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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_since_1990"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Developments since 1990</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_since_1990-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horizontal_gene_transfer_and_rooting_the_tree_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horizontal_gene_transfer_and_rooting_the_tree_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Horizontal gene transfer and rooting the tree of life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horizontal_gene_transfer_and_rooting_the_tree_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8A%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Органик донъя системаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Органик донъя системаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbre_de_la_vida_(sistem%C3%A0tica)" title="Arbre de la vida (sistemàtica) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arbre de la vida (sistemàtica)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livets_tr%C3%A6_(biologi)" title="Livets træ (biologi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Livets træ (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elu_puu" title="Elu puu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elu puu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81rbol_de_la_vida_(biolog%C3%ADa)" title="Árbol de la vida (biología) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Árbol de la vida (biología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%AE%D8%AA_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C_(%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="درخت زندگی (زیست‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="درخت زندگی (زیست‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Органикай дунен система – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Органикай дунен система" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AA%85%EC%9D%98_%EB%82%98%EB%AC%B4_(%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99)" title="생명의 나무 (과학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생명의 나무 (과학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7_(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8)" title="जीवन वृक्ष (विज्ञान) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जीवन वृक्ष (विज्ञान)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohon_kehidupan_(biologi)" title="Pohon kehidupan (biologi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pohon kehidupan (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isihlahla_Sempilo" title="Isihlahla Sempilo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isihlahla Sempilo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A5_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D_(%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94)" title="עץ החיים (ביולוגיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עץ החיים (ביולוגיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohon_kehidupan_(biologi)" title="Pohon kehidupan (biologi) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pohon kehidupan (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_Life_(Charles_Darwin)" title="Tree of Life (Charles Darwin) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tree of Life (Charles Darwin)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classificacion_filogenetica" title="Classificacion filogenetica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Classificacion filogenetica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Система органического мира – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Система органического мира" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%83_(%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80)" title="ජීවයේ ගස (ජීව විද්‍යාව) – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජීවයේ ගස (ජීව විද්‍යාව)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biology)" title="Tree of life (biology) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tree of life (biology)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evrimsel_hayat_a%C4%9Fac%C4%B1" title="Evrimsel hayat ağacı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Evrimsel hayat ağacı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A2y_ph%C3%A1t_sinh_s%E1%BB%B1_s%E1%BB%91ng" title="Cây phát sinh sự sống – 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Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Model for the evolution of species</div> <p> The <b>tree of life</b> or <b>universal tree of life</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">conceptual model</a>, and research tool used to explore the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of life and describe the relationships between <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, both living and extinct, as described in a famous passage in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> (1859).<sup id="cite_ref-Mindell_2013_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mindell_2013-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Charles Darwin<sup id="cite_ref-origin_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-origin-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Tree diagrams originated in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval era</a> to represent <a href="/wiki/Family_tree" title="Family tree">genealogical relationships</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a> diagrams in the evolutionary sense date back to the mid-nineteenth century. </p><p>The term <a href="/wiki/Phylogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylogeny">phylogeny</a> for the evolutionary relationships of <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> through time was coined by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>, who went further than <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> in proposing <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenic</a> histories of life. In contemporary usage, <i>tree of life</i> refers to the compilation of comprehensive phylogenetic databases rooted at the <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">last universal common ancestor</a> of life on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. Two public databases for the tree of life are <i><a href="/wiki/TimeTree" title="TimeTree">TimeTree</a></i>, for phylogeny and divergence times, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a></i>, for phylogeny. