements&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Liese&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Keating%2C+J.&rft.au=Shanley%2C+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F14482a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/06/25/102714126.pdf">"Prelate Assails Dry Law. Archbishop Messmer Forbids Catholic Help to Amendment"</a> (PDF). The New York Times. June 25, 1918. p. 13. Retrieved 2008-05-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Prelate+Assails+Dry+Law.+Archbishop+Messmer+Forbids+Catholic+Help+to+Amendment&rft.pages=13&rft.date=1918-06-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1918%2F06%2F25%2F102714126.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> McClintock and Strong, "Temperance Reform", p. 248: "[T]he [temperance] cause received a new impulse from the presence and labors of father Mathew, the Irish apostle of temperance, who came to America in June and spent sixteen months of hard work chiefly among the Irish Catholics. Crowds greeted him everywhere, and large numbers took the pledge at his hands. It is not surprising that a reaction followed this swift success. Many pledged themselves by a sudden impulse, moved thereto by the enthusiasm of assembled multitudes, with little, clear, intelligent, fixed conviction of the evils inseparable from the habits which they were renouncing. The pope, their infallible teacher both in regard to faith and morals, had never pronounced moderate drinking a sin, either mortal or venial; and even occasional drunkenness had been treated in the confessional as a trivial offence.... [T]he <a href="/wiki/Catholic_clergy" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic clergy">Catholic clergy</a>, as a body, seem to have made no vigorous effort to hold the ground which the venerable father Matthew won; and the <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">laity</a>, of course, have felt no obligation be wiser than their teachers." </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngs" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_C._Engs" title="Ruth C. Engs">Engs, Ruth C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170905121435/http://www.indiana.edu/~engs/articles/cathprot.htm">"Protestants and Catholics: Drunken Barbarians and Mellow Romans?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~engs/articles/cathprot.htm">the original</a> on 2017-09-05. Retrieved 2008-05-20. <q>Wide scale temperance movements and anti-alcohol sentiments have not been, and are not, found in southern European Roman Catholic countries.... In hard-drinking eastern European Catholic countries, such as Russia and Poland, sporadic anti-drunk campaigns have been launched but have only been short lived. This has also been found in Ireland (Levine, 1992).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Protestants+and+Catholics%3A+Drunken+Barbarians+and+Mellow+Romans%3F&rft.aulast=Engs&rft.aufirst=Ruth+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiana.edu%2F~engs%2Farticles%2Fcathprot.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> Adapted from <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngs2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_C._Engs" title="Ruth C. Engs">Engs, Ruth C.</a> (2001). "What Should We Be Researching? - Past Influences, Future Ventures". In Elini Houghton; Ann M. Roche (eds.). Learning about Drinking. International Center for Alcohol Policies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Should+We+Be+Researching%3F+-+Past+Influences%2C+Future+Ventures&rft.btitle=Learning+about+Drinking&rft.pub=International+Center+for+Alcohol+Policies&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Engs&rft.aufirst=Ruth+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> Retrieved 2008-05-19. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P80.HTM#D5">"Paragraph 2290"</a>. Catechism of the Catholic Church. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 1993. Retrieved 2008-05-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paragraph+2290&rft.btitle=Catechism+of+the+Catholic+Church&rft.place=Vatican+City&rft.pub=Libreria+Editrice+Vaticana&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Farchive%2FENG0015%2F_P80.HTM%23D5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crusade-189"><a href="#cite_ref-Crusade_189-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShiman1988" class="citation book cs1">Shiman, Lilian Lewis (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crusadeagainstdr00shim/page/5">Crusade Against Drink in Victorian England</a>. St. Martin's Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crusadeagainstdr00shim/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-17777-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-17777-1"><bdi>0-312-17777-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crusade+Against+Drink+in+Victorian+England&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-312-17777-1&rft.aulast=Shiman&rft.aufirst=Lilian+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrusadeagainstdr00shim%2Fpage%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKobler1993" class="citation book cs1">Kobler, John (1993). Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. Da Capo Press. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-80512-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-80512-X"><bdi>0-306-80512-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ardent+Spirits%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+Prohibition&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-306-80512-X&rft.aulast=Kobler&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Engs-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Engs_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Engs_191-1">b</a> Engs: "Levine has noted that 'in Western societies, only Nordic and English-speaking cultures developed large, ongoing, extremely popular temperance movements in the nineteenth century and the first third or so of the twentieth century.' He also observed that temperance – anti alcohol – cultures have been, and still are, Protestant societies." </li> <li id="cite_note-presbyterians-alcohol-192"><a href="#cite_ref-presbyterians-alcohol_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nodrinking.com/do-presbyterians-drink-alcohol/">"Presbyterians Alcohol"</a>. nodrinking.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Presbyterians+Alcohol&rft.pub=nodrinking.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nodrinking.com%2Fdo-presbyterians-drink-alcohol%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrader2012" class="citation book cs1">Schrader, Ben (15 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.teara.govt.nz/en/ephemera/31089/the-band-of-hope">Presbyterian Church - Church and society</a>. <a href="/wiki/Te_Ara:_The_Encyclopedia_of_New_Zealand" title="Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand">Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand</a>. Retrieved 13 March 2015. <q>Despite the Scottish heritage of whisky drinking, Presbyterians were strong supporters of temperance and prohibition. They believed (with some justification) that 'the demon drink' was destructive of family life. The church was a stronghold of the temperance organisation the Band of Hope... which encouraged youth... to sign a pledge to abstain from alcohol.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Presbyterian+Church+-+Church+and+society&rft.pub=Te+Ara%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+New+Zealand&rft.date=2012-11-15&rft.aulast=Schrader&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teara.govt.nz%2Fen%2Fephemera%2F31089%2Fthe-band-of-hope&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> Quoted in Williamson, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2004" class="citation thesis cs1">Wallace, Peter (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110207111426/http://peterwallace.org/dissertation/4conscience.htm">"Wine, Women, and the Limits of Conscience"</a>. The Bond of Union: The Old School Presbyterian Church and the American Nation, 1837-1861 (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Notre_Dame" title="University of Notre Dame">University of Notre Dame</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peterwallace.org/dissertation/4conscience.htm">the original</a> on 2011-02-07. Retrieved 2013-06-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Bond+of+Union%3A+The+Old+School+Presbyterian+Church+and+the+American+Nation%2C+1837-1861&rft.inst=University+of+Notre+Dame&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peterwallace.org%2Fdissertation%2F4conscience.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVallee1998" class="citation journal cs1">Vallee, B. L. (June 1998). "Alcohol in the western world". Scientific American. 278 (6): 80–85. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998SciAm.278f..80V">1998SciAm.278f..80V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0698-80">10.1038/scientificamerican0698-80</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8733">0036-8733</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9644011">9644011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Alcohol+in+the+western+world&rft.volume=278&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=80-85&rft.date=1998-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0698-80&rft.issn=0036-8733&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9644011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998SciAm.278f..80V&rft.aulast=Vallee&rft.aufirst=B.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mathias299-197">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mathias299_197-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mathias299_197-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathias1959" class="citation book cs1">Mathias, P. (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brewingindustryi0000math">The Brewing Industry in England 1700-1830</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brewingindustryi0000math/page/299">299</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05691-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-05691-5"><bdi>978-0-521-05691-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brewing+Industry+in+England+1700-1830&rft.pages=299&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0-521-05691-5&rft.aulast=Mathias&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrewingindustryi0000math&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Cf. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHennell1979" class="citation book cs1">Hennell, M. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SnjZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22gin%2C+were+the+source+of+social+evil%22">Sons of the Prophets: Evangelical Leaders of the Victorian Church</a>. S.P.C.K. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-281-03698-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-281-03698-1"><bdi>978-0-281-03698-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sons+of+the+Prophets%3A+Evangelical+Leaders+of+the+Victorian+Church&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=S.P.C.K.&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-281-03698-1&rft.aulast=Hennell&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSnjZAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522gin%252C%2Bwere%2Bthe%2Bsource%2Bof%2Bsocial%2Bevil%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2001" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, T.C. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iIDIlhlnuCsC&pg=PA48">British Quakerism, 1860-1920: The Transformation of a Religious Community</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827035-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827035-5"><bdi>978-0-19-827035-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Quakerism%2C+1860-1920%3A+The+Transformation+of+a+Religious+Community&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-827035-5&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=T.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiIDIlhlnuCsC%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DrinkWhat-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DrinkWhat_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DrinkWhat_200-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCamp2007" class="citation web cs1">Camp, Ken (2007-01-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.baptiststandard.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5988&Itemid=135">"Drink to That? Have Baptists watered down their objections to alcohol?"</a>. The Baptist Standard. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Baptist+Standard&rft.atitle=Drink+to+That%3F+Have+Baptists+watered+down+their+objections+to+alcohol%3F&rft.date=2007-01-05&rft.aulast=Camp&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.baptiststandard.com%2Findex.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D5988%26Itemid%3D135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> McClintock and Strong, p. 249, lists Sweden, Australia, Madagascar, India, and China. </li> <li id="cite_note-Global-Survey-Evangelical-Protestant-Leaders-202"><a href="#cite_ref-Global-Survey-Evangelical-Protestant-Leaders_202-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewforum.org/2011/06/22/global-survey-of-evangelical-protestant-leaders/">"Global Survey of Evangelical Protestant Leaders"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pew_Forum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pew Forum">Pew Forum</a>. 2011. Retrieved 2013-10-31. <q>[E]vangelical leaders are divided over the consumption of alcohol. About four-in-ten (42%) say it is compatible with being a good evangelical, while 52% say it is incompatible. Leaders from sub-Saharan Africa are especially likely to oppose alcohol use; 78% of them say it is incompatible with being a good evangelical, as do 78% of evangelical leaders who live in Muslim-majority countries.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Global+Survey+of+Evangelical+Protestant+Leaders&rft.pub=Pew+Forum&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewforum.org%2F2011%2F06%2F22%2Fglobal-survey-of-evangelical-protestant-leaders%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rollins2005-203"><a href="#cite_ref-Rollins2005_203-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollins2005" class="citation book cs1">Rollins, Christin Eleanor (2005). Have You Heard The Tramping of the New Crusade?: Organizational Survival and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. University of Georgia. p. 52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Have+You+Heard+The+Tramping+of+the+New+Crusade%3F%3A+Organizational+Survival+and+the+Woman%27s+Christian+Temperance+Union&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Rollins&rft.aufirst=Christin+Eleanor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Martin2014-204"><a href="#cite_ref-Martin2014_204-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2014" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Scott C. (16 December 2014). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Alcohol: Social, Cultural, and Historical Perspectives. SAGE Publications. p. 359. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4833-3108-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4833-3108-9"><bdi>978-1-4833-3108-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+SAGE+Encyclopedia+of+Alcohol%3A+Social%2C+Cultural%2C+and+Historical+Perspectives&rft.pages=359&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2014-12-16&rft.isbn=978-1-4833-3108-9&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Scott+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadrid1992" class="citation journal cs1">Madrid, Patrick (March 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070307114735/http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/1992/9203chap.asp">"Wrath of Grapes"</a>. This Rock. 3 (3). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/1992/9203chap.asp">the original</a> on 2007-03-07. Retrieved 2007-03-16. <q>The [Catholic] Church teaches ... that wine, like food, sex, laughter, and dancing, is a good thing when enjoyed in its proper time and context. To abuse any good thing is a sin, but the thing abused does not itself become sinful.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=This+Rock&rft.atitle=Wrath+of+Grapes&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=3&rft.date=1992-03&rft.aulast=Madrid&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.catholic.com%2Fthisrock%2F1992%2F9203chap.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Callaghan1992" class="citation journal cs1">O'Callaghan, Paul (March 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/misc/ocallaghan_true_christianity.htm">"The Spirit of True Christianity"</a>. Word Magazine. Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America: 8–9. Retrieved 2007-03-16. <q>So alcohol, sex, the body, money, television, and music are all good things. It is only the abuse of these things that is bad—drunkenness, pornography, compulsive gambling, etc. Even drugs marijuana, cocaine, heroin—all have good uses for medical and other reasons. It's only the abuse of them for pleasure that is wrong.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Word+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Spirit+of+True+Christianity&rft.pages=8-9&rft.date=1992-03&rft.aulast=O%27Callaghan&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org%2Farticles%2Fmisc%2Focallaghan_true_christianity.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ELCA-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ELCA_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ELCA_207-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070214184311/http://www.elca.org/ecumenical/ecumenicaldialogue/unitedmethodist/GuidelinesEucharisticSharing.pdf">"Responding to Opportunities for 'Interim Eucharistic Sharing'"</a> (PDF). Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.elca.org/ecumenical/ecumenicaldialogue/unitedmethodist/GuidelinesEucharisticSharing.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2007-02-14. Retrieved 2007-02-24. <q>While many Lutheran congregations also provide grape juice or unfermented wine as an alternative, Lutherans have more emphasized the historical and ecumenical continuities which wine provides, as well as the richness and multivalences of its symbolic associations.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Responding+to+Opportunities+for+%27Interim+Eucharistic+Sharing%27&rft.pub=Evangelical+Lutheran+Church+in+America&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.elca.org%2Fecumenical%2Fecumenicaldialogue%2Funitedmethodist%2FGuidelinesEucharisticSharing.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lcms.org/graphics/assets/media/CTCR/Theol_lord_supper1.pdf">"Theology and Practice of The Lord's Supper - Part I"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Lutheran_Church%E2%80%93Missouri_Synod" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod">Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod</a>. May 1983. Retrieved 2007-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Theology+and+Practice+of+The+Lord%27s+Supper+-+Part+I&rft.pub=Lutheran+Church%E2%80%93Missouri+Synod&rft.date=1983-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lcms.org%2Fgraphics%2Fassets%2Fmedia%2FCTCR%2FTheol_lord_supper1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20030413162500/http://www.pcusa.org/101/101-alcohol.htm">"Alcohol"</a>. Presbyterian 101. <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_(USA)" title="Presbyterian Church (USA)">Presbyterian Church (USA)</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pcusa.org/101/101-alcohol.htm">the original</a> on 2003-04-13. Retrieved 2007-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Presbyterian+101&rft.atitle=Alcohol&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcusa.org%2F101%2F101-alcohol.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-UCC-210">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UCC_210-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-UCC_210-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120608114107/http://www.ucc.org/assets/pdfs/worshipintro.pdf">"Introduction to Worship in the United Church of Christ"</a> (PDF). Book of Worship. United Church of Christ. 1986. pp. Footnote 27. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucc.org/assets/pdfs/worshipintro.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2012-06-08. Retrieved 2007-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Book+of+Worship&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Worship+in+the+United+Church+of+Christ&rft.pages=Footnote+27&rft.date=1986&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucc.org%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2Fworshipintro.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRCNA-211">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRCNA_211-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRCNA_211-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121021024500/http://crcna.org/pages/positions_alcohol.cfm">"Alcohol"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Christian_Reformed_Church_in_North_America" title="Christian Reformed Church in North America">Christian Reformed Church in North America</a>. 1996–2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crcna.org/pages/positions_alcohol.cfm">the original</a> on 2012-10-21. Retrieved 2007-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alcohol&rft.pub=Christian+Reformed+Church+in+North+America&rft.date=1996%2F2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crcna.org%2Fpages%2Fpositions_alcohol.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912044757/http://pcahistory.org/pca/2-051.html">"Alcohol, Beverage use of"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_in_America" title="Presbyterian Church in America">Presbyterian Church in America</a>, 8th General Assembly. 