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href="#Historic_political_and_dialect_Arapaho_divisions_and_bands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Historic political and dialect Arapaho divisions and bands</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historic_political_and_dialect_Arapaho_divisions_and_bands-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historic political and dialect Arapaho divisions and bands subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historic_political_and_dialect_Arapaho_divisions_and_bands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Histories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Histories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Histories</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Histories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Histories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Histories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_on_the_plains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_on_the_plains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Expansion on the plains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_on_the_plains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enemies_and_warrior_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enemies_and_warrior_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Enemies and warrior culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enemies_and_warrior_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sand_Creek_Massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sand_Creek_Massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Sand Creek Massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sand_Creek_Massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Events_Leading_to_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Events_Leading_to_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Events Leading to the Sand Creek Massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Events_Leading_to_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sand_Creek_Massacre_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sand_Creek_Massacre_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Sand Creek Massacre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sand_Creek_Massacre_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Why_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre_Occurred" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Why_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre_Occurred"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Why the Sand Creek Massacre Occurred</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Why_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre_Occurred-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Wars_on_the_Southern_Plains" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Wars_on_the_Southern_Plains"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Indian Wars on the Southern Plains</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Wars_on_the_Southern_Plains-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Powder_River_Expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Powder_River_Expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Powder River Expedition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Powder_River_Expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Red_Cloud's_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red_Cloud's_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Red Cloud's War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red_Cloud's_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Sioux_War_of_1876–77" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Sioux_War_of_1876–77"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Great Sioux War of 1876–77</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Sioux_War_of_1876–77-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Creation_myth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_myth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Creation myth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_myth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gender_and_division_of_labor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender_and_division_of_labor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Gender and division of labor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender_and_division_of_labor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clothing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Clothing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Economic development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_Arapahos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_Arapahos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notable Arapahos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_Arapahos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Population history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>General references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Arapaho</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88" title="أراباهو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أراباهو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Арапаха (народ) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Арапаха (народ)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE" title="Арапахо – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Арапахо" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahov%C3%A9" title="Arapahové – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Arapahové" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%AC%CF%87%CE%BF" title="Αραπάχο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αραπάχο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaj%C3%B3" title="Arapajó – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arapajó" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahoj" title="Arapahoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Arapahoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahos" title="Arapahos – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arapahos" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho_(folk)" title="Arapaho (folk) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Arapaho (folk)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pobo_arapaho" title="Pobo arapaho – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Pobo arapaho" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%94%D7%95" title="אראפהו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אראפהו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE_(%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B)" title="Арапахо (халық) – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Арапахо (халық)" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahai" title="Arapahai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Arapahai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B9%E0%B5%8B" title="അരാപ്പഹോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അരാപ്പഹോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho_(volk)" title="Arapaho (volk) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Arapaho (volk)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%91%E3%83%9B" title="アラパホ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アラパホ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Арапахо (народ) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арапахо (народ)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE_(%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4)" title="Арапахо (народ) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Арапахо (народ)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahot" title="Arapahot – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arapahot" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetanev%C3%B6%27e" title="Hetanevö'e – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Hetanevö'e" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tsetsêhestâhese</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaholar" title="Arapaholar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Arapaholar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE" title="Арапахо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Арапахо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E5%B8%95%E9%9C%8D%E4%BA%BA" 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Native American tribe</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Arapaho (disambiguation)">Arapaho (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Arapaho</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div><span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hinono'eino</i></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Arapaho_Nation_2021.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Arapaho_Nation_2021.svg/220px-Flag_of_Arapaho_Nation_2021.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Arapaho_Nation_2021.svg/330px-Flag_of_Arapaho_Nation_2021.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Flag_of_Arapaho_Nation_2021.svg/440px-Flag_of_Arapaho_Nation_2021.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="849" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">10,861 (2010)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>United States</li><li>(<a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">English, <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Arapaho</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Sign Language</a>, formerly <a href="/wiki/Nawathinehena_language" title="Nawathinehena language">Nawathinehena</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peyotism" class="mw-redirect" title="Peyotism">Peyotism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Traditional religions</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Other <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyennes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre" title="Gros Ventre">Gros Ventre</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Person</th><td class="infobox-data"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hinono'eino</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hinono'eiteen</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Hinónoʼeitíít</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Plains_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Plains Sign Language">Bee3osohoot</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data">Hinono'eino' Biito'owu'</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Arapaho</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'h' in 'hi'">h</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">ə-<span style="font-size:90%">RAP</span>-ə-hoh</i></a>; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Arapahos</i>, <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Gens de Vache</i></span>) are a <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> people historically living on the plains of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>. They were close allies of the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a> tribe and loosely aligned with the <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dakota_people" title="Dakota people">Dakota</a>. </p><p>By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes, namely the Northern Arapaho and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Arapaho" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Arapaho">Southern Arapaho</a>. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Shoshone" title="Eastern Shoshone">Eastern Shoshone</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Wind_River_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind River Reservation">Wind River Reservation</a> in Wyoming and are <a href="/wiki/Federally_recognized_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Federally recognized tribe">federally recognized</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Arapaho_Tribe_of_the_Wind_River_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Arapaho Tribe of the Wind River Reservation">Northern Arapaho Tribe of the Wind River Reservation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Southern Arapaho live with the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Cheyenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Cheyenne">Southern Cheyenne</a> in Oklahoma. Together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_and_Arapaho_Tribes" title="Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes">Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is uncertain where the word 'Arapaho'<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> came from. Europeans may have derived it from the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_language" title="Pawnee language">Pawnee</a> word for "trader", <i>iriiraraapuhu</i>, or it may have been a corruption of a <a href="/wiki/Crow_language" title="Crow language">Crow</a> word for "tattoo", <i>alapúuxaache</i>. The Arapaho <a href="/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym and endonym">autonym</a> is <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hinono'eino</i></span> or <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Inun-ina</i></span> ("our people" or "people of our own kind"). They refer to their tribe as <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hinono'eiteen</i></span> (Arapaho Nation). The Cheyenne called them <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hitanwo'iv</i></span> or <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hetanevoeo/Hetanevo'eo'o</i></span> ("People of the Sky" or "Cloud People"); the Dakota as <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Mahpíyato</i></span> ("Blue Cloud Men"), and the Lakota and Nakota referred to them as <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Maȟpíya thó</i></span> ("Blue Sky People"). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Caddo" title="Caddo">Caddo</a> (<span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Toniibeenenno'</i></span> or <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Toniibeeneseino'</i></span> – "pierced nose people") called them <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Detseka'yaa</i></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Wichita_people" title="Wichita people">Wichita</a> (<span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hinosouno'</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Nia'rhari's-kûrikiwa'ahûski</i></span>, and the <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a> <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Saria Tʉhka / Säretika (Sata Teichas)</i></span>, all names signifying "dog-eaters". The <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ute_people" title="Ute people">Ute</a> and other tribes also referred to them with names signifying "dog-eaters".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The reason for this is unclear. (November 2023)">why?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Northern Arapaho, who called themselves <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Nank'haanseine'nan</i></span> or <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Nookhose'iinenno</i></span> ("white sage men"), were known as <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Baantcline'nan</i></span> or <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Bo'oociinenno</i></span> ("red willow men") to the Southern Arapaho, whereas the latter were called by their northern kin <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Nawathi'neha</i></span> or <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Noowunenno'</i></span> ("Southerners"). The Northern Arapaho were also known as <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">BSakuune'na' (Bee'eekuunnenno')</i></span> ("blood-soup men").<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as <i>Vanohetan</i> or <i>Vanohetaneo / Váno'étaneo'o</i> ("Sage (Brush) People") and to the Southern Arapaho as <i>Nomsen'nat</i> or <i>Nomsen'eo</i> ("Southerners").<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historic_political_and_dialect_Arapaho_divisions_and_bands">Historic political and dialect Arapaho divisions and bands</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historic political and dialect Arapaho divisions and bands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NCWHM_-_Arapaho_Dress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NCWHM_-_Arapaho_Dress.jpg/220px-NCWHM_-_Arapaho_Dress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NCWHM_-_Arapaho_Dress.jpg/330px-NCWHM_-_Arapaho_Dress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NCWHM_-_Arapaho_Dress.jpg/440px-NCWHM_-_Arapaho_Dress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2160" data-file-height="3496" /></a><figcaption>Arapaho dress</figcaption></figure> <p>The Arapaho recognize five main divisions among their people, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct but cognate tribes. Through much of Arapaho history, each tribal nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies. </p><p>Each spoke mutually intelligible dialects, which differed from Arapaho proper. Dialectally, the Haa'ninin, Beesowuunenno', and Hinono'eino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to comprehend of all the dialects. </p><p>In his classic ethnographic study, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a> identified these five nations from south to north: </p> <ul><li><b>Nanwacinaha'ana</b>, <b>Nawathi'neha</b> ("Toward the South People") or <b>Nanwuine'nan / Noowo3iineheeno'</b> ("Southern People"). Their now-extinct language dialect – <a href="/wiki/Nawathinehena_language" title="Nawathinehena language">Nawathinehena</a> – was the most divergent from the other Arapaho tribes.</li> <li><b>Hánahawuuena</b><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ("Rock Men" or "Rock People"), occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinaha'ana, spoke the now-extinct Ha'anahawunena dialect.