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1141322084">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tocleft{width:100%!important}}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tocleft{float:left;clear:left;width:auto;margin:0 1em 0.5em 0}body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output .tocleft{margin:0}.mw-parser-output .tocleft-clear-both{clear:both}.mw-parser-output .tocleft-clear-none{clear:none}}</style><div class="tocleft" style=""><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_natural_classification">Early natural classification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early natural classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Hitchcock_Paleontological_Chart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Edward_Hitchcock_Paleontological_Chart.jpg/350px-Edward_Hitchcock_Paleontological_Chart.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Edward_Hitchcock_Paleontological_Chart.jpg/525px-Edward_Hitchcock_Paleontological_Chart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Edward_Hitchcock_Paleontological_Chart.jpg/700px-Edward_Hitchcock_Paleontological_Chart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="770" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Edward_Hitchcock" title="Edward Hitchcock">Edward Hitchcock</a>'s fold-out paleontological chart in his 1840 <i>Elementary Geology</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Although tree-like diagrams have long been used to organise knowledge, and although branching diagrams known as <i>claves</i> ("keys") were omnipresent in eighteenth-century <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>, it appears that the earliest tree diagram of natural order was the 1801 "Arbre botanique" (Botanical Tree) of the French schoolteacher and Catholic priest <a href="/wiki/Augustin_Augier" title="Augustin Augier">Augustin Augier</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hellström_2019_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellström_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, although Augier discussed his tree in distinctly genealogical terms, and although his design clearly mimicked the visual conventions of a contemporary <a href="/wiki/Family_tree" title="Family tree">family tree</a>, his tree did not include any evolutionary or temporal aspect. Consistent with Augier's priestly vocation, the Botanical Tree showed rather the perfect order of nature as instituted by God at the moment of Creation.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1809, Augier's more famous compatriot <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (1744–1829), who was acquainted with Augier's "Botanical Tree",<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> included a branching diagram of animal species in his <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_Zoologique" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophie Zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike Augier, however, Lamarck did not discuss his diagram in terms of a genealogy or a tree, but instead named it a <i>tableau</i> ("depiction").<sup id="cite_ref-Hellström_2012_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellström_2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lamarck believed in the transmutation of life forms, but he did not believe in common descent; instead he believed that life developed in parallel lineages (repeated, spontaneous generation) advancing from more simple to more complex.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1840, the American geologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Hitchcock" title="Edward Hitchcock">Edward Hitchcock</a> (1793–1864) published the first tree-like <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> chart in his <i>Elementary Geology</i>, with two separate trees for the plants and the animals. These are crowned (graphically) with the <a href="/wiki/Palmae" class="mw-redirect" title="Palmae">Palms</a> and Man.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first edition of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(publisher,_born_1802)" title="Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)">Robert Chambers</a>' <i><a href="/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation">Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a></i>, published anonymously in 1844 in England, contained a tree-like diagram in the chapter "Hypothesis of the development of the vegetable and animal kingdoms".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChambers1844[httpsarchiveorgdetailsvestigesofnatura00unsepage212_212]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChambers1844[httpsarchiveorgdetailsvestigesofnatura00unsepage212_212]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It shows a model of <a href="/wiki/Embryology" title="Embryology">embryological</a> development where fish (F), reptiles (R), and birds (B) represent branches from a path leading to mammals (M). In the text this branching tree idea is tentatively applied to the history of life on earth: "there may be branching".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1858, a year before Darwin's <i>Origin</i>, the paleontologist <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Georg_Bronn" title="Heinrich Georg Bronn">Heinrich Georg Bronn</a> (1800–1862) published a hypothetical tree labelled with letters.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although not a creationist, Bronn did not propose a mechanism of change.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 194.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 192.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Augier_tree_of_life.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Augustin Augier's 1801 Arbre botanique ("Botanical Tree")[3]"><img alt="Augustin Augier's 1801 Arbre botanique ("Botanical Tree")[3]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Augier_tree_of_life.jpg/289px-Augier_tree_of_life.jpg" decoding="async" width="193" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Augier_tree_of_life.jpg/434px-Augier_tree_of_life.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Augier_tree_of_life.jpg/579px-Augier_tree_of_life.