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id="toc-Viral_pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parasitic_pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasitic_pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Parasitic pathogens</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasitic_pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Farming, ranching and animal husbandry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wildlife_trade_or_animal_attacks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildlife_trade_or_animal_attacks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Wildlife trade or animal attacks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildlife_trade_or_animal_attacks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insect_vectors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insect_vectors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Insect vectors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insect_vectors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Pets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exhibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exhibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Exhibition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exhibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hunting_and_bushmeat" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hunting_and_bushmeat"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Hunting and bushmeat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hunting_and_bushmeat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deforestation,_biodiversity_loss_and_environmental_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deforestation,_biodiversity_loss_and_environmental_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Deforestation, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deforestation,_biodiversity_loss_and_environmental_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_Transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_Transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Secondary Transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_Transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_vaccines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_vaccines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Use in vaccines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_vaccines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lists_of_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lists_of_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Lists of diseases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lists_of_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Zoonosis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">62 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B6_%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A3" title="مرض حيواني المنشأ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مرض حيواني المنشأ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonozlar" title="Zoonozlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Zoonozlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97" title="পশুপাখিবাহী রোগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পশুপাখিবাহী রোগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Зооноза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Зооноза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonoze" title="Zoonoze – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zoonoze" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosi" title="Zoonosi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Zoonosi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoon%C3%B3za" title="Zoonóza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zoonóza" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milhaint" title="Milhaint – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Milhaint" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonoosid" title="Zoonoosid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Zoonoosid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CF%89%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ζωονόσος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζωονόσος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonozo" title="Zoonozo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Zoonozo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosi" title="Zoonosi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zoonosi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B2" title="زئونوز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زئونوز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%B3n%C3%B3is" title="Zónóis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Zónóis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EC%88%98%EA%B3%B5%ED%86%B5%EA%B0%90%EC%97%BC%EB%B3%91" title="인수공통감염병 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인수공통감염병" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97" title="पशुजन्यरोग – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पशुजन्यरोग" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonozo" title="Zoonozo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Zoonozo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BAna" title="Súna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Súna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosi" title="Zoonosi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Zoonosi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%95%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A1" title="זואונוסיס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זואונוסיס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="ზოონოზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზოონოზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Зооноздар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Зооноздар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuonosia" title="Zuonosia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Zuonosia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Зооноздор – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Зооноздор" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoon%C3%B3zis" title="Zoonózis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Zoonózis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Зоонози – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Зоонози" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="സൂനോസിസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സൂനോസിസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%96%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%9B_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%A1" title="ꯖꯨꯅꯣꯇꯤꯛ ꯂꯩꯅꯥꯁꯤꯡ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯖꯨꯅꯣꯇꯤꯛ ꯂꯩꯅꯥꯁꯤꯡ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zo%C3%B6nose" title="Zoönose – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zoönose" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%8D%A3%E5%85%B1%E9%80%9A%E6%84%9F%E6%9F%93%E7%97%87" title="人獣共通感染症 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="人獣共通感染症" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choroby_odzwierz%C4%99ce" title="Choroby odzwierzęce – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Choroby odzwierzęce" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonose" title="Zoonose – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Zoonose" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonoz%C4%83" title="Zoonoză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Zoonoză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%8B" title="Зоонозы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Зоонозы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Zoonosis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonoza" title="Zoonoza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zoonoza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Зооноза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Зооноза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonoza" title="Zoonoza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zoonoza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonoosi" title="Zoonoosi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Zoonoosi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonos" title="Zoonos – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Zoonos" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8C" title="โรครับจากสัตว์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โรครับจากสัตว์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonoz" title="Zoonoz – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Zoonoz" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zunosit" title="Zunosit – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Zunosit" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B7" title="Зооноз – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Зооноз" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%99ng_v%E1%BA%ADt_l%C3%A2y_truy%E1%BB%81n_b%E1%BB%87nh" title="Động vật lây truyền bệnh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Động vật lây truyền bệnh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zon%C3%B4ze" title="Zonôze – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Zonôze" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E7%95%9C%E5%85%B1%E9%80%9A%E5%82%B3%E6%9F%93%E7%97%85" title="人畜共通傳染病 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="人畜共通傳染病" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q182672#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Disease that can be transmitted from other species to humans</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Zoonotic" redirects here. For the television episode, see <a href="/wiki/Zoonotic_(Law_%26_Order:_Criminal_Intent)" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoonotic (Law & Order: Criminal Intent)">Zoonotic (<i>Law & Order: Criminal Intent</i>)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>A <b>zoonosis</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/4\/4e\/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Wodencafe-zoonosis.wav\/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Wodencafe-zoonosis.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"LL-Q1860 (eng)-Wodencafe-zoonosis.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4e/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Wodencafe-zoonosis.wav/LL-Q1860_%28eng%29-Wodencafe-zoonosis.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:LL-Q1860_(eng)-Wodencafe-zoonosis.wav" title="File:LL-Q1860 (eng)-Wodencafe-zoonosis.wav">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>;<sup id="cite_ref-mw_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: <b>zoonoses</b>) or <b>zoonotic disease</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a> of humans caused by a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> (an infectious agent, such as a <a href="/wiki/Bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterium">bacterium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">virus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">prion</a>) that can <a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">jump</a> from a non-human <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a>. When humans infect non-humans, it is called <a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">reverse zoonosis</a> or anthroponosis.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mw_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mw-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sgc_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sgc-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major modern diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salmonellosis" title="Salmonellosis">salmonellosis</a> are zoonoses. <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in the early part of the 20th century, though it has now evolved into a separate human-only disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Orgin2011_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orgin2011-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Faria2014_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Faria2014-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Marx2001_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marx2001-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human infection with animal <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> viruses is rare, as they do not transmit easily to or among humans.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">avian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swine_influenza" title="Swine influenza">swine influenza</a> viruses in particular possess high zoonotic potential,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemics</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">2009 swine flu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as <a href="/wiki/Emergent_virus" title="Emergent virus">emergent viruses</a>, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most human diseases originated in non-humans; however, only diseases that routinely involve non-human to human transmission, such as <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>, are considered direct zoonoses.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted from non-humans to humans through media such as air (influenza) or bites and saliva (rabies).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a>), which carry the disease pathogen without getting sick. The term is from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>: ζῷον <i>zoon</i> "animal" and νόσος <i>nosos</i> "sickness". </p><p>Host genetics plays an important role in determining which non-human viruses will be able to make copies of themselves in the human body. Dangerous non-human viruses are those that require few mutations to begin replicating themselves in human cells. These viruses are dangerous since the required combinations of mutations might randomly arise in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">natural reservoir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The emergence of zoonotic diseases originated with the <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domestication</a> of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is contact with or consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives. This can occur in a companionistic (pets), economic (farming, trade, butchering, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering, or consuming wild game), or research context.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Recently, there has been a rise in frequency of appearance of new zoonotic diseases. "Approximately 1.67 million undescribed viruses are thought to exist in <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> and birds, up to half of which are estimated to have the potential to spill over into humans", says a study<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led by researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Davis" title="University of California, Davis">University of California, Davis</a>. According to a report from the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Livestock_Research_Institute" title="International Livestock Research Institute">International Livestock Research Institute</a> a large part of the causes are environmental like <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, unsustainable agriculture, exploitation of wildlife, and <a href="/wiki/Land_use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use change">land use change</a>. Others are linked to changes in human society such as an increase in mobility. The organizations propose a set of measures to stop the rise.