</li> <li><b>Hinono'eino</b> or <b>Hinanae'inan</b> ("Arapaho proper") spoke the <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Arapaho language (Heenetiit)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Beesowuunenno'</b>, <b>Baasanwuune'nan</b> or <b>Bäsawunena</b> ("Big Lodge People" or "Brush-Hut/Shelter People") resided further north of the Hinono'eino. Their war parties used temporary brush shelters similar to the dome-shaped shade or <a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_region" title="Great Lakes region">Great Lakes</a> <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_peoples" title="Algonquian peoples">Algonquian peoples</a>. They are said to have migrated from their former territory near the Lakes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes. (Note: many people say their name means "Great Lakes People" or "Big Water People".) They spoke the now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Besawunena</a> (<i>Beesoowuuyeitiit</i> – "Big Lodge/Great Lakes language") dialect.</li> <li><b>Haa'ninin</b>, <b>A'aninin</b> or <b>A'ani</b> ("White Clay People" or "Lime People"), the northernmost tribal group; they retained a distinct ethnicity and were known to the French as the historic <b><a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gros Ventre people">Gros Ventre</a></b>. In Blackfoot they were called <b>Atsina</b> (<i>Atsíína</i> – "like a <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Cree</a>", i.e. "enemy", or <i>Piik-siik-sii-naa</i> – "snakes", i.e. "enemies"). After they separated, the other Arapaho peoples, who considered them inferior, called them <i><b>Hitúnĕna</b></i> or <i><b>Hittiuenina</b></i> ("Begging Men", "Beggars", or more exactly "Spongers"). They speak the nearly extinct <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_language" title="Gros Ventre language">Gros Ventre (Ananin, Ahahnelin)</a> language dialect (called by the Arapaho <i>Hitouuyeitiit</i> – "Begging Men Language"), there is evidence that the southern Haa'ninin tribal group, the <i>Staetan band</i>, together with bands of the later political division of the Northern Arapaho, spoke the Besawunena dialect.</li></ul> <p>Before their historic geo-political ethnogenesis, each tribal-nation had a principal headman. The exact date of the ethnic fusion or fission of each social division is not known. The elders say that the <i>Hinono'eino</i> ("Arapaho proper") and <i>Beesowuunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> ("Big Lodge People" or "Brush-Hut/Shelter People") fought over the tribal symbols – the sacred pipe and lance. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the <i>Beesowuunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>. The different tribal-nations lived together and the <i>Beesowuunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> have dispersed for at least 150 years among the formerly distinct Arapaho tribal groups. </p><p>By the late 18th century, the four divisions south of the <i>Haa'ninin</i> ("White Clay People" or "Lime People") or <i><a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gros Ventre people">Gros Ventre (Atsina)</a></i> consolidated into the Arapaho. Only the Arapaho and Gros Ventre (Atsina) identified as separate tribal-nations. </p><p>While living on the Great Plains, the <i>Hinono'eino</i> (all Arapaho bands south of the <i>Haa'ninin</i>) divided historically into two geopolitical social divisions: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Arapahoe_Tribe_of_the_Wind_River_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation">Northern Arapaho</a></b> or <b>Nank'haanseine'nan</b> ("Sagebrush People"), <b>Nookhose'iinenno</b> ("White Sage People"); are called by the Southern Arapaho <i><b>Bo'ooceinenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></b></i> or <i><b>Baachinena</b></i> ("red willow men"); the Kiowa know them as <i>Tägyäko</i> ("Sagebrush People"), a translation of their proper name. They keep the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho, being indicated in the <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Indian Sign Language</a> (<i>Bee3sohoet</i>) by the sign for "mother people". They absorbed the historic <i>Hánahawuuena</i> and <i>Beesowuunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>. An estimated 50 persons of Beesowuunenno' lineage are included among the Northern Arapaho, and perhaps a few with the other two main divisions.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_and_Arapaho_Tribes" title="Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes">Southern Arapaho</a></b>, <b>Náwunena</b> or <b>Noowunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></b> ("Southern People"), are called by the Northern Arapaho <b>Nawathi'neha</b> ("Southerners"); the Kiowa know them as <i>Ähayädal</i>, the (plural) name for the wild plum. The sign for the Southern Arapaho is made by rubbing the index finger against the side of the nose. They absorbed the historic <i>Nanwuine'nan / Noowo3iineheeno</i> ("Southern People") and some <i>Beesowuunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Algonquian_language_map_with_states_and_provinces.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Algonquian_language_map_with_states_and_provinces.svg/220px-Algonquian_language_map_with_states_and_provinces.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Algonquian_language_map_with_states_and_provinces.svg/330px-Algonquian_language_map_with_states_and_provinces.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Algonquian_language_map_with_states_and_provinces.svg/440px-Algonquian_language_map_with_states_and_provinces.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption>Pre-contact distribution of <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian languages</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Arapaho language</a> is currently spoken in two different dialects, and it is considered to be a member of the Algonquian language family. The number of fluent speakers of Northern Arapaho has dwindled to 250, most living on the <a href="/wiki/Wind_River_Indian_Reservation" title="Wind River Indian Reservation">Wind River Reservation</a> in Wyoming, while the number of Southern Arapaho speakers is even more scarce, with only a handful of people who speak it, all advanced in age. </p><p>According to Cowell & Moss's 2008 study of the Arapaho language, the Northern Arapaho have made a great effort to maintain the language through establishing the Language and Culture Commission. By producing audio and visual materials, they have provided ways for younger generations to learn the language. In 1995 this effort was matched by Dr. S. N. Greymorning, who established an Arapaho language immersion preschool program. Arapaho language instruction is also offered all throughout grade school. However, the number of students that take the subject is wavering and those who learn typically only retain a selection of memorized vocabulary. There is widespread interest in keeping the language alive for the Northern Arapaho, and their outlook remains positive in their endeavors to perpetuate the learning of Arapaho in schools and among their children and young people. However, this attitude is often counteracted by the lack of true commitment and willingness to really learn and become fluent, underscored by a misunderstanding of its deep roots and purpose. </p><p>For Southern Arapaho, the language is not quite as valued as it is on the Wind River Reservation. Most have lost interest in learning or maintaining it, and until recently, there were little to no efforts to preserve their dialect. There is a small number who have begun online courses conducted via video in an attempt to revitalize a desire to learn it, and popularity has increased over the past few years.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Histories">Histories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Histories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gros Ventre people">Gros Ventre people</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pouch,_Arapaho_(Native_American),_Late_19th_or_early_20th_cent.,_08.434.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pouch%2C_Arapaho_%28Native_American%29%2C_Late_19th_or_early_20th_cent.%2C_08.434.jpg/220px-Pouch%2C_Arapaho_%28Native_American%29%2C_Late_19th_or_early_20th_cent.%2C_08.434.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pouch%2C_Arapaho_%28Native_American%29%2C_Late_19th_or_early_20th_cent.%2C_08.434.jpg/330px-Pouch%2C_Arapaho_%28Native_American%29%2C_Late_19th_or_early_20th_cent.%2C_08.434.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Pouch%2C_Arapaho_%28Native_American%29%2C_Late_19th_or_early_20th_cent.%2C_08.434.jpg/440px-Pouch%2C_Arapaho_%28Native_American%29%2C_Late_19th_or_early_20th_cent.%2C_08.434.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1207" /></a><figcaption><i>Pouch</i>, Arapaho (Native American), Late 19th or early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Around 3,000 years ago, the ancestral Arapaho-speaking people (<i>Heeteinono'eino<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>) lived in the western Great Lakes region along the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Valley" title="Red River Valley">Red River Valley</a> in what is classified as present-day <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>, Canada and <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a>, United States.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There the Arapaho were an agricultural people who grew crops, including <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following European colonization in eastern Canada, together with the early <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne people">Cheyenne people</a> (<i>Hitesiino'</i>), the Arapaho were forced to migrate westward onto the eastern Great Plains by the <a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Ojibwe people">Ojibwe</a>. They were numerous and powerful, having obtained guns from their French trading allies. </p><p>The ancestors of the Arapaho people entered the Great Plains from the western Great Lakes region sometime before 1700. During their early history on the plains, the Arapaho lived on the northern plains from the <a href="/wiki/South_Saskatchewan_River" title="South Saskatchewan River">South Saskatchewan River</a> in Canada south to Montana, Wyoming, and western South Dakota. Before the Arapaho acquired horses, they used domestic dogs as <a href="/wiki/Pack_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Pack animals">pack animals</a> to pull their <a href="/wiki/Travois" title="Travois">travois</a>. The Arapaho acquired horses in the early 1700s from other tribes, which changed their way of life. They became nomadic people, using the horses as pack and riding animals. They could transport greater loads, and travel more easily by horseback to hunt more easily and widely, increasing their success in hunting on the Plains. </p><p>Gradually, the Arapaho moved farther south, split into the closely allied Northern and Southern Arapaho, and established a large joint territory spanning land in southern Montana, most of Wyoming, the Nebraska Panhandle, central and eastern Colorado, western Oklahoma, and extreme western Kansas. A large group of Arapaho split from the main tribe and became an independent people, commonly known as the <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Gros Ventre people">Gros Ventre</a> (as named by the French) or Atsina. The name Gros Ventre, meaning "Big Bellies" in French, was a misinterpretation of sign language between an Indian guide and French explorers. The Gros Ventre spoke an Algonquian language similar to Arapaho after the division; they identified as <i>A'aninin</i>, meaning ″White Clay people″. The Arapaho often viewed the Gros Ventre as inferior and referred to them as <i>Hitúnĕna</i> or <i>Hitouuteen</i>, meaning "beggars".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_on_the_plains">Expansion on the plains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Expansion on the plains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once established, the Arapaho began to expand on the plains through trade, warfare, and alliances with other plains tribes. Around 1811, the Arapaho made an alliance with the Cheyenne (<i>Hítesíínoʼ</i> – 'scarred one').<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their strong alliance with the Cheyenne allowed the Arapaho to greatly expand their hunting territory. By 1826, the Lakota, Dakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed the <a href="/wiki/Kiowa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiowa people">Kiowa</a> (<i>Niiciiheihiinennoʼ</i>; Kiowa tribe: <i>Niiciiheihiiteen</i>) and invading <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a> to the south. Conflict with the allied Comanche and Kiowa ended in 1840 when the two large tribes made peace with the Arapaho and Southern Cheyenne and became their allies.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Little_Raven_(Arapaho_leader)" title="Little Raven (Arapaho leader)">Chief Little Raven</a> was the most notable Arapaho chief; he helped mediate peace among the nomadic southern plains tribes and would retain his reputation as a peace chief throughout the Indian Wars and reservation period.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alliance with the Comanche and Kiowa made the most southern Arapaho bands powerful enough to enter the <a href="/wiki/Llano_Estacado" title="Llano Estacado">Llano Estacado</a> in the Texas Panhandle. One band of Southern Arapaho became so closely allied with the Comanche that they were absorbed into the tribe, adopted the Comanche language, and became a band of Comanche known as the <i>Saria Tʉhka (Sata Teichas)</i> 'dog-eaters'. </p><p>Along the upper Missouri River, the Arapaho actively traded with the farming villages of the <a href="/wiki/Arikara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arikara people">Arikara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandan" title="Mandan">Mandan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hidatsa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidatsa people">Hidatsa</a>, trading meat and hides for <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squash_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Squash (plant)">squash</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bean" title="Bean">beans</a>. The Arikara referred to the Arapaho as the "Colored Stone Village (People)", possibly because <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstones</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a> were among the trade items. The Hidatsa called them <i>E-tah-leh</i> or <i>Ita-Iddi</i> ('buffalo-path people'), referring to their hunting of bison. </p><p>Conflict with Euro-American traders and explorers was limited at the time. The Arapaho freely entered various trading posts and trade fairs to exchange mostly bison hides and beaver furs for European goods such as firearms. The Arapaho frequently encountered fur traders in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, and the headwaters of the Platte and Arkansas. They became well-known traders on the plains and bordering Rocky Mountains. The name <i>Arapaho</i> may have been derived from the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_language" title="Pawnee language">Pawnee</a> word <i>Tirapihu</i> (or <i>Larapihu</i>), meaning "he buys or trades" or "traders". The Arapaho were a prominent trading group in the Great Plains region. The term may also have come from European-American traders referring to them by their <a href="/wiki/Crow_language" title="Crow language">Crow (Apsáalooke aliláau)</a> name of <i>Alappahoʼ</i>, which meant 'people with many tattoos'. By custom the Arapaho tattooed small circles on their bodies. The name Arapaho became widespread among the white traders. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enemies_and_warrior_culture">Enemies and warrior culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Enemies and warrior culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Man_-_An_Arapaho_warrior_-_By_E.A_Burbank,_1899.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Black_Man_-_An_Arapaho_warrior_-_By_E.A_Burbank%2C_1899.jpg/220px-Black_Man_-_An_Arapaho_warrior_-_By_E.A_Burbank%2C_1899.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Black_Man_-_An_Arapaho_warrior_-_By_E.A_Burbank%2C_1899.jpg/330px-Black_Man_-_An_Arapaho_warrior_-_By_E.A_Burbank%2C_1899.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Black_Man_-_An_Arapaho_warrior_-_By_E.A_Burbank%2C_1899.jpg 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Painting of Black Man, an Arapaho warrior with face paint and feathers. By <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Ayer_Burbank" title="Elbridge Ayer Burbank">E. A. Burbank</a>, 1899.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_fighting_Navajo_or_Puebloan_warriors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_fighting_Navajo_or_Puebloan_warriors.jpg/220px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_fighting_Navajo_or_Puebloan_warriors.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_fighting_Navajo_or_Puebloan_warriors.jpg/330px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_fighting_Navajo_or_Puebloan_warriors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_fighting_Navajo_or_Puebloan_warriors.jpg/440px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_fighting_Navajo_or_Puebloan_warriors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ledger_drawing" class="mw-redirect" title="Ledger drawing">Ledger drawing</a> of a mounted Arapaho warrior fighting a group of Navajo or Pueblo warriors, c. 1880</figcaption></figure> <p>A large part of Arapaho society was based around the warrior. Most young men sought this role. After adopting use of the horse, the Arapaho quickly became master horsemen and highly skilled at fighting on horseback. Warriors had larger roles than combat in the society. They were expected to keep peace among the camps, provide food and wealth for their families, and guard the camps from attacks. </p><p>Like other plains Indians, including their Cheyenne allies, the Arapaho have a number of distinct military societies. Each of the eight Arapaho military societies had their own unique initiation rites, pre- and post- battle ceremonies and songs, regalia, and style of combat. Unlike their Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota allies, the Arapaho military societies were age based. Each age level had its own society for prestigious or promising warriors of the matching age.