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Countermeasures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countermeasures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Use </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Use subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Armenia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Australia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Israel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Israel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Israel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Israel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Philippines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Security_clearances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security_clearances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Security clearances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Security_clearances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_tests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_tests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Alternative tests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_tests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Portrayals_in_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portrayals_in_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Portrayals in media </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portrayals_in_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hand-held_lie_detector_for_US_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hand-held_lie_detector_for_US_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Hand-held lie detector for US military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hand-held_lie_detector_for_US_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Notable cases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Polygraph</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" > 46 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%83%D8%B4%D9%81_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%B0%D8%A8" title="جهاز كشف الكذب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جهاز كشف الكذب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84" title="Паліграф – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Паліграф" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84" title="Полиграф – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Полиграф" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_de_mentides" title="Detector de mentides – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Detector de mentides" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraf" title="Polygraf – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Polygraf" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCgendetektor" title="Lügendetektor – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Lügendetektor" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valedetektor" title="Valedetektor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Valedetektor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0china_dla_verit%C3%AA" title="Màchina dla veritê – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Màchina dla veritê" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_de_mentiras" title="Detector de mentiras – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Detector de mentiras" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mensogodetektilo" title="Mensogodetektilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mensogodetektilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gezur-detektagailu" title="Gezur-detektagailu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gezur-detektagailu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%84%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81" title="پلی‌گراف – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پلی‌گراف" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tecteur_de_mensonge" title="Détecteur de mensonge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Détecteur de mensonge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brathad%C3%B3ir_br%C3%A9ige" title="Brathadóir bréige – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Brathadóir bréige" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B1%B0%EC%A7%93%EB%A7%90_%ED%83%90%EC%A7%80%EA%B8%B0" title="거짓말 탐지기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="거짓말 탐지기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB" title="पॉलीग्राफ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पॉलीग्राफ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poligraf" title="Poligraf – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Poligraf" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uji_kebohongan" title="Uji kebohongan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Uji kebohongan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macchina_della_verit%C3%A0" title="Macchina della verità – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Macchina della verità" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A3" title="פוליגרף – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוליגרף" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D2%9B%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83_%D2%9B%D2%B1%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BB%D2%93%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Жалған айтуды анықтау құрылғысы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жалған айтуды анықтау құрылғысы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detectorium_mendacii" title="Detectorium mendacii – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Detectorium mendacii" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poligrafas" title="Poligrafas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Poligrafas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poligr%C3%A1f" title="Poligráf – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Poligráf" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84" title="Полиграф – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Полиграф" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="പോളിഗ്രാഫ് ടെസ്റ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പോളിഗ്രാഫ് ടെസ്റ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poligraf" title="Poligraf – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Poligraf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraaf" title="Polygraaf – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Polygraaf" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9D%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B0%E3%83%A9%E3%83%95" title="ポリグラフ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ポリグラフ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraf" title="Polygraf – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Polygraf" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9D%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%A0_%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%9C%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8" title="ਝੂਠ ਫੜਨ ਵਾਲੀ ਮਸ਼ੀਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਝੂਠ ਫੜਨ ਵਾਲੀ ਮਸ਼ੀਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wariograf" title="Wariograf – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wariograf" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_de_mentiras" title="Detector de mentiras – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Detector de mentiras" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poligraf" title="Poligraf – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Poligraf" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84" title="Полиграф – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Полиграф" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polygraf_(pr%C3%ADstroj)" title="Polygraf (prístroj) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Polygraf (prístroj)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Device that attempts to infer lying</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Polygraph_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Polygraph (disambiguation)">Polygraph (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Lie Detector" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Lie_Detector_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Lie Detector (disambiguation)">Lie Detector (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonarde_Keeler_1937.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Leonarde_Keeler_1937.jpg/220px-Leonarde_Keeler_1937.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Leonarde_Keeler_1937.jpg/330px-Leonarde_Keeler_1937.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Leonarde_Keeler_1937.jpg/440px-Leonarde_Keeler_1937.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3690" data-file-height="4731" /></a><figcaption>American inventor <a href="/wiki/Leonarde_Keeler" title="Leonarde Keeler">Leonarde Keeler</a> testing his improved polygraph on Kohler, a former witness for the prosecution at the 1935 trial of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hauptmann" title="Richard Hauptmann">Richard Hauptmann</a></figcaption></figure> A polygraph, often incorrectly referred to as a lie detector test,<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscientific">pseudoscientific</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-NatResearchCouncil-6">[6]</a> device or procedure that measures and records several physiological indicators such as <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pulse" title="Pulse">pulse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrodermal_activity" title="Electrodermal activity">skin conductivity</a> while a person is asked and answers a series of questions.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The belief underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those associated with non-deceptive answers; however, there are no specific physiological reactions associated with <a href="/wiki/Lying" class="mw-redirect" title="Lying">lying</a>, making it difficult to identify factors that separate those who are lying from those who are telling the truth.<a href="#cite_note-apa1-8">[8]</a> In some countries, polygraphs are used as an <a href="/wiki/Interrogation" title="Interrogation">interrogation</a> tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector employment. Some <a href="/wiki/United_States_law_enforcement" class="mw-redirect" title="United States law enforcement">United States law enforcement</a> and federal government agencies,<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> and many police departments use polygraph examinations to interrogate suspects and screen new employees. Within the <a href="/wiki/US_federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="US federal government">US federal government</a>, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception examination.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Assessments of polygraphy by scientific and government bodies generally suggest that polygraphs are highly inaccurate, may easily be defeated by countermeasures, and are an imperfect or invalid means of assessing truthfulness.<a href="#cite_note-faspol-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-APA2004-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-NatResearchCouncil-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> A comprehensive 2003 review by the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> of existing research concluded that there was "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy."<a href="#cite_note-NatResearchCouncil-6">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> states that "most psychologists agree that there is little evidence that polygraph tests can accurately detect lies."