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throne</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accession_to_the_throne-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frontier_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frontier_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Frontier wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frontier_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_achievements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_achievements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cultural achievements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_achievements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cultural achievements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_achievements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Burning_of_books_and_modification_of_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burning_of_books_and_modification_of_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Burning of books and modification of texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burning_of_books_and_modification_of_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literary_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literary_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Literary works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literary_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tibetan_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tibetan_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Tibetan Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tibetan_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-Islam_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-Islam_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Anti-Islam laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-Islam_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Palaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_styles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_styles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.1</span> <span>European styles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_styles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7.2</span> <span>Other architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descendants_of_the_Ming_dynasty's_imperial_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descendants_of_the_Ming_dynasty's_imperial_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Descendants of the Ming dynasty's imperial family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descendants_of_the_Ming_dynasty's_imperial_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Banner_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banner_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Banner system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banner_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anti-gun_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-gun_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Anti-gun measures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-gun_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_political_identity_and_frontier_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_political_identity_and_frontier_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Chinese political identity and frontier policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_political_identity_and_frontier_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Han_settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Han_settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Han settlement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Han_settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Later years</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_years-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Later years subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Later_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Macartney_Embassy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Macartney_Embassy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Macartney Embassy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Macartney_Embassy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Titsingh_Embassy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Titsingh_Embassy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Titsingh Embassy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Titsingh_Embassy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abdication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abdication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Abdication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abdication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Ancestry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_by_the_Qianlong_Emperor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_by_the_Qianlong_Emperor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Works by the Qianlong Emperor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_by_the_Qianlong_Emperor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Qianlong Emperor</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D8%BA" title="الإمبراطور تشيان لونغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الإمبراطور تشيان لونغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D9%82_(%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1)" title="چیان‌لونق (ایمپیراتور) – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چیان‌لونق (ایمپیراتور)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khi%C3%A2n-li%C3%B4ng_H%C3%B4ng-t%C3%A8" title="Khiân-liông Hông-tè – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khiân-liông Hông-tè" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Цяньлун – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Цяньлун" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Циенлун – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Циенлун" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BC%8D_(%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%84%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8D)" title="ཆན་ལུང་། (གོང་མ།) – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཆན་ལུང་། (གོང་མ།)" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cchien-lung" title="Čchien-lung – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Čchien-lung" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF" title="امپراتور چیان‌لونگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتور چیان‌لونگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B4n-l%C3%B9ng_F%C3%B2ng-ti" title="Kôn-lùng Fòng-ti – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kôn-lùng Fòng-ti" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B1%B4%EB%A5%AD%EC%A0%9C" title="건륭제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="건륭제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperiestro_Qianlong" title="Imperiestro Qianlong – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Imperiestro Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaisar_Qianlong" title="Kaisar Qianlong – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kaisar Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%27%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92,_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8_%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9F" title="צ'יינלונג, קיסר סין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צ'יינלונג, קיסר סין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaisar_Qianlong" title="Kaisar Qianlong – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kaisar Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Цянь Лун – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Цянь Лун" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cja%C5%86luns" title="Cjaņluns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Cjaņluns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csien-lung_k%C3%ADnai_cs%C3%A1sz%C3%A1r" title="Csien-lung kínai császár – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csien-lung kínai császár" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97" title="सम्राट छियानलोंग – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सम्राट छियानलोंग" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AC" title="الامبراطور تشيان لونج – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الامبراطور تشيان لونج" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharaja_Qianlong" title="Maharaja Qianlong – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Maharaja Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gi%C3%A8ng-l%E1%B9%B3%CC%80ng_Hu%C3%B2ng-d%C3%A1%CC%A4" title="Gièng-lṳ̀ng Huòng-dá̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gièng-lṳ̀ng Huòng-dá̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8D%D1%80_%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%B3%D1%87" title="Тэнгэр тэтгэгч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тэнгэр тэтгэгч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%99" title="सम्राट चियानलङ – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सम्राट चियानलङ" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D" title="乾隆帝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="乾隆帝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong-keiseren" title="Qianlong-keiseren – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Qianlong-keiseren" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator_Syanlun" title="Imperator Syanlun – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Imperator Syanlun" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF" title="چی این لونگ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چی این لونگ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emp%C4%83ratul_Qianlong" title="Împăratul Qianlong – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Împăratul Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aixin-Jueluo_Hongli" title="Aixin-Jueluo Hongli – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Aixin-Jueluo Hongli" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BD" title="Цяньлун – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цяньлун" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Qianlong Emperor" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Qianlong Emperor – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Qianlong Emperor" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong-kejsaren" title="Qianlong-kejsaren – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Qianlong-kejsaren" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%89%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%87" title="จักรพรรดิเฉียนหลง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จักรพรรดิเฉียนหลง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianlong" title="Qianlong – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Qianlong" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Хунлі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хунлі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86%DA%AF" title="چی این لونگ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چی این لونگ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D9%8A%DB%95%D9%86%D9%84%DB%87%DA%AD_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86" title="چيەنلۇڭ خان – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="چيەنلۇڭ خان" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cienzlungz" title="Cienzlungz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Cienzlungz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0n_Long" title="Càn Long – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Càn Long" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97" title="清高宗 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="清高宗" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97" title="清高宗 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="清高宗" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%98%E6%9B%86" title="弘曆 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="弘曆" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D" title="乾隆帝 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="乾隆帝" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q19133#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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searchaux" style="display:none">Emperor of China from 1735 to 1796</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Chinese emperor. For the sauropodomorph dinosaur species, see <a href="/wiki/Qianlong_shouhu" title="Qianlong shouhu">Qianlong shouhu</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Qianlong Emperor<br /><span style="font-weight:normal; font-style:normal"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">乾隆帝</span></span></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85_%E9%83%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%81%E7%BB%98%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%E6%B8%85_%E9%83%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%81%E7%BB%98%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg/220px-%E6%B8%85_%E9%83%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%81%E7%BB%98%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%E6%B8%85_%E9%83%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%81%E7%BB%98%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg/330px-%E6%B8%85_%E9%83%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%81%E7%BB%98%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/%E6%B8%85_%E9%83%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%81%E7%BB%98%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg/440px-%E6%B8%85_%E9%83%8E%E4%B8%96%E5%AE%81%E7%BB%98%E3%80%8A%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%B8%9D%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E3%80%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1813" data-file-height="2432" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Castiglione_(Jesuit_painter)" title="Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)">Giuseppe Castiglione</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">Emperor of the Qing dynasty</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data">18 October 1735 – 9 February 1796</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Taishang_Huang" title="Taishang Huang">Emperor Emeritus of the Qing dynasty</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Tenure</th><td class="infobox-data">9 February 1796 – 7 February 1799</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Prince Bao of the First Rank</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Tenure</th><td class="infobox-data">1733–1735</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1711-09-25</span>)</span>25 September 1711<br />(康熙五十年八月十三日)<br /><a href="/wiki/Yonghe_Temple" title="Yonghe Temple">Prince Yong's Mansion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">7 February 1799<span style="display:none">(1799-02-07)</span> (aged 87)<br />(嘉慶四年正月三日)<br /><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="label">Yu Mausoleum, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Qing_tombs" title="Eastern Qing tombs">Eastern Qing tombs</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoxianchun" title="Empress Xiaoxianchun">Empress Xiaoxianchun</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1727; died 1748)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Empress_Nara" title="Empress Nara">Empress Nara</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1734; died 1766)<wbr /></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoyichun" title="Empress Xiaoyichun">Empress Xiaoyichun</a></div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1745; died 1775)<wbr /></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yonghuang" title="Yonghuang">Yonghuang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Ding" title="Prince Ding">Prince Ding'an of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongzhang" title="Yongzhang">Yongzhang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Xun_(%E5%BE%AA)" title="Prince Xun (循)">Prince Xun of the Second Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongcheng_(prince)" title="Yongcheng (prince)">Yongcheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_L%C3%BC" title="Prince Lü">Prince Lüduan of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongqi,_Prince_Rong" title="Yongqi, Prince Rong">Yongqi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Rong" title="Prince Rong">Prince Rongchun of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongrong" title="Yongrong">Yongrong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Shen" title="Prince Shen">Prince Zhizhuang of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongxuan" title="Yongxuan">Yongxuan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Yi_(%E5%84%80)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Yi (儀)">Prince Yishen of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongxing_(prince)" title="Yongxing (prince)">Yongxing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Cheng_of_the_First_Rank" title="Prince Cheng of the First Rank">Prince Chengzhe of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yonglin" title="Yonglin">Yonglin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Qing" title="Prince Qing">Prince Qingxi of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hejing_(born_1731)" title="Princess Hejing (born 1731)">Princess Hejing of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hejia_of_the_Second_Rank" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Hejia of the Second Rank">Princess Hejia of the Second Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hejing_(born_1756)" title="Princess Hejing (born 1756)">Princess Hejing of the First Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Heke_of_the_Second_Rank" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Heke of the Second Rank">Princess Heke of the Second Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hexiao_of_the_First_Rank" class="mw-redirect" title="Princess Hexiao of the First Rank">Princess Hexiao of the First Rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Names</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data nickname" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Aisin-Gioro Hongli (愛新覺羅·弘曆)<br /><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: Hung li (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237794275">.mw-parser-output .font-mong{font-family:"Menk Hawang Tig","Menk Qagan Tig","Menk Garqag Tig","Menk Har_a Tig","Menk Scnin Tig","Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig","Oyun Qagan Tig","Oyun Garqag Tig","Oyun Har_a Tig","Oyun Scnin Tig","Oyun Agula Tig","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White","Mongol Usug","Mongolian White","MongolianScript","Code2000","Menksoft Qagan"}.mw-parser-output .font-mong-mnc,.