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the warriors aged, they may graduate to the next society. </p><p>Warriors often painted their face and bodies with war paint, as well as their horses, for spiritual empowerment. Each warrior created a unique design for the war paint which they often wore into battle. Feathers from birds, particularly eagle feathers, were also worn in battle as symbols of prestige and for reasons similar to war paint. Before setting out for war, the warriors organized into war parties. War parties were made up of individual warriors and a selected war chief. The title of war chief must be earned through a specific number of acts of bravery in battle known as <a href="/wiki/Counting_coup" title="Counting coup">counting coup</a>. Coups may include stealing horses while undetected, touching a living enemy, or stealing a gun from an enemy's grasp. Arapaho warriors used a variety of weapons, including war-clubs, lances, knives, tomahawks, bows, shotguns, rifles, and pistols. They acquired guns through trade at trading posts or trade fairs, in addition to raiding soldiers or other tribes. </p><p>The Arapaho fought with the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a> (<i>Hooxeihiinenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – "wolf people"), <a href="/wiki/Omaha_people" title="Omaha people">Omaha</a> (<i>Howohoono<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>), <a href="/wiki/Ho-chunk" class="mw-redirect" title="Ho-chunk">Ho-chunk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osage_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage nation">Osage</a> (<i>Wosootiinen</i>, <i>Wosoo3iinen</i> or <i>Wosoosiinen</i>), <a href="/wiki/Ponca" title="Ponca">Ponca</a> (same as Omaha: <i>Howohoono<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>), and <a href="/wiki/Kaw_people" title="Kaw people">Kaw</a> (<i>Honoho<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>) east of their territory. North of Arapaho territory they fought with the <a href="/wiki/Crow_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow nation">Crow</a> (<i>Houunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>), <a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_Confederacy" title="Blackfoot Confederacy">Blackfoot Confederacy</a> (<i>Woo'teenixteet</i> or <i>Woo'teenixtee3i'</i> – ″people wearing black-feet″), <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre" title="Gros Ventre">Gros Ventre</a> (<i>Hitouunenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>, Gros Ventre tribe: <i>Hitouuteen</i>), <a href="/wiki/Confederated_Salish_and_Kootenai_Tribes_of_the_Flathead_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Nation">Flathead</a> (<i>Kookee'ei3i<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>), <a href="/wiki/Arikara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arikara people">Arikara</a> (<i>Koonoonii3i<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – ″people whose jaws break in pieces″), <a href="/wiki/Iron_Confederacy" title="Iron Confederacy">Iron Confederacy (Nehiyaw-Pwat)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Assiniboine_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Assiniboine people">Assiniboine</a> (<i>Nihooneihteenootineihino<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> - "yellow-footed Sioux"), <a href="/wiki/Cree" title="Cree">Plains/Woods Cree</a> (<i>Nooku(h)nenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>; Plains Cree tribe: <i>Nookuho<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> - "rabbit people"), <a href="/wiki/Saulteaux" title="Saulteaux">Saulteaux (Plains Ojibwa)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nakoda_(Stoney)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nakoda (Stoney)">Nakoda (Stoney)</a>). To the west they fought with eastern <a href="/wiki/Shoshone_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoshone people">Shoshone</a> (<i>Sosoni'ii</i>; Shoshone tribe: <i>Sosoni'iiteen</i>) and the <a href="/wiki/Ute_people" title="Ute people">Ute</a> (<i>Wo'(o)teenehi3i<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> - ″cut throats″; Ute tribe: <i>Wo'(o)teennehhiiteen</i>). South of their territory they occasionally fought with the <a href="/wiki/Navajo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Navajo people">Navajo</a> (<i>Coohoh'oukutoo3i<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – ″those who tie their hair in back of the head or in bunches″), <a href="/wiki/Apache" title="Apache">Apache</a> (<i>Coo3o<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – "enemy" or <i>Teebe'eisi3i<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – "they have their hair cut straight, hanging straight down", <i>Ti'iihiinen</i> – "killdeer people" refers especially to <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_Apache" title="Jicarilla Apache">Jicarilla Apache</a>) and various <a href="/wiki/Pueblo_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pueblo people">Pueblo peoples</a> (<i>Cooh'ookutoo3i<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – "they tie their hair in a bundle"). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne people">Cheyenne</a> (<i>Hitesiino<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>), <a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> (<i>Nootineihino<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i>), <a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a> (<i>Niiciiheihiinenno<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – ″river people″ or <i>Koh'ówuunénno'</i> – ″creek people″; Kiowa tribe: <i>Niiciiheihiiteen</i> or <i>Koh'ówuunteen</i>), <a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache" title="Plains Apache">Plains Apache</a> (<i>3oxooheinen</i> – "pounder people"), and <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a> (<i>Coo3o<span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span></i> – sg. and pl., means: "enemy", like Apache)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were enemies of the Arapaho initially but became their allies. Together with their allies, the Arapaho also fought with invading US soldiers, miners, and settlers across Arapaho territory and the territory of their allies.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sand_Creek_Massacre">Sand Creek Massacre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sand Creek Massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:At_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre,_1874-1875.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/At_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre%2C_1874-1875.jpg/220px-At_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre%2C_1874-1875.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/At_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre%2C_1874-1875.jpg/330px-At_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre%2C_1874-1875.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/At_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre%2C_1874-1875.jpg/440px-At_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre%2C_1874-1875.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption>Ledger drawing of a scene from the massacre by Cheyenne eyewitness and artist <a href="/wiki/Howling_Wolf_(Cheyenne)" title="Howling Wolf (Cheyenne)">Howling Wolf</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Events_Leading_to_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre">Events Leading to the Sand Creek Massacre</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Events Leading to the Sand Creek Massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several skirmishes had ignited hatred from white settlers that lived in the area, and left Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes in constant fear of being attacked by American troops. For example, on April 12, 1864, a rancher brought troops to attack a group of 15 warriors who had asked to be rewarded for bringing his mules back to him. The warriors acted in self-defense and sent the troops running.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Word got back to Colonel John Chivington, and they had told him the Indians shot first. He also heard there were 175 cattle head stolen from the government. Chivington "ordered troops to find and 'chastise' the 'Indians'." Soldiers burned villages and sought out to kill Indians, the violence escalating months before the <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek Massacre</a>. </p><p>In an effort to establish peace, John Evans attempted to extend an offer of refuge and protection to "friendly" Indians. However, these efforts were trampled by General Curtis'<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> military expedition against tribes between the Platte and Arkansas Rivers. By this point, both Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes thought that an all out <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">war of extermination</a> was about to rage against them, so they quickly fled, and Curtis and his men never met them.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sand_Creek_Massacre_2">Sand Creek Massacre</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sand Creek Massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sand_creek_1985.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Sand_creek_1985.jpg/220px-Sand_creek_1985.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Sand_creek_1985.jpg/330px-Sand_creek_1985.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Sand_creek_1985.jpg/440px-Sand_creek_1985.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1030" /></a><figcaption>Present day marker of the Sand Creek Massacre site in <a href="/wiki/Kiowa_County,_Colorado" title="Kiowa County, Colorado">Kiowa County</a>, Colorado.</figcaption></figure> <p>In November 1864, the Colorado militia, led by Colonel <a href="/wiki/John_Chivington" title="John Chivington">John Chivington</a>, massacred a small village of Cheyenne and Arapaho in the <a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a historical narrative on the event titled "Chief Left Hand", by <a href="/wiki/Margaret_Coel" title="Margaret Coel">Margaret Coel</a>, there were several events that led to the Colorado militia's attack on the village. Governor Evans desired to hold title to the resource-rich Denver-Boulder area. The government trust officials avoided <a href="/wiki/Chief_Niwot" title="Chief Niwot">Chief Left Hand</a>, a linguistically gifted Southern Arapaho chief, when executing their treaty that transferred the title of the area away from Indian Trust. The local cavalry was stretched thin by the demands of the Civil War while Indian warriors, acting independently of Chief Left Hand, raided their supply lines. A group of Arapaho and Cheyenne elders with women and children had been denied their traditional wintering grounds in Boulder by the cavalry and were ordered to come to Fort Lyon for food and protection or be considered hostile. </p><p>On arrival at Lyon, Chief Left Hand and his followers were accused of violence by Colonel Chivington. Chief Left Hand and his people got the message that only those Indians that reported to Fort Lyon would be considered peaceful and all others would be considered hostile and ordered killed. Confused, Chief Left Hand and his followers turned away and traveled a safe distance away from the fort to camp. A traitor gave Colonel Chivington directions to the camp. He and his battalion stalked and attacked the camp early the next morning. Rather than heroic, Colonel Chivington's efforts were considered a gross embarrassment to the Cavalry since he attacked peaceful elders, women, and children.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of his war efforts, instead of receiving the promotion to which he aspired, he was relieved of his duties. </p><p>On October 14, 1865, almost a year after the Sand Creek Massacre, The Arapaho and Cheyenne signed a new treaty with the US government. The treaty addressed the future of conflict between the two tribes and the US government, it outlined new boundaries, it forced the tribe to relinquish claims to other lands, amongst many other demands. The treaty, spanning nine articles, was ratified on May 22, 1866, and then later proclaimed on February 2, 1867. <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eugene Ridgely, a Cheyenne–Northern Arapaho artist, is credited with bringing to light the fact that Arapahos were among the victims of the massacre. His children, Gail Ridgely, Benjamin Ridgley, and Eugene "Snowball" Ridgely, were instrumental in having the massacre site designated as a National Historic Site. In 1999, Benjamin and Gail Ridgley organized a group of Northern Arapaho runners to run from <a href="/wiki/Limon,_Colorado" title="Limon, Colorado">Limon, Colorado</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Ethete,_Wyoming" title="Ethete, Wyoming">Ethete, Wyoming</a>, in memory of their ancestors who were forced to run for their lives after being attacked and pursued by Colonel Chivington and his battalion. Their efforts will be recognized and remembered by the "Sand Creek Massacre" signs that appear along the roadways from Limon to <a href="/wiki/Casper,_Wyoming" title="Casper, Wyoming">Casper, Wyoming</a>, and then to Ethete. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Why_the_Sand_Creek_Massacre_Occurred">Why the Sand Creek Massacre Occurred</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Why the Sand Creek Massacre Occurred"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The violence that ensued was deeply rooted in the Indian-hating by American settlers in the area. Their perception was that "their nascent settlements were indeed surrounded by Indians",<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their inexperience in dealing with Indians was what sparked the Sand Creek Massacre. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Wars_on_the_Southern_Plains">Indian Wars on the Southern Plains</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Indian Wars on the Southern Plains"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arapaho_leggings_moccasins_1910_OHS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Arapaho_leggings_moccasins_1910_OHS.jpg/240px-Arapaho_leggings_moccasins_1910_OHS.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Arapaho_leggings_moccasins_1910_OHS.jpg/360px-Arapaho_leggings_moccasins_1910_OHS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Arapaho_leggings_moccasins_1910_OHS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Southern Arapaho women's leggings and moccasins, c. 1910, <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_History_Center" title="Oklahoma History Center">Oklahoma History Center</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The events at Sand Creek sparked outrage among the Arapaho and Cheyenne, resulting in three decades of war between them and the United States. Much of the hostilities took place in Colorado, leading to many of the events being referred to as part of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War</a>. Battles and hostilities elsewhere on the southern plains such as in Kansas and Texas are often included as part of the "<a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars</a>". During the wars, the Arapaho and Cheyenne allies—the Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache—would participate in some battles alongside them. The Lakota from the north came down into northern Colorado to help the Arapaho and Cheyenne there. The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Julesburg" title="Battle of Julesburg">Battle of Julesburg</a> resulted from a force of about 1,000 allied Northern Arapaho, Cheyenne (mostly from the <a href="/wiki/Dog_Soldiers" title="Dog Soldiers">Dog Soldiers</a> warrior society), and Lakota from the <a href="/wiki/Brul%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Brulé">Brulé</a> and Oglala sub-tribes. The point of the raid was retaliation for the events at the Sand Creek Massacre months earlier. The allied Indian forces attacked settlers and US Army forces around the valley of the <a href="/wiki/South_Platte_River" title="South Platte River">South Platte River</a> near <a href="/wiki/Julesburg,_Colorado" title="Julesburg, Colorado">Julesburg, Colorado</a>. The battle was a decisive Indian victory, resulting in 14 soldiers and four civilians dead and probably no Indian casualties. A force of around 3,000 Southern Arapaho, Northern Cheyenne, and Lakota attacked soldiers and civilians at a bridge crossing the <a href="/wiki/North_Platte_River" title="North Platte River">North Platte River</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Platte_Bridge" title="Battle of Platte Bridge">Battle of Platte Bridge</a>. The battle was another victory for the Indians, with 29 soldiers killed and at least eight Indian casualties. Arapaho, Cheyenne, Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apaches seeking peace were offered to sign the <a href="/wiki/Medicine_Lodge_Treaty" title="Medicine Lodge Treaty">Medicine Lodge Treaty</a> in October 1867. The treaty allotted the Southern Arapaho a reservation with the Southern Cheyenne between the Arkansas and Cimarron rivers in Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).