<a href="#cite_note-apa1-8">[8]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Testing_procedure">Testing procedure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Testing procedure">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lie_detection#Questioning_and_testing_techniques" title="Lie detection">Lie detection § Questioning and testing techniques</a></div> The examiner typically begins polygraph test sessions with a pre-test interview to gain some preliminary information which will later be used to develop diagnostic questions. Then the tester will explain how the polygraph is supposed to work, emphasizing that it can detect lies and that it is important to answer truthfully. Then a "stim test" is often conducted: the subject is asked to deliberately lie and then the tester reports that he was able to detect this lie. Guilty subjects are likely to become more anxious when they are reminded of the test's validity. However, there are risks of innocent subjects being equally or more anxious than the guilty.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_J._A._2009-15">[15]</a> Then the actual test starts. Some of the questions asked are "irrelevant" ("Is your name Fred?"), others are "diagnostic" questions, and the remainder are the "relevant questions" that the tester is really interested in. The different types of questions alternate. The test is passed if the physiological responses to the diagnostic questions are larger than those during the relevant questions.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Criticisms have been given regarding the validity of the administration of the Control Question Technique. The CQT may be vulnerable to being conducted in an interrogation-like fashion. This kind of interrogation style would elicit a nervous response from innocent and guilty suspects alike. There are several other ways of administering the questions.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> An alternative is the Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT), or the Concealed Information Test, which is used in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> The administration of this test is given to prevent potential errors that may arise from the questioning style. The test is usually conducted by a tester with no knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a> or circumstances in question. The administrator tests the participant on their knowledge of the crime that would not be known to an innocent person. For example: "Was the crime committed with a .45 or a 9 mm?" The questions are in multiple choice and the participant is rated on how they react to the correct answer. If they react strongly to the guilty information, then proponents of the test believe that it is likely that they know facts relevant to the case. This administration is considered more valid by supporters of the test because it contains many safeguards to avoid the risk of the administrator influencing the results.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effectiveness">Effectiveness</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Effectiveness">edit</a>]</div> Assessments of polygraphy by scientific and government bodies generally suggest that polygraphs are inaccurate, may be defeated by countermeasures, and are an imperfect or invalid means of assessing truthfulness.<a href="#cite_note-faspol-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-APA2004-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-NatResearchCouncil-6">[6]</a> Despite claims that polygraph tests are between 80% and 90% accurate by advocates,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Research Council (United States)">National Research Council</a> has found no evidence of effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-APA2004-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBCpol-22">[22]</a> In particular, studies have indicated that the relevant–irrelevant questioning technique is not ideal, as many innocent subjects exert a heightened physiological reaction to the crime-relevant questions.<a href="#cite_note-Iacono,_W._G._2008-23">[23]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Psychological_Association" title="American Psychological Association">American Psychological Association</a> states "Most psychologists agree that there is little evidence that polygraph tests can accurately detect lies."<a href="#cite_note-apa1-8">[8]</a> In 2002, a review by the National Research Council found that, in populations "untrained in <a href="/wiki/Countermeasure" title="Countermeasure">countermeasures</a>, specific-incident polygraph tests can discriminate lying from truth telling at rates well above chance, though well below perfection". The review also warns against generalization from these findings to justify the use of polygraphs—"polygraph accuracy for screening purposes is almost certainly lower than what can be achieved by specific-incident polygraph tests in the field"—and notes some examinees may be able to take countermeasures to produce deceptive results.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> In the 1998 <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">US Supreme Court</a> case <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Scheffer" title="United States v. Scheffer">United States v. Scheffer</a>, the majority stated that "There is simply no consensus that polygraph evidence is reliable [...] Unlike other expert witnesses who testify about factual matters outside the jurors' knowledge, such as the analysis of fingerprints, ballistics, or DNA found at a crime scene, a polygraph expert can supply the jury only with another opinion."<a href="#cite_note-us-25">[25]</a> The Supreme Court summarized their findings by stating that the use of polygraph was "little better than could be obtained by the toss of a coin."<a href="#cite_note-us-25">[25]</a> In 2005, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals stated that "polygraphy did not enjoy general acceptance from the scientific community".<a href="#cite_note-pdf-26">[26]</a> In 2001, William Iacono, Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a>, concluded: <blockquote>Although the CQT [Control Question Test] may be useful as an investigative aid and tool to induce confessions, it does not pass muster as a scientifically credible test. CQT theory is based on naive, implausible assumptions indicating (a) that it is biased against innocent individuals and (b) that it can be beaten simply by artificially augmenting responses to control questions. Although it is not possible to adequately assess the error rate of the CQT, both of these conclusions are supported by published research findings in the best social science journals (Honts et al., 1994; Horvath, 1977; Kleinmuntz & Szucko, 1984; Patrick & Iacono, 1991). Although defense attorneys often attempt to have the results of friendly CQTs admitted as evidence in court, there is no evidence supporting their validity and ample reason to doubt it. Members of scientific organizations who have the requisite background to evaluate the CQT are overwhelmingly skeptical of the claims made by polygraph proponents.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> </blockquote> Polygraphs measure <a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a>, which can be affected by <a href="/wiki/Anxiety" title="Anxiety">anxiety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorders</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">posttraumatic stress disorder</a> (PTSD), nervousness, fear, confusion, hypoglycemia, psychosis, depression, substance induced states (nicotine, stimulants), substance withdrawal state (alcohol withdrawal) or other emotions; polygraphs do not measure "lies".<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_J._A._2009-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-dpca.state.ny.us-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> A polygraph cannot differentiate anxiety caused by dishonesty and anxiety caused by something else.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Since the polygraph does not measure lying, the <a href="/wiki/Silent_Talker_Lie_Detector" title="Silent Talker Lie Detector">Silent Talker Lie Detector</a> inventors expected that adding a camera to film microexpressions would improve the accuracy of the evaluators. This did not happen in practice according to an article in the Intercept.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="US_Congress_Office_of_Technology_Assessment">US Congress Office of Technology Assessment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: US Congress Office of Technology Assessment">edit</a>]</div> In 1983, the US Congress Office of Technology Assessment published a review of the technology<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and found that <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">there is at present only limited scientific evidence for establishing the validity of polygraph testing. Even where the evidence seems to indicate that polygraph testing detects deceptive subjects better than chance, significant error rates are possible, and examiner and examinee differences and the use of countermeasures may further affect validity.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_Academy_of_Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: National Academy of Sciences">edit</a>]</div> In 2003, the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> (NAS) issued a report entitled "The Polygraph and Lie Detection". The NAS found that "overall, the evidence is scanty and scientifically weak", concluding that 57 of the approximately 80 research studies that the <a href="/wiki/American_Polygraph_Association" title="American Polygraph Association">American Polygraph Association</a> relied on to reach their conclusions were significantly flawed.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> These studies did show that specific-incident polygraph testing, in a person untrained in counter-measures, could discern the truth at "a level greater than chance, yet short of perfection". However, due to several flaws, the levels of accuracy shown in these studies "are almost certainly higher than actual polygraph accuracy of specific-incident testing in the field".<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> By adding a camera, the <a href="/wiki/Silent_Talker_Lie_Detector" title="Silent Talker Lie Detector">Silent Talker Lie Detector</a> attempted to give more data to the evaluator by providing information about microexpressions. However adding the Silent Talker camera did not improve lie detection and was very expensive and cumbersome to include according to an article in the Intercept.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] When polygraphs are used as a screening tool (in <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a> matters and for <a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">law enforcement</a> agencies for example) the level of accuracy drops to such a level that "Its accuracy in distinguishing actual or potential security violators from innocent test takers is insufficient to justify reliance on its use in employee security screening in <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_agencies_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal agencies in the United States">federal agencies</a>." The NAS concluded that the polygraph "may have some utility but that there is "little basis for the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy".<a href="#cite_note-NatResearchCouncil-6">[6]</a> The NAS conclusions paralleled those of the earlier <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Technology_Assessment" title="Office of Technology Assessment">Office of Technology Assessment</a> report "Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation".<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Similarly, a report to Congress by the <a href="/wiki/Moynihan_Commission_on_Government_Secrecy" title="Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy">Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy</a> concluded that "The few Government-sponsored scientific research reports on polygraph validity (as opposed to its utility), especially those focusing on the screening of applicants for employment, indicate that the polygraph is neither scientifically valid nor especially effective beyond its ability to generate admissions".<a href="#cite_note-moynihan-37">[37]</a> Despite the NAS finding of a "high rate of false positives," failures to expose individuals such as <a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Ames" title="Aldrich Ames">Aldrich Ames</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larry_Wu-Tai_Chin" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry Wu-Tai Chin">Larry Wu-Tai Chin</a>, and other inabilities to show a scientific justification for the use of the polygraph, it continues to be employed.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Countermeasures">Countermeasures</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Countermeasures">edit</a>]</div> Several proposed countermeasures designed to pass polygraph tests have been described. There are two major types of countermeasures: "general state" (intending to alter the physiological or psychological state of the subject during the test), and "specific point" (intending to alter the physiological or psychological state of the subject at specific periods during the examination, either to increase or decrease responses during critical examination periods).<a href="#cite_note-dpca.state.ny.us-28">[28]</a> <ul><li>General state: asked how he passed the polygraph test, <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> officer turned <a href="/wiki/KGB" title="KGB">KGB</a> mole <a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Ames" title="Aldrich Ames">Aldrich Ames</a> explained that he sought advice from his <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> handler and received the simple instruction to: "Get a good night's sleep, and rest, and go into the test rested and relaxed. Be nice to the polygraph examiner, develop a rapport, and be cooperative and try to maintain your calm".<a href="#cite_note-david-39">[39]</a> Additionally, Ames explained, "There's no special magic... Confidence is what does it. Confidence and a friendly relationship with the examiner... rapport, where you smile and you make him think that you like him".<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a></li> <li>Specific point: other suggestions for countermeasures include for the subject to mentally record the control and relevant questions as the examiner reviews them before the interrogation begins. During the interrogation the subject is supposed to carefully control their <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">breathing</a> while answering the relevant questions, and to try to artificially increase their <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a> during the control questions, for example by thinking of something scary or exciting, or by pricking themselves with a pointed object concealed somewhere on the body. In this way the results will not show a significant reaction to any of the relevant questions.<a href="#cite_note-tremor-41">[41]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use">Use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Use">edit</a>]</div> Law enforcement agencies and intelligence agencies in the United States are by far the biggest users of polygraph technology. In the United States alone most federal law enforcement agencies either employ their own polygraph examiners or use the services of examiners employed in other agencies.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In 1978 <a href="/wiki/Richard_Helms" title="Richard Helms">Richard Helms</a>, the eighth Director of Central Intelligence, stated: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">We discovered there were some Eastern Europeans who could defeat the polygraph at any time. Americans are not very good at it, because we are raised to tell the truth and when we lie it is easy to tell we are lying. But we find a lot of Europeans and Asiatics can handle that polygraph without a blip, and you know they are lying and you have evidence that they are lying.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></blockquote> Susan McCarthy of <a href="/wiki/Salon_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon (website)">Salon</a> said in 2000 that "The polygraph is an American phenomenon, with limited use in a few countries, such as Canada, Israel and Japan."<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armenia">Armenia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Armenia">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, government administered polygraphs are legal, at least for use in national security investigations. The <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Service_(Armenia)" title="National Security Service (Armenia)">National Security Service</a> (NSS), Armenia's primary intelligence service, requires polygraph examinations of all new applicants.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Australia">edit</a>]</div> Polygraph evidence is currently inadmissible in New South Wales courts under the Lie Detectors Act 1983. Under the same act, it is also illegal to use polygraphs for the purpose of granting employment, insurance, financial accommodation, and several other purposes for which polygraphs may be used in other jurisdictions.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> In Canada, the 1987 decision of <a href="/wiki/R_v_B%C3%A9land" title="R v Béland">R v Béland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a> rejected the use of polygraph results as evidence in court, finding that they were inadmissible. The polygraph is still used as a tool in the investigation of criminal acts and sometimes employed in the screening of employees for government organizations.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In the province of Ontario, the use of polygraphs by an employer is not permitted. A police force does have the authorization to use a polygraph in the course of the investigation of an offence.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> In a majority of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> jurisdictions, polygraphs are generally considered to be unreliable for gathering evidence, and are usually not used by local law enforcement agencies. Polygraph testing is widely seen in Europe to violate <a href="/wiki/Right_to_silence" title="Right to silence">the right to remain silent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Koppen2017-49">[49]</a>: 62ff  In <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> a polygraph test can be taken, but the results cannot be used in a court of law to prove a case.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/Offender_Management_Act_2007" title="Offender Management Act 2007">Offender Management Act 2007</a> put in place an option to use polygraph tests to monitor serious sex offenders on parole in England and Wales;<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> these tests became compulsory in 2014 for high risk sexual offenders currently on parole in England and Wales.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Poland" title="Supreme Court of Poland">Supreme Court of Poland</a> declared on January 29, 2015, that the use of polygraph in interrogation of suspects is forbidden by the Polish Code of Criminal Procedure. Its use might be allowed though if the suspect has been already accused of a crime and if the interrogated person consents of the use of a polygraph. Even then, the use of polygraph can never be used as a substitute of actual evidence.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> As of 2017, the justice ministry and Supreme Court of both of the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> had rejected use of polygraphs.<a href="#cite_note-Koppen2017-49">[49]</a>: 62ff <a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> According to the 2017 book Psychology and Law: Bridging the Gap by psychologists <a href="/wiki/David_Canter" title="David Canter">David Canter</a> and Rita Zukauskiene <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a> was the European country with the most prevalent use of polygraph testing by police, with about 300 polygraphs carried out each year in the course of police investigations. The results are not considered viable evidence in bench trials, but have been used in jury trials.<a href="#cite_note-Koppen2017-49">[49]</a>: 62ff  In <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, "polygraphs have been in use since 1992",<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> with law enforcement utilizing the Event Knowledge Test (a "modification"<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> of the Concealed Information Test) in criminal investigations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> In 2008, an Indian court adopted the <a href="/wiki/Brain_Electrical_Oscillation_Signature_Profiling" title="Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling">Brain Electrical Oscillation Signature Profiling</a> test as evidence to convict a woman who was accused of murdering her fiancé.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> It was the first time that the result of polygraph was used as evidence in court.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> On May 5, 2010, <a href="/wiki/The_Supreme_Court_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="The Supreme Court of India">The Supreme Court of India</a> declared use of <a href="/wiki/Narcoanalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Narcoanalysis">narcoanalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brain_mapping" title="Brain mapping">brain mapping</a> and polygraph tests on suspects as illegal and against the constitution if consent is not obtained and forced.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Article 20(3) of the Indian Constitution states: "No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself."<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Polygraph tests are still legal if the defendant requests one.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Israel">Israel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Israel">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Israel" title="Supreme Court of Israel">Supreme Court of Israel</a>, in Civil Appeal 551/89 (Menora Insurance v. Jacob Sdovnik), ruled that the polygraph has not been recognized as a reliable device. In other decisions, polygraph results were ruled inadmissible in criminal trials. Polygraph results are only admissible in <a href="/wiki/Civil_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil trial">civil trials</a> if the person being tested agrees to it in advance.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philippines">Philippines</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Philippines">edit</a>]</div> The results of polygraph tests are inadmissible in court in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Investigation_(Philippines)" title="National Bureau of Investigation (Philippines)">National Bureau of Investigation</a> do use polygraphs in aid of investigation.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DOD_polygraph_brochure.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/DOD_polygraph_brochure.pdf/page1-220px-DOD_polygraph_brochure.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/DOD_polygraph_brochure.pdf/page1-330px-DOD_polygraph_brochure.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/DOD_polygraph_brochure.pdf/page1-440px-DOD_polygraph_brochure.