1980. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pcahistory.org/pca/2-051.html">the original</a> on 2017-09-12. Retrieved 2007-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alcohol%2C+Beverage+use+of&rft.pub=Presbyterian+Church+in+America%2C+8th+General+Assembly&rft.date=1980&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pcahistory.org%2Fpca%2F2-051.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2004884">"Maintain a Balanced View Of Alcohol"</a>. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 2004. Retrieved 2012-11-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maintain+a+Balanced+View+Of+Alcohol&rft.pub=Watch+Tower+Bible+and+Tract+Society+of+Pennsylvania&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwol.jw.org%2Fen%2Fwol%2Fd%2Fr1%2Flp-e%2F2004884&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyers1-214">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meyers1_214-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meyers1_214-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers1996" class="citation journal cs1">Meyers, Jeffrey J. (November 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/rite-reasons/no-48-concerning-wine-and-beer-part-1/">"Concerning Wine and Beer, Part 1"</a>. Rite Reasons, Studies in Worship (48). Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rite+Reasons%2C+Studies+in+Worship&rft.atitle=Concerning+Wine+and+Beer%2C+Part+1&rft.issue=48&rft.date=1996-11&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalhorizons.com%2Frite-reasons%2Fno-48-concerning-wine-and-beer-part-1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meyers2-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meyers2_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meyers2_215-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyers1997" class="citation journal cs1">Meyers, Jeffrey J. (January 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblicalhorizons.com/rite-reasons/no-49-concerning-wine-and-beer-part-2/">"Concerning Wine and Beer, Part 2"</a>. Rite Reasons, Studies in Worship (49). Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rite+Reasons%2C+Studies+in+Worship&rft.atitle=Concerning+Wine+and+Beer%2C+Part+2&rft.issue=49&rft.date=1997-01&rft.aulast=Meyers&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblicalhorizons.com%2Frite-reasons%2Fno-49-concerning-wine-and-beer-part-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Pierard, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-Gonzales-217">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gonzales_217-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gonzales_217-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzales" class="citation web cs1">Gonzales, Robert R. Jr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20121228025022/http://blog.rbseminary.org/2008/08/the-son-of-man-came-drinking-was-jesus-a-social-drinker-part-i/">"The Son of Man Came Drinking"</a>. RBS Tabletalk. Reformed Baptist Seminary. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.rbseminary.org/2008/08/the-son-of-man-came-drinking-was-jesus-a-social-drinker-part-i/">the original</a> on 2012-12-28. Retrieved 2010-02-15. <q>[E]ven if the wine Jesus drank had a lower alcohol context than today's wine, the issue is still moderation not abstinence. The believer may not be able to drink as many glasses of modern wine compared to ancient wine and remain within the bounds of moderation. Instead of drinking 20 glasses of ancient wine, we'd have to limit ourselves to 2 glasses of modern wine. But still, the issue is moderation, not abstinence.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RBS+Tabletalk&rft.atitle=The+Son+of+Man+Came+Drinking&rft.aulast=Gonzales&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.rbseminary.org%2F2008%2F08%2Fthe-son-of-man-came-drinking-was-jesus-a-social-drinker-part-i%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> Raymond, passim, especially pp. 48f. He adds on p. 85, "St. Paul regards wine as intrinsically good, 'for every creature of God is good, and nothing is to be rejected, if it be received with thanksgiving' [ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Ti+4:3-4">1Ti 4:3f</a> ]." </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaff" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Schaff" title="Philip Schaff">Schaff, Philip</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.ix.ix.vi.html">"The Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles"</a>. Ante-Nicean Fathers. Vol. VII. Retrieved 2013-03-28. <q>51. If any bishop, or presbyter, or deacon, or indeed any one of the sacerdotal catalogue, abstains from marriage, flesh, and wine, not for his own exercise, but because he abominates these things, forgetting that 'all things were very good,' and that 'God made man male and female,' and blasphemously abuses the creation, either let him reform, or let him be deprived [of his office], and be cast out of the Church; and the same for one of the laity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ecclesiastical+Canons+of+the+Same+Holy+Apostles&rft.btitle=Ante-Nicean+Fathers&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fanf07.ix.ix.vi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvin" class="citation web cs1">Calvin, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom11.xiii.iii.html#xiii.iii-p15.1">"On Ps 104:15"</a>. Commentary on the Psalms. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Commentary+on+the+Psalms&rft.atitle=On+Ps+104%3A15&rft.aulast=Calvin&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fccel.org%2Fccel%2Fcalvin%2Fcalcom11.xiii.iii.html%23xiii.iii-p15.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCalvin1545" class="citation web cs1">Calvin, John (1545). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170816134724/http://www.reformed.org/documents/calvin/geneva_catachism/geneva_catachism.html">"Catechism of the Church of Geneva"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reformed.org/documents/calvin/geneva_catachism/geneva_catachism.html">the original</a> on 2017-08-16. Retrieved 2007-03-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catechism+of+the+Church+of+Geneva&rft.date=1545&rft.aulast=Calvin&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.reformed.org%2Fdocuments%2Fcalvin%2Fgeneva_catachism%2Fgeneva_catachism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuther" class="citation web cs1">Luther, Martin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.godrules.net/library/luther/NEW1luther_b8.htm">"Fourth Invocavit sermon from 1522"</a>. Works, American Edition, vol. 51, p. 85. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Works%2C+American+Edition%2C+vol.+51%2C+p.+85&rft.atitle=Fourth+Invocavit+sermon+from+1522&rft.aulast=Luther&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.godrules.net%2Flibrary%2Fluther%2FNEW1luther_b8.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Co+11:33-34,">1Co 11:33f</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> Raymond, p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> Raymond, pp. 83f. </li> <li id="cite_note-EucharistWine-226"><a href="#cite_ref-EucharistWine_226-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/May1996/Wiseman.asp#F3">"Ask the Wise Man: Eucharistic Wine and an Alcoholic Priest; Hosts for the Gluten-allergic"</a>. St. Anthony Messenger. May 1996. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=St.+Anthony+Messenger&rft.atitle=Ask+the+Wise+Man%3A+Eucharistic+Wine+and+an+Alcoholic+Priest%3B+Hosts+for+the+Gluten-allergic&rft.date=1996-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americancatholic.org%2FMessenger%2FMay1996%2FWiseman.asp%23F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opc.org/qa.html?question_id=138">"Wine or grape juice"</a>. Orthodox Presbyterian Church. Retrieved 2007-02-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wine+or+grape+juice&rft.pub=Orthodox+Presbyterian+Church&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopc.org%2Fqa.html%3Fquestion_id%3D138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> Cross and Livingstone, p. 1767. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._R._P._McGuire_and_T._D._Terry2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">M. R. P. McGuire and T. D. Terry, ed. (2002). "Eucharist". New Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 14 (2nd ed.). Thomson Gale. p. 772. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-4004-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7876-4004-0"><bdi>978-0-7876-4004-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eucharist&rft.btitle=New+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=772&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thomson+Gale&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7876-4004-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> See the thorough discussion of lexical differences in Gentry, God Gave Wine, pp. 33-104. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Compare <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mt+15:11,18;Mk+7:20,23">Mt 15:11,18; Mk 7:20,23</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRayburn2001" class="citation web cs1">Rayburn, Robert S. (2001-02-11). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110810103155/http://sermons.faithtacoma.org/Revising_Communion/Revising_FPC_LordsSupper_No.4_Wine_No.3_Feb.11.2001.htm">"Revising the Practice of the Lord's Supper at Faith Presbyterian Church No. 4, Wine, No. 3"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sermons.faithtacoma.org/Revising_Communion/Revising_FPC_LordsSupper_No.4_Wine_No.3_Feb.11.2001.htm">the original</a> on 2011-08-10. Retrieved 2012-04-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Revising+the+Practice+of+the+Lord%27s+Supper+at+Faith+Presbyterian+Church+No.+4%2C+Wine%2C+No.+3&rft.date=2001-02-11&rft.aulast=Rayburn&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsermons.faithtacoma.org%2FRevising_Communion%2FRevising_FPC_LordsSupper_No.4_Wine_No.3_Feb.11.2001.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Gentry, God Gave Wine, pp. 105-130. </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722122714/http://erlc.com/article/the-bible-speaks-on-alcohol/">"The Bible Speaks on Alcohol"</a>. The Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://erlc.com/article/the-bible-speaks-on-alcohol/">the original</a> on 2011-07-22. Retrieved 2011-07-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Bible+Speaks+on+Alcohol&rft.pub=The+Ethics+%26+Religious+Liberty+Commission+of+the+Southern+Baptist+Convention&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ferlc.