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc.com_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-United_Nations_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-United_Nations-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contamination_of_food_or_water_supply">Contamination of food or water supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Contamination of food or water supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Foodborne zoonotic diseases are caused by a variety of pathogens that can affect both humans and animals. The most significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases are: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bacterial_pathogens">Bacterial pathogens</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bacterial pathogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O157:H7" title="Escherichia coli O157:H7"><i>Escherichia coli</i> O157:H7</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Campylobacter" title="Campylobacter">Campylobacter</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Caliciviridae" title="Caliciviridae">Caliciviridae</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-czpf_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-czpf-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iear_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iear-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-tpge_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tpge-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Viral_pathogens">Viral pathogens</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Viral pathogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Hepatitis E: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is primarily transmitted through pork products, especially in developing countries with limited sanitation. The infection can lead to acute liver disease and is particularly dangerous for pregnant women.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Norovirus: Often found in contaminated shellfish and fresh produce, norovirus is a leading cause of foodborne illness globally. It spreads easily and causes symptoms like vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach pain.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parasitic_pathogens">Parasitic pathogens</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Parasitic pathogens"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>: This parasite is commonly found in undercooked meat, especially pork and lamb, and can cause toxoplasmosis. While typically mild, toxoplasmosis can be severe in immunocompromised individuals and pregnant women, potentially leading to complications.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i>Trichinella</i> spp. is transmitted through undercooked pork and wild game, causing trichinellosis. Symptoms range from mild gastrointestinal distress to severe muscle pain and, in rare cases, can be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry"><span id="Farming.2C_ranching_and_animal_husbandry"></span>Farming, ranching and animal husbandry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Farming, ranching and animal husbandry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming#Human_health_impact" title="Intensive animal farming">Intensive animal farming § Human health impact</a></div> <p>Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. <a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">Glanders</a> primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to <a href="/wiki/Anthrax#Cause" title="Anthrax">cutaneous anthrax</a> infection, whereas <a href="/wiki/Anthrax#Cause" title="Anthrax">inhalation anthrax</a> infection is more common for workers in <a href="/wiki/Slaughterhouse" title="Slaughterhouse">slaughterhouses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tannery" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannery">tanneries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wool_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Wool mill">wool mills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to infection with the bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydia_psittaci" title="Chlamydia psittaci">Chlamydia psittaci</a>,</i> causing chlamydiosis (and <a href="/wiki/Enzootic_abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzootic abortion">enzootic abortion</a> in pregnant women), as well as increase the risk of <a href="/wiki/Q_fever" title="Q fever">Q fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">toxoplasmosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Listeriosis" title="Listeriosis">listeriosis</a>, in the pregnant or otherwise <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromised" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a>. <a href="/wiki/Echinococcosis" title="Echinococcosis">Echinococcosis</a> is caused by a tapeworm, which can spread from infected sheep by food or water contaminated by feces or wool. <a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a> is common in chickens, and, while it is rare in humans, the main public health worry is that a strain of avian influenza will recombine with a human influenza virus and cause a pandemic like the <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 flu pandemic">1918 Spanish flu</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 2017, <a href="/wiki/Free_range" title="Free range">free-range</a> chickens in the UK were temporarily ordered to remain inside due to the threat of avian influenza.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cattle are an important reservoir of <a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">cryptosporidiosis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which mainly affects the immunocompromised. Reports have shown <a href="/wiki/Mink" title="Mink">mink</a> can also become infected.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Western countries, <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E" title="Hepatitis E">hepatitis E</a> burden is largely dependent on exposure to animal products, and pork is a significant source of infection, in this respect.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Human_coronavirus_OC43" title="Human coronavirus OC43">human coronavirus OC43</a>, the main cause of the common cold, can use the pig as a zoonotic reservoir,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> constantly reinfecting the human population. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_physician" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinary physician">Veterinarians</a> are exposed to unique <a href="/wiki/Occupational_hazard" title="Occupational hazard">occupational hazards</a> when it comes to zoonotic disease. In the US, studies have highlighted an increased risk of injuries and lack of veterinary awareness of these hazards. Research has proved the importance for continued clinical veterinarian education on occupational risks associated with <a href="/wiki/Musculoskeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Musculoskeletal">musculoskeletal</a> injuries, animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A July 2020 report by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> stated that the increase in zoonotic pandemics is directly attributable to <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment#Ecosystem_impacts" title="Human impact on the environment">anthropogenic destruction of nature</a> and the increased global demand for meat and that the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial meat production">industrial farming</a> of pigs and chickens in particular will be a primary risk factor for the spillover of zoonotic diseases in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Habitat loss of viral reservoir species has been identified as a significant source in at least one <a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">spillover event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildlife_trade_or_animal_attacks">Wildlife trade or animal attacks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Wildlife trade or animal attacks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The wildlife trade may increase spillover risk because it directly increases the number of interactions across animal species, sometimes in small spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origin of the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a><sup id="cite_ref-BJC_Beirne2021_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BJC_Beirne2021-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CovidAndCapital_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CovidAndCapital-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is traced to the <a href="/wiki/Wet_markets_in_China" title="Wet markets in China">wet markets in China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SunEtAl_2020_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SunEtAl_2020-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WHOPoints_2021_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHOPoints_2021-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Maxmen_2021_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maxmen_2021-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zoonotic disease emergence is demonstrably linked to the consumption of wildlife meat, exacerbated by human encroachment into natural habitats and amplified by the unsanitary conditions of wildlife markets.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These markets, where diverse species converge, facilitate the mixing and transmission of pathogens, including those responsible for outbreaks of HIV-1,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ebola,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Mpox" title="Mpox">mpox</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and potentially even the COVID-19 pandemic.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, small mammals often harbor a vast array of zoonotic bacteria and viruses,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet endemic bacterial transmission among wildlife remains largely unexplored. Therefore, accurately determining the pathogenic landscape of traded wildlife is crucial for guiding effective measures to combat zoonotic diseases and documenting the societal and environmental costs associated with this practice. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">Rabies</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Insect_vectors">Insect vectors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Insect vectors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_sleeping_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="African sleeping sickness">African sleeping sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirofilariasis" title="Dirofilariasis">Dirofilariasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis" title="Eastern equine encephalitis">Eastern equine encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis" title="Japanese encephalitis">Japanese encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Louis_encephalitis" title="Saint Louis encephalitis">Saint Louis encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrub_typhus" title="Scrub typhus">Scrub typhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">Tularemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis">Venezuelan equine encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nile_fever" title="West Nile fever">West Nile fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Western equine encephalitis">Western equine encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika fever</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pets">Pets</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Feline_zoonosis" title="Feline zoonosis">Feline zoonosis</a></div> <p>Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>. Pets can also transmit <a href="/wiki/Ringworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringworm">ringworm</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Giardia" title="Giardia">Giardia</a></i>, which are endemic in both animal and human populations. <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a> is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dirofilariasis" title="Dirofilariasis">Dirofilariasis</a> is caused by <i><a href="/wiki/Dirofilaria_immitis" title="Dirofilaria immitis">Dirofilaria immitis</a></i> through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. <a href="/wiki/Cat-scratch_disease" title="Cat-scratch disease">Cat-scratch disease</a> is caused by <i><a href="/wiki/Bartonella_henselae" title="Bartonella henselae">Bartonella henselae</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Bartonella_quintana" title="Bartonella quintana">Bartonella quintana</a></i>, which are transmitted by fleas that are endemic to cats. <a href="/wiki/Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">Toxocariasis</a> is the infection of humans by any of species of <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworm</a>, including species specific to dogs (<i><a href="/wiki/Toxocara_canis" title="Toxocara canis">Toxocara canis</a>)</i> or cats (<i><a href="/wiki/Toxocara_cati" title="Toxocara cati">Toxocara cati</a></i>). <a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a> can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the <a href="/wiki/Leopard_gecko" title="Leopard gecko">leopard gecko</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encephalitozoon_cuniculi" title="Encephalitozoon cuniculi">Encephalitozoon cuniculi</a></i> is a <a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">microsporidial</a> parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">opportunistic pathogen</a> in people <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunocompromised</a> by <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">organ transplantation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/CD4%2B_T_cells_and_antitumor_immunity" title="CD4+ T cells and antitumor immunity">CD4+ T-lymphocyte</a> deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-Weese2011_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weese2011-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pets may also serve as a reservoir of viral disease and contribute to the chronic presence of certain viral diseases in the human population. For instance, approximately 20% of domestic dogs, cats, and horses carry anti-hepatitis E virus <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a> and thus these animals probably contribute to human hepatitis E burden as well.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For non-vulnerable populations (e.g., people who are not immunocompromised) the associated disease burden is, however, small.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="The cited source does not describe the burden of hepatitis E in "nonvulnerable populations". (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Furthermore, the trade of non domestic animals such as wild animals as pets can also increase the risk of zoonosis spread.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exhibition">Exhibition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Exhibition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="Outbreak">Outbreaks</a> of zoonoses have been traced to human interaction with, and exposure to, other animals at <a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">fairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wet_market" title="Wet market">live animal markets</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Petting_zoo" title="Petting zoo">petting zoos</a>, and other settings. In 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The recommendations, developed in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_State_Public_Health_Veterinarians" title="National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians">National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> include educational responsibilities of venue operators, limiting public animal contact, and animal care and management. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hunting_and_bushmeat">Hunting and bushmeat</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Hunting and bushmeat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">Hunting</a> involves humans tracking, chasing, and capturing wild animals, primarily for food or materials like fur. However, other reasons like pest control or managing wildlife populations can also exist. Transmission of zoonotic diseases, those leaping from animals to humans, can occur through various routes: direct physical contact, airborne droplets or particles, bites or vector transport by insects, oral ingestion, or even contact with contaminated environments.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wildlife activities like hunting and trade bring humans closer to dangerous zoonotic pathogens, threatening global health.<sup id="cite_ref-Problematic_Wildlife_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Problematic_Wildlife-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the Center for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC) hunting and consuming wild animal meat ("bushmeat") in regions like Africa can expose people to infectious diseases due to the types of animals involved, like bats and primates. Unfortunately, common preservation methods like smoking or drying aren't enough to eliminate these risks.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although bushmeat provides protein and income for many, the practice is intricately linked to numerous emerging infectious diseases like Ebola, HIV, and <a href="/wiki/SARS" title="SARS">SARS</a>, raising critical public health concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-Problematic_Wildlife_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Problematic_Wildlife-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A review published in 2022 found evidence that zoonotic spillover linked to wildmeat consumption has been reported across all continents.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deforestation,_biodiversity_loss_and_environmental_degradation"><span id="Deforestation.2C_biodiversity_loss_and_environmental_degradation"></span>Deforestation, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Deforestation, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kate_Jones_(scientist)" title="Kate Jones (scientist)">Kate Jones</a>, Chair of Ecology and Biodiversity at <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a>, says zoonotic diseases are increasingly linked to environmental change and human behavior. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanization, and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now "a hidden cost of human economic development".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a guest article, published by <a href="/wiki/IPBES" class="mw-redirect" title="IPBES">IPBES</a>, President of the <a href="/wiki/EcoHealth_Alliance" title="EcoHealth Alliance">EcoHealth Alliance</a> and zoologist <a href="/wiki/Peter_Daszak" title="Peter Daszak">Peter Daszak</a>, along with three co-chairs of the 2019 <i><a href="/wiki/Global_Assessment_Report_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" title="Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a></i>, Josef Settele, <a href="/wiki/Sandra_D%C3%ADaz_(ecologist)" title="Sandra Díaz (ecologist)">Sandra Díaz</a>, and Eduardo Brondizio, wrote that "rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive farming</a>, mining and infrastructure development, as well as the exploitation of wild species have created a 'perfect storm' for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Joshua Moon, Clare Wenham, and Sophie Harman said that there is evidence that decreased biodiversity has an effect on the diversity of hosts and frequency of human-animal interactions with potential for pathogenic spillover.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An April 2020 study, published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society">Proceedings of the Royal Society</a></i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'s</span> <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society#Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_B:_Biological_Sciences" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society">Part B</a> journal, found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>, as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting, and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An August 2020 study, published in <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>, concludes that the <a href="/wiki/Anthropogenic_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropogenic effect">anthropogenic</a> destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, which are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In October 2020, the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Science-Policy_Platform_on_Biodiversity_and_Ecosystem_Services" title="Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> published its report on the 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> is paving the way to the pandemic era and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by a <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">growing human population</a>. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_biodiversity_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and biodiversity loss">climate change and biodiversity loss</a> also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change and infectious diseases</a></div> <p>According to a report from the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Livestock_Research_Institute" title="International Livestock Research Institute">International Livestock Research Institute</a>, entitled "Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission", climate change is one of the 7 human-related causes of the increase in the number of zoonotic diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc.com_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-United_Nations_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-United_Nations-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The University of Sydney issued a study, in March 2021, that examines factors increasing the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> and pandemics like the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers found that "pressure on ecosystems, climate change and economic development are key factors" in doing so. More zoonotic diseases were found in <a href="/wiki/High-income_country" class="mw-redirect" title="High-income country">high-income countries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2022 study dedicated to the link between climate change and zoonosis found a strong link between climate change and the epidemic emergence in the last 15 years, as it caused a massive migration of species to new areas, and consequently contact between species which do not normally come in contact with one another. Even in a scenario with weak climatic changes, there will be 15,000 spillover of viruses to new hosts in the next decades. The areas with the most possibilities for spillover are the mountainous tropical regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable as it has a large number of bat species that generally do not mix, but could easily if climate change forced them to begin migrating.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 through bats. The authors suggest that climate-driven changes in the distribution and robustness of bat species harboring coronaviruses may have occurred in eastern Asian hotspots (southern China, Myanmar, and Laos), constituting a driver behind the evolution and spread of the virus.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_Transmission">Secondary Transmission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Secondary Transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Zoonotic diseases contribute significantly to the burdened public health system as vulnerable groups such the elderly, children, childbearing women and immune-compromised individuals are at risk.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization_(WHO)" class="mw-redirect" title="World Health Organization (WHO)">World Health Organization (WHO)</a>, any disease or infection that is primarily ‘naturally’ transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans or from humans to animals is classified as a zoonosis. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Factors such as climate change, urbanization, animal migration and trade, travel and tourism, vector biology, anthropogenic factors, and natural factors have greatly influenced the emergence, re-emergence, distribution, and patterns of zoonoses. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zoonotic diseases generally refer to diseases of animal origin in which direct or vector mediated animal-to-human transmission is the usual source of human infection. Animal populations are the principal reservoir of the pathogen and horizontal infection in humans is rare. A few examples in this category include lyssavirus infections, Lyme borreliosis, plague, tularemia, <a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis" title="Leptospirosis">leptospirosis</a>, ehrlichiosis, Nipah virus, West Nile virus (WNV) and hantavirus infections. <sup id="cite_ref-:1_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary transmission encompasses a category of diseases of animal origin in which the actual transmission to humans is a rare event but, once it has occurred, human-to-human transmission maintains the infection cycle for some period of time. Some examples include <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)</a>/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), certain influenza A strains, <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a> virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). <sup id="cite_ref-:1_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One example is Ebola which is spread by direct transmission to humans from handling <a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">bushmeat</a> (wild animals hunted for food) and contact with infected bats or close contact with infected animals, including chimpanzees, fruit bats, and forest antelope. Secondary transmission also occurs from <a href="/wiki/Human-to-human_transmission" title="Human-to-human transmission">human to human</a> by direct contact with blood, bodily fluids, or skin of patients with or who died of Ebola virus disease. <sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of pathogens with this pattern of secondary transmission are human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome, influenza A, Ebola virus and severe acute respiratory syndrome. Recent infections of these <a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">emerging</a> and re-emerging zoonotic infections have occurred as a results of many ecological and sociological changes globally. <sup id="cite_ref-:1_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During most of human <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistory</a> groups of <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherers" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunter-gatherers">hunter-gatherers</a> were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate <a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">immune response</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a <a href="/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">chronic</a> infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as <a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">reservoir</a> where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, for many "human" diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a <a href="/wiki/Dead-end_host" class="mw-redirect" title="Dead-end host">dead-end host</a>. Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia, and West Nile fever. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure_3-_Examples_of_Zoonotic_Diseases_and_Their_Affected_Populations_(6323431516).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Figure_3-_Examples_of_Zoonotic_Diseases_and_Their_Affected_Populations_%286323431516%29.jpg/220px-Figure_3-_Examples_of_Zoonotic_Diseases_and_Their_Affected_Populations_%286323431516%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Figure_3-_Examples_of_Zoonotic_Diseases_and_Their_Affected_Populations_%286323431516%29.jpg/330px-Figure_3-_Examples_of_Zoonotic_Diseases_and_Their_Affected_Populations_%286323431516%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Figure_3-_Examples_of_Zoonotic_Diseases_and_Their_Affected_Populations_%286323431516%29.jpg/440px-Figure_3-_Examples_of_Zoonotic_Diseases_and_Their_Affected_Populations_%286323431516%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="1888" /></a><figcaption>Possibilities for zoonotic disease transmissions</figcaption></figure> <p>Many diseases, even epidemic ones, have zoonotic origin and <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>, HIV, and <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a> are particular examples.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various forms of the <a href="/wiki/Common_cold" title="Common cold">common cold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a> also are adaptations of strains originating in other species.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some experts have suggested that all human viral infections were originally zoonotic.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zoonoses are of interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus <a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus_in_the_United_States#Discovery_in_the_United_States" title="West Nile virus in the United States">first appeared in the United States in 1999</a>, in the New York City area. <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Bubonic plague</a> is a zoonotic disease,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as are <a href="/wiki/Salmonellosis" title="Salmonellosis">salmonellosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_spotted_fever" title="Rocky Mountain spotted fever">Rocky Mountain spotted fever</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a>. </p><p>A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this is the outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Henipavirus#Nipah_virus" title="Henipavirus">Nipah virus</a> in peninsular Malaysia, in 1999, when <a href="/wiki/Intensive_pig_farming" title="Intensive pig farming">intensive pig farming</a> began within the habitat of infected fruit bats.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unidentified infection of these pigs amplified the force of infection, transmitting the virus to farmers, and eventually causing 105 human deaths.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have <a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">spilled over</a> into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Highly mobile animals, such as bats and birds, may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation. </p><p>Because they depend on the human host<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/River_blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="River blindness">river blindness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">elephantiasis</a> are <i>not</i> defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vectors</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_vaccines">Use in vaccines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Use in vaccines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first vaccine against smallpox by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> in 1800 was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called <a href="/wiki/Cowpox" title="Cowpox">cowpox</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result of vaccination, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass inoculation against this disease ceased in 1981.