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="1362" /></a><figcaption>Brochure of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Security_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Security Service">Defense Security Service</a> (DSS) about polygraph testing</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Administration_of_Polygraph.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Administration_of_Polygraph.jpg/220px-Administration_of_Polygraph.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Administration_of_Polygraph.jpg/330px-Administration_of_Polygraph.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Administration_of_Polygraph.jpg/440px-Administration_of_Polygraph.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5795" data-file-height="4607" /></a><figcaption>Demonstrating the administration of the polygraph, the polygrapher making notes on the readouts. 1970s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/NSApolygraphvideo.webm/220px--NSApolygraphvideo.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="438" data-mwtitle="NSApolygraphvideo.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:NSApolygraphvideo.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/NSApolygraphvideo.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/NSApolygraphvideo.webm/NSApolygraphvideo.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/NSApolygraphvideo.webm/NSApolygraphvideo.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/NSApolygraphvideo.webm/NSApolygraphvideo.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/NSApolygraphvideo.webm/NSApolygraphvideo.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7b/NSApolygraphvideo.webm/NSApolygraphvideo.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ANSApolygraphvideo.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>"The Truth About the Polygraph" (<a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a> (NSA)-produced video on the polygraph process)</figcaption></figure> In 2018, <a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired magazine</a> reported that an estimated 2.5 million polygraph tests were given each year in the United States, with the majority administered to <a href="/wiki/Paramedics" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramedics">paramedics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Police_officers" class="mw-redirect" title="Police officers">police officers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firefighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Firefighters">firefighters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/State_police" title="State police">state troopers</a>. The average cost to administer the test is more than $700 and is part of a $2 billion industry.<a href="#cite_note-wiredcost-66">[66]</a> In 2007<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit">[update]</a>, polygraph testimony was admitted by stipulation in 19 states, and was subject to the discretion of the trial judge in federal court. The use of polygraph in court testimony remains controversial, although it is used extensively in post-conviction supervision, particularly of sex offenders. In <a href="/wiki/Daubert_v._Merrell_Dow_Pharmaceuticals,_Inc." title="Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.">Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.</a> (1993),<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> the old <a href="/wiki/Frye_standard" title="Frye standard">Frye standard</a> was lifted and all forensic evidence, including polygraph, had to meet the new <a href="/wiki/Daubert_standard" title="Daubert standard">Daubert standard</a> in which "underlying reasoning or methodology is scientifically valid and properly can be applied to the facts at issue." While polygraph tests are commonly used in police investigations in the US, no defendant or witness can be forced to undergo the test unless they are under the supervision of the courts.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Scheffer" title="United States v. Scheffer">United States v. Scheffer</a> (1998),<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> the US Supreme Court left it up to individual jurisdictions whether polygraph results could be admitted as evidence in court cases. Nevertheless, it is used extensively by <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Defense_attorney" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense attorney">defense attorneys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Policing_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Policing in the United States">law enforcement agencies</a>. In the states of <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delaware" title="Delaware">Delaware</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowa</a> it is illegal for any employer to order a polygraph either as conditions to gain employment, or if an employee has been suspected of wrongdoing.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Employee_Polygraph_Protection_Act" title="Employee Polygraph Protection Act">Employee Polygraph Protection Act</a> of 1988 (EPPA) generally prevents employers from using lie detector tests, either for <a href="/wiki/Pre-employment_screening" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-employment screening">pre-employment screening</a> or during the course of employment, with certain exemptions.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> As of 2013, about 70,000 job applicants are polygraphed by the federal government on an annual basis.<a href="#cite_note-TaylorWootsonPolyFeds-73">[73]</a> In the United States, the State of <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a> admits polygraph testing in front of <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">juries</a> under certain circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In 2010 the NSA produced a video explaining its polygraph process.<a href="#cite_note-Nageshvideo-75">[75]</a> The video, ten minutes long, is titled "The Truth About the Polygraph" and was posted to the website of the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Security_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Security Service">Defense Security Service</a>. Jeff Stein of <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> said that the video portrays "various applicants, or actors playing them—it’s not clear—describing everything bad they had heard about the test, the implication being that none of it is true."<a href="#cite_note-Steinpolygraph-76">[76]</a> AntiPolygraph.org argues that the NSA-produced video omits some information about the polygraph process; it produced a video responding to the NSA video.<a href="#cite_note-Nageshvideo-75">[75]</a> George Maschke, the founder of the website, accused the NSA polygraph video of being "<a href="/wiki/Orwellian" title="Orwellian">Orwellian</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Steinpolygraph-76">[76]</a> The polygraph was invented in 1921 by <a href="/wiki/John_Augustus_Larson" title="John Augustus Larson">John Augustus Larson</a>, a medical student at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a> and a police officer of the <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Police_Department" title="Berkeley Police Department">Berkeley Police Department</a> in Berkeley, California.<a href="#cite_note-PolygraphFAQ-77">[77]</a> The polygraph was on the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> 2003 list of greatest inventions, described as inventions that "have had profound effects on human life for better or worse."<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> In 2013, the US federal government had begun indicting individuals who stated that they were teaching methods on how to defeat a polygraph test.<a href="#cite_note-TaylorWootsonPolyFeds-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> During one of those investigations, upwards of 30 federal agencies were involved in investigations of almost 5000 people who had various degrees of contact with those being prosecuted or who had purchased books or DVDs on the topic of beating polygraph tests.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Security_clearances">Security clearances</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Security clearances">edit</a>]</div> In 1995, <a href="/wiki/Harold_James_Nicholson" title="Harold James Nicholson">Harold James Nicholson</a>, a CIA employee later convicted of spying for <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, had undergone his periodic five-year reinvestigation, in which he showed a strong probability of deception on questions regarding relationships with a foreign intelligence unit. This polygraph test later led to an investigation which resulted in his eventual arrest and conviction. In most cases, however, polygraphs are more of a tool to "scare straight" those who would consider espionage. <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Pollard" title="Jonathan Pollard">Jonathan Pollard</a> was advised by his Israeli handlers that he was to resign his job from American intelligence if he was ever told he was subject to a polygraph test.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Likewise, <a href="/wiki/John_Anthony_Walker" title="John Anthony Walker">John Anthony Walker</a> was advised by his handlers not to engage in espionage until he had been promoted to the highest position for which a polygraph test was not required, to refuse promotion to higher positions for which polygraph tests were required, and to retire when promotion was mandated.<a href="#cite_note-NatResearchCouncil-6">[6]</a> In 1983, CIA employee <a href="/wiki/Edward_Lee_Howard" title="Edward Lee Howard">Edward Lee Howard</a> was dismissed when, during a polygraph screening, he truthfully answered a series of questions admitting to minor crimes such as petty theft and drug abuse. In retaliation for his perceived unjust punishment for minor offenses, he later sold his knowledge of CIA operations to the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Polygraph tests may not deter espionage. From 1945 to the present, at least six Americans have committed espionage while successfully passing polygraph tests. Notable cases of two men who created a false negative result with the polygraphs were <a href="/wiki/Larry_Wu-Tai_Chin" class="mw-redirect" title="Larry Wu-Tai Chin">Larry Wu-Tai Chin</a>, who spied for China, and <a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Ames" title="Aldrich Ames">Aldrich Ames</a>, who was given two polygraph examinations while with the CIA, the first in 1986 and the second in 1991, while spying for the Soviet Union/Russia. The CIA reported that he passed both examinations after experiencing initial indications of deception.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> According to a Senate investigation, an FBI review of the first examination concluded that the indications of deception were never resolved.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ana_Belen_Montes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ana Belen Montes">Ana Belen Montes</a>, a Cuban spy, passed a counterintelligence scope polygraph test administered by DIA in 1994.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Despite these errors, in August 2008, the US <a href="/wiki/Defense_Intelligence_Agency" title="Defense Intelligence Agency">Defense Intelligence Agency</a> (DIA) announced that it would subject each of its 5,700 prospective and current employees to polygraph testing at least once annually.<a href="#cite_note-Hess,_Pamela_2008-88">[88]</a> This expansion of polygraph screening at DIA occurred while DIA polygraph managers ignored documented technical problems discovered in the Lafayette computerized polygraph system.