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-bible-speaks-on-alcohol%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070602112604/http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=1755">"Alcohol and Other Drugs"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Discipline_of_The_United_Methodist_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church">The Book of Discipline of The United Methodist Church</a>. The United Methodist Publishing House. 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&mid=1755">the original</a> on 2007-06-02. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Book+of+Discipline+of+The+United+Methodist+Church&rft.atitle=Alcohol+and+Other+Drugs&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.umc.org%2Finterior.asp%3Fptid%3D1%26mid%3D1755&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100215111649/http://ag.org/top/Beliefs/Position_Papers/pp_downloads/pp_4187_abstinence.pdf">"Position paper: Abstinence from Alcohol"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Assemblies_of_God" title="Assemblies of God">Assemblies of God</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ag.org/top/Beliefs/Position_Papers/pp_downloads/pp_4187_abstinence.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2010-02-15. Retrieved 2009-08-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Position+paper%3A+Abstinence+from+Alcohol&rft.pub=Assemblies+of+God&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fag.org%2Ftop%2FBeliefs%2FPosition_Papers%2Fpp_downloads%2Fpp_4187_abstinence.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SalvArmy-237">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SalvArmy_237-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SalvArmy_237-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://birminghamrecoverycenter.com/montgomery-alcohol-rehab/">"Salvation Army's Position Statements: Alcohol and Drugs"</a>. 1980. Retrieved 2012-04-03. <q>The Salvation Army ... has historically required total abstinence of its soldiers and officers. While not condemning those outside its ranks who choose to indulge, it nevertheless believes total abstinence to be the only certain guarantee against overindulgence and the evils attendant on addiction.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Salvation+Army%27s+Position+Statements%3A+Alcohol+and+Drugs&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbirminghamrecoverycenter.com%2Fmontgomery-alcohol-rehab%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Graham, Billy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926221859/http://www.billygraham.org/MyAnswer_Article.asp?ArticleID=2224">"My Answer"</a>. Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.billygraham.org/MyAnswer_Article.asp?ArticleID=2224">the original</a> on 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=My+Answer&rft.pub=Billy+Graham+Evangelistic+Association&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Billy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.billygraham.org%2FMyAnswer_Article.asp%3FArticleID%3D2224&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur" class="citation web cs1">MacArthur, John F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblebb.com/files/MAC/sg1938.htm">"Living in the Spirit: Be Not Drunk with Wine--Part 3"</a>. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Living+in+the+Spirit%3A+Be+Not+Drunk+with+Wine--Part+3&rft.aulast=MacArthur&rft.aufirst=John+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblebb.com%2Ffiles%2FMAC%2Fsg1938.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">R. Albert Mohler and Russell Moore (2005-09-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161008165949/http://www.sbts.edu/resources/lectures/school-council/alcohol-and-the-ministry/">Alcohol and Ministry</a> (<a href="/wiki/MP3" title="MP3">MP3</a> audio). <a href="/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Theological_Seminary" title="Southern Baptist Theological Seminary">Southern Baptist Theological Seminary</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbts.edu/resources/lectures/school-council/alcohol-and-the-ministry/">the original</a> on 2016-10-08. Retrieved 2011-07-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alcohol+and+Ministry&rft.pub=Southern+Baptist+Theological+Seminary&rft.date=2005-09-14&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbts.edu%2Fresources%2Flectures%2Fschool-council%2Falcohol-and-the-ministry%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Piper-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Piper_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Piper_241-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiper1981" class="citation web cs1">Piper, John (1981-10-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.desiringgod.org/ResourceLibrary/TopicIndex/34/313_Total_Abstinence_and_Church_Membership/">"Total Abstinence and Church Membership"</a>. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Total+Abstinence+and+Church+Membership&rft.date=1981-10-04&rft.aulast=Piper&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.desiringgod.org%2FResourceLibrary%2FTopicIndex%2F34%2F313_Total_Abstinence_and_Church_Membership%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> For example, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArterburn2007" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Arterburn" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Arterburn">Arterburn, Stephen</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianity.com/11546319/print/">"Myths and Facts about Alcohol Consumption and Jim Burns"</a>. Retrieved 2007-11-19. <q>For the general population, no specific Scriptures forbid wine consumption in small amounts ... In our society, with so much damage being done by drinking, many who think it is okay to drink need to reexamine the practice ... And for us parents who have to be concerned about the behaviors we are modeling, abstinence is the best choice.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Myths+and+Facts+about+Alcohol+Consumption+and+Jim+Burns&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Arterburn&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianity.com%2F11546319%2Fprint%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akin-243">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Akin_243-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akin_243-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akin_243-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Akin_243-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkin2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_L._Akin" title="Daniel L. Akin">Akin, Daniel L.</a> (2006-06-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130605230618/http://www.bpnews.net/bpcolumn.asp?ID=2298">"FIRST-PERSON: The case for alcohol abstinence"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Baptist_Press" title="Baptist Press">Baptist Press</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bpnews.net/bpcolumn.asp?ID=2298">the original</a> on 2013-06-05. Retrieved 2013-04-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FIRST-PERSON%3A+The+case+for+alcohol+abstinence&rft.pub=Baptist+Press&rft.date=2006-06-30&rft.aulast=Akin&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpnews.net%2Fbpcolumn.asp%3FID%3D2298&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblemethodist.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/2018-Bible-Methodist-Discipline-rev.-2.pdf">Discipline of the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Bible_Methodist_Connection_of_Churches" title="Bible Methodist Connection of Churches">Bible Methodist Connection of Churches</a>. 2018. pp. 29, 46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discipline+of+the+Bible+Methodist+Connection+of+Churches&rft.pages=29%2C+46&rft.pub=Bible+Methodist+Connection+of+Churches&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblemethodist.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F06%2F2018-Bible-Methodist-Discipline-rev.-2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Land-245">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Land_245-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Land_245-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLand2006" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Land" title="Richard Land">Land, Richard</a> (2006-07-24). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130606002004/http://www.bpnews.net/bpnews.asp?id=23678">"FIRST-PERSON: The great alcohol debate"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Baptist_Press" title="Baptist Press">Baptist Press</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bpnews.net/bpnews.asp?id=23678">the original</a> on 2013-06-06. Retrieved 2013-04-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FIRST-PERSON%3A+The+great+alcohol+debate&rft.pub=Baptist+Press&rft.date=2006-07-24&rft.aulast=Land&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bpnews.net%2Fbpnews.asp%3Fid%3D23678&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur" class="citation web cs1">MacArthur, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gty.org/resources/Study-Guide-Chapter/45-111">"Unity in Action: Building Up One Another Without Offending--Part 2"</a>. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unity+in+Action%3A+Building+Up+One+Another+Without+Offending--Part+2&rft.aulast=MacArthur&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gty.org%2Fresources%2FStudy-Guide-Chapter%2F45-111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuzik" class="citation web cs1">Guzik, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061208100335/http://www.enduringword.com/commentaries/5405.htm">"Commentary on 1 Ti 5:23"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.enduringword.com/commentaries/5405.htm">the original</a> on 2006-12-08. 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House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-57840-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-310-57840-6"><bdi>978-0-310-57840-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Commentary+on+1+Ti+5%3A23&rft.btitle=Zondervan+NIV+Bible+Commentary&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Mich.&rft.pub=Zondervan+Pub.+House&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-310-57840-6&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+L.&rft.au=Kohlenberger+III%2C+John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeisler1982" class="citation journal cs1">Geisler, Norman (January–March 1982). "A Christian Perspective on Wine-Drinking". 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Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Flesh+Tank+and+Peashooter+Regulations&rft.date=1982-01-17&rft.aulast=Piper&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.desiringgod.org%2FResourceLibrary%2FSermons%2FByDate%2F1982%2F330_Flesh_Tank_and_Peashooter_Regulations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠmidchens2009" class="citation journal cs1">Šmidchens, Guntis (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/mhr.2009.0031">"Finns in Michigan. "Discovering the Peoples of Michigan" series by Gary Kaunonen"</a>. Michigan Historical Review. 