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(mnc-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(dta-Mong),.mw-parser-output .font-mong:lang(sjo-Mong){font-family:"Abkai Xanyan","Abkai Xanyan LA","Abkai Xanyan VT","Abkai Xanyan XX","Abkai Xanyan SC","Abkai Buleku","Daicing White","Mongolian Baiti","Noto Sans Mongolian","Mongolian Universal White"}</style><span class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top; height:1.8em;word-wrap:not normal">ᡥᡠᠩ ᠯᡳ</span>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left">Era name and dates</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Qianlong (Ch'ien-lung; 乾隆): 12 February 1736 – 8 February 1796<br /><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: Abkai wehiyehe (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span lang="mnc" class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top; height:2em;word-wrap:not normal">ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ ᠸᡝᡥᡳᠶᡝᡥᡝ</span>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>: Тэнгэр тэтгэгч (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.2em; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top; height:2.1em;word-wrap:not normal">ᠲᠩᠷᠢ ᠲᠡᠳᠬᠦᠭᠴᠢ</span>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Posthumous_name" title="Posthumous name">Posthumous name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;"><b>Emperor</b> Fatian Longyun Zhicheng Xianjue Tiyuan Liji Fuwen Fenwu Qinming Xiaoci Shensheng <b>Chun</b> (法天隆運至誠先覺體元立極敷文奮武欽明孝慈神聖<b>純皇帝</b>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: Yongkiyaha hūwangdi (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᠶᠣᠩᡴᡳᠶᠠᡥᠠ <br />ᡥᡡᠸᠠᠩᡩᡳ</span>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">Temple name</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align:left; padding-left:0.7em;">Gāozōng (高宗)<br /><a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: G'aodzung (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237794275"><span class="font-mong-mnc" style="display:inline-block; font-weight:normal; font-size: 1.25em; line-height: 1.25em; font-family:'Mongolian Baiti', 'Mongol Universal White', 'Noto Sans Mongolian', 'Abkai Xanyan', 'Abkai Xanyan LA', 'Abkai Xanyan VT', 'Abkai Xanyan XX', 'Abkai Xanyan SC', 'Abkai Buleku', 'Daicing White', 'Oyun Gurban Ulus Tig', 'Oyun Qagan Tig', 'Oyun Garqag Tig', 'Oyun Har_a Tig', 'Oyun Scnin Tig', 'Mongolian BT'; -webkit-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -o-writing-mode: vertical-lr; -ms-writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: tb-lr; writing-mode: vertical-lr;; text-orientation: sideways; vertical-align:text-top;">ᡬᠠᠣᡯᡠᠩ</span>)<br /></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">House</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">Aisin-Gioro</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoshengxian" title="Empress Xiaoshengxian">Empress Xiaoshengxian</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Seal_(East_Asia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (East Asia)">Seal</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="notpageimage infobox-signature skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chenhan_Seal_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Qianlong Emperor 乾隆帝's signature"><img alt="Qianlong Emperor 乾隆帝's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chenhan_Seal_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor.svg/125px-Chenhan_Seal_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chenhan_Seal_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor.svg/188px-Chenhan_Seal_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Chenhan_Seal_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor.svg/250px-Chenhan_Seal_of_the_Qianlong_Emperor.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="501" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Qianlong Emperor</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant" style="font-size: 1rem;">乾隆帝</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans" style="font-size: 1rem;">乾隆帝</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Qiánlóng Dì</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn">Chʻien<sup>2</sup>lung<sup>2</sup> Ti<sup>4</sup></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="zh-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="cmn-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tɕʰjɛ̌nlʊ̌ŋ tî]</a></span></span></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Kìhnlùhng Dai</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn">Kin4-lung4 Dai3</span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span title="Yue Chinese-language romanization"><span style="font-style: normal" lang="yue-Latn"><span class="IPA" lang="yue-Latn-fonipa" style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[kʰin˩.lʊŋ˩ tɐj˧]</a></span></span></span></td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/9px-Manju_gisun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/14px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Manju_gisun.svg/19px-Manju_gisun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="27" data-file-height="111" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> text.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Manchu" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu alphabet</a>.</div></div> </div> <p>The <b>Qianlong Emperor</b> (25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799), also known by his <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> <b>Emperor Gaozong of Qing</b>, personal name <b>Hongli</b>, was the sixth <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>. He reigned officially from 1735 until his abdication in 1796, but retained ultimate power subsequently until his death in 1799, making him one of the <a href="/wiki/Longest-reigning_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Longest-reigning monarchs">longest-reigning monarchs</a> in history as well as one of the longest-lived. </p><p>The fourth and favourite son of the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a>, Qianlong ascended the throne in 1735. A highly ambitious military leader, he led <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">a series of campaigns</a> into Inner Asia, Burma, Nepal and Vietnam and suppressed rebellions in <a href="/wiki/Jinchuan_County" title="Jinchuan County">Jinchuan</a> and Taiwan. During his lifetime, he was given the deified title <b><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Manjushri" title="Emperor Manjushri">Emperor Manjushri</a></b> by the <a href="/wiki/Qing%27s_Tibetan_subjects" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing's Tibetan subjects">Qing's Tibetan subjects</a>. Domestically, Qianlong was a major patron of the arts as well as a prolific writer. He sponsored the compilation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Siku_Quanshu" title="Siku Quanshu">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i>, the largest collection ever made of Chinese history, while also overseeing extensive <a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">literary inquisitions</a> that led to the suppression of some 3,100 works. </p><p>In 1796, Qianlong abdicated after 60 years on the throne out of respect towards his grandfather, the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a>, who ruled for 61 years, so as to avoid usurping him as the longest-reigning Qing emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-nytjacobs_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytjacobs-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was succeeded by his son, who ascended the throne as the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a> but ruled only in name as Qianlong held on to power as <a href="/wiki/Taishang_Huang" title="Taishang Huang">Emperor Emeritus</a> until his death in 1799 at the age of 87. </p><p>Qianlong oversaw the <a href="/wiki/High_Qing_era" title="High Qing era">High Qing era</a>, which marked the height of the dynasty's power, influence, and prosperity. During his long reign, the empire had the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest population</a> and economy in the world and reached its greatest territorial extent. At the same time, years of exhaustive campaigns severely weakened the Qing military, which coupled with endemic corruption, wastefulness in his court and a stagnating civil society, ushered the gradual decline and ultimate demise of the Qing empire. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_years">Early years</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Qianlong_Emperor" title="Special:EditPage/Qianlong Emperor">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qianlong_3_years_old_having_a_bath_IMG_5829_Great_Lama_Temple_Beijing_-_Jietai_Building_qianlong_era_temple_treasures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Qianlong_3_years_old_having_a_bath_IMG_5829_Great_Lama_Temple_Beijing_-_Jietai_Building_qianlong_era_temple_treasures.jpg/220px-Qianlong_3_years_old_having_a_bath_IMG_5829_Great_Lama_Temple_Beijing_-_Jietai_Building_qianlong_era_temple_treasures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Qianlong_3_years_old_having_a_bath_IMG_5829_Great_Lama_Temple_Beijing_-_Jietai_Building_qianlong_era_temple_treasures.jpg/330px-Qianlong_3_years_old_having_a_bath_IMG_5829_Great_Lama_Temple_Beijing_-_Jietai_Building_qianlong_era_temple_treasures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Qianlong_3_years_old_having_a_bath_IMG_5829_Great_Lama_Temple_Beijing_-_Jietai_Building_qianlong_era_temple_treasures.jpg/440px-Qianlong_3_years_old_having_a_bath_IMG_5829_Great_Lama_Temple_Beijing_-_Jietai_Building_qianlong_era_temple_treasures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Figurine of the three-year-old Qianlong Emperor having a bath. Artefact in Yonghe Temple, Beijing.</figcaption></figure> <p>Hongli was the fourth son of the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> and was born to <a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoshengxian" title="Empress Xiaoshengxian">Noble Consort Xi</a>. Hongli was adored by both his grandfather, the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a>, and his father, the Yongzheng Emperor. Some historians<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (July 2015)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> argue that the main reason why the Kangxi Emperor appointed the Yongzheng Emperor as his successor was because Hongli was his favorite grandson. He felt that Hongli's mannerisms were very similar to his own. As a teenager, Hongli was capable in martial arts and possessed literary ability. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_-_Portrait_of_Qianlong_Emperor_As_a_Young_Man_-_42.141.8_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Anonymous_-_Portrait_of_Qianlong_Emperor_As_a_Young_Man_-_42.141.8_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/220px-Anonymous_-_Portrait_of_Qianlong_Emperor_As_a_Young_Man_-_42.141.8_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="431" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Anonymous_-_Portrait_of_Qianlong_Emperor_As_a_Young_Man_-_42.141.8_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/330px-Anonymous_-_Portrait_of_Qianlong_Emperor_As_a_Young_Man_-_42.141.8_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Anonymous_-_Portrait_of_Qianlong_Emperor_As_a_Young_Man_-_42.141.8_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/440px-Anonymous_-_Portrait_of_Qianlong_Emperor_As_a_Young_Man_-_42.141.8_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1899" data-file-height="3722" /></a><figcaption>The young Qianlong Emperor as Prince Bao, <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After his father's enthronement in 1722, Hongli was made a <a href="/wiki/Bei_Le" class="mw-redirect" title="Bei Le"><i>qinwang</i> (first-rank prince)</a> under the title "<b>Prince Bao of the First Rank</b>" (<span lang="zh-Hant">和碩寶親王</span>; <i><span lang="zh-Latn">Héshuò Bǎo Qīnwáng</span></i>). Like his many uncles, Hongli entered into a battle of succession with his elder half-brother <a href="/wiki/Hongshi" title="Hongshi">Hongshi</a>, who had the support of a large faction of officials in the imperial court as well as <a href="/wiki/Yunsi" title="Yunsi">Yunsi, Prince Lian</a>. For many years, the Yongzheng Emperor did not designate any of his sons as the crown prince, but many officials speculated that he favoured Hongli. Hongli went on inspection trips to the south and was an able negotiator and enforcer. He was also appointed as the chief <a href="/wiki/Regent" title="Regent">regent</a> on occasions when his father was away from the capital. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accession_to_the_throne">Accession to the throne</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Accession to the throne"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qianlong_and_the_Empress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qianlong_and_the_Empress.jpg/220px-Qianlong_and_the_Empress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qianlong_and_the_Empress.jpg/330px-Qianlong_and_the_Empress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Qianlong_and_the_Empress.jpg/440px-Qianlong_and_the_Empress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="797" /></a><figcaption>Inauguration Portraits of Emperor Qianlong and Empress, <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Hongli's accession to the throne was already foreseen before he was officially proclaimed emperor before the assembled imperial court upon the death of the <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a>. The young Hongli was the favorite grandson of the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> and the favorite son of the Yongzheng Emperor; the Yongzheng Emperor had entrusted a number of important ritual tasks to Hongli while the latter was still a prince, and included him in important court discussions of <a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">military strategy</a>. In the hope of preventing a succession struggle from occurring, the Yongzheng Emperor wrote the name of his chosen successor on a piece of paper and placed it in a sealed box secured behind the tablet over the throne in the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Heavenly_Purity" title="Palace of Heavenly Purity">Palace of Heavenly Purity</a> (Qianqing Palace). The name in the box was to be revealed to other members of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Aisin-Gioro" title="House of Aisin-Gioro">imperial family</a> in the presence of all senior ministers only upon the death of the emperor. When the Yongzheng Emperor died suddenly in 1735, the will was taken out and read before the entire <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a> imperial court, after which Hongli became the new emperor. Hongli adopted the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">era name</a> "Qianlong", which means "Lasting Eminence". </p><p>In 1739, the Prince <a href="/wiki/Hongxi_(prince)" title="Hongxi (prince)">Hongxi</a> (son of Kangxi's deposed crown prince, <a href="/wiki/Yunreng" title="Yunreng">Yunreng</a>) plotted a <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_Hongxi" title="Coup of Hongxi">coup</a> with five other princes to overthrow Qianlong and replace him with Hongxi.