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are a variety of vaccine types, including traditional inactivated pathogen vaccines, <a href="/wiki/Subunit_vaccine" title="Subunit vaccine">subunit vaccines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attenuated_vaccine" title="Attenuated vaccine">live attenuated vaccines</a>. There are also new vaccine technologies such as viral vector vaccines and <a href="/wiki/MRNA_vaccine" title="MRNA vaccine">DNA/RNA vaccines</a>, which include many of the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">COVID-19 vaccines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lists_of_diseases">Lists of diseases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Lists of diseases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Disease<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Pathogen(s) </th> <th>Animals involved </th> <th>Mode of transmission </th> <th>Emergence </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/African_sleeping_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="African sleeping sickness">African sleeping sickness</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma_brucei_rhodesiense" class="mw-redirect" title="Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense">Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense</a></i> </td> <td>range of wild animals and domestic livestock </td> <td>transmitted by the bite of the <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_fly" title="Tsetse fly">tsetse fly</a> </td> <td>'present in Africa for thousands of years' – major outbreak 1900–1920, cases continue (sub-Saharan Africa, 2020) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Angiostrongyliasis" title="Angiostrongyliasis">Angiostrongyliasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Angiostrongylus_cantonensis" title="Angiostrongylus cantonensis">Angiostrongylus cantonensis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Angiostrongylus_costaricensis" title="Angiostrongylus costaricensis">Angiostrongylus costaricensis</a></i> </td> <td>rats, cotton rats </td> <td>consuming raw or undercooked snails, slugs, other mollusks, crustaceans, contaminated water, and unwashed vegetables contaminated with larvae </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anisakiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisakiasis">Anisakiasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Anisakis" title="Anisakis">Anisakis</a></i> </td> <td>whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, other marine animals </td> <td>eating raw or undercooked fish and squid contaminated with eggs </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">Anthrax</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a></i> </td> <td>commonly – grazing herbivores such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and pigs </td> <td>by ingestion, inhalation or skin contact of spores </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Babesiosis" title="Babesiosis">Babesiosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Babesia" title="Babesia">Babesia</a></i> spp. </td> <td>mice, other animals </td> <td>tick bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baylisascaris" title="Baylisascaris">Baylisascariasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Baylisascaris_procyonis" title="Baylisascaris procyonis">Baylisascaris procyonis</a></i> </td> <td>raccoons </td> <td>ingestion of eggs in feces </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barmah_Forest_virus" title="Barmah Forest virus">Barmah Forest fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Barmah_Forest_virus" title="Barmah Forest virus">Barmah Forest virus</a></i> </td> <td>kangaroos, wallabies, opossums </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Influenza_A_virus_subtype_H5N1" title="Influenza A virus subtype H5N1">Influenza A virus subtype H5N1</a> </td> <td>wild birds, domesticated birds such as chickens<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>close contact </td> <td>2003–present avian influenza in Southeast Asia and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy" title="Bovine spongiform encephalopathy">Bovine spongiform encephalopathy</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prions</a> </td> <td>cattle </td> <td>eating infected meat </td> <td>isolated similar cases reported in ancient history; in recent UK history probable start in the 1970s<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">Brucellosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Brucella" title="Brucella">Brucella</a></i> spp. </td> <td>cattle, goats, pigs, sheep </td> <td>infected milk or meat </td> <td>historically widespread in Mediterranean region; identified early 20th century </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">Bubonic plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonic_plague" title="Pneumonic plague">Pneumonic plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Septicemic_plague" title="Septicemic plague">Septicemic plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sylvatic_plague" title="Sylvatic plague">Sylvatic plague</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Yersinia_pestis" title="Yersinia pestis">Yersinia pestis</a></i> </td> <td>rabbits, hares, rodents, ferrets, goats, sheep, camels </td> <td>flea bite </td> <td>epidemics like <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> in Europe around 1347–53 during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Late Middle Age</a>; <a href="/wiki/Third_plague_pandemic" title="Third plague pandemic">third plague pandemic</a> in China-<a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and India alone </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Capillariasis" title="Capillariasis">Capillariasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Capillaria" title="Capillaria">Capillaria</a></i> spp. </td> <td>rodents, birds, foxes </td> <td>eating raw or undercooked fish, ingesting embryonated eggs in fecal-contaminated food, water, or soil </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cat-scratch_disease" title="Cat-scratch disease">Cat-scratch disease</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Bartonella_henselae" title="Bartonella henselae">Bartonella henselae</a></i> </td> <td>cats </td> <td>bites or scratches from infected cats </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma_cruzi" title="Trypanosoma cruzi">Trypanosoma cruzi</a></i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Armadillos" class="mw-redirect" title="Armadillos">armadillos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triatominae" title="Triatominae">Triatominae</a> (kissing bug) </td> <td>Contact of mucosae or wounds with feces of kissing bugs. Accidental ingestion of parasites in food contaminated by bugs or infected mammal excretae. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlamydophila_abortus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydophila abortus">Clamydiosis / Enzootic abortion</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydophila_abortus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydophila abortus">Chlamydophila abortus</a></i> </td> <td>domestic livestock, particularly sheep </td> <td>close contact with postpartum ewes </td></tr> <tr> <td>suspected: <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2">Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2</a></i> </td> <td>suspected: <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felidae" title="Felidae">felines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raccoon_dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Raccoon dog">raccoon dogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mink" title="Mink">minks</a>, <a href="/wiki/White-tailed_deer" title="White-tailed deer">white-tailed deer</a><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>respiratory transmission </td> <td>2019–present <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>; ongoing <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prions" class="mw-redirect" title="Prions">PrP<sup>vCJD</sup></a> </td> <td>cattle </td> <td>eating meat from animals with <a href="/wiki/Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy" title="Bovine spongiform encephalopathy">Bovine spongiform encephalopathy</a> (BSE) </td> <td>1996–2001: United Kingdom </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Congo_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever">Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Crimean-Congo_hemorrhagic_fever_orthonairovirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus">Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus</a></i> </td> <td>cattle, goats, sheep, birds, multimammate rats, hares </td> <td>tick bite, contact with bodily fluids </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcosis" title="Cryptococcosis">Cryptococcosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></i> </td> <td>commonly – birds like pigeons </td> <td>inhaling fungi </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidium" title="Cryptosporidium">Cryptosporidium</a></i> spp. </td> <td>cattle, dogs, cats, mice, pigs, horses, deer, sheep, goats, rabbits, leopard geckos, birds </td> <td>ingesting cysts from water contaminated with feces </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cysticercosis" title="Cysticercosis">Cysticercosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taeniasis" title="Taeniasis">taeniasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_solium" title="Taenia solium">Taenia solium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_asiatica" title="Taenia asiatica">Taenia asiatica</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_saginata" title="Taenia saginata">Taenia saginata</a></i> </td> <td>commonly – pigs and cattle </td> <td>consuming water, soil or food contaminated with the tapeworm eggs (cysticercosis) or raw or undercooked pork contaminated with the <a href="/wiki/Cysticercoid" title="Cysticercoid">cysticerci</a> (taeniasis) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dirofilariasis" title="Dirofilariasis">Dirofilariasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Dirofilaria" title="Dirofilaria">Dirofilaria</a></i> spp. </td> <td>dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals, cats, monkeys, raccoons, bears, muskrats, rabbits, leopards, seals, sea lions, beavers, ferrets, reptiles </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis" title="Eastern equine encephalitis">Eastern equine encephalitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis">Venezuelan equine encephalitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Western equine encephalitis">Western equine encephalitis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern equine encephalitis virus">Eastern equine encephalitis virus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Western equine encephalitis virus">Western equine encephalitis virus</a></i> </td> <td>horses, donkeys, zebras, birds </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebola virus disease">Ebola virus disease</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Haemorrhagic_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemorrhagic fever">haemorrhagic fever</a>) </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Ebolavirus" title="Ebolavirus">Ebolavirus</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">spp.</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a>, fruit bats, monkeys, shrews, forest antelope and porcupines </td> <td>through body fluids and organs </td> <td>2013–16; possible in Africa </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other haemorrhagic fevers (<a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Congo_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever">Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">Dengue fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lassa_fever" title="Lassa fever">Lassa fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus_disease" title="Marburg virus disease">Marburg viral haemorrhagic fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </td> <td>Varies – commonly <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">viruses</a> </td> <td>varies (sometimes unknown) – commonly camels, rabbits, hares, hedgehogs, cattle, sheep, goats, horses and swine </td> <td>infection usually occurs through direct contact with infected animals </td> <td><a href="/wiki/2019-20_dengue_fever_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="2019-20 dengue fever epidemic">2019–20 dengue fever</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Echinococcosis" title="Echinococcosis">Echinococcosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Echinococcus" title="Echinococcus">Echinococcus</a></i> spp. </td> <td>commonly – dogs, foxes, jackals, wolves, coyotes, sheep, pigs, rodents </td> <td>ingestion of infective eggs from contaminated food or water with feces of an infected definitive host </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fasciolosis" title="Fasciolosis">Fasciolosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciola_hepatica" title="Fasciola hepatica">Fasciola hepatica</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fasciola_gigantica" title="Fasciola gigantica">Fasciola gigantica</a></i> </td> <td>sheep, cattle, buffaloes </td> <td>ingesting contaminated plants </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsiasis" title="Fasciolopsiasis">Fasciolopsiasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsis_buski" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasciolopsis buski">Fasciolopsis buski</a></i> </td> <td>pigs </td> <td>eating raw vegetables such as water spinach </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illnesses</a> (commonly <a href="/wiki/Diarrheal_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrheal diseases">diarrheal diseases</a>) </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Campylobacter" title="Campylobacter">Campylobacter</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Listeria" title="Listeria">Listeria</a></i> spp., <i><a href="/wiki/Shigella" title="Shigella">Shigella</a></i> spp. and <i><a href="/wiki/Trichinella" title="Trichinella">Trichinella</a></i> spp. </td> <td>animals domesticated for food production (cattle, poultry) </td> <td>raw or undercooked food made from animals and unwashed vegetables contaminated with feces </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">Giardiasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia lamblia</a></i> </td> <td>beavers, other rodents, raccoons, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, dogs, cats </td> <td>ingesting spores and cysts in food and water contaminated with feces </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Glanders" title="Glanders">Glanders</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Burkholderia" title="Burkholderia">Burkholderia</a> mallei.</i> </td> <td>horses, donkeys </td> <td>direct contact </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomiasis" title="Gnathostomiasis">Gnathostomiasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Gnathostoma" title="Gnathostoma">Gnathostoma</a></i> spp. </td> <td>dogs, minks, opossums, cats, lions, tigers, leopards, raccoons, poultry, other birds, frogs </td> <td>raw or undercooked fish or meat </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hantavirus">Hantavirus</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hantavirus">Hantavirus</a></i> spp. </td> <td>deer mice, cotton rats and other rodents </td> <td>exposure to feces, urine, saliva or bodily fluids </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Henipavirus" title="Henipavirus">Henipavirus</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Henipavirus" title="Henipavirus">Henipavirus</a></i> spp. </td> <td>horses, bats </td> <td>exposure to feces, urine, saliva or contact with sick horses </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E" title="Hepatitis E">Hepatitis E</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatitis E virus">Hepatitis E virus</a></i> </td> <td>domestic and wild animals </td> <td>contaminated food or water </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Histoplasmosis" title="Histoplasmosis">Histoplasmosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Histoplasma" title="Histoplasma">Histoplasma</a> capsulatum</i> </td> <td>birds, bats </td> <td>inhaling fungi in guano </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Simian_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Simian immunodeficiency virus">SIV</a> Simian immunodeficiency virus</i> </td> <td>non-human primates </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">Blood</a> </td> <td>Immunodeficiency resembling human AIDS was reported in captive monkeys in the United States beginning in 1983.