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="1412" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Augustin_Augier" title="Augustin Augier">Augustin Augier</a>'s 1801 <i>Arbre botanique</i> ("Botanical Tree")<sup id="cite_ref-Hellström_2019_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellström_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamark%27s_depiction_of_the_origins_of_the_animals.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's 1809 depiction of the origins of animal groups in his Philosophie zoologique with branching evolutionary paths, not considered an evolutionary tree"><img alt="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's 1809 depiction of the origins of animal groups in his Philosophie zoologique with branching evolutionary paths, not considered an evolutionary tree" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lamark%27s_depiction_of_the_origins_of_the_animals.gif/294px-Lamark%27s_depiction_of_the_origins_of_the_animals.gif" decoding="async" width="196" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Lamark%27s_depiction_of_the_origins_of_the_animals.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="561" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a>'s 1809 depiction of the origins of animal groups in his <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_zoologique" title="Philosophie zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a></i> with branching evolutionary paths, not considered an evolutionary tree</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vestiges_dev_diag_labelled.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diagram in Robert Chambers's 1844 Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation"><img alt="Diagram in Robert Chambers's 1844 Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Vestiges_dev_diag_labelled.svg/316px-Vestiges_dev_diag_labelled.svg.png" decoding="async" width="211" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Vestiges_dev_diag_labelled.svg/474px-Vestiges_dev_diag_labelled.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Vestiges_dev_diag_labelled.svg/632px-Vestiges_dev_diag_labelled.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="581" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Diagram in <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(publisher_born_1802)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Chambers (publisher born 1802)">Robert Chambers</a>'s 1844 <i><a href="/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation" title="Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation">Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation</a></i></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Darwin">Darwin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Darwin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (1809–1882) used the metaphor of a "tree of life" to conceptualise his theory of evolution. In <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> (1859) he presented an abstract diagram of a portion of a larger <a href="/wiki/Timetree" title="Timetree">timetree</a> for species of an unnamed large <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> (see figure). On the horizontal base line hypothetical species within this genus are labelled A – L and are spaced irregularly to indicate how distinct they are from each other, and are above broken lines at various angles suggesting that they have diverged from one or more common ancestors. On the vertical axis divisions labelled I – XIV each represent a thousand generations. From A, diverging lines show branching descent producing new varieties, some of which become extinct, so that after ten thousand generations descendants of A have become distinct new varieties or even sub-species a<sup>10</sup>, f<sup>10</sup>, and m<sup>10</sup>. Similarly, the descendants of I have diversified to become the new varieties w<sup>10</sup> and z<sup>10</sup>. The process is extrapolated for a further four thousand generations so that the descendants of A and I become fourteen new species labelled a<sup>14</sup> to z<sup>14</sup>. While F has continued for fourteen thousand generations relatively unchanged, species B,C,D,E,G,H,K and L have gone extinct. In Darwin's own words: "Thus the small differences distinguishing varieties of the same species, will steadily tend to increase till they come to equal the greater differences between species of the same genus, or even of distinct genera."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1859[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetviewtypetextitemIDF373pageseq131_116–130]_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1859[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetviewtypetextitemIDF373pageseq131_116–130]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin's tree is not a tree of life, but rather a small portion created to show the principle of evolution. Because it shows relationships (phylogeny) and time (generations), it is a timetree. In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> illustrated a phylogenetic tree (branching only) in 1866, not scaled to time, and of real species and higher taxa. In his summary to the section, Darwin put his concept in terms of the metaphor of the tree of life: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth. The green and budding twigs may represent existing species; and those produced during each former year may represent the long succession of extinct species. At each period of growth all the growing twigs have tried to branch out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the same manner as species and groups of species have tried to overmaster other species in the great battle for life. The limbs divided into great branches, and these into lesser and lesser branches, were themselves once, when the tree was small, budding twigs; and this connexion of the former and present buds by ramifying branches may well represent the classification of all extinct and living species in groups subordinate to groups. Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere bush, only two or three, now grown into great branches, yet survive and bear all the other branches; so with the species which lived during long-past geological periods, very few now have living and modified descendants. From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and dropped off; and these lost branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no living representatives, and which are known to us only from having been found in a fossil state. As we here and there see a thin straggling branch springing from a fork low down in a tree, and which by some chance has been favoured and is still alive on its summit, so we occasionally see an animal like the <a href="/wiki/Platypus" title="Platypus">Ornithorhynchus</a> or <a href="/wiki/South_American_Lungfish" class="mw-redirect" title="South American Lungfish">Lepidosiren</a>, which in some small degree connects by its affinities two large branches of life, and which has apparently been saved from fatal competition by having inhabited a <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">protected station</a>. As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a>, 1859.