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They planned to initiate their coup during an <a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">imperial hunt</a> on the Mulan hunting grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hongxi was proclaimed Emperor, but the plot was exposed by Prince <a href="/wiki/Hongpu" title="Hongpu">Hongpu</a> and the princes were arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebels were tried;<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the most prominent conspirators were imprisoned,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while lessor offenders were stripped of their titles or demoted.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1778, the Qianlong Emperor restored the original names to <a href="/wiki/Yunsi" title="Yunsi">Yunsi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yuntang" title="Yuntang">Yuntang</a>, and Hongxi and allowed their descendants to be recorded in the imperial genealogy. However, the emperor did not revoke the decrees depriving those princes of their titles. In 1783, when the imperial chronicles were commissioned, the historians were ordered to emphasise the role of the emperor in quelling the rebellion and to mention that "Hongxi and others wanted to usurp the throne".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Frontier_wars">Frontier wars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Frontier wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns" title="Ten Great Campaigns">Ten Great Campaigns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty_in_Inner_Asia" title="Qing dynasty in Inner Asia">Qing dynasty in Inner Asia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Ceremonial_Armour_on_Horseback.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Ceremonial_Armour_on_Horseback.jpg/220px-The_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Ceremonial_Armour_on_Horseback.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Ceremonial_Armour_on_Horseback.jpg/330px-The_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Ceremonial_Armour_on_Horseback.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/The_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Ceremonial_Armour_on_Horseback.jpg/440px-The_Qianlong_Emperor_in_Ceremonial_Armour_on_Horseback.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2742" data-file-height="3825" /></a><figcaption><i>The Qianlong Emperor in Ceremonial Armour on Horseback</i>, by Italian <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Castiglione_(Jesuit_painter)" title="Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)">Giuseppe Castiglione</a> (known as Lang Shining in Chinese) (1688–1766)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qianlong_emperor_hunting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Qianlong_emperor_hunting.jpg/220px-Qianlong_emperor_hunting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Qianlong_emperor_hunting.jpg/330px-Qianlong_emperor_hunting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Qianlong_emperor_hunting.jpg/440px-Qianlong_emperor_hunting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1258" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Qianlong Emperor hunting</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qianlong Emperor was a successful military leader. Immediately after ascending the throne, he sent armies to suppress the <a href="/wiki/Miao_Rebellion_(1735%E2%80%931736)" title="Miao Rebellion (1735–1736)">Miao rebellion</a>. His later campaigns greatly expanded the territory controlled by the Qing Empire. This was made possible not only by Qing military might, but also by the disunity and declining strength of the Inner Asian peoples. </p><p>Under the Qianlong Emperor's reign, the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> was incorporated into the Qing Empire's rule and renamed <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, while to the west, <a href="/wiki/Ili_Kazakh_Autonomous_Prefecture" title="Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture">Ili</a> was conquered and garrisoned. The incorporation of Xinjiang into the Qing Empire resulted from the final defeat and destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_people" title="Dzungar people">Dzungars</a> (or Zunghars), a coalition of Western Mongol tribes. The Qianlong Emperor then ordered the <a href="/wiki/Dzungar_genocide" title="Dzungar genocide">Dzungar genocide</a>. According to the Qing dynasty scholar <a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a>, 40% of the 600,000 Dzungars were killed by <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, 20% fled to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> or <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakh</a> tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perdue_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perdue-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in what Michael Edmund Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Perdue" title="Peter C. Perdue">Peter Perdue</a> has argued that the decimation of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of <a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history#Qing-dynasty_China" title="Genocides in history">massacre</a> launched by the Qianlong Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-Perdue_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perdue-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Dzungar genocide has been compared to the Qing <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns#Suppression_of_the_Jinchuan_hill_peoples_(1747–1749,_1771–1776)" title="Ten Great Campaigns">extermination of the Jinchuan Tibetan people in 1776</a>, which also occurred during the Qianlong Emperor's reign.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When victorious troops returned to Beijing, a celebratory hymn was sung in their honour. A Manchu version of the hymn was recorded by the <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Marie_Amiot" title="Jean Joseph Marie Amiot">Amiot</a> and sent to Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qing Empire hired <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Yi" title="Zhao Yi">Zhao Yi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiang_Yongzhi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jiang Yongzhi (page does not exist)">Jiang Yongzhi</a> at the Military Archives Office, in their capacity as members of the <a href="/wiki/Hanlin_Academy" title="Hanlin Academy">Hanlin Academy</a>, to compile works on the Dzungar campaign, such as <i>Strategy for the pacification of the Dzungars</i> (Pingding Zhunge'er fanglue).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poems glorifying the Qing conquest and genocide of the Dzungar Mongols were written by Zhao,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who wrote the <i>Yanpu zaji</i> in "brush-notes" style, where military expenditures of the Qianlong Emperor's reign were recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qianlong Emperor was praised as being the source of "eighteenth-century peace and prosperity" by Zhao Yi.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khalkha Mongol rebels under <a href="/wiki/Ching%C3%BCnjav" title="Chingünjav">Prince Chingünjav</a> had plotted with the Dzungar leader <a href="/wiki/Amursana" title="Amursana">Amursana</a> and led a rebellion against the Qing Empire around the same time as the Dzungars. The Qing army crushed the rebellion and executed Chingünjav and his entire family. </p><p>Throughout this period there were continued Mongol interventions in Tibet and a reciprocal spread of <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> in Mongolia. After the <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a>, the Qianlong Emperor sent armies into Tibet and firmly established the <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> as the ruler of Tibet, with a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Qing_ambans_in_Tibet" title="List of Qing ambans in Tibet">Qing resident</a> and garrison to preserve Qing presence.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further afield, military campaigns against Nepalese and <a href="/wiki/Gurkha" title="Gurkha">Gurkhas</a> forced the emperor into stalemate where both parties had to submit. </p><p>On 23 January 1751, Tibetan rebels who participated in the <a href="/wiki/Lhasa_riot_of_1750" title="Lhasa riot of 1750">Lhasa riot of 1750</a> against the Qing were <a href="/wiki/Lingchi" title="Lingchi">sliced to death</a> by Qing Manchu general Bandi, similar to <a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor#Expansion_in_the_northwest" title="Yongzheng Emperor">what happened to Tibetan rebels on 1 November 1728</a> during his father, the Yongzheng Emperor's reign. Six Tibetan rebel leaders plus Tibetan rebel leader Blo-bzan-bkra-sis were sliced to death. The rest of the Tibetan rebel leaders were strangled and beheaded and their heads were displayed to the Tibetan public on poles. The Qing seized the property of the rebels and exiled other Tibetan rebels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech1972207_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech1972207-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchu General Bandi sent a report to the Qing Qianlong emperor on 26 January 1751 on how he carried out the slicings and executions of the Tibetan rebels. The Tibetan rebels dBan-rgyas (Wang-chieh), Padma-sku-rje-c'os-a['el (Pa-t'e-ma-ku-erh-chi-ch'un-p'i-lo) and Tarqan Yasor (Ta-erh-han Ya-hsün) were sliced to death for injuring the Manchu ambans with arrows, bows and fowling pieces during the Lhasa riot when they assaulted the building the Manchu ambans (Labdon and Fucin) were in. Tibetan rebel Sacan Hasiha (Ch'e-ch'en-ha-shih-ha) was sliced to death for murder of multiple individuals. Tibetan rebels Ch'ui-mu-cha-t'e and Rab-brtan (A-la-pu-tan) were sliced to death for looting money and setting fire during the attack on the Ambans. Tibetan rebel Blo-bzan-bkra-sis, the mgron-gner was sliced to death for being the overall leader of the rebels who led the attack which looted money and killed the Manchu ambans. Two Tibetan rebels who had already died before the execution had their dead bodies beheaded, one died in jail, Lag-mgon-po (La-k'o-kun-pu) and the other killed himself since he was scared of the punishment, Pei-lung-sha-k'o-pa. Bandi sentenced to strangulation several rebel followers and bKra-sis-rab-brtan (Cha-shih-la-pu-tan) a messenger. He ordered the live beheadings of Man-chin Te-shih-nai and rDson-dpon dBan-rgyal (Ts'eng-pen Wang-cha-lo and P'yag-mdsod-pa Lha-skyabs (Shang-cho-t'e-pa La-cha-pu) for leading the attack on the building by being the first to go to on the staircase to the next floor and setting fire and carrying the straw to fuel the fire besides killing several men on orders from the rebel leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetech1972256_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetech1972256-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1762 the Qianlong Emperor came close to war with the <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani" title="Ahmad Shah Durrani">Emir Ahmad Shah Durrani</a> because of Qing China's expansions in Central Asia. While Qing and <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a> troops were sent near the frontier in Central Asia, war did not break out. A year later, Durrani sent an envoy to Beijing gifting four splendid horses to Qianlong, which became the subject of a series of paintings, <i><a href="/wiki/Four_Afghan_Steeds" title="Four Afghan Steeds">Four Afghan Steeds</a></i>. However, the Afghan envoy failed to make a good impression to Qianlong after refusing to perform the <i><a href="/wiki/Kowtow" title="Kowtow">kowtow</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Newby_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newby-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qianlong later refused to intervene in the Durrani Empire's killing of the Sultan of <a href="/wiki/Badakhshan" title="Badakhshan">Badakhshan</a>, who was a vassal of Qing China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward2007_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward2007-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChineseSoldierByWilliamAlexander1793.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/ChineseSoldierByWilliamAlexander1793.JPG/220px-ChineseSoldierByWilliamAlexander1793.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/ChineseSoldierByWilliamAlexander1793.JPG/330px-ChineseSoldierByWilliamAlexander1793.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/ChineseSoldierByWilliamAlexander1793.JPG/440px-ChineseSoldierByWilliamAlexander1793.JPG 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1438" /></a><figcaption>A soldier from the Qianlong era, by <a href="/wiki/William_Alexander_(painter)" title="William Alexander (painter)">William Alexander</a>, 1793</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qianlong Emperor responded to the vassal <a href="/wiki/Shan_States" title="Shan States">Shan States</a>'s request for military aid against the attacking forces of Burma,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hall27-29_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall27-29-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese War</a> ended in complete failure. He initially believed that it would be an easy victory against a barbarian tribe, and sent only the <a href="/wiki/Green_Standard_Army" title="Green Standard Army">Green Standard Army</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>, which borders Burma. The Qing invasion came as the majority of Burmese forces were deployed in their <a href="/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1765%E2%80%931767)" title="Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767)">latest invasion</a> of the Siamese <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya Kingdom</a>. Nonetheless, battle-hardened Burmese troops defeated the first two invasions of 1765–66 and 1766–67 at the border. The regional conflict now escalated to a major war that involved military manoeuvres nationwide in both countries. The third invasion (1767–1768) led by the elite <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Manchu Bannermen</a> nearly succeeded, penetrating deep into central Burma within a few days' march from the capital, <a href="/wiki/Inwa" title="Inwa">Inwa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall27-29_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall27-29-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Manchu Bannermen of northern China could not cope with "unfamiliar tropical terrains and lethal endemic diseases", and were driven back with heavy losses. After the close-call, <a href="/wiki/Hsinbyushin" title="Hsinbyushin">King Hsinbyushin</a> redeployed his armies from Siam to the Chinese front. The fourth and largest invasion got bogged down at the frontier. With the Qing forces completely encircled, a truce was reached between the field commanders of the two sides in December 1769. The Qing forces kept a heavy military lineup in the border areas of Yunnan for about one decade in an attempt to wage another war while imposing a ban on inter-border trade for two decades. When Burma and China resumed a diplomatic relationship in 1790, the Qing government unilaterally viewed the act as Burmese submission, and claimed victory.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qianlong Emperor ordered Manchu general Eledeng'e (also spelled E'erdeng'e (<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%8D%E7%88%BE%E7%99%BB%E9%A1%8D" class="extiw" title="zh:額爾登額">額爾登額</a>, or possibly <a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%8D%E7%88%BE%E6%99%AF%E9%A1%8D" class="extiw" title="zh:額爾景額">額爾景額</a>)) to be sliced to death after his commander <a href="/wiki/Mingrui" title="Mingrui">Mingrui</a> was defeated at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maymyo" title="Battle of Maymyo">Battle of Maymyo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Burmese_War#Third_invasion_(1767–1768)" title="Sino-Burmese War">Sino-Burmese war</a> in 1768 because Eledeng'i was not able to help flank Mingrui when he did not arrive at a rendezvous.