35 (2): 119–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fmhr.2009.0031">10.1353/mhr.2009.0031</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2327-9672">2327-9672</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:258131318">258131318</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Michigan+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Finns+in+Michigan.+%22Discovering+the+Peoples+of+Michigan%22+series+by+Gary+Kaunonen&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=119-120&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A258131318%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2327-9672&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fmhr.2009.0031&rft.aulast=%C5%A0midchens&rft.aufirst=Guntis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1353%2Fmhr.2009.0031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EMCC2017-253"><a href="#cite_ref-EMCC2017_253-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Evangelical Methodist Church Conference Discipline. <a href="/wiki/Evangelical_Methodist_Church_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Evangelical Methodist Church Conference">Evangelical Methodist Church Conference</a>. 15 July 2017. pp. 24–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evangelical+Methodist+Church+Conference+Discipline&rft.pages=24-25&rft.pub=Evangelical+Methodist+Church+Conference&rft.date=2017-07-15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-254"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_254-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061206110804/http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/statements/main_stat26.html">"Historic Stand for Temperance Principles and Acceptance of Donations Statement Impacts Social Change"</a>. 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Ensign: 53–55. Retrieved 2013-10-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ensign&rft.atitle=A+Principle+with+a+Promise&rft.pages=53-55&rft.date=1983-05&rft.aulast=Benson&rft.aufirst=Ezra+Taft&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.churchofjesuschrist.org%2Fstudy%2Fensign%2F1983%2F05%2Fa-principle-with-a-promise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716112618/http://mormon.org/mormonorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=7a45055b23710110VgnVCM1000003a94610aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f476db0580a1110VgnVCM100000176f620a____">"The Commandments: Obey the Word of Wisdom"</a>. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mormon.org/mormonorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=7a45055b23710110VgnVCM1000003a94610aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f476db0580a1110VgnVCM100000176f620a____">the original</a> on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2007-06-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Commandments%3A+Obey+the+Word+of+Wisdom&rft.pub=The+Church+of+Jesus+Christ+of+Latter-day+Saints&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmormon.org%2Fmormonorg%2Fv%2Findex.jsp%3Fvgnextoid%3D7a45055b23710110VgnVCM1000003a94610aRCRD%26locale%3D0%26sourceId%3D1f476db0580a1110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2018" class="citation web cs1">Martin, Stephanie (2018-11-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://churchleaders.com/news/337225-should-christians-drink-are-southern-baptists-losing-zeal-for-temperance.html">"Southern Baptists: Losing Their Zeal for Temperance?"</a>. ChurchLeaders. Retrieved 2022-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ChurchLeaders&rft.atitle=Southern+Baptists%3A+Losing+Their+Zeal+for+Temperance%3F&rft.date=2018-11-09&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchurchleaders.com%2Fnews%2F337225-should-christians-drink-are-southern-baptists-losing-zeal-for-temperance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://salvationist.ca/articles/2015/07/salvation-army-releases-position-statement-on-alcohol/">"Salvation Army Releases Position Statement on Alcohol"</a>. Salvation Army Canada. 22 July 2015. Retrieved 2022-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salvation+Army+Canada&rft.atitle=Salvation+Army+Releases+Position+Statement+on+Alcohol&rft.date=2015-07-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsalvationist.ca%2Farticles%2F2015%2F07%2Fsalvation-army-releases-position-statement-on-alcohol%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sbc.net/resource-library/resolutions/?fwp_resolutions_by_tag=alcohol">"SBC Resolutions Alcohol"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SBC+Resolutions+Alcohol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbc.net%2Fresource-library%2Fresolutions%2F%3Ffwp_resolutions_by_tag%3Dalcohol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sbc-264"><a href="#cite_ref-sbc_264-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120319152246/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=64">"Resolution On The Liquor Situation"</a>. Southern Baptist Convention. 1938. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=64">the original</a> on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2008-04-01. <q>We declare afresh our unalterable opposition to the whole liquor traffic, whisky, beer, and wine, and to the license system by which this most blighting and corrupting traffic fastened upon our body social and body politic.... We stand unalterable for total abstinence on the part of the individual and for prohibition by the government, local, State, and National, and that we declare relentless war upon the liquor traffic, both legal and illegal, until it shall be banished.... [T]his Convention earnestly recommends to our Baptist people, both pastors and churches, that the churches take a firm and consistent stand against all indulgence in the use of intoxicating liquors, including wine and beer, and against all participation in their sale by members of the churches, and that we seek as rapidly as possible to educate our people against the folly and sin of such use and sale, and that as rapidly as possible our churches shall be relieved of the open shame and burden of church members in any way connected with the unholy traffic</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resolution+On+The+Liquor+Situation&rft.pub=Southern+Baptist+Convention&rft.date=1938&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbc.net%2Fresolutions%2FamResolution.asp%3FID%3D64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131105012154/http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=1156">"On alcohol use in America"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Southern_Baptist_Convention" title="Southern Baptist Convention">Southern Baptist Convention</a>. 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=1156">the original</a> on 2013-11-05. Retrieved 2007-01-22. <q>RESOLVED ... total opposition to the manufacturing, advertising, distributing, and consuming of alcoholic beverages.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+alcohol+use+in+America&rft.pub=Southern+Baptist+Convention&rft.date=2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbc.net%2Fresolutions%2FamResolution.asp%3FID%3D1156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpurgeon1884" class="citation web cs1">Spurgeon, Charles (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nodrinking.com/charles-spurgeon-everybody-become-abstainers/">"Alcohol & Charles H. Spurgeon"</a>. Retrieved 2013-06-27. <q>'Those beer shops are the curse of this country—no good ever can come of them, and the evil they do no tongue can tell; the publics were bad enough, but the beer-shops are a pest; I wish the man who made the law to open them had to keep all the families that they have brought to ruin. Beer shops are the enemies of the home; therefore, the sooner their licenses are taken away, the better. Poor men don't need such places, nor rich men either; they are all worse and no better, like Tom Norton's wife. Anything that hurts the home is a curse and ought to be hunted down, as gamekeepers do to the vermin in the copses.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alcohol+%26+Charles+H.+Spurgeon&rft.date=1884&rft.aulast=Spurgeon&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nodrinking.com%2Fcharles-spurgeon-everybody-become-abstainers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWax2006" class="citation web cs1">Wax, Trevin (2006-12-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130611114236/http://thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/trevinwax/2006/12/06/spurgeon-the-drinker-the-rest-of-the-story/">"Spurgeon the Drinker: The Rest of the Story"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Gospel_Coalition" title="The Gospel Coalition">The Gospel Coalition</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/trevinwax/2006/12/06/spurgeon-the-drinker-the-rest-of-the-story">the original</a> on 2013-06-11. Retrieved 2013-06-27. <q>... as alcoholism destroyed families and neighborhoods in England during the late 1800s, Spurgeon decided that total abstinence was the wisest practice for the cultural context in which he found himself.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Spurgeon+the+Drinker%3A+The+Rest+of+the+Story&rft.pub=The+Gospel+Coalition&rft.date=2006-12-06&rft.aulast=Wax&rft.aufirst=Trevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthegospelcoalition.org%2Fblogs%2Ftrevinwax%2F2006%2F12%2F06%2Fspurgeon-the-drinker-the-rest-of-the-story&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BoothWilliam-268"><a href="#cite_ref-BoothWilliam_268-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBooth1888" class="citation book cs1">Booth, William (1888). "27. Strong Drink". The Training of Children: How to Make the Children into Saints and Soldiers of Jesus Christ (2nd ed.). <q>Make the children understand that the thing is an evil in itself. Show them that it is manufactured by man - that God never made a drop of alcohol. To say that alcohol is a good creature of God is one of the devil's own lies fathered on foolish and ignorant people. It is a man-manufactured article. The earth nowhere produces a drop of it. The good creatures of God have to be tortured and perverted before any of it can be obtained. There is not a drop in all creation made by God or that owes its existence to purely natural causes.... Make your children understand that it is not safe for them or anybody else to take strong drink in what is called moderation, and that even if it were, their example would be sure to induce others to take it, some of whom would be almost certain to go to excess.... Therefore, the only way of safety for your children as regards themselves and the answer of a good conscience with respect to others, is total abstinence from the evil.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=27.