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarwin1859pp._[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq147itemIDF373viewtypetext_129–130]:_[[File:PD-icon.svg|12px|class=noviewer|link=|alt=Public_Domain]]_One_or_more_of_the_preceding_sentences_incorporates_text_from_this_source,_which_is_in_the_[[public_domain]].[[Category:Source_attribution]]_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarwin1859pp._[httpdarwin-onlineorgukcontentframesetpageseq147itemIDF373viewtypetext_129–130]:_[[File:PD-icon.svg|12px|class=noviewer|link=|alt=Public_Domain]]_One_or_more_of_the_preceding_sentences_incorporates_text_from_this_source,_which_is_in_the_[[public_domain]].[[Category:Source_attribution]]-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The meaning and importance of Darwin's use of the tree of life metaphor have been extensively discussed by scientists and scholars. <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a>, for one, has argued that Darwin placed the famous passage quoted above "at a crucial spot in his text", where it marked the conclusion of his argument for natural selection, illustrating both the interconnectedness by descent of organisms as well as their success and failure in the history of life.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Penny" title="David Penny">David Penny</a> has written that Darwin did not use the tree of life to describe the relationship between groups of organisms, but to suggest that, as with branches in a living tree, lineages of species competed with and supplanted one another.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Petter Hellström has argued that Darwin consciously named his tree after the biblical <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biblical)" title="Tree of life (biblical)">Tree of Life</a>, as described in <a href="/wiki/Genesis_creation_narrative" title="Genesis creation narrative">Genesis</a>, thus relating his theory to the religious tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Hellström_2012_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellström_2012-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 153.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin_Tree_1837.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Page from Darwin's notebooks (c. July 1837) with his first sketch of an evolutionary tree, and the words "I think" at the top"><img alt="Page from Darwin's notebooks (c. July 1837) with his first sketch of an evolutionary tree, and the words "I think" at the top" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/230px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png" decoding="async" width="154" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/345px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Darwin_Tree_1837.png/460px-Darwin_Tree_1837.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="2265" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Page from Darwin's notebooks (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> July 1837</span>) with his first sketch of an evolutionary tree, and the words "I think" at the top</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 377.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 375.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Origin_of_Species.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Diagram in Darwin's On the Origin of Species, 1859. It was the book's only illustration. The letters A–L represent distinct descents. Each horizontal line represents 1000 generations. Descent A has 3 existent species after 10000 generations. Descent I has 2. Descents E, F have 1 each. The other descents have gone extinct."><img alt="Diagram in Darwin's On the Origin of Species, 1859. It was the book's only illustration. The letters A–L represent distinct descents. Each horizontal line represents 1000 generations. Descent A has 3 existent species after 10000 generations. Descent I has 2. Descents E, F have 1 each. The other descents have gone extinct." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Origin_of_Species.svg/563px-Origin_of_Species.svg.png" decoding="async" width="376" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Origin_of_Species.svg/845px-Origin_of_Species.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Origin_of_Species.svg/1125px-Origin_of_Species.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Diagram in Darwin's <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>, 1859.<br />It was the book's only illustration. The letters A–L represent distinct descents. Each horizontal line represents 1000 generations. Descent A has 3 existent species after 10000 generations. Descent I has 2. Descents E, F have 1 each. The other descents have gone extinct.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haeckel">Haeckel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Haeckel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (1834–1919) constructed several trees of life. His first sketch, in the 1860s, shows "<i>Pithecanthropus alalus</i>" as the ancestor of <i>Homo sapiens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His 1866 tree of life from <i>Generelle Morphologie der Organismen</i> shows three kingdoms: Plantae, Protista and Animalia. This has been described as "the earliest 'tree of life' model of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Hossfeld_Levit_2016_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hossfeld_Levit_2016-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His 1879 "Pedigree of Man" was published in his 1879 book <i>The Evolution of Man</i>. It traces all life forms to the <a href="/wiki/Monera" title="Monera">Monera</a>, and places Man (labelled "<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Menschen</i></span>") at the top of the tree.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 168.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 166.