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The circumstances in Vietnam were not successful either. In 1787, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_Chi%C3%AAu_Th%E1%BB%91ng" title="Lê Chiêu Thống">Lê Chiêu Thống</a>, the last ruler of the Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Lê dynasty</a>, fled from Vietnam and formally requested to be restored to his throne in Thăng Long (present-day <a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a>). The Qianlong Emperor agreed and sent a large army into Vietnam to remove the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tây Sơn</a> (rebels who had captured all of Vietnam). The capital, Thăng Long, was conquered in 1788, but a few months later the Qing army was defeated, and the invasion turned into a debacle due to the surprise attack during <a href="/wiki/T%E1%BA%BFt" title="Tết">Tết</a> (Vietnamese New Year) by <a href="/wiki/Quang_Trung" title="Quang Trung">Nguyễn Huệ</a>, the second and most capable of the three Tây Sơn brothers. The Qing Empire no longer supported Lê Chiêu Thống, and his family were imprisoned in Vietnam. The Qing would not intervene in Vietnam for another 90 years. </p><p>Despite setbacks in the south, overall the Qianlong Emperor's military expansion nearly doubled the area of the already vast Qing Empire, and unified many non-Han peoples—such as <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kazakhs" title="Kazakhs">Kazakhs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_people" title="Kyrgyz people">Kyrgyzs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evenks" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>. It was also a very expensive enterprise; the funds in the Imperial Treasury were almost all put into military expeditions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the wars were successful, they were not overwhelmingly so. The Qing army declined noticeably and had a difficult time facing some enemies: the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Great_Campaigns#Suppression_of_the_Jinchuan_hill_peoples_(1747–1749,_1771–1776)" title="Ten Great Campaigns">campaign against the Jinchuan hill peoples</a> took 2 to 3 years—at first the Qing army were mauled, though <a href="/wiki/Yue_Zhongqi" title="Yue Zhongqi">Yue Zhongqi</a> (a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Yue_Fei" title="Yue Fei">Yue Fei</a>) later took control of the situation. The battle with the Dzungars was closely fought, and caused heavy losses on both sides. </p><p>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ush_rebellion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ush rebellion (page does not exist)">Ush rebellion</a> in 1765 by <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a> Muslims against the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchus</a> occurred after Uyghur women were gang raped by the servants and son of Manchu official Sucheng.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward1998124_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward1998124-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was said that <i>Ush Muslims had long wanted to sleep on [Sucheng and son's] hides and eat their flesh</i> because of the rape of Uyghur Muslim women for months by the Manchu official Sucheng and his son.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward2007108_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward2007108-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Manchu Qianlong Emperor ordered that the Uyghur rebel town be massacred, the Qing forces enslaved all the Uyghur children and women and slaughtered the Uyghur men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward2007109_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward2007109-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manchu soldiers and Manchu officials regularly having sex with or raping Uyghur women caused massive hatred and anger against Manchu rule among Uyghur Muslims. The <a href="/wiki/%C4%80f%C4%81q%C4%AB_Khoja_Holy_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Āfāqī Khoja Holy War">invasion by Jahangir Khoja</a> was preceded by another Manchu official, Binjing, who raped a Muslim daughter of the Kokan aqsaqal from 1818 to 1820. The Qing sought to cover up the rape of Uyghur women by Manchus to prevent anger against their rule from spreading among the Uyghurs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward1998206–207_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward1998206–207-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the end of the frontier wars, the Qing army had started to weaken significantly. In addition to a more lenient military system, warlords became satisfied with their lifestyles. Since most of the warring had already taken place, warlords no longer saw any reason to train their armies, resulting in a rapid military decline by the end of the Qianlong Emperor's reign. This was the main reason for the Qing military's failure to suppress the <a href="/wiki/White_Lotus_Rebellion" title="White Lotus Rebellion">White Lotus Rebellion</a>, which started towards the end of the Qianlong Emperor's reign and extended into the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_achievements">Cultural achievements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Cultural achievements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qianlong11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Qianlong11.jpg/220px-Qianlong11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Qianlong11.jpg/330px-Qianlong11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Qianlong11.jpg/440px-Qianlong11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption>The Qianlong Emperor in his study, painting by <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Castiglione_(Jesuit_painter)" title="Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)">Giuseppe Castiglione</a>, 18th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Qianlong_Emperor_Viewing_Paintings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_Qianlong_Emperor_Viewing_Paintings.jpg/220px-The_Qianlong_Emperor_Viewing_Paintings.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="489" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/The_Qianlong_Emperor_Viewing_Paintings.jpg/330px-The_Qianlong_Emperor_Viewing_Paintings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/The_Qianlong_Emperor_Viewing_Paintings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><i>The Qianlong Emperor Viewing Paintings</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The Qianlong Emperor, like his predecessors, took his cultural role seriously. First, he worked to preserve the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">Manchu</a> heritage, which he saw as the basis of the moral character of the Manchus and thus of the dynasty's power. He ordered the compilation of Manchu language genealogies, histories, and ritual handbooks and in 1747 secretly ordered the compilation of the <a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_the_Qing_dynasty#The_"Shamanic_Code"_of_1747" class="mw-redirect" title="Shamanism in the Qing dynasty">Shamanic Code</a>, published later in the <i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Library_of_the_Four_Treasuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Library of the Four Treasuries">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i>. He further solidified the dynasty's cultural and religious claims in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> by ordering a replica of the Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Potala_Palace" title="Potala Palace">Potala Palace</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple" title="Putuo Zongcheng Temple">Putuo Zongcheng Temple</a>, to be built on the grounds of the <a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">imperial summer palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chengde" title="Chengde">Chengde</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to present himself in Buddhist terms for appeasing the Mongols and Tibetan subjects, he commissioned a <i><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">thangka</a></i>, or sacred painting, depicting him as <a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Manjushri</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> of Wisdom.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also a poet and essayist. His collected writings, which he published in a tenfold series between 1749 and 1800, contain more than 40,000 poems and 1,300 prose texts, which if he had composed them all would make him one of the most prolific writers of all time.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzworth_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzworth-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qianlong Emperor was a major patron and important "preserver and restorer" of Confucian culture. He had an insatiable appetite for collecting, and acquired much of China's "great private collections" by any means necessary, and "reintegrated their treasures into the imperial collection."<sup id="cite_ref-Holzworth_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzworth-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He formed a team of cultural advisers to help locate collections of merchant families who needed to sell or whose heirs had lost interest. He sometimes pressured or forced wealthy officials to surrender precious objects by offering to excuse shortcomings in their performance if they made a certain "gift". On several occasions he claimed that a painting could be secure from theft or fire only if it was taken into the Forbidden City.<sup id="cite_ref-ICON_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICON-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Emperor's massive art collection became an intimate part of his life; he took <a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting" title="Landscape painting">landscape paintings</a> with him on his travels to compare them with the actual landscapes, or to hang them in special rooms in palaces where he lodged, in order to inscribe them on every visit there.<sup id="cite_ref-Holzworth_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzworth-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "He also regularly added poetic inscriptions to the paintings of the imperial collection, following the example of the emperors of the Song dynasty and the literati painters of the Ming dynasty. They were a mark of distinction for the work, and a visible sign of his rightful role as emperor. Most particular to the Qianlong Emperor is another type of inscription, revealing a unique practice of dealing with works of art that he seems to have developed for himself. On certain fixed occasions over a long period he contemplated a number of paintings or works of calligraphy which possessed special meaning for him, inscribing each regularly with mostly private notes on the circumstances of enjoying them, using them almost as a diary."<sup id="cite_ref-Holzworth_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzworth-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the Qianlong Emperor housed within the Hall of Three Rarities (Sanxitang), a small chamber within the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Mental_Cultivation" title="Hall of Mental Cultivation">Hall of Mental Cultivation</a>, three calligraphy works: "Timely Clearing After Snowfall" by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xizhi" title="Wang Xizhi">Wang Xizhi</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin dynasty</a>, "Mid-Autumn" by his son <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xianzhi_(calligrapher)" title="Wang Xianzhi (calligrapher)">Wang Xianzhi</a>, and "Letter to Boyuan" by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Xun_(calligrapher)" title="Wang Xun (calligrapher)">Wang Xun</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most of the several thousand jade items in the imperial collection date from his reign. The Emperor was also particularly interested in collecting ancient bronzes, bronze mirrors and <a href="/wiki/Seal_(emblem)" title="Seal (emblem)">seals</a>,"<sup id="cite_ref-Holzworth_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holzworth-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in addition to pottery, [ceramics and applied arts such as <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_enamel" title="Vitreous enamel">enameling</a>, metal work and lacquer work, which flourished during his reign; a substantial part of his collection is in the <a href="/wiki/Percival_David_Foundation_of_Chinese_Art" title="Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art">Percival David Foundation</a> in London. The <a href="/wiki/Victoria_and_Albert_Museum" title="Victoria and Albert Museum">Victoria and Albert Museum</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> also have collections of art from the Qianlong era. </p><p>One of his grandest projects was to assemble a team of scholars to assemble, edit, and print the largest collection ever made of Chinese philosophy, history, and literature.<sup id="cite_ref-ICON_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICON-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Complete_Library_of_the_Four_Treasuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Complete Library of the Four Treasuries">Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</a></i> (or <i>Siku Quanshu</i>), it was published in 36,000 volumes, containing about 3,450 complete works and employing as many as 15,000 copyists. It preserved numerous books, but was also intended as a way to ferret out and suppress political opponents, requiring the "careful examination of private libraries to assemble a list of around eleven thousand works from the past, of which about a third were chosen for publication. The works not included were either summarised or—in a good many cases—scheduled for destruction."<sup id="cite_ref-ICON_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICON-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burning_of_books_and_modification_of_texts">Burning of books and modification of texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Burning of books and modification of texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition#Qing_dynasty" title="Literary inquisition">Literary inquisition § Qing dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Visit_by_the_Emperor_to_the_Tombs_of_his_Ancestors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/A_Visit_by_the_Emperor_to_the_Tombs_of_his_Ancestors.jpg/220px-A_Visit_by_the_Emperor_to_the_Tombs_of_his_Ancestors.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/A_Visit_by_the_Emperor_to_the_Tombs_of_his_Ancestors.jpg/330px-A_Visit_by_the_Emperor_to_the_Tombs_of_his_Ancestors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/A_Visit_by_the_Emperor_to_the_Tombs_of_his_Ancestors.jpg/440px-A_Visit_by_the_Emperor_to_the_Tombs_of_his_Ancestors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2244" data-file-height="1622" /></a><figcaption>A visit by the Emperor to the tombs of his ancestors</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Entering_Suzhou_and_the_Grand_Canal11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Entering_Suzhou_and_the_Grand_Canal11.jpg/220px-Entering_Suzhou_and_the_Grand_Canal11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Entering_Suzhou_and_the_Grand_Canal11.jpg/330px-Entering_Suzhou_and_the_Grand_Canal11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Entering_Suzhou_and_the_Grand_Canal11.jpg/440px-Entering_Suzhou_and_the_Grand_Canal11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>Qianlong Emperor entering <a href="/wiki/Suzhou" title="Suzhou">Suzhou</a> and the Grand Canal</figcaption></figure> <p>Some 2,300 works were listed for total suppression and another 350 for partial suppression. The aim was to destroy the writings that were <a href="/wiki/Anti-Qing_sentiment" title="Anti-Qing sentiment">anti-Qing</a> or rebellious, that insulted previous "barbarian" dynasties, or that dealt with frontier or defence problems.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002290_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodside2002290-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The full editing of the <i>Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</i> was completed in about ten years; during these ten years, 3,100 titles (or works), about 150,000 copies of books were either burnt or banned. Of those volumes that had been categorised into the <i>Complete Library of the Four Treasuries</i>, many were subjected to deletion and modification. Books published during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> suffered the greatest damage.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The authority would judge any single character or any single sentence's neutrality; if the authority had decided these words, or sentence, were derogatory or cynical towards the rulers, then persecution would begin.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Qianlong Emperor's time, there were 53 cases of <a href="/wiki/Literary_inquisition" title="Literary inquisition">Literary Inquisition</a>, resulting in the victims executed by beheading or slow slicing (<i><a href="/wiki/Lingchi" title="Lingchi">lingchi</a></i>), or having their corpses mutilated (if they were already dead). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literary_works">Literary works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Literary works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1743, after his first visit to Mukden (present-day <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a>), the Qianlong Emperor used Chinese to write his "Ode to Mukden", (<i>Shengjing fu/Mukden-i fujurun bithe</i>), a <i><a href="/wiki/Fu_(poetry)" title="Fu (poetry)">fu</a></i> in classical style, as a poem of praise to Mukden, at that point a general term for what was later called <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>, describing its beauties and historical values. He describes the mountains and wildlife, using them to justify his belief that the dynasty would endure. A Manchu translation was then made. In 1748, he ordered a jubilee printing in both Chinese and Manchu, using some genuine pre-<a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a> forms and Manchu styles which had to be invented and which could not be read.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2000615-617_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2000615-617-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his childhood, the Qianlong Emperor was tutored in <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_language" title="Mongolian language">Mongolian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott20095_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott20095-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arranged to be tutored in <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a>, and spoke <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_language" title="Chagatai language">Chagatai</a> (Turki or Modern Uyghur). However, he was even more concerned than his predecessors to preserve and promote the Manchu language among his followers, as he proclaimed that "the keystone for Manchus is language." He commissioned new Manchu dictionaries, and directed the preparation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Pentaglot_Dictionary" title="Pentaglot Dictionary">Pentaglot Dictionary</a></i> which gave equivalents for Manchu terms in Mongolian, Tibetan and Turkic, and had the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Buddhist canon</a> translated into Manchu, which was considered the "national language". He directed the elimination of loanwords taken from Chinese and replaced them with <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calque</a> translations which were put into new Manchu dictionaries. Manchu translations of Chinese works during his reign contrasted with supposedly Manchu books of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, which were simply Chinese texts written in Manchu script.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200957_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200957-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qianlong Emperor commissioned the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qin_ding_Xiyu_Tongwen_Zhi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qin ding Xiyu Tongwen Zhi (page does not exist)">Qin ding Xiyu Tongwen Zhi</a></i> (欽定西域同文志; "Imperial Western Regions Thesaurus") which was a thesaurus of geographic names in <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Oirat_language" title="Oirat language">Oirat Mongol</a>, Manchu, Chinese, Tibetan, and Turki (Modern Uyghur). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tibetan_Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tibetan Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qianlong_Emperor_hunting_trip.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Qianlong_Emperor_hunting_trip.jpg/220px-Qianlong_Emperor_hunting_trip.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Qianlong_Emperor_hunting_trip.jpg/330px-Qianlong_Emperor_hunting_trip.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Qianlong_Emperor_hunting_trip.jpg/440px-Qianlong_Emperor_hunting_trip.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="975" /></a><figcaption>Qianlong Emperor on a hunting trip</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qianlong Emperor showed a personal belief in Tibetan Buddhism, following the tradition of Manchu rulers associating with the Bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Manjushri</a>. He continued their patronage of Tibetan Buddhist art and ordered translations of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Buddhist canon</a> into Manchu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2009145_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2009145-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Court records and Tibetan language sources affirm his personal commitment. He learned to read Tibetan and studied Buddhist texts assiduously. His beliefs are reflected in the Tibetan Buddhist imagery of his tomb, perhaps the most personal and private expression of an emperor's life. He supported the Yellow Church (the Tibetan Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Gelug" title="Gelug">Gelug sect</a>) to "maintain peace among the Mongols" since the Mongols were followers of the <a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a> of the Yellow Church. He also said it was "merely in pursuance of Our policy of extending Our affection to the weak" which led him to patronize the Yellow Church.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1744 he turned the <a href="/wiki/Yonghe_Temple" title="Yonghe Temple">Palace of Harmony</a> (Yonghe Palace) into a Tibetan Buddhist temple for Mongols.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To explain the practical reasons for supporting the "Yellow Hats" Tibetan Buddhists and to deflect Han Chinese criticism, he had the "Lama Shuo" stele engraved in <a href="/wiki/Tibetic_languages" title="Tibetic languages">Tibetan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a> and Chinese, which said: "By patronizing the Yellow Church, we maintain peace among the Mongols. This being an important task we cannot but protect this (religion). (In doing so) we do not show any bias, nor do we wish to adulate the Tibetan priests (as it was done during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>)."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mark_Elliott_(historian)" title="Mark Elliott (historian)">Mark Elliott</a> concludes that these actions delivered political benefits but "meshed seamlessly with his personal faith."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2009145_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2009145-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-Islam_laws">Anti-Islam laws</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anti-Islam laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Qing policy on Muslims and Islam was changed during the reign of the Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong Emperors. While the Kangxi Emperor proclaimed Muslims and Han to be equal, his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, endorsed Han officials harsh recommendations towards treatment of Muslims. The Kangxi Emperor said that Muslim and Han Chinese were equal when people argued for Muslims to be treated differently. The Yongzheng Emperor held the opinion that "Islam was foolish, but he felt it did not pose a threat" when a judge in Shandong petitioned him to destroy mosques and ban Islam. Yongzheng then fired an official for demanding Muslims be punished more harshly than non-Muslims. </p><p> This policy changed in the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. Chen Hongmou, a Qing official, said that Muslims needed to be brought to law and order by being punished more harshly and blaming Muslim leaders for criminal behavior of Muslims in a letter to the Board of Punishments called <i>Covenant to Instruct and Admonish Muslims</i> that he wrote in 1751. Although the Board of Punishment did nothing, the <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_Shaan-Gan" title="Viceroy of Shaan-Gan">Shaanxi-Gansu Governor-General</a> in 1762 then proceeded to implement his recommendation and had Muslim criminals punished severely more than Han Chinese ones.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElverskog2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsJohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoadpagen249_244]–245_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElverskog2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsJohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoadpagen249_244]–245-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also implemented the policy that the criminal deeds of Muslim congregants of Mosques ended up with their Imams being punished and held responsible for them. These anti-Muslim policies by the governor general received endorsement from the Qianlong Emperor.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George-Leonard-Staunton-et-al-An-authentic-account-of-an-embassy-from-the-king-of-Great_Britain-to-the-emperor-of-China_MG_0725.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/George-Leonard-Staunton-et-al-An-authentic-account-of-an-embassy-from-the-king-of-Great_Britain-to-the-emperor-of-China_MG_0725.tif/lossy-page1-220px-George-Leonard-Staunton-et-al-An-authentic-account-of-an-embassy-from-the-king-of-Great_Britain-to-the-emperor-of-China_MG_0725.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/George-Leonard-Staunton-et-al-An-authentic-account-of-an-embassy-from-the-king-of-Great_Britain-to-the-emperor-of-China_MG_0725.tif/lossy-page1-330px-George-Leonard-Staunton-et-al-An-authentic-account-of-an-embassy-from-the-king-of-Great_Britain-to-the-emperor-of-China_MG_0725.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/George-Leonard-Staunton-et-al-An-authentic-account-of-an-embassy-from-the-king-of-Great_Britain-to-the-emperor-of-China_MG_0725.tif/lossy-page1-440px-George-Leonard-Staunton-et-al-An-authentic-account-of-an-embassy-from-the-king-of-Great_Britain-to-the-emperor-of-China_MG_0725.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3528" data-file-height="5062" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of the Qianlong Emperor</figcaption></figure><p>Great changes happening to Chinese Muslims, like the introduction of a Sufi order, the <a href="/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Naqshbandiyya</a> to the Hui, causing the Qianlong emperor to adopt this harsh attitude against Muslims in contrast to his grandfather and father. This led to larger connections between the Hui and the broader Islamic world from the west, as the Naqshbandiyya order came east to the Hui when Hui scholars in Suzhou were converted to Naqshbandiyya by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Yusuf_Khoja" title="Muhammad Yusuf Khoja">Muhammad Yusuf Khoja</a>. <a href="/wiki/Afaq_Khoja" title="Afaq Khoja">Afaq Khoja</a>, Muhammad Yusuf's son, also further spread Naqshbandi orders among Chinese Muslims like Tibetan Muslims, Salars, Hui and other Muslim ethnicities in Hezhou, Gansu (now Linxia) and Xining in Qinghai and Lanzhou. <a href="/wiki/Ma_Laichi" title="Ma Laichi">Ma Laichi</a> was the leader of one of these orders and he personally studied in the Islamic world in <a href="/wiki/Bukhara" title="Bukhara">Bukhara</a> to learn Sufism, and Yemen and in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> where he was taught by Mawlana Makhdum. This brought him prestige among Chinese Muslims. In an argument over the breaking of fast during <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> Ma Laichi said that before praying in the <a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">mosque</a>, fast should be broken, not vice versa and this led to him getting many Naqshbandi converts from Hui and Turkic Salars. It came to court in 1731 when the Muslims arguing over how to break Ramadan fast filed lawsuits. The Muslim plaintiffs were told by the Qing authorities at the court to resolve them themselves, as the legal authorities who had no idea about Ramadan fasting. The dispute was not solved and continued to go on and was compounded by even more disputes like how to perform <a href="/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr">dhikr</a> in Sufism, in a jahri (vocal) as taught by Ma Mingxin, another Sufi who learned in the western Islamic lands like Bukhara, or khufi (silent) like what Ma Laichi did. The Zabid Naqshbandiyyas in Yemen taught Ma Mingxin for two decades.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElverskog2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsJohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoadpagen251_246]–247_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElverskog2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsJohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoadpagen251_246]–247-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They taught vocal dhikr. Ma Mingxin was also affected by another series of events in the Middle Eastern Muslim world, revivalist movements among Muslims like the Saudis who allied with Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab. This renewal tajdid influenced Ma Mingxin in Yemen. </p><p>While Ma Mingxin was in Yemen and away from China, all of Muslim Inner Asia was conquered by the "infidel" Qing dynasty giving even more relevance to his situation and views. Ma Laichi and Ma Mingxin again sued each other in court but this second time the Qing passed a verdict in favor of the quiet dhikr faction, the Silentist Khafiyya of Ma Laichi and gave it the status of orthodoxy while damning as heterodox the Aloudist Jahriyya of Ma Mingxin. Ma Mingxin ignored the order and kept proselytizing in Shaanxi, Ningxia and Xinjiang going to Guangchuan from Hezhou in 1769 after being kicked out and banned from Xunhua district. Turkic Salars in Xunhua followed his orders even after the Qing banned him from there and he continued to have further lawsuits and legal issues with the Khafiyya and Ma Laichi as the Qing backed the Khafiyya. </p><p>A violent battle where a Qing official and Khafiyya followers were among one hundred slaughtered by a Jahriyya assault headed by Su Forty-three, a supporter of Ma Mingxin in 1781 led to Ma Mingxin declared a rebel and taken to jail in Lanzhou. The Qing executed Ma Mingxin after his release was demanded by the armed followers of Su Forty-three. A Jahriyya rebellion all over northwest China ensued after Ma Mingxin was executed. In response, the Manchus in Beijing sent Manchu Grand Secretary Agui with a battalion to slaughter Jahriyya chiefs and exile the adherents of the Sufi order to the border regions. </p><p>Tian Wu led another Jahriyya rebellion 3 years after that, which was crushed by the Qing, and the Ma Datian, the Jahriyya's 3rd leader was exiled to Manchuria in 1818 by the Qing and died. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Qianlong_in_the_Forbidden_City,_Peking_in_1761.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Qianlong_in_the_Forbidden_City%2C_Peking_in_1761.jpg/330px-%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Qianlong_in_the_Forbidden_City%2C_Peking_in_1761.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Qianlong_in_the_Forbidden_City%2C_Peking_in_1761.jpg/495px-%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Qianlong_in_the_Forbidden_City%2C_Peking_in_1761.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Qianlong_in_the_Forbidden_City%2C_Peking_in_1761.jpg/660px-%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE_Qianlong_in_the_Forbidden_City%2C_Peking_in_1761.