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6221343_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6221343-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid3159089_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3159089-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pmid6316791_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6316791-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> SIV was isolated in 1985 from some of these animals, captive <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaques</a> who had simian AIDS (SAIDS).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3159089_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3159089-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery of SIV was made shortly after HIV-1 had been isolated as the cause of AIDS and led to the discovery of HIV-2 strains in West Africa. HIV-2 was more similar to the then-known SIV strains than to HIV-1, suggesting for the first time the simian origin of HIV. Further studies indicated that HIV-2 is derived from the SIVsmm strain found in sooty mangabeys, whereas HIV-1, the predominant virus found in humans, is derived from SIV strains infecting chimpanzees (SIVcpz) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis" title="Japanese encephalitis">Japanese encephalitis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese encephalitis virus">Japanese encephalitis virus</a></i> </td> <td>pigs, water birds </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kyasanur_Forest_disease" title="Kyasanur Forest disease">Kyasanur Forest disease</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Kyasanur_Forest_disease_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyasanur Forest disease virus">Kyasanur Forest disease virus</a></i> </td> <td>rodents, shrews, bats, monkeys </td> <td>tick bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/La_Crosse_encephalitis" title="La Crosse encephalitis">La Crosse encephalitis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/La_Crosse_encephalitis#Cause" title="La Crosse encephalitis">La Crosse virus</a></i> </td> <td>chipmunks, tree squirrels </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">Leishmaniasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Leishmania" title="Leishmania">Leishmania</a></i> spp. </td> <td>dogs, rodents, other animals<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sandfly" title="Sandfly">sandfly</a> bite </td> <td>2004 <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">Leprosy</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_leprae" title="Mycobacterium leprae">Mycobacterium leprae</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_lepromatosis" title="Mycobacterium lepromatosis">Mycobacterium lepromatosis</a></i> </td> <td>armadillos, monkeys, rabbits, mice<sup id="cite_ref-clarksmithsonian_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clarksmithsonian-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>direct contact, including meat consumption. However, scientists believe most infections are spread human to human.<sup id="cite_ref-clarksmithsonian_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clarksmithsonian-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ShuteNPR_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShuteNPR-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Leptospirosis" title="Leptospirosis">Leptospirosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Leptospira_interrogans" title="Leptospira interrogans">Leptospira interrogans</a></i> </td> <td>rats, mice, pigs, horses, goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, opossums, raccoons, mongooses, foxes, dogs </td> <td>direct or indirect contact with urine of infected animals </td> <td>1616–20 New England infection; present day in the United States </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lassa_fever" title="Lassa fever">Lassa fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Lassa_fever_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lassa fever virus">Lassa fever virus</a></i> </td> <td>rodents </td> <td>exposure to rodents </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Borrelia_burgdorferi" title="Borrelia burgdorferi">Borrelia burgdorferi</a></i> </td> <td>deer, wolves, dogs, birds, rodents, rabbits, hares, reptiles </td> <td>tick bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lymphocytic_choriomeningitis" title="Lymphocytic choriomeningitis">Lymphocytic choriomeningitis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Lymphocytic_choriomeningitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus">Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus</a></i> </td> <td>rodents </td> <td>exposure to urine, feces, or saliva </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Melioidosis" title="Melioidosis">Melioidosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Burkholderia_pseudomallei" title="Burkholderia pseudomallei">Burkholderia pseudomallei</a></i> </td> <td>various animals </td> <td>direct contact with contaminated soil and surface water </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Microsporidiosis" title="Microsporidiosis">Microsporidiosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Encephalitozoon_cuniculi" title="Encephalitozoon cuniculi">Encephalitozoon cuniculi</a></i> </td> <td>Rabbits, dogs, mice, and other <a href="/wiki/Mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammals">mammals</a> </td> <td>ingestion of spores </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle East respiratory syndrome">Middle East respiratory syndrome</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/MERS_coronavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="MERS coronavirus">MERS coronavirus</a></i> </td> <td>bats, camels </td> <td>close contact </td> <td>2012–present: <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mpox" title="Mpox">Mpox</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Monkeypox_virus" title="Monkeypox virus">Monkeypox virus</a></i> </td> <td>rodents, primates </td> <td>contact with infected rodents, primates, or contaminated materials </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus_infection" title="Nipah virus infection">Nipah virus infection</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus_infection" title="Nipah virus infection">Nipah virus (NiV)</a></i> </td> <td>bats, pigs </td> <td>direct contact with infected bats, infected pigs </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Orf_(disease)" title="Orf (disease)">Orf</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Orf_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Orf virus">Orf virus</a></i> </td> <td>goats, sheep </td> <td>close contact </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Powassan_virus" title="Powassan virus">Powassan encephalitis</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Powassan_virus" title="Powassan virus">Powassan virus</a> </td> <td>ticks </td> <td>tick bites </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Psittacosis" title="Psittacosis">Psittacosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Chlamydophila_psittaci" class="mw-redirect" title="Chlamydophila psittaci">Chlamydophila psittaci</a></i> </td> <td>macaws, cockatiels, budgerigars, pigeons, sparrows, ducks, hens, gulls and many other bird species </td> <td>contact with bird droplets </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Q_fever" title="Q fever">Q fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Coxiella_burnetii" title="Coxiella burnetii">Coxiella burnetii</a></i> </td> <td>livestock and other domestic animals such as dogs and cats </td> <td>inhalation of spores, contact with bodily fluid or faeces </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">Rabies</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Rabies_virus" title="Rabies virus">Rabies virus</a></i> </td> <td>commonly – dogs, bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, goats, sheep, wolves, coyotes, groundhogs, horses, mongooses and cats </td> <td>through saliva by biting, or through scratches from an infected animal </td> <td>Variety of places like Oceanic, South America, Europe; year is unknown </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rat-bite_fever" title="Rat-bite fever">Rat-bite fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Streptobacillus_moniliformis" title="Streptobacillus moniliformis">Streptobacillus moniliformis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Spirillum_minus" title="Spirillum minus">Spirillum minus</a></i> </td> <td>rats, mice </td> <td>bites of rats but also urine and mucus secretions </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Phlebovirus" title="Phlebovirus">Phlebovirus</a></i> </td> <td>livestock, buffaloes, camels </td> <td>mosquito bite, contact with bodily fluids, blood, tissues, breathing around butchered animals or raw milk </td> <td>2006–07 East Africa outbreak </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_spotted_fever" title="Rocky Mountain spotted fever">Rocky Mountain spotted fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Rickettsia_rickettsii" title="Rickettsia rickettsii">Rickettsia rickettsii</a></i> </td> <td>dogs, rodents </td> <td>tick bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ross_River_fever" title="Ross River fever">Ross River fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Ross_River_virus" title="Ross River virus">Ross River virus</a></i> </td> <td>kangaroos, wallabies, horses, opossums, birds, flying foxes </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saint_Louis_encephalitis" title="Saint Louis encephalitis">Saint Louis encephalitis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Saint_Louis_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Louis encephalitis virus">Saint Louis encephalitis virus</a></i> </td> <td>birds </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome">Severe acute respiratory syndrome</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/SARS_coronavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="SARS coronavirus">SARS coronavirus</a></i> </td> <td>bats, civets </td> <td>close contact, respiratory droplets </td> <td><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%9304_SARS_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="2002–04 SARS outbreak">2002–04 SARS outbreak</a>; began in China </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Variola_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Variola virus">Variola virus</a> </td> <td>Possible Monkeys or horses </td> <td>Spread to person to person quickly </td> <td>The last case was in 1977; certified by <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> to be <a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">eradicated</a> (i.e., eliminated worldwide) as of 1980. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Swine_influenza" title="Swine influenza">Swine influenza</a> </td> <td>A new strain of the influenza virus endemic in pigs (excludes H1N1 swine flu, which is a human virus)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Not clear which virus this is referring to specifically. (April 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td> <td>pigs </td> <td>close contact </td> <td>2009–10; <a href="/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic" title="2009 swine flu pandemic">2009 swine flu pandemic</a>; began in Mexico. </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_crassiceps" title="Taenia crassiceps">Taenia crassiceps</a></i> infection </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Taenia_crassiceps" title="Taenia crassiceps">Taenia crassiceps</a></i> </td> <td>wolves, coyotes, jackals, foxes </td> <td>contact with soil contaminated with feces </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">Toxocariasis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Toxocara" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxocara">Toxocara</a></i> spp. </td> <td>dogs, foxes, cats </td> <td>ingestion of eggs in soil, fresh or unwashed vegetables or undercooked meat </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a></i> </td> <td>cats, livestock, poultry </td> <td>exposure to cat feces, organ transplantation, blood transfusion, contaminated soil, water, grass, unwashed vegetables, unpasteurized dairy products and undercooked meat </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">Trichinosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Trichinella" title="Trichinella">Trichinella</a></i> spp. </td> <td>rodents, pigs, horses, bears, walruses, dogs, foxes, crocodiles, birds </td> <td>eating undercooked meat </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_bovis" title="Mycobacterium bovis">Mycobacterium bovis</a></i> </td> <td>infected cattle, deer, llamas, pigs, domestic cats, wild carnivores (foxes, coyotes) and omnivores (possums, mustelids and rodents) </td> <td>milk, exhaled air, sputum, urine, faeces and pus from infected animals </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">Tularemia</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Francisella_tularensis" title="Francisella tularensis">Francisella tularensis</a></i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lagomorphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagomorphs">lagomorphs</a> (type A), rodents (type B), birds </td> <td>ticks, deer flies, and other insects including mosquitoes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Nile_fever" title="West Nile fever">West Nile fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Flavivirus" title="Flavivirus">Flavivirus</a></i> </td> <td>birds, horses </td> <td>mosquito bite </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika fever</a> </td> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Zika_virus" title="Zika virus">Zika virus</a></i> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a>, monkeys, baboons </td> <td>mosquito bite, sexual intercourse, blood transfusion and sometimes bites of monkeys </td> <td>2015–16 epidemic in the Americas and Oceanic </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare#Animal_welfare_organizations" title="Animal welfare">Animal welfare#Animal welfare organizations</a> – Well-being of non-human animals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_medicine" title="Conservation medicine">Conservation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">Cross-species transmission</a> – Transmission of a pathogen between different species</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">Emerging infectious disease</a> – Infectious disease of emerging pathogen, often novel in its outbreak range or transmission mode</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a> – Illness from eating spoiled food</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a> – Occurs when a reservoir population causes an epidemic in a novel host population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_disease" title="Wildlife disease">Wildlife disease</a> – diseases in wild animals<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a> – Branch