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ernst_Haeckel_-_Tree_of_Life.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Haeckel's Stammbaum der Primaten (1860s)"><img alt="Haeckel's Stammbaum der Primaten (1860s)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Ernst_Haeckel_-_Tree_of_Life.jpg/250px-Ernst_Haeckel_-_Tree_of_Life.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Ernst_Haeckel_-_Tree_of_Life.jpg/375px-Ernst_Haeckel_-_Tree_of_Life.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Ernst_Haeckel_-_Tree_of_Life.jpg/500px-Ernst_Haeckel_-_Tree_of_Life.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1012" data-file-height="1518" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Haeckel</a>'s <i>Stammbaum der Primaten</i> (1860s)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Haeckel_arbol_bn.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Haeckel's tree of life in Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866)"><img alt="Haeckel's tree of life in Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Haeckel_arbol_bn.png/241px-Haeckel_arbol_bn.png" decoding="async" width="161" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Haeckel_arbol_bn.png/362px-Haeckel_arbol_bn.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Haeckel_arbol_bn.png/482px-Haeckel_arbol_bn.png 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="3307" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Haeckel's tree of life in <i>Generelle Morphologie der Organismen</i> (1866)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The tree of life as seen by Haeckel in The Evolution of Man (1879)"><img alt="The tree of life as seen by Haeckel in The Evolution of Man (1879)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/237px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/355px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg/474px-Tree_of_life_by_Haeckel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1804" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The tree of life as seen by Haeckel in <i>The Evolution of Man</i> (1879)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_since_1990">Developments since 1990</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Developments since 1990"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">Kingdom (biology)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhylogeneticTree,_Woese_1990.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/PhylogeneticTree%2C_Woese_1990.PNG/440px-PhylogeneticTree%2C_Woese_1990.PNG" decoding="async" width="440" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/PhylogeneticTree%2C_Woese_1990.PNG/660px-PhylogeneticTree%2C_Woese_1990.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/PhylogeneticTree%2C_Woese_1990.PNG/880px-PhylogeneticTree%2C_Woese_1990.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1842" data-file-height="1257" /></a><figcaption>Universal phylogenetic tree in rooted form, showing the three domains (Woese, Kandler, Wheelis 1990, p. 4578<sup id="cite_ref-Woese_1990_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese_1990-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1990, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Woese" title="Carl Woese">Carl Woese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kandler" title="Otto Kandler">Otto Kandler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Wheelis" title="Mark Wheelis">Mark Wheelis</a> proposed a novel "tree of life" consisting of three lines of descent for which they introduced the term <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domain</a> as the highest rank of classification. They suggested and formally defined the terms <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukarya</a> for the three domains of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Woese_1990_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese_1990-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first tree founded on molecular phylogenetics and microbial evolution as its basis.<sup id="cite_ref-Sapp2009_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sapp2009-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The model of a tree is still considered valid for eukaryotic life forms. Trees have been proposed with either four<sup id="cite_ref-Burki2008_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burki2008-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or two supergroups.<sup id="cite_ref-KimGraham2008_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KimGraham2008-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There does not yet appear to be a consensus; in a 2009 review article, Roger and Simpson conclude that "with the current pace of change in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should proceed with caution."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, the third version of <a href="/wiki/TimeTree" title="TimeTree">TimeTree</a> was released, with 2,274 studies and 50,632 species, represented in a spiral tree of life,<sup id="cite_ref-Hedges_835–845_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hedges_835–845-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> free to download. </p><p>In 2015, the first draft of the <a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a> was published, in which information from nearly 500 previously published trees was combined into a single online database, free to browse and download.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another database, <i>TimeTree</i>, helps biologists to evaluate phylogeny and divergence times.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, a new tree of life (unrooted), summarising the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of all known <a href="/wiki/Life_forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Life forms">life forms</a>, was published, illustrating the latest <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genetic</a> findings that the branches were mainly composed of bacteria. The new study incorporated over a thousand newly discovered bacteria and archaea.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20160411_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20160411-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TS-20160411_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TS-20160411-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NM-20160411_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NM-20160411-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2022, the fifth version of <a href="/wiki/TimeTree" title="TimeTree">TimeTree</a> was released, incorporating 4,185 published studies and 148,876 species, representing the largest timetree of life from actual data (non-imputed).