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2648" data-file-height="1740" /></a><figcaption>Emperor Qianlong, aged 65, in the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>, Beijing in 1761 (winter). <i><a href="/wiki/%E8%90%AC%E5%9C%8B%E4%BE%86%E6%9C%9D%E5%9C%96" class="mw-redirect" title="萬國來朝圖">萬國來朝圖</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>This continual build up of conflict between Muslims and the Qing court led to the 19th century full-scale wars with Muslim rebellions against the Qing in southern and northern China. The change in Manchu attitudes towards Muslims, from tolerating Muslims and regarding them as equal to Han Chinese, before the 1760s, to the violence between the Qing state and Muslims after the 1760s, was due to progressive Qing involvement in the conflict between the Sufi orders Jahriyya and Khafiyya making it no longer possible for the Qing to keep up with the early rhetoric of Muslim equality. The Manchu court under Qianlong began approving and implementing Chen Hongmou's anti-Muslim laws that targeted Muslims for practicing their religion and the violence by the Qing state, the communal violence between Jahriyya and Khafiyya coincided with the Jahriyya's major expansion. </p><p>Chen Hongmou's policies were implemented as laws in 1762 by the Qing government's Board of Punishments and the Qing Manchu Qianlong emperor leading to severe tensions with Muslims. State authorities were mandated to receive all reports of Muslim criminal behaviour by local officials and all criminal behaviour by Muslims had to be reported by Muslim leaders to Qing authorities under these laws. This led to an inundation of anti-Muslim reports filing in Qing offices as the Qing court received information that Muslims were inherently violent and Muslim bandits were committing crimes as report after report were filed by local officials and Muslim crimes inundated court records. The Qing became even more anti-Muslim after receiving these reports about criminal behavior and started passing even more anti-Muslim laws one of them being that if any weapon was found in a group of 3 or more Muslims all of those Muslims would by sentenced as criminals by the Qing. </p><p>A new criminal category or act, brawling (dou'ou) was designated by the Qing Manchu court of the Manchu Qianlong emperor in the 1770s especially as an anti-Muslim measure to arrest Muslims leading to even non-Jahriyya Muslims to join with Jahriyya against the Qing and leading the Qing court to be even more anti-Muslim, apprehensive of anti-Qing rebellion by Muslims. This led to the execution of Ma Mingxin in 1781 and the rebellion and violence was compounded by lack of Qing intelligence. A Qing official who was tasked with ending the Jahriyya and Khafiyya communal violence mistakenly thought the people he were talking to were Khafiyya when they were in fact Jahriyya, and he told them that the Qing would massacre all Jahriyya adherents. This led to him being murdered by the Jahriyya mob, which led to the Qing sending Manchu Grand Secretary Agui on a full scale pacification crackdown campaign against the Jahriyya. </p><p>The military victory of the Qing against the Jahriyya led to even more Jahriyya anger. Officials went overboard in massacring Muslims deemed as state enemies to impress the Qing court, leading to further growth in Jahriyya membership, leading in turn to the 1784 rebellion by Tian Wu. </p><p>The Qianlong Emperor asked his minister what was going on as he was puzzled as to how the Muslims from many regions gathered together for revolt. He asked if the investigation of Muslim behavior by Li Shiyao got leaked leading to rebels to incite violence by telling Muslims the government would exterminate them. He then pondered and said none of these could be why and kept asking why. To solve the issue of the 1784 revolt, northwestern China was put under military occupation by the Qing for 50 years until the Taiping rebellion of southern China forced the Qing to move them away from northwest China leading to the massive 1860s and 1870s Muslim revolts in the northwest caused by growing violence. </p><p>The sudden questions about <a href="/wiki/Halal" title="Halal">halal</a> in Islam that Mongol Buddhists had in the 18th century was caused by all these things, northwestern China right next to Mongolia getting militarized, the Qing government officially declaring Muslims to be anti-Qing and violent and revivalist Islam coming to China.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElverskog2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsJohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoadpagen255_250]–251_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElverskog2010[httpsarchiveorgdetailsJohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoadpagen255_250]–251-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More than 1000 Hui Muslim children and women from the Sufi Jahriya order in eastern Gansu were massacred by Qing Banner general Li Shiyao during a 1784 uprising by Hui Jahriyya Muslims Zhang Wenqing and Tian Wu, 3 years after an early 1781 rebellion by Salar Sufi Jahriyya members when the Qing executed Jahriya leader <a href="/wiki/Ma_Mingxin" title="Ma Mingxin">Ma Mingxin</a>. The Qing government under Qianlong then ordered the extermination of the Sufi Jahriya "New Teaching" and banned adoption of non-Muslim children by Muslims, converting non-Muslims to Muslim and banning new mosques from being built. Some Sufi Khafiya "Old Teaching" Muslims still served in Qing forces in fighting against the Jahriya Sufi "New Teaching" Muslims despite the fact that those laws forbdding them from spreading their religion applied to them too.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Li Shiyao was a member of the Qing Eight Banners and related to the Qing royal family. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The persecution of Christians by Yongzheng became even worse during the Qianlong reign.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Palaces">Palaces</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Palaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%90%8E%E5%A6%83.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%90%8E%E5%A6%83.jpg/220px-%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%90%8E%E5%A6%83.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%90%8E%E5%A6%83.jpg/330px-%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%90%8E%E5%A6%83.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%90%8E%E5%A6%83.jpg/440px-%E3%80%8A%E4%B8%87%E5%9B%BD%E6%9D%A5%E6%9C%9D%E5%9B%BE%E3%80%8B%E4%B9%8B%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%90%8E%E5%A6%83.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1026" /></a><figcaption>Consorts and children of the Qianlong Emperor</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E3%80%8A%E5%A1%9E%E5%AE%B4%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E3%80%8B%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%E3%80%8A%E5%A1%9E%E5%AE%B4%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E3%80%8B%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8.jpg/220px-%E3%80%8A%E5%A1%9E%E5%AE%B4%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E3%80%8B%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%E3%80%8A%E5%A1%9E%E5%AE%B4%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E3%80%8B%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8.jpg/330px-%E3%80%8A%E5%A1%9E%E5%AE%B4%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E3%80%8B%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%E3%80%8A%E5%A1%9E%E5%AE%B4%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E3%80%8B%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8.jpg/440px-%E3%80%8A%E5%A1%9E%E5%AE%B4%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E3%80%8B%E5%B1%80%E9%83%A8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1015" /></a><figcaption>Consorts of the Qianlong Emperor</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg/220px-Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg/330px-Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg/440px-Banquets-at-a-frontier-fortress.jpg 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="723" /></a><figcaption>The Qianlong Emperor watching a wrestling match</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qianlong Emperor was an aggressive builder. In the hills northwest of Beijing, he expanded the villa known as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Garden of Perfect Brightness</a> (or Yuanmingyuan; now known as the Old Summer Palace) originally built by his father. He eventually added two new villas, the "Garden of Eternal Spring" and the "Elegant Spring Garden". In time, the Old Summer Palace would encompass 860 acres (350 hectares), five times larger than the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>. To celebrate the 60th birthday of his mother, <a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoshengxian" title="Empress Xiaoshengxian">Empress Dowager Chongqing</a>, the Qianlong Emperor ordered a lake at the <a href="/wiki/Summer_Palace" title="Summer Palace">Garden of Clear Ripples</a> (or Qingyiyuan; now known as the Summer Palace) dredged, named it <a href="/wiki/Kunming_Lake" title="Kunming Lake">Kunming Lake</a>, and renovated a villa on the eastern shore of the lake.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawski199823–24_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski199823–24-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qianlong Emperor also expanded the <a href="/wiki/Chengde_Mountain_Resort" title="Chengde Mountain Resort">imperial summer palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe Province</a>, beyond the Great Wall.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rehe eventually became effectively a third capital and it was at Rehe that the Qianlong Emperor held court with various Mongol nobles. The emperor also spent time at the Mulan hunting grounds north of Rehe, where he held the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_hunt_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty">imperial hunt</a> each year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_styles">European styles</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: European styles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For the <a href="/wiki/Old_Summer_Palace" title="Old Summer Palace">Old Summer Palace</a>, the Qianlong Emperor commissioned the Italian Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Castiglione_(Jesuit_painter)" title="Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter)">Giuseppe Castiglione</a> for the construction of the <i><a href="/wiki/Xiyang_Lou" title="Xiyang Lou">Xiyang Lou</a></i>, or Western-style mansion, to satisfy his taste for exotic buildings and objects. He also commissioned the French Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Michel_Benoist" title="Michel Benoist">Michel Benoist</a>, to design a series of timed <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">waterworks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fountain" title="Fountain">fountains</a> complete with underground machinery and pipes, for the amusement of the imperial family. The French Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Jean_Denis_Attiret" title="Jean Denis Attiret">Jean Denis Attiret</a> also became a painter for the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Damasc%C3%A8ne_Sallusti" title="Jean-Damascène Sallusti">Jean-Damascène Sallusti</a> was also a court painter. He co-designed, with Castiglione and <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_Sichelbart" title="Ignatius Sichelbart">Ignatius Sichelbart</a>, the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_Copper_Prints&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle Copper Prints (page does not exist)">Battle Copper Prints</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gernet1996_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gernet1996-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_architecture">Other architecture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Other architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, the <a href="/wiki/Emin_Minaret" title="Emin Minaret">Emin Minaret</a> was built in <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a> to commemorate <a href="/wiki/Emin_Khoja" title="Emin Khoja">Emin Khoja</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a> leader from <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a> who submitted to the Qing Empire as a vassal in order to obtain assistance from the Qing to fight the Dzunghars. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descendants_of_the_Ming_dynasty's_imperial_family"><span id="Descendants_of_the_Ming_dynasty.27s_imperial_family"></span>Descendants of the Ming dynasty's imperial family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Descendants of the Ming dynasty's imperial family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1725, the Yongzheng Emperor bestowed an hereditary marquis title on a descendant of Zhu Zhilian, a descendant of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">imperial family</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>. Zhu was also paid by the Qing government to perform rituals at the <a href="/wiki/Ming_tombs" title="Ming tombs">Ming tombs</a> and induct the Chinese Plain White Banner into the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a>. Zhu was posthumously awarded the title "<a href="/wiki/Marquis_of_Extended_Grace" title="Marquis of Extended Grace">Marquis of Extended Grace</a>" in 1750, and the title was passed on for 12 generations in his family until the end of the Qing dynasty. However, it has been argued that Zhu Zhilian, in fact, had no relation to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Zhu" title="House of Zhu">imperial family</a> at all.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Banner_system">Banner system</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Banner system"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eight_Banners" title="Eight Banners">Eight Banners</a></div> <p>The Qianlong Emperor instituted a policy of "Manchu-fying" the Eight Banner system, which was the basic military and social organisation of the dynasty. In the early Qing era, <a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Nurhaci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> categorised Manchu and Han ethnic identity within the Eight Banners based on culture, lifestyle and language, instead of ancestry or genealogy. Han Bannermen were an important part of the Banner System. The Qianlong Emperor changed this definition to one of descent, and demobilised many Han Bannermen and urged Manchu Bannermen to protect their cultural heritage, language and martial skills. The emperor redefined the identity of Han Bannermen by saying that they were to be regarded as of having the same culture and being of the same ancestral extraction as Han civilians<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley200055–56_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley200055–56-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, he emphasised the martial side of Manchu culture and reinstituted the practice of the annual imperial hunt as begun by his grandfather, leading contingents from the Manchu and Mongol banners to the Mulan hunting grounds each autumn to test and improve their skills.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001184–186_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001184–186-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qianlong Emperor's view of the Han Bannermen also differed from that of his grandfather in deciding that loyalty in itself was most important quality. He sponsored biographies which depicted Chinese Bannermen who defected from the Ming to the Qing as traitors and glorifying Ming loyalists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley2000291_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley2000291-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the Qianlong Emperor's inclusions and omissions on the list of traitors were political in nature. Some of these actions were including <a href="/wiki/Li_Yongfang" title="Li Yongfang">Li Yongfang</a> (out of his dislike for Li Yongfang's descendant, Li Shiyao) and excluding <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ma_Mingpei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ma Mingpei (page does not exist)">Ma Mingpei</a> (out of concern for his son Ma Xiongzhen's image).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley2000293_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley2000293-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The identification and interchangeability between "Manchu" and "Banner people" (Qiren) began in the 17th century. Banner people were differentiated from civilians (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <i>Minren</i>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <i>Irgen</i>; or <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: <i>Hanren</i>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a>: <i>Nikan</i>) and the term "Bannermen" was becoming identical with "Manchu" in the general perception. The Qianlong Emperor referred to all Bannermen as Manchu, and Qing laws did not say "Manchu", but "Bannermen".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott2001[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(April_2021)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of <i>Tai Nikan</i> (台尼堪) and <i>Fusi Nikan</i> (抚顺尼堪)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEElliott200184_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElliott200184-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> backgrounds were moved into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qianlong Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley2000128_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley2000128-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fusi Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrossley2000103–105_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrossley2000103–105-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continued to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Manchu_clans" title="List of Manchu clans">Qing lists of Manchu clans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-gun_measures">Anti-gun measures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anti-gun measures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Solon_people" title="Solon people">Solons</a> were ordered by the Qianlong Emperor to stop using rifles and instead practice traditional archery. The emperor issued an edict for silver taels to be issued for <a href="/wiki/Gun_control_in_China" title="Gun control in China">guns turned over to the government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chinese_political_identity_and_frontier_policy">Chinese political identity and frontier policy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Chinese political identity and frontier policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Qianlong Emperor and his predecessors, since the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a>, had identified China and the Qing Empire as the same, and in treaties and diplomatic papers the Qing Empire called itself "China".