<sup id="cite_ref-May_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-May-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among those that signed the treaty was <a href="/wiki/Little_Raven_(Arapaho_leader)" title="Little Raven (Arapaho leader)">Chief Little Raven</a>. Those that did not sign the treaty were called "hostile" and were continually pursued by the US Army and their Indian scouts. The last major battle between the Arapaho and the US on the southern plains was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Summit_Springs" title="Battle of Summit Springs">Battle of Summit Springs</a> in northernmost Colorado. The battle involved a force of around 450 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors and 244 US soldiers and around 50 Pawnee scouts under <a href="/wiki/Frank_North" title="Frank North">Frank North</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most prominent Indian leader at the battle was <a href="/wiki/Tall_Bull" title="Tall Bull">Tall Bull</a>, a leader of the Dog Soldiers warrior society of the Cheyenne. The battle was a US victory with around 35 warriors killed (including Tall Bull) and a further 17 captured. The soldiers suffered only a single casualty. The death of Tall Bull was a major loss for the Dog Soldiers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Powder_River_Expedition">Powder River Expedition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Powder River Expedition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Powder River Expedition">Powder River Expedition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tongue_River" title="Battle of the Tongue River">Battle of the Tongue River</a></div> <p>After the Sand Creek Massacre and a number of other skirmishes, the Northern Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota moved many of their bands to the remote <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_(Montana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Powder River (Montana)">Powder River</a> country in Wyoming and southern Montana. Along the way, they participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mud_Springs" title="Battle of Mud Springs">Battle of Mud Springs</a>, a minor incident in the Nebraska Panhandle involving a force of between 500 and 1,000 Arapaho, Cheyenne, and Lakota warriors and 230 US soldiers. The battle resulted in the capture of some army horses and a herd of several hundred cattle with a single US casualty.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An attempt was made by the army to recapture their stolen livestock and attack the Indians, which resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rush_Creek" title="Battle of Rush Creek">Battle of Rush Creek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The battle was inconclusive, resulting in only one Indian casualty and three US soldiers dead (with a further eight wounded). Lt. Col. William O. Collins, commander of the army forces, stated that pursuing the Indian forces any further through the dry <a href="/wiki/Sandhills_(Nebraska)" title="Sandhills (Nebraska)">Sand Hills area</a> would be "injudicious and useless". Once in the area of the Powder River, the Arapaho noticed an increase in travelers moving along the established Bozeman trail, which led to the Montana goldfields. Settlers and miners traveling on the Bozeman Trail through the Powder River country were viewed as threats by the Indians as they were numerous and were often violent towards encountered Indians and competed for food along the trail. </p><p>Hostilities in the Powder River area led Major General <a href="/wiki/Grenville_M._Dodge" title="Grenville M. Dodge">Grenville M. Dodge</a> to order the <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Powder River Expedition">Powder River Expedition</a> as a punitive campaign against the Arapaho, Lakota, and Cheyenne. The expedition was inconclusive with neither side gaining a definitive victory. The allied Indian forces mostly evaded the soldiers except for raids on their supplies which left most soldiers desperately under-equipped. The most significant battle was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Tongue_River" title="Battle of the Tongue River">Battle of the Tongue River</a> where Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Edward_Connor" title="Patrick Edward Connor">Patrick Edward Connor</a> ordered <a href="/wiki/Frank_North" title="Frank North">Frank North</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_Scouts" title="Pawnee Scouts">Pawnee Scouts</a> to find a camp of Arapaho Indians under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Black_Bear_(chief)" title="Black Bear (chief)">Chief Black Bear</a>. Once located, Connor sent in 200 soldiers with two howitzers and 40 Omaha and Winnebago and 30 Pawnee scouts, and marched toward the village that night. Indian warriors acting as scouts for the US Army came from the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omaha_people" title="Omaha people">Omaha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk" title="Ho-Chunk">Winnebago</a> tribes who were traditional enemies of the Arapaho and their Cheyenne and Lakota allies. With mountain man <a href="/wiki/Jim_Bridger" title="Jim Bridger">Jim Bridger</a> leading the forces, they charged the camp.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Arapaho warriors were gone on a raid against the <a href="/wiki/Crow_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow Nation">Crow</a>, and the battle was a US victory resulting in 63 Arapaho dead, mostly women and children. The few warriors present at the camp put up a strong defense and covered the women and children as most escaped beyond the reach of the soldiers and Indian scouts.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the battle, the soldiers burned and looted the abandoned tipis. Connor singled out four Winnebago, including chief Little Priest, plus North and 15 Pawnee for bravery. The Pawnee made off with 500 horses from the camp's herd as payback for previous raids by the Arapaho. The Arapaho were not intimidated by the attack and launched a counterattack resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Sawyers_Fight" title="Sawyers Fight">Sawyers Fight</a> where Arapaho warriors attacked a group of surveyors, resulting in three dead and no Arapaho losses. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Red_Cloud's_War"><span id="Red_Cloud.27s_War"></span>Red Cloud's War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Red Cloud's War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fetterman_Fight" title="Fetterman Fight">Fetterman Fight</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kim_Douglas_Wiggins_painting_of_the_Fetterman_Massacre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Kim_Douglas_Wiggins_painting_of_the_Fetterman_Massacre.jpg/220px-Kim_Douglas_Wiggins_painting_of_the_Fetterman_Massacre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Kim_Douglas_Wiggins_painting_of_the_Fetterman_Massacre.jpg/330px-Kim_Douglas_Wiggins_painting_of_the_Fetterman_Massacre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Kim_Douglas_Wiggins_painting_of_the_Fetterman_Massacre.jpg/440px-Kim_Douglas_Wiggins_painting_of_the_Fetterman_Massacre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Painting of the Fetterman Fight by <a href="/wiki/Kim_Douglas_Wiggins" title="Kim Douglas Wiggins">Kim Douglas Wiggins</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Red Cloud's War was a war fought between soldiers of the United States and the allied <a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a>, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho from 1866 to 1868. The war was named after the prominent <a href="/wiki/Oglala_Lakota" class="mw-redirect" title="Oglala Lakota">Oglala Lakota</a> chief <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud" title="Red Cloud">Red Cloud</a> who led many followers into battle with the invading soldiers. The war was a response to the large number of miners and settlers passing through the <a href="/wiki/Bozeman_Trail" title="Bozeman Trail">Bozeman Trail</a>, which was the fastest and easiest trail from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Laramie" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Laramie">Fort Laramie</a> to the Montana goldfields. The Bozeman Trail passed right through the <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Country" title="Powder River Country">Powder River Country</a> which was near the center of Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota territory in Wyoming and southern Montana. The large number of miners and settlers competed directly with the Indians for resources such as food along the trail.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most significant battle during Red Cloud's War was the <a href="/wiki/Fetterman_Fight" title="Fetterman Fight">Fetterman Fight</a>, also known as Battle of The Hundred in the Hand to the Indian forces fought on December 21, 1866. The Battle involved Capt. <a href="/wiki/William_J._Fetterman" title="William J. Fetterman">William J. Fetterman</a> who led a force of 79 soldiers and two civilians after a group of 10 Indian decoys planning on luring Fetterman's forces into an ambush. The 10 decoys consisted of two Arapaho, two Cheyenne, and six Lakota. Fetterman was well known for his boastful nature and his inexperience fighting Indian warriors and despite orders to not pursue the decoys did so anyway. <a href="/wiki/Jim_Bridger" title="Jim Bridger">Jim Bridger</a>, famous Mountain Man and guide to the soldiers stationed at Fort Laramie, commented on how the soldiers "don't know anything about fighting Indians".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After about a half-mile pursuit, the decoys signaled the hidden warriors to ambush Fetterman and his forces. Warriors from both sides of the trail charged Fetterman and forced them into nearby rocks where the battle soon became hand-to-hand combat, giving the Indians the upper hand due to their skill in fighting with handheld weapons such as tomahawks and war clubs. The Indian forces killed all of Fetterman's infantry, as well as the following cavalry, with a total of 81 killed. The battle was the greatest military defeat by the US on the Great Plains until the Battle of the Little Bighorn 10 years later. Red Cloud's War ended in a victory for the Arapaho, Cheyenne, Lakota, and Dakota. The Treaty of Fort Laramie guaranteed legal control of the Powder River country to the Indians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Sioux_War_of_1876–77"><span id="Great_Sioux_War_of_1876.E2.80.9377"></span>Great Sioux War of 1876–77</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Great Sioux War of 1876–77"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War of 1876</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn" title="Battle of the Little Bighorn">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Black_Coal_-_An_Arapaho_Chief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Chief_Black_Coal_-_An_Arapaho_Chief.jpg/220px-Chief_Black_Coal_-_An_Arapaho_Chief.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Chief_Black_Coal_-_An_Arapaho_Chief.jpg/330px-Chief_Black_Coal_-_An_Arapaho_Chief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Chief_Black_Coal_-_An_Arapaho_Chief.jpg/440px-Chief_Black_Coal_-_An_Arapaho_Chief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Chief Black Coal, among the most influential Arapaho chiefs of his time. Chief Black Coal was able to largely keep the Arapaho at peace with the United States and out of the Great Sioux war of 1876.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Great Sioux War of 1876–77, also known as the Black Hills War or Great Cheyenne War, was a major conflict that was fought between the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho alliance and the US Army. The war was started after miners and settlers traveled into the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hills" title="Black Hills">Black Hills</a> area and found gold, resulting in increased numbers of non-Indians illegally entering designated Indian lands. A large part of Cheyenne and Arapaho territory and most of Sioux territory known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_Reservation" title="Great Sioux Reservation">Great Sioux Reservation</a> was guaranteed legally to the tribes by the Treaty of Fort Laramie after they defeated the US during <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War</a> in 1868.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Black Hills in particular are viewed as sacred to the Lakota and Dakota peoples, and the presence of settlers illegally occupying the area caused great unrest within the tribes. Instead of evicting the settlers, the US Army broke the treaty and invaded Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho territory in order to protect American settlers and put the allied tribes on smaller reservations or wiped them out. </p><p>After Red Cloud's War, many Northern Arapaho moved to the Red Cloud Agency in Dakota Territory and lived among the Lakota, as well as many Cheyenne. Among the most influential and respected Arapaho chiefs living on the Agency was <a href="/wiki/Chief_Black_Coal_(Northern_Arapaho)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Black Coal (Northern Arapaho)">Chief Black Coal (Northern Arapaho)</a>, who gained prominence as a warrior and leader against white settlers in the Powder River country. Other important Arapaho chiefs living in the area included Medicine Man, <a href="/wiki/Black_Bear_(chief)" title="Black Bear (chief)">Chief Black Bear</a>, Sorrel Horse, Little Shield, Sharp Nose, Little Wolf, Plenty Bear, and <a href="/wiki/Friday_(Arapaho_chief)" title="Friday (Arapaho chief)">Friday</a>. The Arapaho chief Friday was well regarded for his intelligence and served as an interpreter between the tribe and the Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Coal guaranteed to the Americans that he and his people would remain peaceful during the tense times when the settlers were illegally entering Indian land in hopes of securing recognized territory of their own in Wyoming. Many of the warriors and families that disagreed with Black Coal's ideals drifted southward to join up with the southern division of Arapahos. Many Arapaho, particularly those in Chief Medicine Man's band, did not wish to reside among the Sioux "for fear of mixing themselves up with other tribes".<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their peaceful stance and willingness to help American soldiers strained once strong relations between them and the Lakota and Cheyenne, who took an aggressive stance and fled the reservation. Attitudes towards the Arapaho from the "hostile" Lakota and Cheyenne were similar to the attitudes they had towards members of their own tribes which took similar peaceful stances and remained as "reservation Indians". Despite their unwillingness to take up the warpath, the Arapaho were unwilling to cede their territory, particularly the Black Hills area to which they have a strong spiritual attachment similar to the Lakota.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>You have come here to speak with us about the Black Hills, and, without discussing anything that we say, and without changing anything that we say, we wish to tell the Great father [President of the United States] when you get back that this is the country in which we were brought up, and it has also been given to us by treaty by the great father. And I am here to take care of the country, and therefore, not only the Dakota [Sioux] Indians, but my people have an interest in the Black Hills that we have come to speak about today.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Black Coal<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>During this time of great unrest, the tribe found itself deteriorating in leadership with many chiefs holding little sway among their bands. In order to regain strength as leaders and further negotiations for land in Wyoming, many chiefs and their warriors enlisted as army scouts for the United States and campaigned against their allies. Chief Sharp Nose, who was considered as influential and equal to Black Coal, was noted as "the inspiration of the battlefield  ... He handled men with rare judgment and coolness, and was as modest as he was brave".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their overall stance as allies for the Americans, a handful of Arapaho warriors fought against the United States in key battles during the war. </p><p>Like in previous wars, the US recruited Indian warriors from tribes that were enemies with the Arapaho–Cheyenne–Lakota–Dakota alliance to act as Indian scouts, most notably from the <a href="/wiki/Crow_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow Nation">Crow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arikara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arikara people">Arikara</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shoshone_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoshone people">Shoshone</a>. Unlike previous conflicts involving the Lakota–Dakota–Cheyenne–Arapaho alliance and the United States, the Great Sioux War ended in a victory for the United States. The bison herds which were the center of life for the Indians were considerably smaller due to government-supported whole-scale slaughter in order to prevent collisions with railroads, conflict with ranch cattle, and to force nomadic plains Indians to adopt reservation life living off government handouts. Decreased resources and starvation was the major reason for the surrendering of individual Indian bands and the end of the Great Sioux War. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Soldier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Soldier.jpg/220px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Soldier.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Soldier.jpg/330px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Soldier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Soldier.jpg/440px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Soldier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Ledger drawing of an Arapaho warrior riding down a U.S. soldier (1880)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Solddier_-_ca._1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Solddier_-_ca._1880.jpg/220px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Solddier_-_ca._1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Solddier_-_ca._1880.jpg/330px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Solddier_-_ca._1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Solddier_-_ca._1880.jpg/440px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_warrior_and_U.S_Solddier_-_ca._1880.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Ledger drawing of an Arapaho warrior with headdress, counting coup with rifle butt on a U.S. soldier.