+Strong+Drink&rft.btitle=The+Training+of+Children%3A+How+to+Make+the+Children+into+Saints+and+Soldiers+of+Jesus+Christ&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170623210122/http://www.salvationarmy.org.au/en/Who-We-Are/vision-and-mission/Positional-Statements/Guidelines-for-Salvationists/Social-Drinking/">"Salvation Army, Positional Statement on Social Drinking"</a>. 1990. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salvationarmy.org.au/en/Who-We-Are/vision-and-mission/Positional-Statements/Guidelines-for-Salvationists/Social-Drinking/">the original</a> on 2017-06-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Salvation+Army%2C+Positional+Statement+on+Social+Drinking&rft.date=1990&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salvationarmy.org.au%2Fen%2FWho-We-Are%2Fvision-and-mission%2FPositional-Statements%2FGuidelines-for-Salvationists%2FSocial-Drinking%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AOG-270"><a href="#cite_ref-AOG_270-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKang_SimHofstetterIrvinAyers1985" class="citation journal cs1">Kang Sim, DE; Hofstetter, CR; Irvin, VL; Ayers, JW; Macera, CA; Ji, M; Hovell, MF (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3560953">"General Presbytery of the Assemblies of God. A biblical perspective on abstinence"</a>. J Relig Health. 52 (1): 285–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10943-011-9471-y">10.1007/s10943-011-9471-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3560953">3560953</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21286816">21286816</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Relig+Health&rft.atitle=General+Presbytery+of+the+Assemblies+of+God.+A+biblical+perspective+on+abstinence.&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=285-98&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3560953%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21286816&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10943-011-9471-y&rft.aulast=Kang+Sim&rft.aufirst=DE&rft.au=Hofstetter%2C+CR&rft.au=Irvin%2C+VL&rft.au=Ayers%2C+JW&rft.au=Macera%2C+CA&rft.au=Ji%2C+M&rft.au=Hovell%2C+MF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3560953&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilkerson-271"><a href="#cite_ref-Wilkerson_271-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tscpulpitseries.org/english/undated/sipsaint.html">"Sipping Saints: An outcry against the alarming spread of drinking among Christians"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sipping+Saints%3A+An+outcry+against+the+alarming+spread+of+drinking+among+Christians&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tscpulpitseries.org%2Fenglish%2Fundated%2Fsipsaint.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunday" class="citation web cs1">Sunday, Billy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130818060854/http://billysunday.org/sermons/booze.php3">"Famous 'Booze' Sermon As preached by Billy Sunday in Boston, MA"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://billysunday.org/sermons/booze.php3">the original</a> on 2013-08-18. Retrieved 2013-08-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Famous+%27Booze%27+Sermon+As+preached+by+Billy+Sunday+in+Boston%2C+MA&rft.aulast=Sunday&rft.aufirst=Billy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbillysunday.org%2Fsermons%2Fbooze.php3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> Reynolds, The Biblical Approach to Alcohol. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1983" class="citation book cs1">Reynolds, Stephen M. (1983). Alcohol and the Bible. Challenge Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86645-094-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86645-094-2"><bdi>978-0-86645-094-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alcohol+and+the+Bible&rft.pub=Challenge+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-86645-094-2&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reynolds-275">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_275-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_275-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Reynolds_275-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReynolds1991" class="citation journal cs1">Reynolds, Stephen M. (May–June 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180414131201/http://reformed.org/webfiles/antithesis/v2n2/ant_v2n2_issue2.html">"Issue and Interchange - Scripture Prohibits the Drinking of Alhocolic Beverages"</a>. Antithesis. 2 (2). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reformed.org/webfiles/antithesis/v2n2/ant_v2n2_issue2.html">the original</a> on 2018-04-14. Retrieved 2007-01-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antithesis&rft.atitle=Issue+and+Interchange+-+Scripture+Prohibits+the+Drinking+of+Alhocolic+Beverages&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.date=1991-05%2F1991-06&rft.aulast=Reynolds&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Freformed.org%2Fwebfiles%2Fantithesis%2Fv2n2%2Fant_v2n2_issue2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> See also the other installments in the debate between Reynolds and Kenneth Gentry in the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reformed.org/webfiles/antithesis/v2n2/index.html">same issue of the magazine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImpe1980" class="citation book cs1">Impe, Jack Van (1980). Alcohol: The Beloved Enemy. Jack Van Impe Ministries. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-934803-07-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-934803-07-6"><bdi>978-0-934803-07-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alcohol%3A+The+Beloved+Enemy&rft.pub=Jack+Van+Impe+Ministries&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-934803-07-6&rft.aulast=Impe&rft.aufirst=Jack+Van&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCisco2015" class="citation web cs1">Cisco, Hermano (31 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evangelicaluniversalist.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=14&t=6695">"Christians and Alcohol"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Christians+and+Alcohol&rft.date=2015-12-31&rft.aulast=Cisco&rft.aufirst=Hermano&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.evangelicaluniversalist.com%2Fforum%2Fviewtopic.php%3Ff%3D14%26t%3D6695&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristian+views+on+alcohol" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alcohol" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alcohol_and_health" title="Template:Alcohol and health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alcohol_and_health" title="Template talk:Alcohol and health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alcohol_and_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alcohol and health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alcohol" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Alcohol</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">Alcohol</a> use</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alcohol-related_crime" title="Alcohol-related crime">Alcohol-related crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunk_driving" title="Drunk driving">Drunk driving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol-related_traffic_crashes_in_the_United_States" title="Alcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States">Alcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drunk_driving_in_the_United_States" title="Drunk driving in the United States">Drunk driving in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonshine" title="Moonshine">Moonshine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathtub_gin" title="Bathtub gin">Bathtub gin</a></li></ul></li> <li>Prison alcohol <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1jaro_verde" title="Pájaro verde">Pájaro verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruno" title="Pruno">Pruno</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_intoxication" title="Public intoxication">Public intoxication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum-running" title="Rum-running">Rum-running</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sly-grog_shop" title="Sly-grog shop">Sly-grog shop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_fraud" title="Wine fraud">Wine fraud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">Alcoholism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">Alcohol and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholism_in_adolescence" title="Alcoholism in adolescence">Alcoholism in adolescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholism_in_family_systems" title="Alcoholism in family systems">Alcoholism in family systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholism_in_rural_Australia" title="Alcoholism in rural Australia">Alcoholism in rural Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborative_Study_on_the_Genetics_of_Alcoholism" title="Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism">Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_theory_of_alcoholism" title="Disease theory of alcoholism">Disease theory of alcoholism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-functioning_alcoholic" title="High-functioning alcoholic">High-functioning alcoholic</a> (HFA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeing_pink_elephants" title="Seeing pink elephants">Seeing pink elephants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Beverage-specific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_chemistry" title="Beer chemistry">Beer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_chemistry" title="Wine chemistry">Wine chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_psychoactive_alcohols_in_alcoholic_drinks" title="Comparison of psychoactive alcohols in alcoholic drinks">Comparison of psychoactive alcohols in alcoholic drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congener_(beverages)" title="Congener (beverages)">Congener</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_congener_analysis" title="Alcohol congener analysis">Alcohol congener analysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">Ethanol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_alcohol_content" title="Blood alcohol content">Blood alcohol content</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusel_alcohol" title="Fusel alcohol">Fusel alcohol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Short-term_effects_of_alcohol_consumption" title="Short-term effects of alcohol consumption">Short-term effects of alcohol consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_effects_of_alcohol" title="Long-term effects of alcohol">Long-term effects of alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology_of_ethanol" title="Pharmacology of ethanol">Pharmacology of ethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_response_to_alcohol" title="Subjective response to alcohol">Subjective response to alcohol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Adverse effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hangxiety" title="Hangxiety">Anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_alcohol_on_aging" title="Impact of alcohol on aging">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-term_impact_of_alcohol_on_the_brain" title="Long-term impact of alcohol on the brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_cancer" title="Alcohol and cancer">Cancer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_breast_cancer" title="Alcohol and breast cancer">breast cancer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_cortisol" title="Alcohol and cortisol">Cortisol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_alcohol_on_memory" title="Effects of alcohol on memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol and pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_and_sleep" title="Alcohol use and sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_tolerance" title="Alcohol tolerance">Tolerance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intolerance" title="Alcohol intolerance">intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_weight" title="Alcohol and weight">Weight</a></li> <li>Beverage-specific <ul><li>Beer: <a href="/wiki/Potomania" title="Potomania">Potomania</a></li> <li>Wine: <a href="/wiki/Red_wine_headache" title="Red wine headache">Red wine headache</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues">Social issues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Adulterated alcohol <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moonshine#Adulterated_moonshine" title="Moonshine">Adulterated moonshine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denatured_alcohol" title="Denatured alcohol">Denatured alcohol</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_methanol_poisoning_incidents" title="List of methanol poisoning incidents">List of methanol poisoning incidents</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrogate_alcohol" title="Surrogate alcohol">Surrogate alcohol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_abuse" title="Alcohol abuse">Alcohol abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_advertising" title="Alcohol advertising">Alcohol advertising</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_advertising_on_college_campuses" title="Alcohol advertising on college campuses">on college campuses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_sex" title="Alcohol and sex">Sex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_goggles" title="Beer goggles">Beer goggles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_myopia" title="Alcohol myopia">Alcohol myopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_association_football" title="Alcohol in association football">Alcohol in association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_use_among_college_students" title="Alcohol use among college students">Alcohol use among college students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binge_drinking" title="Binge drinking">Binge drinking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_syndrome" title="Austrian syndrome">Austrian syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">Alcohol intoxication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_binge_drinking" title="Epidemiology of binge drinking">Epidemiology of binge drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiday_heart_syndrome" title="Holiday heart syndrome">Holiday heart syndrome</a></li> <li>Problematic alcoholic products <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_powder" title="Alcohol powder">Alcohol powder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcopop" title="Alcopop">Alcopop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borg_(drink)" title="Borg (drink)">Borg</a></li> <li>Low-cost alcohol <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flavored_fortified_wine" title="Flavored fortified wine">Flavored fortified wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)#Stimulants" title="Alcohol (drug)">Polysubstance alcoholic drinks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caffeinated_alcoholic_drink" title="Caffeinated alcoholic drink">Caffeinated alcoholic drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coca_wine" title="Coca wine">Coca wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotini" title="Nicotini">Nicotini</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapoy" title="Zapoy">Zapoy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackout_(drug-related_amnesia)" title="Blackout (drug-related amnesia)">Blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackout_Wednesday" title="Blackout Wednesday">Blackout Wednesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_game" title="Drinking game">Drinking game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_drinking_games" title="List of drinking games">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregaming" title="Pregaming">Pregaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_in_public" title="Drinking in public">Drinking in public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drunk_walking" title="Drunk walking">Drunk walking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drunkorexia" title="Drunkorexia">Drunkorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_drunk" title="Dry drunk">Dry drunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_courage" title="Dutch courage">Dutch courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaming_drink" title="Flaming drink">Flaming drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_of_the_dog" title="Hair of the dog">Hair of the dog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurtful_communication#Alcohol" title="Hurtful communication">Hurtful communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drunk_dialing" title="Drunk dialing">Drunk dialing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vino_veritas" title="In vino veritas">In vino veritas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nightcap_(drink)" title="Nightcap (drink)">Nightcap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantsdrunk" title="Pantsdrunk">Pantsdrunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_drinking" title="Passive drinking">Passive drinking</a></li> <li>Binge drinking devices <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_bong" title="Beer bong">Beer bong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yard_of_ale" title="Yard of ale">Yard of ale</a></li></ul></li> <li>Routes of administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_enema" title="Alcohol enema">Alcohol enema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_inhalation" title="Alcohol inhalation">Alcohol inhalation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vodka_eyeballing" title="Vodka eyeballing">Vodka eyeballing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sconcing" title="Sconcing">Sconcing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_alcoholism_debate" title="Andrew Johnson alcoholism debate">Andrew Johnson alcoholism debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_Mysteries" title="Dionysian Mysteries">Dionysian Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipsomania" title="Dipsomania">Dipsomania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Paul_Jordan" title="Gilbert Paul Jordan">Gilbert Paul Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gin_Craze" title="Gin Craze">Gin Craze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deaths_through_alcohol" title="List of deaths through alcohol">List of deaths through alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_ration" title="Rum ration">Rum ration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum_Rebellion" title="Rum Rebellion">Rum Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shebeen" title="Shebeen">Shebeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_o%27clock_swill" title="Six o'clock swill">Six o'clock swill</a></li> <li>Illegal drinking establishments <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nip_joint" title="Nip joint">Nip joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speakeasy" title="Speakeasy">Speakeasy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverage</a></li> <li>Beer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_mile" title="Beer mile">Beer mile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Beer_Day" title="International Beer Day">International Beer Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Collaboration_Brew_Day" title="International Women's Collaboration Brew Day">International Women's Collaboration Brew Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_brewing" title="Women in brewing">Women in brewing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ap%C3%A9ritif_and_digestif" title="Apéritif and digestif">Apéritif and digestif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangover_remedies" title="Hangover remedies">Hangover remedies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_wine" title="Health effects of wine">Health effects of wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wine_and_food_pairing" title="Wine and food pairing">Wine and food pairing</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_night" title="Ladies' night">Ladies' night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_alcohol_consumption_per_capita" title="List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita">List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_consumption_by_youth_in_the_United_States" title="Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States">Alcohol consumption by youth in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_substances_used_in_rituals#Alcohol" title="List of substances used in rituals">Ritual use of alcohol</a></li> <li>Whiskey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_whisk(e)y_day" title="International whisk(e)y day">International whisk(e)y day</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alcohol control</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_law" title="Alcohol law">Alcohol law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_License_Suspension" title="Administrative License Suspension">Administrative License Suspension</a> (ALS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(Minimum_Pricing)_(Scotland)_Act_2012" title="Alcohol (Minimum Pricing) (Scotland) Act 2012">Alcohol (Minimum Pricing) (Scotland) Act 2012</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_exclusion_laws" title="Alcohol exclusion laws">Alcohol exclusion laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_monopoly" title="Alcohol monopoly">Alcohol monopoly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage_control_state" title="Alcoholic beverage control state">Alcoholic beverage control state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_packaging_warning_messages" title="Alcohol packaging warning messages">Alcohol packaging warning messages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ban_on_caffeinated_alcoholic_drinks_in_the_United_States" title="Ban