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qianlong Emperor rejected earlier ideas that only Han could be subjects of China and only Han land could be considered as part of China, so he redefined China as multiethnic, saying in 1755 that "there exists a view of China according to which non-Han people cannot become China's subjects and their land cannot be integrated into the territory of China. This does not represent our dynasty's understanding of China, but is instead that of the earlier Han, Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties."<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Qianlong Emperor rejected the views of Han officials who said <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> was not part of China and that he should not conquer it, putting forth the view that China was multiethnic and did not just refer to Han.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qianlong Emperor compared his achievements with that of the Han and Tang ventures into Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward199825_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward199825-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Han_settlement">Han settlement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Han settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Han Chinese farmers were resettled from north China by the Qing government in the area along the <a href="/wiki/Liao_River" title="Liao River">Liao River</a> in order to restore the land to cultivation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000504_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000504-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wasteland was reclaimed by Han <a href="/wiki/Squatting" title="Squatting">squatters</a> in addition to other Han people who rented land from Manchu landlords.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000505_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000505-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite officially prohibiting Han settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing government decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolia" title="Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a>. Due to this, Han people farmed 500,000 hectares in Manchuria and tens of thousands of hectares in Inner Mongolia by the 1780s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000506_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000506-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qianlong Emperor allowed Han peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite him issuing edicts in favor of banning them from 1740 to 1776.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Han tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the "imperial estates" and Manchu Bannerlands in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000507_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000507-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides moving into the Liao area in southern Manchuria, the path linking <a href="/wiki/Jinzhou" title="Jinzhou">Jinzhou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Fengtian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tieling" title="Tieling">Tieling</a>, <a href="/wiki/Changchun" title="Changchun">Changchun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hulunbuir" title="Hulunbuir">Hulun</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ning%27an" title="Ning'an">Ningguta</a> was settled by Han people during the Qianlong Emperor's reign, and Han people were the majority in urban areas of Manchuria by 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000508_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000508-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To increase the Imperial Treasury's revenue, the Qing government sold lands along the <a href="/wiki/Songhua_River" title="Songhua River">Songhua River</a> which were previously exclusively for Manchus to Han Chinese at the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang Emperor</a>'s reign, and Han people filled up most of Manchuria's towns by the 1840s, according to <a href="/wiki/%C3%89variste_R%C3%A9gis_Huc" title="Évariste Régis Huc">Évariste Régis Huc</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000509_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000509-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_years">Later years</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Later years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%BB%E5%BC%98%E5%8E%86%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E8%BD%B4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%BB%E5%BC%98%E5%8E%86%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E8%BD%B4.png/220px-%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%BB%E5%BC%98%E5%8E%86%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E8%BD%B4.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="350" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%BB%E5%BC%98%E5%8E%86%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E8%BD%B4.png/330px-%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%BB%E5%BC%98%E5%8E%86%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E8%BD%B4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%BB%E5%BC%98%E5%8E%86%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E8%BD%B4.png/440px-%E6%B8%85%E4%BA%BA%E7%94%BB%E5%BC%98%E5%8E%86%E6%9C%9D%E6%9C%8D%E5%83%8F%E8%BD%B4.png 2x" data-file-width="16515" data-file-height="26283" /></a><figcaption>The Qianlong Emperor in his old age</figcaption></figure> <p>A valet who accompanied a <a href="/wiki/Macartney_Embassy" title="Macartney Embassy">British diplomatic mission</a> to the Qing court in 1793 described Qianlong in his later years: </p> <blockquote><p>The Emperor is about five feet ten inches in height, and of a slender but elegant form; his complexion is comparatively fair, though his eyes are dark; <a href="/wiki/Aquiline_nose" title="Aquiline nose">his nose is rather aquiline</a>, and the whole of his countenance presents a perfect regularity of feature, which, by no means, announce the great age he is said to have attained; his person is attracting, and his deportment accompanied by an affability, which, without lessening the dignity of the prince, evinces the amiable character of the man. His dress consisted of a loose robe of yellow silk, a cap of black velvet with a red ball on the top, and adorned with a peacock's feather, which is the peculiar distinction of mandarins of the first class. He wore silk boots embroidered with gold, and a sash of blue girded his waist.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In his later years, the Qianlong Emperor became spoiled with power and glory, disillusioned and complacent in his reign, and started placing his trust in corrupt officials such as <a href="/wiki/Yu_Minzhong" title="Yu Minzhong">Yu Minzhong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heshen" title="Heshen">Heshen</a>. </p><p>As Heshen was the highest ranked minister and most favoured by the Qianlong Emperor at the time, the day-to-day governance of the country was left in his hands, while the emperor himself indulged in the arts, luxuries and literature. When Heshen was executed by the <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a>, the Qing government discovered that Heshen's personal fortune exceeded that of the Qing Empire's depleted treasury, amounting to 900 million silver <a href="/wiki/Tael" title="Tael">taels</a>, the total of 12 years of Treasury surplus of the Qing imperial court.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Qianlong Emperor began his reign with about 33.95 million silver taels in Treasury surplus.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the peak of his reign, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1775</span>, even with further tax cuts, the treasury surplus still reached 73.9 million silver taels, a record unmatched by his predecessors, the Kangxi and Yongzheng emperors, both of whom had implemented remarkable tax cut policies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>However, due to numerous factors such as long term embezzlement and corruption by officials, frequent expeditions to the south, huge palace constructions, many war and rebellion campaigns as well as his own extravagant lifestyle, all of these cost the treasury a total of 150.2 million silver taels.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This, coupled with his senior age and the lack of political reforms, ushered the beginning of the gradual decline and eventual demise of the Qing Empire, casting a shadow over his political life.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Macartney_Embassy">Macartney Embassy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Macartney Embassy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Macartney_Embassy" title="Macartney Embassy">Macartney Embassy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg/220px-LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg/330px-LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg/440px-LordMacartneyEmbassyToChina1793.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2484" data-file-height="1624" /></a><figcaption>Lord Macartney's embassy, 1793</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JosephMarieAmiot.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/JosephMarieAmiot.JPG/220px-JosephMarieAmiot.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/JosephMarieAmiot.JPG/330px-JosephMarieAmiot.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/JosephMarieAmiot.JPG/440px-JosephMarieAmiot.JPG 2x" data-file-width="948" data-file-height="1219" /></a><figcaption>The French <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Marie_Amiot" title="Jean Joseph Marie Amiot">Jean Joseph Marie Amiot</a> (1718–1793) was the official translator of Western languages for the Qianlong Emperor.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Houckgeest.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Houckgeest.JPG/220px-Houckgeest.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Houckgeest.JPG/330px-Houckgeest.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Houckgeest.JPG/440px-Houckgeest.JPG 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>Illustration depicting the last European delegation to be received at the Qianlong Emperor's court in 1795 – <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Titsingh" title="Isaac Titsingh">Isaac Titsingh</a> (seated European with hat, far left) and <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Everardus_van_Braam_Houckgeest" title="Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest">A.E. van Braam Houckgeest</a> (seated European without hat)</figcaption></figure> <p>Legal trade in the South China Sea was resumed in 1727, but the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">East India Company</a>'s discovery that the prices and duties at <a href="/wiki/Ningbo" title="Ningbo">Ningbo</a> were both much lower than those at <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> prompted them to begin shifting their trade north from 1755 to 1757. The Qianlong Emperor's attempt to discourage this through higher fees failed; in the winter of 1757, he declared that—effective the next year—Guangzhou (then <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Chinese" title="Romanization of Chinese">romanized</a> as "Canton") was to be the only Chinese port permitted to foreign traders, beginning the <a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a>, with its <a href="/wiki/Cohong" title="Cohong">Cohong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Factories" title="Thirteen Factories">Thirteen Factories</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the mid-18th century, European powers began to pressure for increases in the already burgeoning foreign trade and for outposts on the Chinese coast, demands which the aging Qianlong emperor resisted. In 1793 <a href="/wiki/George_III" title="George III">King George III</a> sent a large-scale delegation to present their requests directly to the emperor in Beijing, headed by <a href="/wiki/George_Macartney,_1st_Earl_Macartney" title="George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney">George Macartney</a>, one of the country's most seasoned diplomats. The British sent a sample of trade goods that they intended to sell in China; this was misinterpreted as tribute that was adjudged to be of low quality. </p><p>Historians both in China and abroad long presented the failure of the mission to achieve its goals as a symbol of China's refusal to change and inability to modernize. They explain the refusal first on the fact that interaction with foreign kingdoms was limited to neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Tributary_state" title="Tributary state">tributary states</a>. Furthermore, the worldviews on the two sides were incompatible, China holding entrenched beliefs that China was the "<a href="/wiki/Names_of_China" title="Names of China">central kingdom</a>". However, after the publication in the 1990s of a fuller range of archival documents concerning the visit, these claims have been challenged. One historian characterized the emperor and his court as "clearly clever and competent political operators", and concluded that they acted within the formal Qing claims to universal rule; they reacted prudently to reports of British expansion in India by placating the British with unspecified promises in order to avoid military conflicts and loss of trade.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Macartney was granted an audience with the Qianlong Emperor on two days, the second of which coincided with the emperor's 82nd birthday. There is continued debate about the nature of the audience and what level of ceremonials were performed. Macartney wrote that he resisted demands that the British trade ambassadors kneel and perform the <a href="/wiki/Kowtow" title="Kowtow">kowtow</a> and debate continues as to what exactly occurred, differing opinions recorded by Qing courtiers and British delegates.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Qianlong gave Macartney a letter for the British king<sup id="cite_ref-:0_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stating the reasons that he would not grant Macartney's requests: </p> <blockquote><div class="poem"> <p>Yesterday your Ambassador petitioned my Ministers to memorialise me regarding your trade with China, but his proposal is not consistent with our dynastic usage and cannot be entertained. Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country's barbarian merchants, have carried on their trade with our Celestial Empire at Canton. Such has been the procedure for many years, although our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders.<br /> <br /> Your request for a small island near <a href="/wiki/Zhoushan" title="Zhoushan">Chusan</a>, where your merchants may reside and goods be warehoused, arises from your desire to develop trade... Consider, moreover, that England is not the only barbarian land which wishes to establish... trade with our Empire: supposing that other nations were all to imitate your evil example and beseech me to present them each and all with a site for trading purposes, how could I possibly comply? This also is a flagrant infringement of the usage of my Empire and cannot possibly be entertained.<br /> <br /> Hitherto, the barbarian merchants of Europe have had a definite locality assigned to them at <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Aomen</a> for residence and trade, and have been forbidden to encroach an inch beyond the limits assigned to that locality.... If these restrictions were withdrawn, friction would inevitably occur between the Chinese and your barbarian subjects...<br /> <br /> Regarding your nation's worship of the <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Lord of Heaven</a>, it is the same religion as that of other European nations. Ever since the beginning of history, sage Emperors and wise rulers have bestowed on China a moral system and inculcated a code, which from time immemorial has been religiously observed by the myriads of my subjects. There has been no hankering after heterodox doctrines. Even the European (<a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a>) officials in my capital are forbidden to hold intercourse with Chinese subjects...<sup id="cite_ref-:0_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </div></blockquote> <p>The letter was unknown to the public until 1914, when it was translated, then later used as a symbol of China's refusal to modernize.