of medicine for non-human animals</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_smuggling_and_zoonoses" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses">Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses</a> – Health risks associated with the trade in exotic wildlife<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_zoonotic_primate_viruses" title="List of zoonotic primate viruses">List of zoonotic primate viruses</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output 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London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-96148-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-96148-7"><bdi>978-1-138-96148-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=One+Health%3A+Science%2C+Politics+and+Zoonotic+Disease+in+Africa&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-138-96148-7&rft.aulast=Bardosh&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZoonosis" class="Z3988"></span>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrawford2018" class="citation book cs1">Crawford D (2018). <i>Deadly Companions: How Microbes Shaped our History</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881544-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-881544-0"><bdi>978-0-19-881544-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deadly+Companions%3A+How+Microbes+Shaped+our+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-881544-0&rft.aulast=Crawford&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZoonosis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelbab-Brown2020" class="citation web cs1">Felbab-Brown V (6 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brookings.edu/articles/preventing-the-next-zoonotic-pandemic/">"Preventing the next zoonotic pandemic"</a>. <i>Brookings Institution</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210121122104/https://www.brookings.edu/articles/preventing-the-next-zoonotic-pandemic/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brookings+Institution&rft.atitle=Preventing+the+next+zoonotic+pandemic&rft.date=2020-10-06&rft.aulast=Felbab-Brown&rft.aufirst=V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Farticles%2Fpreventing-the-next-zoonotic-pandemic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZoonosis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreger2007" class="citation journal cs1">Greger M (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=acwp_tzd">"The human/animal interface: emergence and resurgence of zoonotic infectious diseases"</a>. <i>Critical Reviews in Microbiology</i>. <b>33</b> (4): 243–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10408410701647594">10.1080/10408410701647594</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18033595">18033595</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8940310">8940310</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801195425/https://animalstudiesrepository.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=acwp_tzd">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Reviews+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=The+human%2Fanimal+interface%3A+emergence+and+resurgence+of+zoonotic+infectious+diseases&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=243-299&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8940310%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18033595&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10408410701647594&rft.aulast=Greger&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanimalstudiesrepository.org%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1002%26context%3Dacwp_tzd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZoonosis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>H. Krauss, A. Weber, M. Appel, B. Enders, A. v. Graevenitz, H. D. Isenberg, H. G. Schiefer, W. Slenczka, H. Zahner: Zoonoses. Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans. 3rd Edition, 456 pages. ASM Press. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55581-236-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-55581-236-8">1-55581-236-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">González JG (2010). <i>Infection Risk and Limitation of Fundamental Rights by Animal-To-Human Transplantations. EU, Spanish and German Law with Special Consideration of English Law</i> (in German). Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8300-4712-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8300-4712-4"><bdi>978-3-8300-4712-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infection+Risk+and+Limitation+of+Fundamental+Rights+by+Animal-To-Human+Transplantations.+EU%2C+Spanish+and+German+Law+with+Special+Consideration+of+English+Law&rft.place=Hamburg&rft.pub=Verlag+Dr.+Kovac&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-8300-4712-4&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=JG&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZoonosis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuammen2013" class="citation book cs1">Quammen D (2013). <i><a href="/wiki/Spillover:_Animal_Infections_and_the_Next_Human_Pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic">Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic</a></i>. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-34661-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-34661-9"><bdi>978-0-393-34661-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spillover%3A+Animal+Infections+and+the+Next+Human+Pandemic&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-393-34661-9&rft.aulast=Quammen&rft.aufirst=D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AZoonosis" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoonosis&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q182672" class="extiw" title="d:Q182672">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D015047">D015047</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb28555.htm">28555</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Zoonoses" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Zoonoses">Zoonoses</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/zoonosis" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/zoonosis">zoonosis</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a <i>topic</i> profile for <i><b><a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/topic/Q182672" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/topic/Q182672">Zoonosis</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120205080642/http://www.avma.org/avmacollections/zu/default.asp">AVMA Collections: Zoonosis Updates</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.emro.who.int/entity/zoonoses/">WHO tropical diseases and zoonoses</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inlportal.inl.gov/portal/server.pt/community/idaho_national_laboratory_biological_systems/352/molecular_forensics/2691">Detection and Forensic Analysis of Wildlife and Zoonotic Disease</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/zoonoticspub/">Publications in Zoonotics and Wildlife Disease</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/video/message-nature-coronavirus">A message from nature: coronavirus</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Zoonotic_viral_diseases_(A80–B34,_042–079)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Zoonotic viral diseases"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Zoonotic_viral_diseases_(A80–B34,_042–079)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Zoonotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Viral_disease" title="Viral disease">viral diseases</a> (A80–B34, <a href="/wiki/042%E2%80%93079" class="mw-redirect" title="042–079">042–079</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropod<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Batai_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Batai virus">Batai virus</a> <ul><li>BATV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bwamba_orthobunyavirus" title="Bwamba orthobunyavirus">Bwamba Fever</a> <ul><li>BWAV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_encephalitis_orthobunyavirus" title="California encephalitis orthobunyavirus">California encephalitis</a> <ul><li>CEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamestown_Canyon_encephalitis" title="Jamestown Canyon encephalitis">Jamestown Canyon encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Crosse_encephalitis" title="La Crosse encephalitis">La Crosse encephalitis</a> <ul><li>LACV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahyna_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahyna virus">Tahyna virus</a> <ul><li>TAHV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tete_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tete virus">Tete virus</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bunyamwera_orthobunyavirus" title="Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus">Bunyamwera fever</a> <ul><li>BUNV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngari_virus" title="Ngari virus">Ngari virus</a> <ul><li>NRIV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rift_Valley_fever" title="Rift Valley fever">Rift Valley fever</a> <ul><li>RVFV</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flaviviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis" title="Japanese encephalitis">Japanese encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_encephalitis_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese encephalitis virus">JEV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Valley_encephalitis_virus" title="Murray Valley encephalitis virus">Australian encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Valley_encephalitis_virus" title="Murray Valley encephalitis virus">MVEV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunjin_virus" title="Kunjin virus">KUNV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Louis_encephalitis" title="Saint Louis encephalitis">Saint Louis encephalitis</a> <ul><li>SLEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usutu_virus" title="Usutu virus">Usutu virus</a> <ul><li>USUV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nile_fever" title="West Nile fever">West Nile fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Nile_virus" title="West Nile virus">WNV</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dengue_fever" title="Dengue fever">Dengue fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dengue_virus" title="Dengue virus">DENV-1-4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">Yellow fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow fever virus">YFV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zika_fever" title="Zika fever">Zika fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ZIKV" class="mw-redirect" title="ZIKV">ZIKV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Togaviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Togaviridae">Togaviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Eastern_equine_encephalitis" title="Eastern equine encephalitis">Eastern equine encephalomyelitis</a> <ul><li>EEEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Western equine encephalitis virus">Western equine encephalomyelitis</a> <ul><li>WEEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_equine_encephalitis_virus" title="Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus">Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis</a> <ul><li>VEEV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chikungunya" title="Chikungunya">Chikungunya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chikungunya_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chikungunya virus">CHIKV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27nyong%27nyong_virus" title="O'nyong'nyong virus">O'nyong'nyong fever</a> <ul><li>ONNV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogosta_disease" title="Pogosta disease">Pogosta disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sindbis_virus" title="Sindbis virus">Sindbis virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_River_fever" title="Ross River fever">Ross River fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ross_River_virus" title="Ross River virus">RRV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semliki_Forest_virus" title="Semliki Forest virus">Semliki Forest virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Reoviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Reoviridae">Reoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banna_virus" title="Banna virus">Banna virus encephalitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease#Viral" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Congo_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever">Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever</a> (CCHFV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heartland_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Heartland virus">Heartland virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_fever_with_thrombocytopenia_syndrome" title="Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome">Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Huaiyangshan_banyangvirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaiyangshan banyangvirus">Huaiyangshan banyangvirus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tete_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tete virus">Tete virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bhanja_virus" title="Bhanja virus">Bhanja virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Flaviviridae" title="Flaviviridae">Flaviviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbovirus_encephalitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbovirus encephalitis">Arbovirus encephalitides</a>: <a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis" title="Tick-borne encephalitis">Tick-borne encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis_virus" title="Tick-borne encephalitis virus">TBEV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powassan_encephalitis" title="Powassan encephalitis">Powassan encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powassan_virus" title="Powassan virus">POWV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Omsk_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Omsk hemorrhagic fever">Omsk hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li>OHFV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyasanur_Forest_disease" title="Kyasanur Forest disease">Kyasanur Forest disease</a> <ul><li>KFDV</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkhurma_virus" title="Alkhurma virus">AHFV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langat_virus" title="Langat virus">Langat virus</a> <ul><li>LGTV</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Orthomyxoviridae" title="Orthomyxoviridae">Orthomyxoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_virus" title="Bourbon virus">Bourbon virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Reoviridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Reoviridae">Reoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_tick_fever" title="Colorado tick fever">Colorado tick fever</a> <ul><li>CTFV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemerovo_tickborne_viral_fever" title="Kemerovo tickborne viral fever">Kemerovo tickborne viral fever</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sandfly#Viruses" title="Sandfly">Sandfly<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adria_virus" title="Adria virus">Adria virus</a> (ADRV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oropouche_fever" title="Oropouche fever">Oropouche fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oropouche_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oropouche virus">Oropouche virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappataci_fever" title="Pappataci fever">Pappataci fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toscana_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Toscana