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The DIA uses computerized Lafayette polygraph systems for routine counterintelligence testing. The impact of the technical flaws within the Lafayette system on the analysis of recorded physiology and on the final polygraph test evaluation is currently unknown.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In 2012, a <a href="/wiki/The_McClatchy_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="The McClatchy Company">McClatchy</a> investigation found that the <a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a> was possibly breaching ethical and legal boundaries by encouraging its polygraph examiners to extract personal and private information from <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">US Department of Defense</a> personnel during polygraph tests that purported to be limited in scope to counterintelligence matters.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Allegations of abusive polygraph practices were brought forward by former NRO polygraph examiners.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternative_tests">Alternative tests</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Alternative tests">edit</a>]</div> Most polygraph researchers have focused more on the exam's predictive value on a subject's guilt. However, there have been no empirical theories established to explain how a polygraph measures deception. A 2010 study indicated that <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">functional magnetic resonance imaging</a> (fMRI) may benefit in explaining the psychological correlations of polygraph exams. It could also explain which parts of the brain are active when subjects use artificial memories.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Most brain activity occurs in both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, which is linked to response inhibition. This indicates that deception may involve inhibition of truthful responses.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Some researchers believe that <a href="/wiki/Mental_chronometry" title="Mental chronometry">reaction time</a> (RT) based tests may replace polygraphs in concealed information detection. RT based tests differ from polygraphs in stimulus presentation duration and can be conducted without physiological recording as subject response time is measured via computer. However, researchers have found limitations to these tests as subjects voluntarily control their reaction time, deception can still occur within the response deadline, and the test itself lacks physiological recording.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Earlier societies utilized elaborate methods of <a href="/wiki/Lie_detection" title="Lie detection">lie detection</a> which mainly involved <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>. For instance, in the Middle Ages, boiling water was used to detect liars, as it was believed honest men would withstand it better than liars.<a href="#cite_note-Grubin,_D._2005-96">[96]</a> Early devices for lie detection include an 1895 invention of <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Lombroso" title="Cesare Lombroso">Cesare Lombroso</a> used to measure changes in blood pressure for police cases, a 1904 device by <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Benussi" title="Vittorio Benussi">Vittorio Benussi</a> used to measure breathing, the Mackenzie-Lewis Polygraph first developed by <a href="/wiki/James_Mackenzie_(cardiologist)" title="James Mackenzie (cardiologist)">James Mackenzie</a> in 1906 and an abandoned project by American <a href="/wiki/William_Moulton_Marston" title="William Moulton Marston">William Moulton Marston</a> which used blood pressure to examine German prisoners of war (POWs).<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Marston said he found a strong positive <a href="#correlation_and_dependence">correlation</a> between systolic blood pressure and lying.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_J._A._2009-15">[15]</a> Marston wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a> and graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Marston's main inspiration for the device was his wife, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Holloway_Marston" title="Elizabeth Holloway Marston">Elizabeth Holloway Marston</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grubin,_D._2005-96">[96]</a> "According to Marston’s son, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston's wife, who suggested to him that 'When she got mad or excited, her blood pressure seemed to climb'" (Lamb, 2001). Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston’s collaborator in his early work, Lamb, Matte (1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth's work on her husband's deception research. She also appears in a picture taken in his polygraph laboratory in the 1920s (reproduced in Marston, 1938).<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Despite his predecessors' contributions, Marston styled himself the "father of the polygraph". (Today he is often equally or more noted as the creator of the comic book character <a href="/wiki/Wonder_Woman" title="Wonder Woman">Wonder Woman</a> and her <a href="/wiki/Lasso_of_Truth" title="Lasso of Truth">Lasso of Truth</a>, which can force people to tell the truth.)<a href="#cite_note-Lepore,_Jill_2014,_pages_183-209-100">[100]</a> Marston remained the device's primary advocate, lobbying for its use in the courts. In 1938 he published a book, The Lie Detector Test, wherein he documented the theory and use of the device.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In 1938 he appeared in advertising by the <a href="/wiki/Gillette_(brand)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gillette (brand)">Gillette</a> company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette razors were better than the competition.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> A device recording both blood pressure and breathing was invented in 1921 by <a href="/wiki/John_Augustus_Larson" title="John Augustus Larson">John Augustus Larson</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> and first applied in law enforcement work by the <a href="/wiki/Berkeley,_California" title="Berkeley, California">Berkeley</a> Police Department under its nationally renowned police chief <a href="/wiki/August_Vollmer" title="August Vollmer">August Vollmer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Illumin-105">[105]</a> Further work on this device was done by <a href="/wiki/Leonarde_Keeler" title="Leonarde Keeler">Leonarde Keeler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PolyMuseum-106">[106]</a> As Larson's protege, Keeler updated the device by making it portable and added the <a href="/wiki/Galvanic_skin_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Galvanic skin response">galvanic skin response</a> to it in 1939. His device was then purchased by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a>, and served as the prototype of the modern polygraph.<a href="#cite_note-Grubin,_D._2005-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Illumin-105">[105]</a> Several devices similar to Keeler's polygraph version included the Berkeley Psychograph, a blood pressure-pulse-respiration recorder developed by C. D. Lee in 1936<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-107">[107]</a> and the Darrow Behavior Research Photopolygraph, which was developed and intended solely for behavior research experiments.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> A device which recorded muscular activity accompanying changes in blood pressure was developed in 1945 by John E. Reid, who claimed that greater accuracy could be obtained by making these recordings simultaneously with standard blood pressure-pulse-respiration recordings.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portrayals_in_media">Portrayals in media</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Portrayals in media">edit</a>]</div> Lie detection has a long history in mythology and fairy tales; the polygraph has allowed modern fiction to use a device more easily seen as scientific and plausible. Notable instances of polygraph usage include uses in crime and espionage themed television shows and some <a href="/wiki/Daytime_television" title="Daytime television">daytime television</a> talk shows, cartoons and films. Numerous TV shows have been called Lie Detector or featured the device. The first Lie Detector TV show aired in the 1950s, created and hosted by <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Andrews" title="Ralph Andrews">Ralph Andrews</a>. In the 1960s Andrews produced a series of specials hosted by <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Belli" title="Melvin Belli">Melvin Belli</a>. In the 1970s the show was hosted by Jack Anderson. In early 1983 <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Pictures_Television" title="Columbia Pictures Television">Columbia Pictures Television</a> put on a syndicated series hosted by <a href="/wiki/F._Lee_Bailey" title="F. Lee Bailey">F. Lee Bailey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> In 1998 TV producer Mark Phillips with his Mark Phillips Philms & Telephision put Lie Detector back on the air on the FOX Network—on that program Ed Gelb with host <a href="/wiki/Marcia_Clark" title="Marcia Clark">Marcia Clark</a> questioned <a href="/wiki/Mark_Fuhrman" title="Mark Fuhrman">Mark Fuhrman</a> about the allegation that he "planted <a href="/wiki/O._J._Simpson_murder_case" class="mw-redirect" title="O. J. Simpson murder case">the bloody glove</a>". In 2005 Phillips produced <a href="/wiki/Lie_Detector_(TV_series)" title="Lie Detector (TV series)">Lie Detector</a> as a series for PAX/ION; some of the guests included <a href="/wiki/Paula_Jones" title="Paula Jones">Paula Jones</a>, Reverend <a href="/wiki/Paul_Crouch" title="Paul Crouch">Paul Crouch</a> accuser Lonny Ford, Ben Rowling, <a href="/wiki/Jeff_Gannon" title="Jeff Gannon">Jeff Gannon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swift_Vets_and_POWs_for_Truth" title="Swift Vets and POWs for Truth">Swift Boat Vet</a>, Steve Garner.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> In the UK, shows such as <a href="/wiki/The_Jeremy_Kyle_Show" title="The Jeremy Kyle Show">The Jeremy Kyle Show</a> used polygraph tests extensively. The show was ultimately canceled when a participant committed suicide shortly after being polygraphed. The guest was slated by Kyle on the show for failing the polygraph, but no other evidence has come forward to prove any guilt. Producers later admitted in the inquiry that they were unsure on how accurate the tests performed were.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In the Fox game show <a href="/wiki/The_Moment_of_Truth_(US_game_show)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Moment of Truth (US game show)">The Moment of Truth</a>, contestants are privately asked personal questions a few days before the show while hooked to a polygraph. On the show they asked the same questions in front of a studio audience and members of their family. In order to advance in the game they must give a "truthful" answer as determined by the previous polygraph exam.<a href="#cite_note-TVWeek-114">[114]</a> Daytime talk shows, such as <a href="/wiki/Maury_Povich" title="Maury Povich">Maury Povich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steve_Wilkos" title="Steve Wilkos">Steve Wilkos</a>, have used polygraphs to supposedly detect deception in interview subjects on their programs that pertain to <a href="/wiki/Cheating_(sex)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheating (sex)">cheating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">child abuse</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Theft" title="Theft">theft</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In episode 93 of the US science show <a href="/wiki/MythBusters" title="MythBusters">MythBusters</a>, the hosts attempted to fool the polygraph by using pain when answering truthfully, in order to test the notion that polygraphs interpret truthful and non-truthful answers as the same. They also attempted to fool the polygraph by thinking pleasant thoughts when lying and thinking stressful thoughts when telling the truth, to try to confuse the machine. However, neither technique was successful for a number of reasons. Michael Martin correctly identified each guilty and innocent subject. Martin suggested that when conducted properly, polygraphs are correct 98% of the time, but no scientific evidence has been offered for this.