<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Horizontal_gene_transfer_and_rooting_the_tree_of_life">Horizontal gene transfer and rooting the tree of life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Horizontal gene transfer and rooting the tree of life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotes">prokaryotes</a> (the two domains of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>) and certain animals such as <a href="/wiki/Bdelloid_rotifer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bdelloid rotifer">bdelloid rotifers</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> freely pass genetic information between unrelated organisms by <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. Recombination, gene loss, duplication, and gene creation are a few of the processes by which genes can be transferred within and between bacterial and archaeal species, causing variation that is not due to vertical transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10097118_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10097118-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lawton_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawton-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is emerging evidence of horizontal gene transfer within the prokaryotes at the single and multicell level, so the tree of life does not explain the full complexity of the situation in the prokaryotes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lawton_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lawton-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a major problem for the tree of life because there is consensus that eukaryotes arose from a fusion between bacteria and archaea, meaning that the tree of life is not fully bifurcating and should not be represented as such for that important node.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondly, unrooted <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_network" title="Phylogenetic network">phylogenetic networks</a> are not true evolutionary trees (or trees of life) because there is no directionality, and therefore the tree of life needs a root.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 255.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 253.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Circular_timetree-of-life_2009.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hedges and Kumar's circular timetree of life, of 1,610 families[42]"><img alt="Hedges and Kumar's circular timetree of life, of 1,610 families[42]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Circular_timetree-of-life_2009.jpg/380px-Circular_timetree-of-life_2009.jpg" decoding="async" width="254" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Circular_timetree-of-life_2009.jpg/570px-Circular_timetree-of-life_2009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Circular_timetree-of-life_2009.jpg/760px-Circular_timetree-of-life_2009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1342" data-file-height="1325" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hedges and Kumar's circular timetree of life, of 1,610 families<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 252px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiral_timetree.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hedges et al.'s 2015 spiral timetree of life of 50,632 species[29]"><img alt="Hedges et al.'s 2015 spiral timetree of life of 50,632 species[29]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Spiral_timetree.jpg/375px-Spiral_timetree.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Spiral_timetree.jpg/563px-Spiral_timetree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Spiral_timetree.jpg/750px-Spiral_timetree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="865" data-file-height="865" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hedges et al.'s 2015 spiral timetree of life of 50,632 species<sup id="cite_ref-Hedges_835–845_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hedges_835–845-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 252px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 250px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life_SVG.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="David Hillis's 2008 plot of the tree of life, based on completely sequenced genomes"><img alt="David Hillis's 2008 plot of the tree of life, based on completely sequenced genomes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Tree_of_life_SVG.svg/375px-Tree_of_life_SVG.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Tree_of_life_SVG.svg/563px-Tree_of_life_SVG.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Tree_of_life_SVG.svg/750px-Tree_of_life_SVG.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1355" data-file-height="1355" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/David_Hillis" title="David Hillis">David Hillis</a>'s 2008 plot of the tree of life, based on completely sequenced <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 214.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 212.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png" class="mw-file-description" title="A 2016 (metagenomic) representation of the tree of life (unrooted) using ribosomal protein sequences[34]"><img alt="A 2016 (metagenomic) representation of the tree of life (unrooted) using ribosomal protein sequences[34]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png/319px-A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png" decoding="async" width="213" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png/479px-A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png/638px-A_Novel_Representation_Of_The_Tree_Of_Life.png 2x" data-file-width="1230" data-file-height="1446" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A 2016 (<a href="/wiki/Metagenomics" title="Metagenomics">metagenomic</a>) representation of the tree of life (unrooted) using <a href="/wiki/Ribosomal_protein" title="Ribosomal protein">ribosomal protein</a> sequences<sup id="cite_ref-NM-20160411_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NM-20160411-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_phyla" title="Bacterial phyla">Bacterial phyla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_of_life" title="Coral of life">Coral of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree" title="Family tree">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">Symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TimeTree" title="TimeTree">TimeTree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_Life_Web_Project" title="Tree of Life Web Project">Tree of Life Web Project</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mindell_2013-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mindell_2013_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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London, England: John Churchill. p. 191.