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_and_U.S_Soldier_Fight_on_Horseback.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_and_U.S_Soldier_Fight_on_Horseback.jpg/220px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_and_U.S_Soldier_Fight_on_Horseback.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_and_U.S_Soldier_Fight_on_Horseback.jpg/330px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_and_U.S_Soldier_Fight_on_Horseback.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_and_U.S_Soldier_Fight_on_Horseback.jpg/440px-Ledger_Drawing_-_Arapaho_and_U.S_Soldier_Fight_on_Horseback.jpg 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Ledger drawing of an Arapaho warrior in battle with a U.S. soldier on horseback.</figcaption></figure> <p>The most significant battle of the war was the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_The_Little_Bighorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of The Little Bighorn">Battle of The Little Bighorn</a> on June 25–26, 1876. The battle was fought between warriors from the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho (as well as individual Dakota warriors) and the <a href="/wiki/7th_Cavalry_Regiment" title="7th Cavalry Regiment">7th Cavalry Regiment</a> of the US Army. The battle was fought along the <a href="/wiki/Little_Bighorn_River" title="Little Bighorn River">Little Bighorn River</a> in eastern Montana. The soldiers attempted to ambush the large camp of Indians along the river bottom despite the warnings from the <a href="/wiki/Crow_Scouts" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow Scouts">Crow Scouts</a> who knew that Custer severely underestimated the number of warriors in the camp. The US Seventh Cavalry, including the Custer Battalion, a force of 700 men led by <a href="/wiki/George_Armstrong_Custer" title="George Armstrong Custer">George Armstrong Custer</a>, suffered a severe defeat. Five of the Seventh Cavalry's companies were annihilated. The total US casualty count, including scouts, was 268 dead including Custer and 55 injured. Only five Arapaho were present at the battle and their presence was by chance.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arapaho present were four Northern Arapaho warriors named Yellow Eagle, Yellow Fly, Left Hand, and Water Man. The fifth Arapaho was a Southern Arapaho named Well-Knowing One (Sage) but also known as Green Grass. The five Arapaho set out as a war party from near Fort Robinson to raid the Shoshone, but by chance came across a small party of young Sioux warriors. The Sioux thought that the Arapaho were <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Indian_Scouts" title="United States Army Indian Scouts">United States Army Indian Scouts</a> and invited them back to their camp along the Little Bighorn River, where they were captured and had their guns taken from them. The Lakota and Dakota threatened to kill the Arapaho, but the Cheyenne chief <a href="/wiki/Two_Moons" title="Two Moons">Two Moons</a> recognized the men as Arapaho and ordered their release. The next day was the battle and, despite being viewed with suspicion, the five Arapaho actively fought in the battle. Water Man wore a large eagle feather <a href="/wiki/War_bonnet" title="War bonnet">headdress</a>, a white shirt, beaded leggings, a breechcloth, and painted his face red and yellow during the battle. Water Man claimed killing one soldier while charging up the steep river banks but did not take his scalp because most Arapaho refused to take a scalp from someone with short hair. Water Man claimed to have watched Custer die.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When I reached the top of the hill I saw Custer. He was dressed in buckskin, coat and pants, and was on his hands and knees. He had been shot through the side and there was blood coming from his mouth. He seemed to be watching the Indians moving around him. Four soldiers were sitting up around him, but they were all badly wounded. All the other soldiers were down. Then the Indians closed in around him, and I did not see any more. Most of the dead soldiers had been killed by arrows, as they had arrows sticking in them. The next time I saw Custer he was dead, and some Indians were taking his buckskin clothes.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Water Man</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Arapaho warrior Left Hand accidentally killed a Lakota warrior that he mistook for an Arikara scout, and despite further anger from the Lakota, left the battle alive along with the other four Arapaho.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the battle, the five Arapaho quietly slipped away and headed back to the Fort Robinson area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_myth">Creation myth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Creation myth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">creation myth</a> of the Arapaho people shows a connection with the <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Algonquian people">Algonquian people</a>. Both cultures have an "earth-diver creation myth". The Arapaho myth begins with a being called Flat Pipe who exists alone upon the water. The Great Spirit suggests to Flat Pipe that he create creatures to build a world. He first conceives of ducks and other water birds who dive beneath the surface of the water but are not able to find land. With guidance from the Great Spirit, Flat Pipe creates a <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtle</a> who can live on both land or in the water. The Turtle dives and returns, spitting out a piece of land that grows into the earth. Flat Pipe then goes about creating men, women, and animals to populate the earth. The turtle is common to many "earth-diver" creation myths.<sup id="cite_ref-Creation_Myths_of_the_World_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creation_Myths_of_the_World-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This myth is an example of "creation by thought". Flat Pipe creates the creatures by thinking of them.<sup id="cite_ref-Creation_Myths_of_the_World_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creation_Myths_of_the_World-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gender_and_division_of_labor">Gender and division of labor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gender and division of labor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Gender_system"></span> Traditionally, men are responsible for hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilger_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilger-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After horses were introduced, buffalo became the main food source—the meat, organs, and the blood all being consumed. Blood was drunk or made into pudding.<sup id="cite_ref-TAP-food_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAP-food-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women (and <i>haxu'xan</i> (<a href="/wiki/Two_Spirits" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Spirits">Two Spirits</a>))<sup id="cite_ref-Kroeber_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeber-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are traditionally in charge of food preparation and dressing hides to make clothing and bedding, saddles, and housing materials.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilger_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilger-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TAP-clothes_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAP-clothes-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Arapaho have historically had social and spiritual roles for those who are known in contemporary Native cultures as <a href="/wiki/Two_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Two Spirit">Two Spirit</a> or <a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">third gender</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kroeber_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeber-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lang_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lang-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kroeber" title="Alfred Kroeber">Alfred Kroeber</a> wrote about male-bodied individuals who lived as women, the <i>haxu'xan</i>, who he says were believed to have "the natural desire to become women, and as they grew up gradually became women" (and could marry men);<sup id="cite_ref-Kroeber_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeber-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lang_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lang-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he further stated that the Arapaho believed that the <i>haxu'xan'</i>s gender was a supernatural gift from birds or other animals, that they had miraculous powers, and they were also noted for their inventiveness, such as making the first <a href="/wiki/Intoxicant" class="mw-redirect" title="Intoxicant">intoxicant</a> from rainwater.<sup id="cite_ref-Kroeber_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeber-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing">Clothing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Clothing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On the Plains, women (and <i>haxu'xan</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Kroeber_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kroeber-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> historically wore moccasins, leggings, and ankle-length buckskin-fringed dresses, ornamented with porcupine quills, paint, elk teeth, and beads.<sup id="cite_ref-TAP-clothes_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAP-clothes-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Men have also worn moccasins, leggings, buckskin breechclothes (drawn between the legs, tied around the waist), and sometimes shirts; warriors have often worn necklaces.<sup id="cite_ref-TAP-clothes_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TAP-clothes-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these items are still part of contemporary dress for both casual and formal wear, or as regalia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_development">Economic development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Economic development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chief_Powder_Face_of_the_Arapaho,_standing_full-length,_wearing_war_costume,_1864_-_NARA_-_520069.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Chief_Powder_Face_of_the_Arapaho%2C_standing_full-length%2C_wearing_war_costume%2C_1864_-_NARA_-_520069.tif/lossy-page1-170px-Chief_Powder_Face_of_the_Arapaho%2C_standing_full-length%2C_wearing_war_costume%2C_1864_-_NARA_-_520069.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Chief_Powder_Face_of_the_Arapaho%2C_standing_full-length%2C_wearing_war_costume%2C_1864_-_NARA_-_520069.tif/lossy-page1-255px-Chief_Powder_Face_of_the_Arapaho%2C_standing_full-length%2C_wearing_war_costume%2C_1864_-_NARA_-_520069.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Chief_Powder_Face_of_the_Arapaho%2C_standing_full-length%2C_wearing_war_costume%2C_1864_-_NARA_-_520069.tif/lossy-page1-340px-Chief_Powder_Face_of_the_Arapaho%2C_standing_full-length%2C_wearing_war_costume%2C_1864_-_NARA_-_520069.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1966" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Chief Powder Face with war lance associated with the second dance ceremony (<i>biitahanwu</i>), 1864<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In July 2005, Northern Arapahos won a contentious court battle with the State of Wyoming to get into the <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a> or casino industry. The 10th Circuit Court ruled that the State of Wyoming was acting in bad faith when it would not negotiate with the Arapahos for gaming. The Northern Arapaho Tribe opened the first casinos in Wyoming. Presently, the Arapaho Tribe owns and operates high-stakes, Class III gaming at the Wind River Casino, the Little Wind Casino, and the 789 Smoke Shop and Casino. In 2012, The Wind River Hotel, which is attached to the Wind River Casino, features a cultural room called the Northern Arapaho Experience.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are regulated by a Gaming Commission composed of three tribal members. </p><p>Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_and_Arapaho_Tribes" title="Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes">Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes</a> operate four casinos in Oklahoma: the Lucky Star Casino in <a href="/wiki/Clinton,_Oklahoma" title="Clinton, Oklahoma">Clinton</a>, the Lucky Star Casino in <a href="/wiki/Watonga,_Oklahoma" title="Watonga, Oklahoma">Watonga</a>, the Feather Warrior Casino in <a href="/wiki/Canton,_Oklahoma" title="Canton, Oklahoma">Canton</a>, and the newest casino which opened in 2018, the Lucky Star Casino in <a href="/wiki/Hammon,_Oklahoma" title="Hammon, Oklahoma">Hammon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ca_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ca-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_Arapahos">Notable Arapahos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notable Arapahos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Behan" title="Margaret Behan">Margaret Behan</a> (born 1948), Arapaho-Cheyenne spiritual elder</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_%22Hawk%22_Birdshead" title="William "Hawk" Birdshead">William "Hawk" Birdshead</a> Philanthropist, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_and_Arapaho_Tribes" title="Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes">Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes</a> of Oklahoma.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Coolidge" title="Sherman Coolidge">Sherman Coolidge</a> (Runs-on-Top) (1862–1932), Episcopal minister and educator in the <a href="/wiki/Wind_River_Indian_Reservation" title="Wind River Indian Reservation">Wind River community</a> who was a founding member of the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_American_Indians" title="Society of American Indians">Society of American Indians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirac_Creepingbear" title="Mirac Creepingbear">Mirac Creepingbear</a> (1947–1990), Arapaho–Kiowa painter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Hatch" title="Viola Hatch">Viola Hatch</a> (1930-2019), Arapaho activist</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juanita_L._Learned" title="Juanita L. Learned">Juanita L. Learned</a> (1930-1996), first woman chair of the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_and_Arapaho_Tribes" title="Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes">Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes</a> of Oklahoma<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Little_Raven" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Little Raven">Chief Little Raven</a> (c. 1810–1889), negotiated peace between the Southern Arapaho and Cheyenne and the <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache" title="Plains Apache">Plains Apache</a>. He secured rights to the Cheyenne–Arapaho Reservation in <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Niwot" title="Chief Niwot">Chief Niwot</a> (c. 1825 – 1864), led a band in Northern Colorado and died from wounds sustained during the Sand Creek Massacre.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretty_Nose" title="Pretty Nose">Pretty Nose</a> (c. 1851 – after 1952), a war chief who participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Little_Bighorn" title="Battle of the Little Bighorn">Battle of the Little Bighorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sweezy" title="Carl Sweezy">Carl Sweezy</a> (1881–1953), early professional Native American easel artist</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_history">Population history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Population history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are no references to the numbers of the Arapaho previous to the 19th century. M. R. Stuart in 1812 estimated the Arapaho at 3,050 warriors (therefore around 15,250 people). <a href="/wiki/Jedidiah_Morse" title="Jedidiah Morse">Jedidiah Morse</a> in 1822 reported 10,000 Arrapahays, 7,000 Kaninavisch (another name for the Arapaho), 1,500 Castahana and 1,500 Pastanownas (possibly related tribes). Indian Affairs gave the Arapaho at 3,045 people in year 1880, 2,298 in year 1885, 1,925 in 1890, 1,869 in 1895, 1,782 in 1900, 1,768 in 1905 and 1,753 in 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-Krzywicki_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Krzywicki-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the 20th and 21st centuries Arapaho population has rebounded and they numbered 12,192 in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output 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.reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2010/cph-t/t-6tables/TABLE%20(1).pdf">"2010 Census CPH-T-6. American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2010"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>census.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=census.gov&rft.atitle=2010+Census+CPH-T-6.+American+Indian+and+Alaska+Native+Tribes+in+the+United+States+and+Puerto+Rico%3A+2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fpopulation%2Fwww%2Fcen2010%2Fcph-t%2Ft-6tables%2FTABLE%2520%281%29.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/01/08/2024-00109/indian-entities-recognized-by-and-eligible-to-receive-services-from-the-united-states-bureau-of">"Indian Entities Recognized by and Eligible To Receive Services From the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indian+Entities+Recognized+by+and+Eligible+To+Receive+Services+From+the+United+States+Bureau+of+Indian+Affairs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2024%2F01%2F08%2F2024-00109%2Findian-entities-recognized-by-and-eligible-to-receive-services-from-the-united-states-bureau-of&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-clark-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-clark_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-clark_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2009" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Patricia Roberts (October 21, 2009). <i>Tribal Names of the Americas: Spelling Variants and Alternative Forms, Cross-Referenced</i>. McFarland. pp. 10, 74. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5169-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-5169-2"><bdi>978-0-7864-5169-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tribal+Names+of+the+Americas%3A+Spelling+Variants+and+Alternative+Forms%2C+Cross-Referenced&rft.pages=10%2C+74&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2009-10-21&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-5169-2&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Roberts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also spelled <i>Aarapaho</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-clark_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~arapaho/english_arapaho.html#P">"Arapaho text corpus"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arapaho+text+corpus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.berkeley.edu%2F~arapaho%2Fenglish_arapaho.html%23P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred Eggan, Loretta Fowler: <i>Arapaho Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803268623" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803268623">978-0803268623</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetter2021" class="citation book cs1">Petter, Rodolphe (July 5, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015025866867;view=1up;seq=602"><i>English-Cheyenne dictionary</i></a>. Kettle Falls, Wash. – via HathiTrust.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English-Cheyenne+dictionary&rft.pub=Kettle+Falls%2C+Wash.&rft.date=2021-07-05&rft.aulast=Petter&rft.aufirst=Rodolphe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015025866867%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D602&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Also <i>Hanahawunena</i>, <i>Aanu’hawa</i>, <i>Aanuhawa</i>, <i>Aanunhawa</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-clark_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clark-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Hananaxawuune'nan</i>, <i>Aanû'nhawa</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiles2012" class="citation book cs1">Wiles, Sara (September 14, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-eXtnQSClncC&dq=Hinono'eino&pg=PA2"><i>Arapaho Journeys: Photographs and Stories from the Wind River Reservation</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8661-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-8661-0"><bdi>978-0-8061-8661-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arapaho+Journeys%3A+Photographs+and+Stories+from+the+Wind+River+Reservation&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2012-09-14&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-8661-0&rft.aulast=Wiles&rft.aufirst=Sara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-eXtnQSClncC%26dq%3DHinono%27eino%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cowell, Andrew, and Alonzo Moss. <i>The Arapaho Language</i>. University Press of Colorado, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pritzker 319</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pritzker 297</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091012081729/http%3A//www.accessgenealogy.com/native/tribes/canadianindiantribes.htm">"Canadian Indian Tribes"</a>. <i>Access Genealogy.</i> (retrieved 1 November 2011)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/archives/Copy%20of%20BigLexicon0731.xml">File of Arapaho Names for other Native American Tribes</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922024844/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/A/AR002.html">"Arapaho, Southern"</a>. <i>Oklahoma Historical Society</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/A/AR002.html">the original</a> on September 22, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-08-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oklahoma+Historical+Society&rft.atitle=Arapaho%2C+Southern&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.okstate.edu%2Fencyclopedia%2Fentries%2FA%2FAR002.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">May, Jon D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/L/LI015.html">"Little Raven (ca. 1810–1889)"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100719013016/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/L/LI015.html">Archived</a> July 19, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture</i>. (accessed 12 December 2013)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waldman 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/alp/docs/Arapaho%20Dictionary.pdf"><i>Dictionary of the Arapaho Language</i></a>. Northern Arapaho Tribe, Ethete, Wyoming, United States, 2012</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Waldman 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koster, John. The 'Arapaho Five' at the Little Bighorn. 25 Vol. , 2012. Web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, Jeffrey D. "The History of Time in the Northern Arapaho Tribe." Ethnohistory 2011: 229-62. Web.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2015" class="citation journal cs1">Fowler, Loretta (2015). "Arapaho and Cheyenne Perspectives: From the 1851 Treaty to the Sand Creek Massacre". <i>The American Indian Quarterly</i>. <b>39</b> (4): 364–390. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Faiq.2015.a595116">10.1353/aiq.2015.a595116</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/595116">595116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Indian+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Arapaho+and+Cheyenne+Perspectives%3A+From+the+1851+Treaty+to+the+Sand+Creek+Massacre&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=364-390&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Faiq.2015.a595116&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Loretta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smiley, B. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archaeology.org/9911/newsbriefs/sand.html">"Sand Creek Massacre"</a>, <i>Archeology</i> magazine. Archaeological Institute of America. Retrieved February 8, 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa;idno=ABY3709.0003.001;rgn=full%20text;view=toc;cc=moa"><i>United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, 1865 (testimonies and report)</i></a>. University of Michigan Digital Library Production Service. August 18, 1865<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 343</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDermott, John D. "The Battles of Mud Springs and Rush Creek, February 1865". <i>Nebraska History</i> Vol. 77 (1996, pp. 81–82)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bleed, Peter and Scott, Douglas D. "Archeological Interpretation of the Frontier Battle at Mud Springs, Nebraska". <i>Great Plains Research</i> 19 (Spring 2009), p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDermott, pp. 111–112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDermott, pp. 112–114</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bozemantrail.org/index.html">Fort Phil Kearney/Bozeman Trail Association</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029195448/http://www.bozemantrail.org/index.html">Archived</a> October 29, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, accessed 18 Aug 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, Dee. <i>The Fetterman Massacre</i>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962, pp. 160–165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Hyde. <i>Red Cloud's Folk: A History of the Oglala Sioux Indians.</i> Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1937.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler 55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler 57</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fowler 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graham, Col. William A. <i>The Custer Myth: A Source Book for Custeriana</i>. New York: Bonanza Books, 1953, p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astonisher.com/archives/museum/waterman_little_big_horn.html">"Water Man's Story of the Battle"</a>. <i>100 Voices</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=100+Voices&rft.atitle=Water+Man%27s+Story+of+the+Battle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astonisher.com%2Farchives%2Fmuseum%2Fwaterman_little_big_horn.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astonisher.com/archives/museum/left_hand_little_big_horn.html#kill">"Left Hand's Story of the Battle"</a>. <i>100 Voices</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 26,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=100+Voices&rft.atitle=Left+Hand%27s+Story+of+the+Battle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.astonisher.com%2Farchives%2Fmuseum%2Fleft_hand_little_big_horn.html%23kill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Creation_Myths_of_the_World-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Creation_Myths_of_the_World_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Creation_Myths_of_the_World_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeming" class="citation book cs1">Leeming, David A. <i>Creation Myths of the World</i>. p. 39.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creation+Myths+of+the+World&rft.pages=39&rft.aulast=Leeming&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hilger-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hilger_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hilger_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Inez Hilger, <i>Arapaho Child Life and Its Cultural Background</i> (1952)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TAP-food-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TAP-food_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.colorado.edu/csilw/arapahoproject/traditional/food.html">The Arapaho Project: Food</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kroeber-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kroeber_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kroeber_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kroeber_47-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kroeber_47-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kroeber_47-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred Kroeber, <i>The Arapaho</i> (1902)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TAP-clothes-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TAP-clothes_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TAP-clothes_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TAP-clothes_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.colorado.edu/csilw/arapahoproject/traditional/clothes.html">The Arapaho Project: Clothes</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lang-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lang_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lang_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sabine Lang, <i>Men as Women, Women as Men</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0292777957" title="Special:BookSources/0292777957">0292777957</a>, 2010)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroeber1983" class="citation book cs1">Kroeber, Alfred Louis (January 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KX5_bcr985sC&q=arapaho+lance+society"><i>The Arapaho</i></a>. U of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0803277547" title="Special:BookSources/0803277547"><bdi>0803277547</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arapaho&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1983-01&rft.isbn=0803277547&rft.aulast=Kroeber&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKX5_bcr985sC%26q%3Darapaho%2Blance%2Bsociety&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150626124258/http://county10.com/2012/03/10/wind-river-hotels-grand-opening-called-historic-day-for-northern-arapaho-more-to-come/">"Wind River Hotel's Grand Opening called "Historic Day" for Northern Arapaho; More to come"</a>. <i>County10.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://county10.com/2012/03/10/wind-river-hotels-grand-opening-called-historic-day-for-northern-arapaho-more-to-come/">the original</a> on June 26, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 24,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=County10.com&rft.atitle=Wind+River+Hotel%27s+Grand+Opening+called+%22Historic+Day%22+for+Northern+Arapaho%3B+More+to+come&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcounty10.com%2F2012%2F03%2F10%2Fwind-river-hotels-grand-opening-called-historic-day-for-northern-arapaho-more-to-come%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ca-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ca_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cheyenne-arapaho.org/">Cheyenne & Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614205455/http://www.cheyenne-arapaho.org/">Archived</a> June 14, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> 2007 (retrieved February 7, 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927154319/http://www.friendsnezpercebattlefields.org/shermancoolidgebio.htm">"Sherman Coolidge Biography"</a>. Friends of Nez Perce Battlefields. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friendsnezpercebattlefields.org/shermancoolidgebio.htm">the original</a> on September 27, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 30,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sherman+Coolidge+Biography&rft.pub=Friends+of+Nez+Perce+Battlefields&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.friendsnezpercebattlefields.org%2Fshermancoolidgebio.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140626200333/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/jun/24/man-plans-american-indian-center-in-kansas-city/">"Man Plans American Indian Center in Kansas City"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a></i>. Washington, D.C. <a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a>. June 24, 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/jun/24/man-plans-american-indian-center-in-kansas-city/">the original</a> on June 26, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Times&rft.atitle=Man+Plans+American+Indian+Center+in+Kansas+City&rft.date=2014-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtontimes.com%2Fnews%2F2014%2Fjun%2F24%2Fman-plans-american-indian-center-in-kansas-city%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">May, Jon D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/L/LI015.html">Little Raven (c. 1810–1889).</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100719013016/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/L/LI015.html">Archived</a> July 19, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture. (retrieved February 7, 2009)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krzywicki-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Krzywicki_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrzywicki1934" class="citation book cs1">Krzywicki, Ludwik (1934). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4381154&view=1up&seq=346&skin=2021"><i>Primitive society and its vital statistics</i></a>. Publications of the Polish Sociological Institute. London: Macmillan. p. 448.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primitive+society+and+its+vital+statistics&rft.place=London&rft.series=Publications+of+the+Polish+Sociological+Institute&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Krzywicki&rft.aufirst=Ludwik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Duc1.b4381154%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D346%26skin%3D2021&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.statimetric.com/us-ethnicity/American_Indian_tribes_Arapaho">"Distribution of American Indian tribes: Arapaho People in the US"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Distribution+of+American+Indian+tribes%3A+Arapaho+People+in+the+US&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statimetric.com%2Fus-ethnicity%2FAmerican_Indian_tribes_Arapaho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_references">General references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: General references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Fowler, Loretta. <i>Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority</i>. University of Nebraska Press, 1982. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8032-1956-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8032-1956-3">0-8032-1956-3</a>.</li> <li>McDermott, John D. <i>Circle of Fire: The Indian War of 1865</i>. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2000.</li> <li>Pritzker, Barry M. <i>A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513877-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513877-1">978-0-19-513877-1</a>.