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> The history of the polygraph is the subject of the <a href="/wiki/Documentary_film" title="Documentary film">documentary film</a> The Lie Detector, which first aired on <a href="/wiki/American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a> on January 3, 2023.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hand-held_lie_detector_for_US_military">Hand-held lie detector for US military</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Hand-held lie detector for US military">edit</a>]</div> A hand-held lie detector is being deployed by the US Department of Defense according to a report in 2008 by investigative reporter <a href="/wiki/Bill_Dedman" title="Bill Dedman">Bill Dedman</a> of <a href="/wiki/NBC_News" title="NBC News">NBC News</a>. The Preliminary Credibility Assessment Screening System, or PCASS, captures less physiological information than a polygraph, and uses an algorithm, not the judgment of a polygraph examiner, to render a decision whether it believes the person is being deceptive or not. The device was first used in Afghanistan by US Army troops. The Department of Defense ordered its use be limited to non-US persons, in overseas locations only.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_cases">Notable cases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notable cases">edit</a>]</div> Polygraphy has been faulted for failing to trap known <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">spies</a> such as double-agent <a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Ames" title="Aldrich Ames">Aldrich Ames</a>, who passed two polygraph tests while spying for the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-Hess,_Pamela_2008-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Ames failed several tests while at the CIA that were never acted on.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Other spies who passed the polygraph include <a href="/wiki/Karl_Koecher" title="Karl Koecher">Karl Koecher</a>,<a href="#cite_note-karl-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ana_Montes" title="Ana Montes">Ana Montes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leandro_Aragoncillo" title="Leandro Aragoncillo">Leandro Aragoncillo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> CIA spy <a href="/wiki/Harold_James_Nicholson" title="Harold James Nicholson">Harold James Nicholson</a> failed his polygraph examinations, which aroused suspicions that led to his eventual arrest.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Polygraph examination and background checks failed to detect <a href="/wiki/Nada_Nadim_Prouty" title="Nada Nadim Prouty">Nada Nadim Prouty</a>, who was not a spy but was convicted for improperly obtaining US citizenship and using it to obtain a restricted position at the FBI.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The polygraph also failed to catch <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ridgway" title="Gary Ridgway">Gary Ridgway</a>, the "Green River Killer". Another suspect allegedly failed a given lie detector test, whereas Ridgway passed.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_J._A._2009-15">[15]</a> Ridgway passed a polygraph in 1984; he confessed almost 20 years later when confronted with DNA evidence.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Conversely, innocent people have been known to fail polygraph tests. In <a href="/wiki/Wichita,_Kansas" title="Wichita, Kansas">Wichita, Kansas</a> in 1986, Bill Wegerle was suspected of murdering his wife Vicki Wegerle because he failed two polygraph tests (one administered by the police, the other conducted by an expert that Wegerle had hired), although he was neither arrested nor convicted of her death. In March 2004, evidence surfaced connecting her death to the serial killer known as BTK, and in 2005 DNA evidence from the Wegerle murder confirmed that BTK was <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Rader" title="Dennis Rader">Dennis Rader</a>, exonerating Wegerle.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Prolonged polygraph examinations are sometimes used as a tool by which <a href="/wiki/Confession_(law)" title="Confession (law)">confessions</a> are extracted from a defendant, as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Miller_(agent)" title="Richard Miller (agent)">Richard Miller</a>, who was persuaded to confess largely by polygraph results combined with appeals from a religious leader.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Watts_family_murders" title="Watts family murders">Watts family murders</a>, Christopher Watts failed one such polygraph test and subsequently confessed to murdering his wife.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In the 2002 disappearance of seven-year-old <a href="/wiki/Danielle_van_Dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Danielle van Dam">Danielle van Dam</a> of <a href="/wiki/San_Diego" title="San Diego">San Diego</a>, police suspected neighbor David Westerfield; he became the prime suspect when he allegedly failed a polygraph test.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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data-file-height="650" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogus_pipeline" title="Bogus pipeline">Bogus pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleve_Backster" title="Cleve Backster">Cleve Backster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Williams_(polygraph_critic)" title="Doug Williams (polygraph critic)">Doug Williams (polygraph critic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Pelton" title="Ronald Pelton">Ronald Pelton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Talker_Lie_Detector" title="Silent Talker Lie Detector">Silent Talker Lie Detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P300_(neuroscience)#Applications" title="P300 (neuroscience)">P300 (neuroscience)#Applications</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription 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Retrieved November 1, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Admissibility+of+Polygraph+Evidence+in+Criminal+Courts&rft.date=2010-10-14&rft.au=Don+Sosunov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitool.haifa.ac.il%2FR%2F%3Ffunc%3Ddbin-jump-full%26object_id%3D673186%26local_base%3DGEN01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> For more info on the Guilty Knowledge Test, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websites.mscc.huji.ac.il/zerolab/GKTCHAP3.PDF">The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) as an Application of Psychophysiology: Future Prospects and Obstacles</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080528204623/http://websites.mscc.huji.ac.il/zerolab/GKTCHAP3.PDF">Archived</a> 2008-05-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2018" class="citation news cs1">Evans, Gareth (October 4, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-45736631">"How credible are lie detector tests?"</a>. 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The Conversation. <q>There have been several reviews of polygraph accuracy. They suggest that polygraphs are accurate between 80% and 90% of the time.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Polygraph+lie+detector+tests%3A+can+they+really+stop+criminals+reoffending%3F&rft.date=2020-01-24&rft.aulast=Warmelink&rft.aufirst=Lara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fpolygraph-lie-detector-tests-can-they-really-stop-criminals-reoffending-130477&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCpol-22"><a href="#cite_ref-BBCpol_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8153539.stm">"A scanner to detect terrorists"</a>. BBC News. 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Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice. 1 (1): 75–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1300%2FJ158v01n01_05">10.1300/J158v01n01_05</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143077241">143077241</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Forensic+Psychology+Practice&rft.atitle=Forensic+%27Lie+Detection%27%3A+Procedures+Without+Scientific+Basis&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-86&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1300%2FJ158v01n01_05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143077241%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Iacono&rft.aufirst=William+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fantipolygraph.org%2Farticles%2Farticle-018.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-dpca.state.ny.us-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-dpca.state.ny.us_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-dpca.state.ny.us_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605202732/http://www.dpca.state.ny.us/pdfs/sopolygraphresearchbulletin3.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 9 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pop+Matters&rft.atitle=The+Tested+Truth+About+%27Maury+Povich%27&rft.date=2013-11-12&rft.aulast=O%27Dell&rft.aufirst=Cary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.popmatters.com%2Fpost%2F176031-thetruth-about-maury%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> For critical commentary on this episode, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaschke2007" class="citation web cs1">Maschke, George (December 7, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antipolygraph.org/cgi-bin/forums/YaBB.pl?num=1197009999">"Mythbusters Beat the Lie Detector Episode featuring Michael Martin"</a>. AntiPolygraph.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mythbusters+Beat+the+Lie+Detector+Episode+featuring+Michael+Martin&rft.pub=AntiPolygraph.org&rft.date=2007-12-07&rft.aulast=Maschke&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fantipolygraph.org%2Fcgi-bin%2Fforums%2FYaBB.pl%3Fnum%3D1197009999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson,_Jennifer2022" class="citation web cs1">Robinson, Jennifer (December 20, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kpbs.org/news/2022/12/20/american-experience-the-lie-detector">"American Experience: The Lie Detector"</a>. <a href="/wiki/KPBS_(TV)" title="KPBS (TV)">KPBS</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230102080908/https://www.kpbs.org/news/2022/12/20/american-experience-the-lie-detector">Archived</a> from the original on January 2, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Experience%3A+The+Lie+Detector&rft.pub=KPBS&rft.date=2022-12-20&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kpbs.org%2Fnews%2F2022%2F12%2F20%2Famerican-experience-the-lie-detector&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDedman2008" class="citation journal cs1">Dedman, Bill (April 9, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna23926278">"New anti-terror weapon: Hand-held lie detector"</a>. NBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=New+anti-terror+weapon%3A+Hand-held+lie+detector&rft.date=2008-04-09&rft.aulast=Dedman&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna23926278&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Ames provides personal insight into the U.S. Government's reliance on polygraphy in a 2000 letter to Steven Aftergood of the Federation of American Scientists at <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmes2000" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aldrich_Ames" title="Aldrich Ames">Ames, Aldrich</a> (November 28, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/polygraph/ames.html">"A Letter from Aldrich Ames on Polygraph Testing"</a>. 