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vestiges+of+the+Natural+History+of+Creation&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=John+Churchill&rft.date=1844&rft.aulast=Chambers&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvestigesofnatura00unse%2Fpage%2F190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronn1858" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bronn, H. G. (1858). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J6WCP3J7GIUC&pg=PA481"><i>Untersuchungen über die Entwicklungs-Gesetze der organischen Welt während der Bildungs-Zeit unserer Erd-Oberfläche</i></a> [<i>Investigations of the laws of the development of the organic world during the period of formation of our Earth's surface</i>] (in German). Stuttgart, (Germany): F. 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Ford (25 November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC34172">"Fun with genealogy"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>94</b> (24): 12751–12753. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997PNAS...9412751D">1997PNAS...9412751D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.94.24.12751">10.1073/pnas.94.24.12751</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC34172">34172</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9398070">9398070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Fun+with+genealogy&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=24&rft.pages=12751-12753&rft.date=1997-11-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34172%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1997PNAS...9412751D&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9398070&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.94.24.12751&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Doolittle&rft.aufirst=W.+Ford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIwabeKumaHasegawaOsawa1989" class="citation journal cs1">Iwabe, N; Kuma, K; Hasegawa, M; Osawa, S; Miyata, T (December 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC298494">"Evolutionary relationship of archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes inferred from phylogenetic trees of duplicated genes"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>86</b> (23): 9355–9359. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989PNAS...86.9355I">1989PNAS...86.9355I</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.86.23.9355">10.1073/pnas.86.23.9355</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC298494">298494</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2531898">2531898</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+relationship+of+archaebacteria%2C+eubacteria%2C+and+eukaryotes+inferred+from+phylogenetic+trees+of+duplicated+genes.&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=9355-9359&rft.date=1989-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC298494%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989PNAS...86.9355I&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2531898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.86.23.9355&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Iwabe&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Kuma%2C+K&rft.au=Hasegawa%2C+M&rft.au=Osawa%2C+S&rft.au=Miyata%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC298494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/320914412"><i>The timetree of life</i></a>. S. Blair Hedges, Sudhir Kumar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2009. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-156015-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-156015-6"><bdi>978-0-19-156015-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/320914412">320914412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+timetree+of+life&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F320914412&rft.isbn=978-0-19-156015-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F320914412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1"><i>On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</i></a> (1st ed.). London: John Murray. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4353-9386-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4353-9386-8"><bdi>978-1-4353-9386-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%2C+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1859&rft.isbn=978-1-4353-9386-8&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF373%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, Charles</a> (1872). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F391&viewtype=text&pageseq=1"><i>The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</i></a> (6th ed.). London: John Murray. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4353-9386-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4353-9386-8"><bdi>978-1-4353-9386-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%2C+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&rft.place=London&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1872&rft.isbn=978-1-4353-9386-8&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF391%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Doolittle, W. F.; Bapteste, E. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892968">"Inaugural Article: Pattern pluralism and the Tree of Life hypothesis"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>104</b> (7): 2043–2049. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.2043D">2007PNAS..104.2043D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0610699104">10.1073/pnas.0610699104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892968">1892968</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17261804">17261804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Inaugural+Article%3A+Pattern+pluralism+and+the+Tree+of+Life+hypothesis&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2043-2049&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1892968%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17261804&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0610699104&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..104.2043D&rft.aulast=Doolittle&rft.aufirst=W.