</li> <li>Waldman, Carl. <i>Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes</i>. New York: Checkmark Books, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-6273-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-6273-0">0-8160-6273-0</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroeber1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Louis_Kroeber" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Louis Kroeber">Kroeber, Alfred Louis</a> (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YrPWAAAAMAAJ"><i>Traditions of the Arapaho</i></a>. Field Columbian Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780608021201" title="Special:BookSources/9780608021201"><bdi>9780608021201</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traditions+of+the+Arapaho&rft.pub=Field+Columbian+Museum&rft.date=1903&rft.isbn=9780608021201&rft.aulast=Kroeber&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYrPWAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroeber1901" class="citation book cs1">Kroeber, Alfred Louis (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LdJYAAAAMAAJ"><i>Decorative Symbolism of the Arapaho</i></a>. G.P. Putnam's Sons<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Decorative+Symbolism+of+the+Arapaho&rft.pub=G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Kroeber&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLdJYAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Arapaho" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Arapaho"><b><i>Arapaho</i></b></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.northernarapaho.com/">The Northern Arapaho Tribe</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110614205455/http://www.cheyenne-arapaho.org/">The Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.language-museum.com/encyclopedia/a/arapaho.htm">Arapaho Language Sample</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922024844/http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/A/AR002.html">Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture - Arapaho, Southern</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090613061905/http://www.arapahochs.com/">Arapaho Charter High School</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?regid=254">Arapaho artwork</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170422130621/http://www.nmai.si.edu/searchcollections/results.aspx?regid=254">Archived</a> April 22, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, in the collection of the <a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Colorado.svg/35px-Flag_of_Colorado.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_Colorado.svg/45px-Flag_of_Colorado.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a> of <a href="/wiki/Colorado" title="Colorado">Colorado</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Colorado" title="Prehistory of Colorado">Prehistory of Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Colorado_prehistory" title="Outline of Colorado prehistory">Outline of Colorado prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Colorado_history" title="Timeline of Colorado history">Timeline of Colorado history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary peoples<br /> native to Colorado</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arapaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne people">Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_Apache" title="Jicarilla Apache">Jicarilla Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiowa people">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshone_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoshone people">Shoshone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_people" title="Ute people">Ute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Reservations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado#Indigenous_People" title="Colorado">Colorado reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ute_Indian_Reservation" title="Southern Ute Indian Reservation">Southern Ute Indian Reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Mountain_Ute_Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation">Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Major events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beecher_Island" title="Battle of Beecher Island">Battle of Beecher Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meeker_Massacre" title="Meeker Massacre">Meeker Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_Creek_massacre" title="Sand Creek massacre">Sand Creek massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Precontact cultures<br /> in Colorado</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Indian">Paleo-Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cody_complex" title="Cody complex">Cody complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_tradition" title="Folsom tradition">Folsom tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goshen_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Goshen complex">Goshen complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hell_Gap_complex" title="Hell Gap complex">Hell Gap complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plainview_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Plainview complex">Plainview complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_cultures" title="Plano cultures">Plano cultures</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period of the Americas">Archaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_complex" title="Apex complex">Apex complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_culture" title="Basketmaker culture">Basketmaker culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Albion_complex" title="Mount Albion complex">Mount Albion complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oshara_tradition" title="Oshara tradition">Oshara tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picosa_culture" title="Picosa culture">Picosa culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Post-<a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period of the Americas">Archaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Puebloans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apishapa_culture" title="Apishapa culture">Apishapa culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismal_River_culture" title="Dismal River culture">Dismal River culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panhandle_culture" title="Panhandle culture">Panhandle culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopris_phase" title="Sopris phase">Sopris phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipi_ring" title="Tipi ring">Tipi ring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Noted archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Irwin-Williams" title="Cynthia Irwin-Williams">Cynthia Irwin-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sidney_Martin" title="Paul Sidney Martin">Paul Sidney Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldo_Rudolph_Wedel" title="Waldo Rudolph Wedel">Waldo Rudolph Wedel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Ben_Wheat" title="Joe Ben Wheat">Joe Ben Wheat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_dwellings_of_Pueblo_peoples_in_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ancient dwellings of Pueblo peoples in Colorado">List of ancient dwellings of Pueblo peoples in Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_sites_in_Colorado" title="List of prehistoric sites in Colorado">List of prehistoric sites in Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_the_Ancients" title="Trail of the Ancients">Trail of the Ancients</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Native Americans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nebraska" title="Nebraska">Nebraska</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian tribe">Historic and present tribes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arapaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arikara people">Arikara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Tribe_of_Kansas_and_Nebraska" title="Iowa Tribe of Kansas and Nebraska">Iowa Tribe of Kansas and Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meskwaki" title="Meskwaki">Meskwaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouria" title="Missouria">Missouria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Cheyenne">Northern Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_people" title="Omaha people">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otoe_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Otoe people">Otoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponca_Tribe_of_Nebraska" title="Ponca Tribe of Nebraska">Ponca Tribe of Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sauk_people" title="Sauk people">Sac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winnebago_Tribe_of_Nebraska" title="Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska">Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sac_and_Fox_Nation_of_Missouri_in_Kansas_and_Nebraska" title="Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska">Sac and Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux" title="Sioux">Sioux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skidi" title="Skidi">Skidi Pawnee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Present languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winnebago_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Winnebago language">Hocak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha-Ponca_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Omaha-Ponca language">Omaha-Ponca language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Fox language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_language" title="Sioux language">Sioux language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sac_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sac language">Sac language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Present reservations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ioway_Reservation" title="Ioway Reservation">Ioway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_Reservation" title="Omaha Reservation">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponca_Reservation" title="Ponca Reservation">Ponca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sac_and_Fox_Reservation" title="Sac and Fox Reservation">Sac and Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santee_Sioux_Reservation" title="Santee Sioux Reservation">Santee Sioux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winnebago_Reservation" title="Winnebago Reservation">Winnebago</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Present tribal<br />colleges and universities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Little_Priest_Tribal_College" title="Little Priest Tribal College">Little Priest Tribal College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Indian_Community_College" title="Nebraska Indian Community College">Nebraska Indian Community College</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Historic figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Barada" title="Antonine Barada">Antonine Barada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Elk" title="Big Elk">Big Elk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Blackbird" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Blackbird">Chief Blackbird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joba_Chamberlain" title="Joba Chamberlain">Joba Chamberlain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_EchoHawk" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry EchoHawk">Larry EchoHawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logan_Fontenelle" title="Logan Fontenelle">Logan Fontenelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_La_Flesche" title="Francis La Flesche">Francis La Flesche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_LaFlesche" title="Joseph LaFlesche">Joseph La Flesche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Lady_Grieves_The_Enemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Lady Grieves The Enemy">Old Lady Grieves The Enemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petalesharo" title="Petalesharo">Petalesharo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_La_Flesche_Picotte" title="Susan La Flesche Picotte">Susan La Flesche Picotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud" title="Red Cloud">Red Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear" title="Standing Bear">Standing Bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susette_LaFlesche_Tibbles" class="mw-redirect" title="Susette LaFlesche Tibbles">Susette LaFlesche Tibbles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Thorpe" title="Jim Thorpe">Jim Thorpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Young_Deer" title="James Young Deer">James Young Deer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Yellow_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Yellow Horse">Moses J. "Chief" Yellow Horse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Historic events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ash_Hollow" title="Battle of Ash Hollow">Battle of Ash Hollow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_Canyon" title="Massacre Canyon">Massacre Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mud_Springs" title="Battle of Mud Springs">Battle of Mud Springs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rush_Creek" title="Battle of Rush Creek">Battle of Rush Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Warbonnet_Creek" title="Battle of Warbonnet Creek">Battle of Warbonnet Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grattan_massacre" title="Grattan massacre">Grattan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne War">Cheyenne War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Congress" title="Indian Congress">Indian Congress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Historic reservations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemaha_Half-Breed_Reservation" title="Nemaha Half-Breed Reservation">Nemaha Half-Breed Reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pine_Ridge_Indian_Reservation" title="Pine Ridge Indian Reservation">Pine Ridge Indian Reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oto_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oto Reservation">Oto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_Reservation" title="Pawnee Reservation">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niobrara_Reservation" title="Niobrara Reservation">Niobrara</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Historic communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ton%27wontongathon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ton'wontongathon (page does not exist)">Ton'wontongathon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike-Pawnee_Village_Site" title="Pike-Pawnee Village Site">Pike-Pawnee Village Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmer_Site" title="Palmer Site">Skidi Pawnee Village</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Horse_Creek_Pawnee_Village&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Horse Creek Pawnee Village (page does not exist)">Horse Creek Pawnee Village</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cottonwood_Creek_Archeological_Site_(Belgrade,_Nebraska)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cottonwood Creek Archeological Site (Belgrade, Nebraska) (page does not exist)">Cottonwood Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Schrader_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schrader Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Schrader Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fullerton_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fullerton Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Fullerton Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Oto_Indian_Village_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oto Indian Village Site (page does not exist)">Oto Indian Village Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Leshara_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Leshara Site (page does not exist)">Leshara Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=McClean_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McClean Site (page does not exist)">McClean Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Woodcliff_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Woodcliff Site (page does not exist)">Woodcliff Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Theodore_Davis_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theodore Davis Site (page does not exist)">Theodore Davis Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelso_Site" title="Kelso Site">Kelso Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wright_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wright Site (page does not exist)">Wright Site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Historic sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guide_Rock_(hill)" title="Guide Rock (hill)">Pahur</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ahkawitakol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ahkawitakol (page does not exist)">Ahkawitakol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalawakohtito" class="mw-redirect" title="Lalawakohtito">Lalawakohtito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahuk" title="Pahuk">Pahuk</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cunningham_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cunningham Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Cunningham Archeological Site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Other historic places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackbird_Hill" title="Blackbird Hill">Blackbird Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoa_Indian_Industrial_School" title="Genoa Indian Industrial School">Genoa Indian Industrial School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr._Susan_LaFlesche_Picotte_Memorial_Hospital" title="Dr. Susan LaFlesche Picotte Memorial Hospital">Dr. Susan LaFlesche Picotte Memorial Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_agencies_in_Nebraska" title="List of Indian agencies in Nebraska">Indian agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Susan_LaFlesche_Picotte_House&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Susan LaFlesche Picotte House (page does not exist)">Susan LaFlesche Picotte House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanza" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanza">Nanza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Merrill_Mission" title="Moses Merrill Mission">Moses Merrill Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pawnee_Mission_and_Burnt_Village_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pawnee Mission and Burnt Village Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Pawnee Mission and Burnt Village Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlisle_Indian_Industrial_School" title="Carlisle Indian Industrial School">Carlisle Indian Industrial School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionia_Volcano" title="Ionia Volcano">Ionia Volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Precontact peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_Village_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Plains Village tradition">Central Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dismal_River_culture" title="Dismal River culture">Dismal River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Precontact communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leary_Site" title="Leary Site">Leary Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ash_Hollow_State_Historical_Park" title="Ash Hollow State Historical Park">Ash Hollow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coufal_site" title="Coufal site">Coufal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schultz_site" title="Schultz site">Schultz site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_Butte" title="Signal Butte">Signal Butte</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archeological_Site_25SM20&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archeological Site 25SM20 (page does not exist)">Site 25SM20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champe-Fremont_1_Archeological_Site" title="Champe-Fremont 1 Archeological Site">Champe-Fremont 1 Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Parker_Archeological_Site" title="Frank Parker Archeological Site">Frank Parker Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweetwater_Archeological_Site" title="Sweetwater Archeological Site">Sweetwater Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Burkett_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burkett Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Burkett Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ashland_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ashland Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Ashland Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yutan_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yutan Site (page does not exist)">Yutan Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Schrader_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schrader Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Schrader Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Archeological_Site" title="Humphrey Archeological Site">Humphrey Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Table_Rock_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Table Rock Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Table Rock Archeological Site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Other precontact places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Cave_State_Park" title="Indian Cave State Park">Indian Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_Hill_Archeological_District&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indian Hill Archeological District (page does not exist)">Indian Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walker_Gilmore_site" title="Walker Gilmore site">Walker Gilmore site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site_No._JF00-072" title="Site No. JF00-072">Site JF00-072</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson-Meng_Bison_Kill" title="Hudson-Meng Bison Kill">Hudson-Meng Bison Kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodcliff_Burials" title="Woodcliff Burials">Woodcliff Burials</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nehawka_Flint_Quarries&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nehawka Flint Quarries (page does not exist)">Nehawka Flint Quarries</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Farwell_Archeological_District&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Farwell Archeological District (page does not exist)">Farwell Archeological District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Springs,_Nebraska" title="Blue Springs, Nebraska">Blue Springs, aka Wonder Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Barneston_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barneston Site (page does not exist)">Barneston Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kurz_Omaha_Village_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kurz Omaha Village Site (page does not exist)">Kurz Omaha Village Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Patterson_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patterson Site (page does not exist)">Patterson Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontenelle_Forest" title="Fontenelle Forest">Fontenelle Forest Historic District</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wolfe_and_Grey_(Schuyler)_Sites&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wolfe and Grey (Schuyler) Sites (page does not exist)">Wolfe and Grey (Schuyler) Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Schulte_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schulte Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Schulte Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wiseman_Archeological_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wiseman Archeological Site (page does not exist)">Wiseman Archeological Site</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Durflinger_Site&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Durflinger Site (page does not exist)">Durflinger Site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_place_names_in_Nebraska_of_Native_American_origin" title="List of place names in Nebraska of Native American origin">Native American place names in Nebraska</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Oklahoma&#124;link=Oklahoma_Native_American_tribes_in_Oklahoma" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Oklahoma"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" title="Template talk:Native American Tribes in Oklahoma"><abbr 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/></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_tribes_in_Oklahoma" title="List of Native American tribes in Oklahoma">Native American tribes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">Federally<br />recognized<br />tribes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absentee_Shawnee_Tribe_of_Indians" title="Absentee Shawnee Tribe of Indians">Absentee Shawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama%E2%80%93Quassarte_Tribal_Town" title="Alabama–Quassarte Tribal Town">Alabama-Quassarte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache" title="Plains Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddo" title="Caddo">Caddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_and_Arapaho_Tribes" title="Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes">Cheyenne and Arapaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Nation" title="Chickasaw Nation">Chickasaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Nation_of_Oklahoma" title="Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_Potawatomi_Nation" title="Citizen Potawatomi Nation">Citizen Potawatomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Nation" title="Delaware Nation">Delaware Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Tribe_of_Indians" title="Delaware Tribe of Indians">Delaware Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Shawnee_Tribe_of_Oklahoma" title="Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma">Eastern Shawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Sill_Apache_Tribe" title="Fort Sill Apache Tribe">Fort Sill Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_Tribe_of_Oklahoma" title="Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaw_people" title="Kaw people">Kaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kialegee_Tribal_Town" title="Kialegee Tribal Town">Kialegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_Tribe_of_Oklahoma" title="Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma">Kickapoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miami_Tribe_of_Oklahoma" title="Miami Tribe of Oklahoma">Miami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_Nation" title="Modoc Nation">Modoc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_Nation" title="Muscogee Nation">Muscogee (Creek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Nation" title="Osage Nation">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otoe%E2%80%93Missouria_Tribe_of_Indians" title="Otoe–Missouria Tribe of Indians">Otoe-Missouria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_Tribe_of_Oklahoma" title="Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoria_people" title="Peoria people">Peoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponca_Tribe_of_Indians_of_Oklahoma" title="Ponca Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma">Ponca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quapaw" title="Quapaw">Quapaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sac_and_Fox_Nation" title="Sac and Fox Nation">Sac and Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Nation_of_Oklahoma" title="Seminole Nation of Oklahoma">Seminole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca%E2%80%93Cayuga_Nation" title="Seneca–Cayuga Nation">Seneca-Cayuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawnee_Tribe" title="Shawnee Tribe">Shawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thlopthlocco_Tribal_Town" title="Thlopthlocco Tribal Town">Thlopthlocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa" title="Tonkawa">Tonkawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Keetoowah_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians">United Keetoowah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wichita_people" title="Wichita people">Wichita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandotte_Nation" title="Wyandotte Nation">Wyandotte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Tribal languages</a><br />(still spoken)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_language" title="Alabama language">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language">Arapaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddo_language" title="Caddo language">Caddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuga_language" title="Cayuga language">Cayuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_language" title="Cheyenne language">Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_language" title="Chickasaw language">Chickasaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiwere_language" title="Chiwere language">Chiwere (Iowa and Otoe)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_language" title="Choctaw language">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_language" title="Comanche language">Comanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_languages" title="Delaware languages">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koasati_language" title="Koasati language">Koasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikasuki_language" title="Mikasuki language">Hitchiti-Mikasuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Mescalero-Chiricahua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Fox (Meskwaki, Sauk, and Kickapoo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_language" title="Muscogee language">Muscogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_language" title="Osage language">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_dialect" title="Ottawa dialect">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_language" title="Pawnee language">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha%E2%80%93Ponca_language" title="Omaha–Ponca language">Ponca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quapaw" title="Quapaw">Quapaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_language" title="Seneca language">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawnee_language" title="Shawnee language">Shawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wichita_language" title="Wichita language">Wichita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_language" title="Wyandot language">Wyandot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_Americans_in_the_Black_Hills_of_South_Dakota_and_Wyoming" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_the_Black_Hills" title="Template:Native Americans in the Black Hills"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_Americans_in_the_Black_Hills" title="Template talk:Native Americans in the Black Hills"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_Americans_in_the_Black_Hills" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native Americans in the Black Hills"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_Americans_in_the_Black_Hills_of_South_Dakota_and_Wyoming" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Hills" title="Black Hills">Black Hills</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_Dakota" title="South Dakota">South Dakota</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Historic and present tribes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arapaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara" title="Arikara">Arikara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow Nation">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arapaho</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Bear_(chief)" title="Black Bear (chief)">Black Bear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Coolidge" title="Sherman Coolidge">Sherman Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friday_(Arapaho_chief)" title="Friday (Arapaho chief)">Friday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Owl_(Arapaho_chief)" title="Little Owl (Arapaho chief)">Little Owl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Poisal" title="Margaret Poisal">Margaret Poisal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lakota</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Elk" title="Black Elk">Black Elk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Horse" title="Crazy Horse">Crazy Horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_Horn" title="Lone Horn">Lone Horn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud" title="Red Cloud">Red Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitting_Bull" title="Sitting Bull">Sitting Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotted_Tail" title="Spotted Tail">Spotted Tail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spiritual places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bear_Butte" title="Bear Butte">Bear Butte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Elk_Peak" title="Black Elk Peak">Black Elk Peak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devils_Tower#Native_American_folklore" title="Devils Tower">Devils Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inyan_Kara_Mountain" title="Inyan Kara Mountain">Inyan Kara Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore#History" title="Mount Rushmore">Six Grandfathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Traditional narratives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Race_(Native_American_legend)" title="Great Race (Native American legend)">Great Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hills#History" title="Black Hills">History of the Black Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1851)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)">Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Laramie_(1868)" title="Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)">Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Black Hills War (Great Sioux War of 1876)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historic places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_Reservation" title="Great Sioux Reservation">Great Sioux Reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitting_Bull_Crystal_Cavern_Dance_Pavilion" title="Sitting Bull Crystal Cavern Dance Pavilion">Sitting Bull Crystal Cavern Dance Pavilion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern events and places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seizure_of_the_Black_Hills" title="Seizure of the Black Hills">Seizure of the Black Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Horse_Memorial" title="Crazy Horse Memorial">Crazy Horse Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Journey_Museum_and_Gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journey Museum and Gardens">The Journey Museum and Gardens</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Sioux_Nation_of_Indians" title="United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians">United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_Nation_Invitational" title="Lakota Nation Invitational">Lakota Nation Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lakotah_proposal" title="Republic of Lakotah proposal">Republic of Lakotah proposal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charlotte_Black_Elk" title="Charlotte Black Elk">Charlotte Black Elk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JoAnn_Tall" title="JoAnn Tall">JoAnn Tall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmaine_White_Face" title="Charmaine White Face">Charmaine White Face</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>For more information, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History of Native Americans in the United States</a>. Nearby modern <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">reservations</a> are <a href="/wiki/Pine_Ridge_Indian_Reservation" title="Pine Ridge Indian Reservation">Pine Ridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosebud_Indian_Reservation" title="Rosebud Indian Reservation">Rosebud</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q626136#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q626136#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q626136#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85006422">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Arapahové"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph721482&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007294843105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Arapaho"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/066c98c9-e0a5-497a-88cd-f1af5beb519f">MusicBrainz</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10638257">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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