virus">Toscana virus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandfly_fever_Naples_phlebovirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sandfly fever Naples phlebovirus">Sandfly fever Naples virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chandipura_vesiculovirus" title="Chandipura vesiculovirus">Chandipura virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammal<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodent<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Arenavirus" title="Arenavirus">Arenaviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viral_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Viral hemorrhagic fever">Viral hemorrhagic fevers</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lassa_fever" title="Lassa fever">Lassa fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lassa_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lassa virus">LASV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever">Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li>GTOV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Argentine hemorrhagic fever">Argentine hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentinian_mammarenavirus" title="Argentinian mammarenavirus">JUNV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Brazilian hemorrhagic fever">Brazilian hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Brazilian hemorrhagic fever">SABV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Bolivian hemorrhagic fever">Bolivian hemorrhagic fever</a> <ul><li>MACV</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lujo_mammarenavirus" title="Lujo mammarenavirus">LUJV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapare_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Chapare virus">CHPV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Bunyavirales" title="Bunyavirales">Bunyavirales</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus_hemorrhagic_fever_with_renal_syndrome" title="Hantavirus hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome">Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dobrava-Belgrade_orthohantavirus" title="Dobrava-Belgrade orthohantavirus">DOBV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hantaan_orthohantavirus" title="Hantaan orthohantavirus">HTNV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puumala_orthohantavirus" title="Puumala orthohantavirus">PUUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seoul_orthohantavirus" title="Seoul orthohantavirus">SEOV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amur_virus" title="Amur virus">AMRV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thailand_virus" title="Thailand virus">THAIV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hantavirus_pulmonary_syndrome" title="Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome">Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andes_orthohantavirus" title="Andes orthohantavirus">ANDV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin_Nombre_orthohantavirus" title="Sin Nombre orthohantavirus">SNV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">Herpesviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Murid_gammaherpesvirus_4" title="Murid gammaherpesvirus 4">Murid gammaherpesvirus 4</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bat#Disease_transmission" title="Bat">Bat<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Filoviridae" title="Filoviridae">Filoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ebola_virus_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebola virus disease">Ebola virus disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bundibugyo_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundibugyo virus">BDBV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudan virus">SUDV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%AF_Forest_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Taï Forest virus">TAFV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaire_ebolavirus" title="Zaire ebolavirus">ZEBOV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus_disease" title="Marburg virus disease">Marburg virus disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus" title="Marburg virus">MARV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravn_virus" title="Ravn virus">RAVV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">Rabies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_bat_lyssavirus" title="Australian bat lyssavirus">ABLV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokola_lyssavirus" title="Mokola lyssavirus">MOKV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duvenhage_lyssavirus" title="Duvenhage lyssavirus">DUVV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagos_bat_lyssavirus" title="Lagos bat lyssavirus">LBV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandipura_vesiculovirus" title="Chandipura vesiculovirus">CHPV</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Paramyxoviridae" title="Paramyxoviridae">Paramyxoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henipavirus" title="Henipavirus">Henipavirus encephalitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hendra_virus" title="Hendra virus">HeV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipah_virus" title="Nipah virus">NiV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Coronaviridae" title="Coronaviridae">Coronaviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_respiratory_syndrome%E2%80%93related_coronavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle East respiratory syndrome–related coronavirus">MERS-CoV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS-related_coronavirus" title="SARS-related coronavirus">SARS-related coronavirus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Severe_acute_respiratory_syndrome_coronavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus">SARS-CoV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primate<br />-borne</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">Herpesviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/B_virus" title="B virus">B virus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Retrovirus" title="Retrovirus">Retroviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simian_foamy_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Simian foamy virus">Simian foamy virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_1" title="Human T-lymphotropic virus 1">HTLV-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_T-lymphotropic_virus_2" title="Human T-lymphotropic virus 2">HTLV-2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Poxviridae" title="Poxviridae">Poxviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanapox" title="Tanapox">Tanapox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaba_monkey_tumor_virus" title="Yaba monkey tumor virus">Yaba monkey tumor virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple<br />vectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Rhabdoviridae" title="Rhabdoviridae">Rhabdoviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">Rabies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabies_virus" title="Rabies virus">RABV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokola_lyssavirus" title="Mokola lyssavirus">Mokola virus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Poxviridae" title="Poxviridae">Poxviridae</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monkeypox" class="mw-redirect" title="Monkeypox">Monkeypox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Tick-borne_diseases_and_infestations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Tick-borne_diseases_and_infestations" title="Template:Tick-borne diseases and infestations"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/Bacterial_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial infection">Bacterial infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rickettsiales" title="Rickettsiales">Rickettsiales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaplasmosis" title="Anaplasmosis">Anaplasmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boutonneuse_fever" title="Boutonneuse fever">Boutonneuse fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ehrlichiosis" title="Ehrlichiosis">Ehrlichiosis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Human_granulocytic_anaplasmosis" title="Human granulocytic anaplasmosis">Human granulocytic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_monocytotropic_ehrlichiosis" title="Human monocytotropic ehrlichiosis">Human monocytotropic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ehrlichiosis_ewingii_infection" title="Ehrlichiosis ewingii infection">Human <i>E. ewingii</i> infection</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrub_typhus" title="Scrub typhus">Scrub typhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spotted_fever_rickettsiosis" title="Spotted fever rickettsiosis">Spotted fever rickettsiosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Coast_tick_fever" title="Pacific Coast tick fever">Pacific Coast tick fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_tick_bite_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="American tick bite fever">American tick bite fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rickettsialpox" title="Rickettsialpox">rickettsialpox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountain_spotted_fever" title="Rocky Mountain spotted fever">Rocky Mountain spotted fever</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spirochaete" title="Spirochaete">Spirochaete</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baggio%E2%80%93Yoshinari_syndrome" title="Baggio–Yoshinari syndrome">Baggio–Yoshinari syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relapsing_fever_borreliosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Relapsing fever borreliosis">Relapsing fever borreliosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thiotrichales" title="Thiotrichales">Thiotrichales</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tularemia" title="Tularemia">Tularemia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Viral_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Viral infection">Viral infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhanja_virus" title="Bhanja virus">Bhanja virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_virus" title="Bourbon virus">Bourbon virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_tick_fever" title="Colorado tick fever">Colorado tick fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Congo_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever">Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heartland_bandavirus" title="Heartland bandavirus">Heartland bandavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemerovo_tickborne_viral_fever" title="Kemerovo tickborne viral fever">Kemerovo tickborne viral fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyasanur_Forest_disease" title="Kyasanur Forest disease">Kyasanur Forest disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omsk_hemorrhagic_fever" title="Omsk hemorrhagic fever">Omsk hemorrhagic fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powassan_encephalitis" title="Powassan encephalitis">Powassan encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severe_fever_with_thrombocytopenia_syndrome" title="Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome">Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tete_orthobunyavirus" title="Tete orthobunyavirus">Tete orthobunyavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_encephalitis" title="Tick-borne encephalitis">Tick-borne encephalitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protozoan_infection" title="Protozoan infection">Protozoan infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babesiosis" title="Babesiosis">Babesiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tick_paralysis" title="Tick paralysis">Tick paralysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-gal_allergy" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-gal allergy">Alpha-gal allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_tick-associated_rash_illness" title="Southern tick-associated rash illness">Southern tick-associated rash illness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tick_infestation" title="Tick infestation">Tick infestation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Species and bites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Amblyomma" title="Amblyomma">Amblyomma</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amblyomma_americanum" title="Amblyomma americanum">Amblyomma americanum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amblyomma_cajennense" title="Amblyomma cajennense">Amblyomma cajennense</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Amblyomma_triguttatum" title="Amblyomma triguttatum">Amblyomma triguttatum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Dermacentor" title="Dermacentor">Dermacentor</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dermacentor_andersoni" title="Dermacentor andersoni">Dermacentor andersoni</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dermacentor_variabilis" title="Dermacentor variabilis">Dermacentor variabilis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ixodes" title="Ixodes">Ixodes</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ixodes_cornuatus" title="Ixodes cornuatus">Ixodes cornuatus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ixodes_holocyclus" title="Ixodes holocyclus">Ixodes holocyclus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ixodes_pacificus" title="Ixodes pacificus">Ixodes pacificus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ixodes_ricinus" title="Ixodes ricinus">Ixodes ricinus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ixodes_scapularis" title="Ixodes scapularis">Ixodes scapularis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Ornithodoros" title="Ornithodoros">Ornithodoros</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ornithodoros_gurneyi" title="Ornithodoros gurneyi">Ornithodoros gurneyi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ornithodoros_hermsi" title="Ornithodoros hermsi">Ornithodoros hermsi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ornithodoros_moubata" title="Ornithodoros moubata">Ornithodoros moubata</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhipicephalus_sanguineus" title="Rhipicephalus sanguineus">Rhipicephalus sanguineus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template talk:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts in <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious disease</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_infectious_disease_concepts" title="Outline of infectious disease concepts">Outline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Determinants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">Agent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm#Infectious_diseases" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_infective_dose" title="Minimal infective dose">Infectious dose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">Pathogenicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">factors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">Multidrug-resistant bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_tropism" title="Host tropism">Host tropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">Comorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_foot_infection" title="Diabetic foot infection">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93pathogen_interaction" title="Host–pathogen interaction">Host–pathogen interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">Immune response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">Immunosuppression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbiome health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_infection" title="Risk of infection">Risk