+F.&rft.au=Bapteste%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1892968&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Sapp" title="Jan Sapp">Sapp, Jan A.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d7zOviXnbSYC"><i>The new foundations of evolution: on the tree of life</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-73438-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-73438-2"><bdi>978-0-199-73438-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+new+foundations+of+evolution%3A+on+the+tree+of+life&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-199-73438-2&rft.aulast=Sapp&rft.aufirst=Jan+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dd7zOviXnbSYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATree+of+life+%28biology%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tree_of_life_(biology)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/Life_on_Earth/1">Tree of Life Web Project</a> - explore complete phylogenetic tree interactively</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opentreeoflife.github.io/">Tree of Life Evolution</a> Links species on Earth through a shared evolutionary history</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/TheTreeOfLife/">The Tree of Life</a> by Garrett Neske, <a href="/wiki/The_Wolfram_Demonstrations_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wolfram Demonstrations Project">The Wolfram Demonstrations Project</a>: "presents an interactive tree of life that allows you to explore the relationships between many different kinds of organisms by allowing you to select an organism and visualize the clade to which it belongs."</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/map2.html">The Green Tree of Life</a> - <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_tree" title="Hyperbolic tree">Hyperbolic tree</a> University of California/Jepson Herbaria</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/CommonTree/wwwcmt.cgi">NCBI's taxonomy database common tree</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.onezoom.org/">OneZoom Tree of Life Explorer</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Template:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Template talk:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this 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<li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Springbok_pronk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/80px-Springbok_pronk.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/120px-Springbok_pronk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/160px-Springbok_pronk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="403" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives to Darwinian evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tree of life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_biology" title="Category:Philosophers of biology">Philosophers of biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Beatty_(philosopher)" title="John Beatty (philosopher)">John Beatty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindley_Darden" title="Lindley Darden">Lindley Darden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carla_Fehr" title="Carla Fehr">Carla Fehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Grene" title="Marjorie Grene">Marjorie Grene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Godfrey-Smith" title="Peter Godfrey-Smith">Peter Godfrey-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_R._Griesemer" title="James R. Griesemer">James R. Griesemer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_E._Griffiths" title="Paul E. Griffiths">Paul E. Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)" title="David Hull (philosopher)">David Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Jonas" title="Hans Jonas">Hans Jonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Kitcher" title="Philip Kitcher">Philip Kitcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Lewens" title="Tim Lewens">Tim Lewens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Longino" title="Helen Longino">Helen Longino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Maienschein" title="Jane Maienschein">Jane Maienschein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Millstein" title="Roberta Millstein">Roberta Millstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Mitchell" title="Sandra Mitchell">Sandra Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Oyama" title="Susan Oyama">Susan Oyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rosenberg" title="Alexander Rosenberg">Alex Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Michael Ruse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahotra_Sarkar" title="Sahotra Sarkar">Sahotra Sarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Elliott Sober</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Sterelny" title="Kim Sterelny">Kim Sterelny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_I._Tauber" title="Alfred I. Tauber">Alfred I. Tauber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Verschuuren" title="Gerard Verschuuren">Gerard Verschuuren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Wimsatt" title="William C. Wimsatt">William C. Wimsatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ghiselin" title="Michael Ghiselin">Michael Ghiselin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Noble" title="Denis Noble">Denis Noble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Roughgarden" title="Joan Roughgarden">Joan Roughgarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Sattler" title="Rolf Sattler">Rolf Sattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/21px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/32px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/42px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="760" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/19px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/29px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/38px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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