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Harold James Nicholson Dossier. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hanford.gov/oci/ci_spy.cfm?dossier=62#">the original</a> on 2008-09-21. 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Retrieved February 2, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Chris+Watts%3A+Wife+killed+our+girls%2C+so+I+strangled+her&rft.date=2018-08-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabc13.com%2Fchris-watts-wife-killed-our-girls-so-i-strangled-her%2F4009246%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth2003" class="citation web cs1">Roth, Alex (January 9, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120929224315/http://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/metro/danielle/20030109-9999_1m9david.html">"Westerfield failed polygraph test badly: 'Greater than 99%' chance he was lying, examiner says on tape"</a>. San Diego Union-Tribune. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/metro/danielle/20030109-9999_1m9david.html">the original</a> on September 29, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=San+Diego+Union-Tribune&rft.atitle=Westerfield+failed+polygraph+test+badly%3A+%27Greater+than+99%25%27+chance+he+was+lying%2C+examiner+says+on+tape&rft.date=2003-01-09&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flegacy.utsandiego.com%2Fnews%2Fmetro%2Fdanielle%2F20030109-9999_1m9david.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAftergood2000" class="citation journal cs1">Aftergood, Steven (2000). "Essays on Science and Society: Polygraph Testing and the DOE National Laboratories". <a href="/wiki/Science_(magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Science (magazine)">Science</a>. 290 (5493): 939–940. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.290.5493.939">10.1126/science.290.5493.939</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17749189">17749189</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153185280">153185280</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Essays+on+Science+and+Society%3A+Polygraph+Testing+and+the+DOE+National+Laboratories&rft.volume=290&rft.issue=5493&rft.pages=939-940&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153185280%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17749189&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.290.5493.939&rft.aulast=Aftergood&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlder2007" class="citation book cs1">Alder, Ken (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/liedetectorshist0000alde">The Lie Detectors</a>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5988-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-5988-0"><bdi>978-0-7432-5988-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lie+Detectors&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-5988-0&rft.aulast=Alder&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fliedetectorshist0000alde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bunn, Geoffrey C. The Truth Machine: A Social History of the Lie Detector (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2012) 256 pages</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Blinkhorn" title="Steve Blinkhorn">Blinkhorn, S.</a> (1988) "Lie Detection as a psychometric procedure" In "The Polygraph Test" (Gale, A. ed. 1988) 29–39.</li> <li>Cumming, Alfred (Specialist in Intelligence and National Security). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL31988.pdf">Polygraph Use by the Department of Energy: Issues for Congress</a>." (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140328190935/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/intel/RL31988.pdf">Archive</a>) <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a>. February 9, 2009.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Harris, Mark (October 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/story/inside-polygraph-job-screening-black-mirror/?mbid=nl_100518_backchannel_list_p">"The Lie Generator: Inside the Black Mirror World of Polygraph Job Screenings"</a>. Wired.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+Lie+Generator%3A+Inside+the+Black+Mirror+World+of+Polygraph+Job+Screenings&rft.date=2018-10-01&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Finside-polygraph-job-screening-black-mirror%2F%3Fmbid%3Dnl_100518_backchannel_list_p&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2008" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Ishmael (2008). The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture. New York: Encounter Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-382-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59403-382-7"><bdi>978-1-59403-382-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Factor%3A+Inside+the+CIA%27s+Dysfunctional+Intelligence+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Encounter+Books&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59403-382-7&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Ishmael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLykken1998" class="citation book cs1">Lykken, David (1998). A Tremor in the Blood. New York: Plenum Trade. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45782-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-306-45782-1"><bdi>978-0-306-45782-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Tremor+in+the+Blood&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Plenum+Trade&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-306-45782-1&rft.aulast=Lykken&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Maschke, G.W. & Scalabrini, G.J. (2018) The Lie Behind the Lie Detector. 5th ed. Available on-line at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://antipolygraph.org">Learn How to Pass (or Beat) a Polygraph Test</a>.</li> <li>McCarthy, Susan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salon.com/2000/03/02/lie_detection/">Passing the polygraph</a>." <a href="/wiki/Salon_(website)" class="mw-redirect" title="Salon (website)">Salon</a>. March 2, 2000.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoeseJamieson1993" class="citation journal cs1">Roese, N. J.; Jamieson, D. W. (1993). "Twenty years of bogus pipeline research: A critical review and meta-analysis". Psychological Bulletin. 114 (2): 363–375. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0033-2909.114.2.363">10.1037/0033-2909.114.2.363</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychological+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Twenty+years+of+bogus+pipeline+research%3A+A+critical+review+and+meta-analysis&rft.volume=114&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=363-375&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0033-2909.114.2.363&rft.aulast=Roese&rft.aufirst=N.+J.&rft.au=Jamieson%2C+D.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2007" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, John (2007). Gatekeeper. Potomac Books Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-045-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-045-7"><bdi>978-1-59797-045-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gatekeeper&rft.pub=Potomac+Books+Inc&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-59797-045-7&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Taylor, Marisa (Tish Wells contributed). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2012/12/06/176313/feds-expand-polygraph-screening.html">Feds expand polygraph screening, often seeking intimate facts</a>." <a href="/wiki/The_McClatchy_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="The McClatchy Company">McClatchy</a>. December 6, 2012.</li> <li>Woodrow, Michael J. "The Truth about the Psychophysiological Detection of Deception Examination 3rd Edition" Lulu Press. New York <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-105-89546-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-105-89546-3">978-1-105-89546-3</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Polygraph&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Polygraphs" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Polygraphs">Polygraphs</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.antipolygraph.org">AntiPolygraph.org</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190905164151/https://antipolygraph.org/">Archived</a> 2019-09-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, a website critical of polygraph</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lie2me.net/thepolygraphmuseum/">The Polygraph Museum</a> Historical photographs and descriptions of polygraph instruments.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070610165851/http://psych.utoronto.ca/~furedy/napoly.htm">The North American Polygraph and Psychophysiology: Disinterested, Uninterested, and Interested Perspectives</a> by John J. Furedy, International Journal of Psychophysiology, Spring/Summer 1996</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.murdoch.edu.au/elaw/issues/v7n1/clarke71_text.html">Trial By Ordeal? Polygraph Testing In Australia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rNoDAAAAMBAJ&dq=Popular+Science+1935+plane+%22Popular+Mechanics%22&pg=PA414">"Thought Wave Lie Detector Measures Current in Nerves" Popular Mechanics, July 1937</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikkelson2011" class="citation web cs1">Mikkelson, David (July 11, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snopes.com/legal/colander.asp">"Next case on the Legal Colander"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Snopes" title="Snopes">Snopes</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Snopes&rft.atitle=Next+case+on+the+Legal+Colander&rft.date=2011-07-11&rft.aulast=Mikkelson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.snopes.com%2Flegal%2Fcolander.