of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susceptible_individual" title="Susceptible individual">Susceptible individual</a> <ul><li>Age</li> <li>Gender</li> <li>Nutrition status</li> <li>Vaccination status</li> <li>Genetic predisposition</li> <li>Behavioral/lifestyle factors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco#infection" title="Health effects of tobacco">Smoking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pregnancy</li> <li>Stress levels</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">Access to water, sanitation and hygiene</a></li> <li>Air quality</li> <li>Biodiversity loss</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change</a></li> <li>Climate zones <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o#Health_and_social_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease#Relation_of_climate_to_tropical_diseases" title="Tropical disease">Tropical diseases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation#Health_effects" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity#Human_health" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Injection drug use</a></li> <li>Natural disaster <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood#Health_effects" title="Flood">Flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry">Poultry and livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization#Infections" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_epidemiology" title="Conflict epidemiology">War and conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Basic_concepts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Basic <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection#Pathophysiology" title="Infection">Chain of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubation_period" title="Incubation period">Incubation period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_case" title="Index case">Index case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_period" title="Infectious period">Infectious period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_period_(epidemiology)" title="Latent period (epidemiology)">Latent period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">Natural reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclinical_infection" title="Subclinical infection">Silent/Subclinical infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-spreader" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-spreader">Super-spreader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">Viral load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_period" title="Window period">Window period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Endogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Endogenous overgrowth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome#Disease_and_death" title="Human microbiome">Normal flora overgrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_latency" title="Virus latency">Endogenous reactivation</a></li> <li>Microbial translocation</li> <li>Endogenous seeding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a> formation</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Exogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">Cross-species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">Vector</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human-to-human_transmission" title="Human-to-human transmission">Human-to-human</a><br />/Cross-infection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">Contagious disease</a></li> <li>Source <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Nosocomial/Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenic/Medical care</a></li></ul></li> <li>Generational difference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertical/Congenital</a> <ul><li>Prenatal</li> <li>Perinatal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_infection" title="Neonatal infection">Neonatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Horizontal_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Horizontal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_infection" title="Breakthrough infection">Breakthrough infection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Environment-<br />to-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapronosis" title="Sapronosis">Sapronosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Routes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Respiratory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure" title="Aerosol-generating procedure">Aerosol-generating procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_aerosol" title="Dental aerosol">Dental aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_droplet#Role_in_disease_transmission" title="Respiratory droplet">Respiratory droplet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Linked to<br />Vascular system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood-borne_disease" title="Blood-borne disease">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li>Percutaneous inoculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)#Infection" title="Injection (medicine)">Injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy#Infection_and_inflammation" title="Intravenous therapy">Intravenous line</a></li> <li>Insect bite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite#Infection" title="Animal bite">Animal bite</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surgical intervention <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postoperative_wounds#Infection" title="Postoperative wounds">Postoperative wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_site_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical site infection">Surgical site infection</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vector-borne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Gastrointestinal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">Contamination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_contraindications" title="Breastfeeding contraindications">Breastmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_disease" title="Waterborne disease">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Feces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cutaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">Soil</a></li> <li>Open <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wound</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Genitourinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Trans-placental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Prenatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cervico-vaginal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Perinatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Modelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Bacteria_aggregation_leading_to_biofilm_formation" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_disease_model" title="Animal disease model">Animal disease model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">Basic reproduction number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmental_models_in_epidemiology" title="Compartmental models in epidemiology">Compartmental models in epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_community_size" title="Critical community size">Critical community size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_of_infection" title="Force of infection">Force of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">Herd immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_rate" title="Infection rate">Infection rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_of_infection" title="Multiplicity of infection">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_interval" title="Serial interval">Serial interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAIFW_matrix" title="WAIFW matrix">WAIFW matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Occurrence<br />in population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_cluster" title="Disease cluster">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_curve" title="Epidemic curve">Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farr%27s_laws" title="Farr's laws">Farr's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoendemic" title="Holoendemic">Holoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperendemic" title="Hyperendemic">Hyperendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inequality_in_disease" title="Inequality in disease">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoendemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoendemic">Mesoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">Outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic#Seasonality" title="Epidemic">Seasonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_epidemiology" title="Spatial epidemiology">Geographic distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporadic_disease" title="Sporadic disease">Sporadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twindemic" title="Twindemic">Twindemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical <br />location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Respiratory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Upper respiratory tract infection">Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Lower respiratory tract infection">Chest/Lower respiratory tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal infection">Gastrointestinal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Genitourinary</li> <li>Nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">Skin</a></li> <li>Soft tissue</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone infection">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint infection">Joint</a></li> <li>Cardiovascular</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_disease" title="Systemic disease">Systemic/Generalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontogenic_infection" title="Odontogenic infection">Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_infection" title="Mouth infection">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-amniotic_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-amniotic infection">Fetus</a></li> <li>Eye</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection_prevention_and_control" title="Infection prevention and control">Prevention<br />and Control<br />measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Pharmaceutical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">prophylactic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascaricide" title="Ascaricide">Ascaricide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">Antiseptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Asepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Drug safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy" title="Monoclonal antibody therapy">Monoclonal antibody therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">Inoculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Post-exposure prophylaxis">Post-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_repositioning" title="Drug repositioning">Repurposed drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy" title="Vaccine efficacy">efficacy/effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_dose" title="Booster dose">booster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_resistance" title="Vaccine resistance">resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">Vaccine-preventable disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_vaccination" title="Ring vaccination">Ring vaccination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Non-pharmaceutical_intervention_(epidemiology)" title="Non-pharmaceutical intervention (epidemiology)">Non-<br />pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_tracing" title="Contact tracing">Contact tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">Disinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flattening_the_curve" title="Flattening the curve">Flattening the curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_glove" title="Medical glove">Gloves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)" title="Isolation (health care)">Isolation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_nursing" title="Barrier nursing">Barrier nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stay-at-home_order" title="Stay-at-home order">Lockdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_sequestration" title="Protective sequestration">Protective sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a> services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outbreak_response" title="Outbreak response">Outbreak response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_control_(respiratory_disease)" title="Source control (respiratory disease)">Respiratory source control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N95_respirator" title="N95 respirator">N95 respirator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask" title="Surgical mask">Surgical mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">PPE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">Screening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">Sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission-based_precautions" title="Transmission-based precautions">Transmission-based precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_ban" title="Travel ban">Travel restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_precautions" title="Universal precautions">Universal precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li> <li>Zoning</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">Emerging <br />infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_drift" title="Antigenic drift">Antigenic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_shift" title="Antigenic shift">Antigenic shift</a></li> <li>Antimicrobial resistance surveillance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EARS-Net" title="EARS-Net">EARS-Net</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_X" title="Disease X">Disease X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_virus" title="Emergent virus">Emergent virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epidemiology" title="Evolutionary epidemiology">Evolutionary epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Initiatives" title="Global Health Initiatives">Global Health Initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Health_Model" title="One Health Model">One Health Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">Genomic reassortment</a></li> <li>Re-emerging disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure#Antibiotic_resistance" title="Evolutionary pressure">Selection pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phylodynamics" title="Viral phylodynamics">Viral phylodynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">Eradication</a></li> <li>Economics of Infectious Diseases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease (medical specialty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_informatics" title="Disease informatics">Infectious disease informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Microbial bioterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">Pandemic prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: 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class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85150001">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119626189">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119626189">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00971020">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="zoonózy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph136895&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX528485">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a 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