on caffeinated alcoholic drinks in the United States">Ban on caffeinated alcoholic drinks in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drunk_driving_law_by_country" title="Drunk driving law by country">Drunk driving law by country</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DWI_court" title="DWI court">DWI court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_sobriety_testing" title="Field sobriety testing">Field sobriety testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_flask_defence" title="Hip flask defence">Hip flask defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignition_interlock_device" title="Ignition interlock device">Ignition interlock device</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_county" title="Dry county">Dry county</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_dry_communities_by_U.S._state" title="List of dry communities by U.S. state">List of dry communities by U.S. state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_call" title="Last call">Last call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_drinking_age" title="Legal drinking age">Legal drinking age</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_drinking_age_in_the_United_States" title="Legal drinking age in the United States">Legal drinking age in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_tap_(alcohol)" title="Shoulder tap (alcohol)">Shoulder tap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alcohol_laws_of_the_United_States" title="List of alcohol laws of the United States">List of alcohol laws of US</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">Alcohol prohibition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_with_alcohol_prohibition" title="List of countries with alcohol prohibition">List of countries with alcohol prohibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-prohibitionism" title="Neo-prohibitionism">Neo-prohibitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">Temperance movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sobriety" title="Sobriety">Sobriety</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_detoxification" title="Alcohol detoxification">Alcohol detoxification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone" title="Alcohol-free zone">Alcohol-free zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry_campus" title="Dry campus">Dry campus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-container_law" title="Open-container law">Open-container law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brief_intervention" title="Brief intervention">Brief intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Designated_driver" title="Designated driver">Designated driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_rehabilitation" title="Drug rehabilitation">Alcohol rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drunk_tank" title="Drunk tank">Drunk tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_alcohol_program" title="Managed alcohol program">Managed alcohol program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-alcoholic_drink" title="Non-alcoholic drink">Non-alcoholic drink</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_non-alcoholic_cocktails" class="mw-redirect" title="List of non-alcoholic cocktails">List of cocktails</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_non-alcoholic_mixed_drinks" title="List of non-alcoholic mixed drinks">List of mixed drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritzer#Non-alcoholic_spritzer" title="Spritzer">Spritzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malt_drink#Non-alcoholic_malt_drinks" title="Malt drink">Malt drinks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teetotalism" title="Teetotalism">Teetotalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_bar" title="Temperance bar">Temperance bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_and_Good_Citizenship_Day" title="Temperance and Good Citizenship Day">Temperance and Good Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twelve-step_groups" title="List of twelve-step groups">Twelve-step groups</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Anon/Alateen" title="Al-Anon/Alateen">Al-Anon/Alateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholics_Anonymous" title="Alcoholics Anonymous">Alcoholics Anonymous</a> (AA):</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adult_Children_of_Alcoholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Adult Children of Alcoholics">Adult Children of Alcoholics</a> (ACA)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sober_companion" title="Sober companion">Sober companion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sober_curious" title="Sober curious">Sober curious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sober_living_house" title="Sober living house">Sober living house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobering_center" title="Sobering center">Sobering center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sobrietol" title="Sobrietol">Sobrietol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quit_lit_(alcohol_cessation)" title="Quit lit (alcohol cessation)">Quit lit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Alcohol limitation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/0-0-1-3" title="0-0-1-3">0-0-1-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_consumption_recommendations" title="Alcohol consumption recommendations">Alcohol consumption recommendations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_education" title="Alcohol education">Alcohol education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_server_training" title="Alcohol server training">Alcohol server training</a></li> <li>Monitoring <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathalyzer" title="Breathalyzer">Breathalyzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_tagging#Sweat_alcohol_content_monitor" title="Electronic tagging">Sweat alcohol content monitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brief_intervention#FRAMES" title="Brief intervention">FRAMES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_for_Advancing_Alcohol_Responsibility" title="Foundation for Advancing Alcohol Responsibility">Foundation for Advancing Alcohol Responsibility</a></li> <li>Campaigns <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dry_January" title="Dry January">Dry January</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_July" title="Dry July">Dry July</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Get_Your_Sexy_Back" title="Get Your Sexy Back">Get Your Sexy Back</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocsober" title="Ocsober">Ocsober</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquor_license" title="Liquor license">Liquor license</a></li> <li>Low-alcohol drinks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fermented_tea" title="Fermented tea">Fermented tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-alcohol_beer" title="Low-alcohol beer">Low-alcohol beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malt_drink#Low-alcoholic_malt_drinks" title="Malt drink">Low-alcoholic malt drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_beer" title="Small beer">Small beer</a></li></ul></li> <li>Measurement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_spirits_measure" title="Alcoholic spirits measure">Alcoholic spirits measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_drink" title="Standard drink">Standard drink</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine" title="Benzodiazepine">Benzodiazepines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlordiazepoxide" title="Chlordiazepoxide">Chlordiazepoxide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disulfiram-like_drug" title="Disulfiram-like drug">Disulfiram-like drugs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disulfiram" title="Disulfiram">Disulfiram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbimide" title="Calcium carbimide">Calcium carbimide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanamide" title="Cyanamide">Cyanamide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_anaesthetic" title="General anaesthetic">General anaesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nitrous_oxide_(medication)" title="Nitrous oxide (medication)">Nitrous oxide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfonic_acid" title="Sulfonic acid">Sulfonic acids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acamprosate" title="Acamprosate">Acamprosate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homotaurine" title="Homotaurine">Homotaurine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_alcohol" title="Religion and alcohol">Religion and alcohol</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christian views on alcohol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_in_the_Bible" title="Alcohol in the Bible">Alcohol in the Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamr" title="Khamr">Islam and alcohol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_Street_and_Gin_Lane" title="Beer Street and Gin Lane">Beer Street and Gin Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bratt_System" title="Bratt System">Bratt System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_state" title="Dry state">Dry state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gin_Act_1751" title="Gin Act 1751">Gin Act 1751</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_Liquor_Prescriptions_Act_of_1933" title="Medicinal Liquor Prescriptions Act of 1933">Medicinal Liquor Prescriptions Act of 1933</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_alcohol-related_articles" title="Index of alcohol-related articles">Index of alcohol-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_spaceflight" title="Alcohol and spaceflight">Alcohol and spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gateway_drug_effect" title="Gateway drug effect">Gateway drug effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mood_disorder" title="Mood disorder">Mood disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-alcoholic_fatty_liver_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease">Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-medication" title="Self-medication">Self-medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spins" title="Spins">Spins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_drunk" title="Town drunk">Town drunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_paradox" title="French paradox">French paradox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Alcohol_and_health" title="Category:Alcohol and health">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> 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title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a 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