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolygraph" 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href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">List of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Cargo cult science">Cargo cult science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlatan" title="Charlatan">Charlatan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crank_(person)" title="Crank (person)">Crank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_theory" title="Fringe theory">Fringe theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">Fringe science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a></li> <li><a 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pseudoscience">Topics characterized as pseudoscience</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biorhythm_(pseudoscience)" title="Biorhythm (pseudoscience)">Biorhythms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloodletting" title="Bloodletting">Bloodletting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_memory" title="Body memory">Body memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryonics" title="Cryonics">Cryonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_signatures" title="Doctrine of signatures">Doctrine of signatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doktor_Koster%27s_Antigaspills" title="Doktor Koster's Antigaspills">Doktor Koster's Antigaspills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fad_diet" title="Fad diet">Fad diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FasciaBlaster" title="FasciaBlaster">FasciaBlaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_denialism" title="Germ theory denialism">Germ theory denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">HIV/AIDS denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humorism" title="Humorism">Humorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_effect" title="Lunar effect">Lunar effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobiotic_diet" title="Macrobiotic diet">Macrobiotic diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnet_therapy" title="Magnet therapy">Magnet therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle_Mineral_Supplement" title="Miracle Mineral Supplement">Miracle Mineral Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturopathy" title="Naturopathy">Naturopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmistry" title="Palmistry">Palmistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchagavya" title="Panchagavya">Panchagavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_medicine" title="Patent medicine">Patent medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_therapy" title="Primal therapy">Primal therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepanning" title="Trepanning">Trepanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_turbine_syndrome" title="Wind turbine syndrome">Wind turbine syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_phenomenon" title="2012 phenomenon">2012 phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_astronauts" title="Ancient astronauts">Ancient astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Salibi#Arabian_Judah_theory" title="Kamal Salibi">Arabian Judah theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/5G#Misinformation_and_controversy" title="5G">5G conspiracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9/11_conspiracy_theories" title="9/11 conspiracy theories">9/11 conspiracy theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory" title="Chemtrail conspiracy theory">Chemtrail conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories" title="Moon landing conspiracy theories">Moon landing conspiracy theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_therapy" title="Conversion therapy">Conversion therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation#Generational_theory" title="Generation">Generational theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Generationism" title="Generationism">Generationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strauss%E2%80%93Howe_generational_theory" title="Strauss–Howe generational theory">Strauss–Howe generational theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollow_Earth" title="Hollow Earth">Hollow Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigo_children" title="Indigo children">Indigo children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japhetic_theory" title="Japhetic theory">Japhetic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_archaeology" title="Nazi archaeology">Nazi archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nibiru_cataclysm" title="Nibiru cataclysm">Nibiru cataclysm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoarchaeology" title="Pseudoarchaeology">Pseudoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudohistory" title="Pseudohistory">Pseudohistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_denial" title="Genocide denial">Genocide denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">Historical negationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovered-memory_therapy" title="Recovered-memory therapy">Recovered-memory therapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past_life_regression" title="Past life regression">Past life regression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryan_race" title="Aryan race">Aryan race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_theory" title="Melanin theory">Melanin theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator" title="Myers–Briggs Type Indicator">Myers–Briggs Type Indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enneagram_of_Personality" title="Enneagram of Personality">Enneagram of Personality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-gravity" title="Anti-gravity">Anti-gravity‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_fusion" title="Cold fusion">Cold fusion‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faster-than-light" title="Faster-than-light">Faster-than-light travel</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_motion" title="Perpetual motion">Perpetual motion</a>‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mysticism" title="Quantum mysticism">Quantum mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionless_drive" title="Reactionless drive">Reactionless drive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dean_drive" title="Dean drive">Dean drive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EmDrive" title="EmDrive">EMDrive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleportation" title="Teleportation">Teleportation‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tractor_beam" title="Tractor beam">Tractor beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-fueled_car" class="mw-redirect" title="Water-fueled car">Water-fueled car</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodynamic_agriculture" title="Biodynamic agriculture">Biodynamic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_transmutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological transmutation">Biological transmutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_science" title="Creation science">Creation science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">Cryptozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dianetics" title="Dianetics">Dianetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auditing_(Scientology)" title="Auditing (Scientology)">Auditing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">Dowsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_voice_phenomenon" title="Electronic voice phenomenon">Electronic voice phenomenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_Earth" title="Flat Earth">Flat Earth theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphology" title="Graphology">Graphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laundry_ball" title="Laundry ball">Laundry ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_attraction_(New_Thought)" title="Law of attraction (New Thought)">Law of attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitation_(paranormal)" title="Levitation (paranormal)">Levitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerology" title="Numerology">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Polygraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific_metrology" title="Pseudoscientific metrology">Pseudoscientific metrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statement_analysis" title="Statement analysis">Statement analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ufology" title="Ufology">Ufology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_stress_analysis" title="Voice stress analysis">Voice stress analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_memory" title="Water memory">Water memory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Promoters of pseudoscience</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sucharit_Bhakdi" title="Sucharit Bhakdi">Sucharit Bhakdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Del_Bigtree" title="Del Bigtree">Del Bigtree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_and_Grichka_Bogdanoff" title="Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff">Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigitte_Boisselier" title="Brigitte Boisselier">Brigitte Boisselier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhonda_Byrne" title="Rhonda Byrne">Rhonda Byrne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charroux" title="Robert Charroux">Robert Charroux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Chopra" title="Deepak Chopra">Deepak Chopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonaid" title="Clonaid">Clonaid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Coleman" title="Vernon Coleman">Vernon Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_L._Donnelly" title="Ignatius L. Donnelly">Ignatius L. Donnelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia,_Inc." title="Gaia, Inc.">Gaia, Inc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Gerson" title="Max Gerson">Max Gerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gonzalez_(physician)" title="Nicholas Gonzalez (physician)">Nicholas Gonzalez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goop_(company)" title="Goop (company)">Goop (company)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Hancock" title="Graham Hancock">Graham Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Icke" title="David Icke">David Icke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Donald_Kelley" title="William Donald Kelley">William Donald Kelley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy_Jr." title="Robert F. Kennedy Jr.">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corentin_Louis_Kervran" title="Corentin Louis Kervran">Corentin Louis Kervran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Light_(newspaper)" title="The Light (newspaper)">The Light (newspaper)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Lindell" title="Mike Lindell">Mike Lindell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenny_McCarthy" title="Jenny McCarthy">Jenny McCarthy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Mercola" title="Joseph Mercola">Joseph Mercola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judy_Mikovits" title="Judy Mikovits">Judy Mikovits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Ayush" title="Ministry of Ayush">Ministry of Ayush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_Morell" title="Theodor Morell">Theodor Morell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Alfred_Nieper" title="Hans Alfred Nieper">Hans Alfred Nieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehmet_Oz" title="Mehmet Oz">Mehmet Oz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABl" title="Raël">Raël</a> (<a href="/wiki/Claude_Vorilhon" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Vorilhon">Claude Vorilhon</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robby_Starbuck" title="Robby Starbuck">Robby Starbuck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Stone" title="Randolph Stone">Randolph Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Joseph_Watson" title="Paul Joseph Watson">Paul Joseph Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wakefield" title="Andrew Wakefield">Andrew Wakefield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bogdanov_affair" title="Bogdanov affair">Bogdanov affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cults_of_Unreason" title="Cults of Unreason">Cults of Unreason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Encyclopedia_of_Claims,_Frauds,_and_Hoaxes_of_the_Occult_and_Supernatural" title="An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural">An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortean_Times" title="Fortean Times">Fortean Times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quackwatch" title="Quackwatch">Quackwatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="The Natural History of Quackery">The Natural History of Quackery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ragged_Edge_of_Science" title="The Ragged Edge of Science">The Ragged Edge of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience" title="The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience">The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority 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