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison2017690_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison2017690-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Macartney's conclusions in his memoirs were widely quoted: </p> <blockquote><p>The Empire of China is an old, crazy, <a href="/wiki/First-rate" title="First-rate">first-rate</a> Man of War, which a fortunate succession of able and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past, and to overawe their neighbours merely by her bulk and appearance. But whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may, perhaps, not sink outright; she may drift some time as a wreck, and will then be dashed to pieces on the shore; but she can never be rebuilt on the old bottom.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Titsingh_Embassy">Titsingh Embassy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Titsingh Embassy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A Dutch embassy arrived at the Qianlong Emperor's court in 1795, which would turn out to be the last time any European appeared before the Qing imperial court within the context of traditional Chinese imperial foreign relations.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Representing Dutch and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> interests, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Titsingh" title="Isaac Titsingh">Isaac Titsingh</a> traveled to <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> in 1794–95 for celebrations of the 60th anniversary of the Qianlong Emperor's reign.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Titsingh delegation also included the Dutch-American <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Everardus_van_Braam_Houckgeest" title="Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest">Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose detailed description of this embassy to the Qing court was soon after published in the United States and Europe. Titsingh's French translator, <a href="/wiki/Chr%C3%A9tien-Louis-Joseph_de_Guignes" title="Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes">Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes</a>, published his own account of the Titsingh mission in 1808. <i>Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France</i> provided an alternate perspective and a useful counterpoint to other reports that were then circulating. Titsingh himself died before he could publish his version of events. </p><p>In contrast to Macartney, Isaac Titsingh, the Dutch and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">VOC</a> emissary in 1795 did not refuse to kowtow. In the year following Mccartney's rebuff, Titsingh and his colleagues were much feted by the Chinese because of what was construed as seemly compliance with conventional court etiquette.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abdication">Abdication</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Abdication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In October 1795, the Qianlong Emperor officially announced that in the spring of the following year he would voluntarily abdicate and pass the throne to his son. It was said that the Qianlong Emperor had made a promise during the year of his ascension not to rule longer than his grandfather, the <a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a>, who had reigned for 61 years. The Qianlong Emperor anticipated moving out of the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Mental_Cultivation" title="Hall of Mental Cultivation">Hall of Mental Cultivation</a> (Yangxindian) in the <a href="/wiki/Forbidden_City" title="Forbidden City">Forbidden City</a>. The hall had been conventionally dedicated for the exclusive use of the reigning sovereign, and in 1771 the emperor ordered the beginning of construction on what was ostensibly intended as his retirement residence in another part of the Forbidden City: a lavish, two-acre walled retreat called the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Tranquil_Longevity" title="Palace of Tranquil Longevity">Palace of Tranquil Longevity</a> (Ningshou Palace),<sup id="cite_ref-ICON_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICON-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is today more commonly known as the "Qianlong Garden".<sup id="cite_ref-WMF_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WMF-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The complex, completed in 1776, is currently undergoing a ten-year restoration led by the Palace Museum in Beijing and the <a href="/wiki/World_Monuments_Fund" title="World Monuments Fund">World Monuments Fund</a> (WMF). The first of the restored apartments, the Qianlong Emperor's <a href="/wiki/Juanqinzhai" title="Juanqinzhai">Studio of Exhaustion From Diligent Service</a> (Juanqinzhai) began an exhibition tour of the United States in 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-WMF_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WMF-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2017-07-08_YuLing_Mausoleum_Grab_Kaiser_Qianlong_Tangshan,_Hebei_%E6%B8%85%E8%A3%95%E9%99%B5%EF%BC%88%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%A2%93%EF%BC%89_anagoria_27.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2017-07-08_YuLing_Mausoleum_Grab_Kaiser_Qianlong_Tangshan%2C_Hebei_%E6%B8%85%E8%A3%95%E9%99%B5%EF%BC%88%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%A2%93%EF%BC%89_anagoria_27.jpg/220px-2017-07-08_YuLing_Mausoleum_Grab_Kaiser_Qianlong_Tangshan%2C_Hebei_%E6%B8%85%E8%A3%95%E9%99%B5%EF%BC%88%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%A2%93%EF%BC%89_anagoria_27.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2017-07-08_YuLing_Mausoleum_Grab_Kaiser_Qianlong_Tangshan%2C_Hebei_%E6%B8%85%E8%A3%95%E9%99%B5%EF%BC%88%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%A2%93%EF%BC%89_anagoria_27.jpg/330px-2017-07-08_YuLing_Mausoleum_Grab_Kaiser_Qianlong_Tangshan%2C_Hebei_%E6%B8%85%E8%A3%95%E9%99%B5%EF%BC%88%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%A2%93%EF%BC%89_anagoria_27.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2017-07-08_YuLing_Mausoleum_Grab_Kaiser_Qianlong_Tangshan%2C_Hebei_%E6%B8%85%E8%A3%95%E9%99%B5%EF%BC%88%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%A2%93%EF%BC%89_anagoria_27.jpg/440px-2017-07-08_YuLing_Mausoleum_Grab_Kaiser_Qianlong_Tangshan%2C_Hebei_%E6%B8%85%E8%A3%95%E9%99%B5%EF%BC%88%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E5%A2%93%EF%BC%89_anagoria_27.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption>Tomb of the Qianlong Emperor</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qianlong Emperor abdicated the throne at the age of 85, after almost 61 years on the throne, to his son, the 36-year-old <a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a>, in 1796. For the next three years, he held the title <i><a href="/wiki/Taishang_Huang" title="Taishang Huang">Taishang Huang</a></i> (or Emperor Emeritus; 太上皇) even though he continued to hold on to power and the Jiaqing Emperor ruled only in name. He never moved into his retirement suites in the Qianlong Garden<sup id="cite_ref-nytjacobs_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nytjacobs-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and died in 1799.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family">Family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Empress</b> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoxianchun" title="Empress Xiaoxianchun">Empress Xiaoxianchun</a></b> (孝賢純皇后) of the <a href="/wiki/Fuca_clan" title="Fuca clan">Fuca clan</a> (富察氏; 28 March 1712 – 8 April 1748) <ul><li><i>First daughter</i> (3 November 1728 – 14 February 1730)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yonglian" title="Yonglian">Yonglian</a></b> (永璉), Crown Prince <b>Duanhui</b> (端慧皇太子; 9 August 1730 – 23 November 1738), second son</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hejing_(born_1731)" title="Princess Hejing (born 1731)">Princess <b>Hejing</b> of the First Rank</a> (固倫和敬公主; 31 July 1731 – 30 September 1792), third daughter</li> <li><b>Yongcong</b> (永琮), Prince <b>Zhe</b> of the First Rank (哲親王; 27 May 1746 – 29 January 1748), seventh son</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empress_Nara" title="Empress Nara"><b>Empress</b></a> (皇后) of the <a href="/wiki/Nara_clan" title="Nara clan">Nara clan</a> (那拉氏; 11 March 1718 – 19 August 1766)<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><b>Yongji</b> (永璂), Prince of the Third Rank (貝勒; 7 June 1752 – 17 March 1776), 12th son</li> <li><i>Fifth daughter</i> (23 July 1753 – 1 June 1755)</li> <li><b>Yongjing</b> (永璟; 22 January 1756 – 7 September 1757), 13th son</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoyichun" title="Empress Xiaoyichun">Empress Xiaoyichun</a></b> (孝儀純皇后) of the Weigiya clan (魏佳氏; 23 October 1727 – 28 February 1775) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hejing_(born_1756)" title="Princess Hejing (born 1756)">Princess <b>Hejing</b> of the First Rank</a> (固倫和靜公主; 10 August 1756 – 9 February 1775), seventh daughter</li> <li><b>Yonglu</b> (永璐; 31 August 1757 – 3 May 1760), 14th son</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Heke" title="Princess Heke">Princess <b>Heke</b> of the Second Rank</a> (和碩和恪公主; 17 August 1758 – 14 December 1780), ninth daughter</li> <li><i>Miscarriage at eight months</i> (13 November 1759)</li> <li><b>Yongyan</b> (永琰), the <b><a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a></b> (嘉慶帝; 13 November 1760 – 2 September 1820), 15th son</li> <li><i>16th son</i> (13 January 1763 – 6 May 1765)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yonglin" title="Yonglin">Yonglin</a></b> (永璘), <a href="/wiki/Prince_Qing" title="Prince Qing">Prince <b>Qingxi</b> of the First Rank</a> (慶僖親王; 17 June 1766 – 25 April 1820), 17th son</li></ul></li></ul> <p><b>Imperial Noble Consort</b> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Noble_Consort_Huixian" title="Imperial Noble Consort Huixian">Imperial Noble Consort Huixian</a></b> (慧賢皇貴妃) of the Gaogiya clan (高佳氏; 1711 – 25 February 1745)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Noble_Consort_Zhemin" title="Imperial Noble Consort Zhemin">Imperial Noble Consort Zhemin</a></b> (哲憫皇貴妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Fuca_clan" title="Fuca clan">Fuca clan</a> (富察氏; ? – 20 August 1735) <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yonghuang" title="Yonghuang">Yonghuang</a></b> (永璜), <a href="/wiki/Prince_Ding" title="Prince Ding">Prince <b>Ding'an</b> of the First Rank</a> (定安親王; 5 July 1728 – 21 April 1750), first son</li> <li><i>Second daughter</i> (1 June 1731 – 6 January 1732)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Noble_Consort_Shujia" title="Imperial Noble Consort Shujia">Imperial Noble Consort Shujia</a></b> (淑嘉皇貴妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Kim_(Korean_surname)" title="Kim (Korean surname)">Gingiya clan</a> (金佳氏; 14 September 1713 – 17 December 1755) <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yongcheng_(prince)" title="Yongcheng (prince)">Yongcheng</a></b> (永珹), <a href="/wiki/Prince_L%C3%BC" title="Prince Lü">Prince <b>Lüduan</b> of the First Rank</a> (履端親王; 21 February 1739 – 5 April 1777), fourth son</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yongxuan" title="Yongxuan">Yongxuan</a></b> (永璇), <a href="/wiki/Prince_Yi_(%E5%84%80)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Yi (儀)">Prince <b>Yishen</b> of the First Rank</a> (仪慎亲王; 31 August 1746 – 1 September 1832), eighth son</li> <li><b>Yongyu</b> (永瑜; 2 August 1748 – 11 June 1749), ninth son</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yongxing_(prince)" title="Yongxing (prince)">Yongxing</a></b> (永瑆), <a href="/wiki/Prince_Cheng_of_the_First_Rank" title="Prince Cheng of the First Rank">Prince <b>Chengzhe</b> of the First Rank</a> (成哲親王; 22 March 1752 – 10 May 1823), 11th son</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Noble_Consort_Chunhui" title="Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui">Imperial Noble Consort Chunhui</a></b> (純惠皇貴妃) of the Su clan (蘇氏; 13 June 1713 – 2 June 1760) <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yongzhang" title="Yongzhang">Yongzhang</a></b> (永璋), <a href="/wiki/Prince_Xun_(%E5%BE%AA)" title="Prince Xun (循)">Prince <b>Xun</b> of the Second Rank</a> (循郡王; 15 July 1735 – 26 August 1760), third son</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Yongrong" title="Yongrong">Yongrong</a></b> (永瑢), <a href="/wiki/Prince_Shen" title="Prince Shen">Prince <b>Zhizhuang</b> of the First Rank</a> (質莊親王; 28 January 1744 – 13 June 1790), sixth son</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hejia" title="Princess Hejia">Princess <b>Hejia</b> of the Second Rank</a> (和碩和嘉公主; 24 December 1745 – 29 October 1767), fourth daughter</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Noble_Consort_Qinggong" title="Imperial Noble Consort Qinggong">Imperial Noble Consort Qinggong</a></b> (慶恭皇貴妃) of the Lu clan (陸氏; 12 August 1724 – 21 August 1774)</li></ul> <p><b>Noble Consort</b> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Noble_Consort_Xin" title="Noble Consort Xin">Noble Consort Xin</a></b> (忻貴妃) of the Daigiya clan (戴佳氏; 26 June 1737 – 28 May 1764) <ul><li><i>Sixth daughter</i> (24 August 1755 – 27 September 1758)</li> <li><i>Eighth daughter</i> (16 January 1758 – 17 June 1767)</li> <li><i>Obstructed labour or miscarriage at eight months</i> (28 May 1764)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Noble_Consort_Yu_(Qianlong)" title="Noble Consort Yu (Qianlong)">Noble Consort Yu</a></b> (愉貴妃) of the Keliyete clan (珂里葉特氏; 15 June 1714 – 9 July 1792) <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Yongqi,_Prince_Rong" title="Yongqi, Prince Rong">Yongqi</a></b> (永琪), <a href="/wiki/Prince_Rong" title="Prince Rong">Prince <b>Rongchun</b> of the First Rank</a> (榮純親王; 23 March 1741 – 16 April 1766), fifth son</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Noble_Consort_Xun_(Qianlong)" title="Noble Consort Xun (Qianlong)">Noble Consort Xun</a></b> (循貴妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Irgen_Gioro" title="Irgen Gioro">Irgen-Gioro clan</a> (伊爾根覺羅氏; 29 October 1758 – 10 January 1798)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Noble_Consort_Ying" title="Noble Consort Ying">Noble Consort Ying</a></b> (穎貴妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Baarins" title="Baarins">Baarin clan</a> (巴鄰氏; 7 March 1731 – 14 March 1800)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dowager_Noble_Consort_Wan" title="Dowager Noble Consort Wan">Noble Consort Wan</a></b> (婉貴妃) of the Chen clan (陳氏; 1 February 1717 – 10 March 1807)</li></ul> <p><b>Consort</b> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Consort_Shu_(Qianlong)" title="Consort Shu (Qianlong)">Consort Shu</a></b> (舒妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Yehe_Nara_clan" title="Yehe Nara clan">Yehe-Nara clan</a> (葉赫那拉; 7 July 1728 – 4 July 1777) <ul><li><b>Yongyue</b> (永玥; 12 June 1751 – 7 July 1753), 10th son</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Consort_Yu_(Borjigin)" title="Consort Yu (Borjigin)">Consort Yu</a></b> (豫妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirat</a> <a href="/wiki/Borjigin" title="Borjigin">Borjigin clan</a> (博爾濟吉特氏; 12 February 1730 – 31 January 1774) <ul><li><i>Miscarriage</i> (1759 or 1760)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Consort_Rong_(Qianlong)" title="Consort Rong (Qianlong)">Consort Rong</a></b> (容妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Khoja_(Turkestan)" title="Khoja (Turkestan)">Hezhuo clan</a> (和卓氏; 10 October 1734 – 24 May 1788)<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Consort_Dun" title="Consort Dun">Consort Dun</a></b> (惇妃) of the Wang clan (汪氏; 27 March 1746 – 6 March 1806) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Princess_Hexiao_(Qianlong)" title="Princess Hexiao (Qianlong)">Princess <b>Hexiao</b> of the First Rank</a> (固倫和孝公主; 2 February 1775 – 13 October 1823), 10th daughter</li> <li><i>Miscarriage</i> (1777 or 1778)</li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Consort_Fang" title="Consort Fang">Consort Fang</a></b> (芳妃) of the Chen clan (陳氏; ? – 20 September 1801)</li> <li><b>Consort Jin</b> (晉妃) of the <a href="/wiki/Fuca_clan" title="Fuca clan">Fuca clan</a> (富察氏; ? – 1822)</li></ul> <p><b>Concubine</b> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Concubine_Yi_(Qianlong)" title="Concubine Yi (Qianlong)">Concubine Yi</a></b> (儀嬪) of the Huang clan (黄氏; ? – 1 November 1736)</li> <li><b>Concubine Yi</b> (怡嬪) of the Bo clan (柏氏; 1 May 1721 – 30 June 1757)</li> <li><b>Concubine Shen</b> (慎嬪) of the Bai'ergesi clan (拜爾葛斯氏; ? – 1765)</li> <li><b>Concubine Xun</b> (恂嬪) of the Huoshuote clan (霍碩特氏; ? – 1761)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Concubine_Cheng_(Qianlong)" title="Concubine Cheng (Qianlong)">Concubine Cheng</a></b> (誠嬪) of the <a href="/wiki/Niohuru" title="Niohuru">Niohuru clan</a> (鈕祜祿氏; ? – 29 May 1784)</li> <li><b>Concubine Gong</b> (恭嬪) of the Lin clan (林氏; 1733–1805)</li></ul> <p><b>Noble Lady</b> </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Noble_Lady_Shun" title="Noble Lady Shun">Noble Lady Shun</a></b> (順貴人) of the <a href="/wiki/Niohuru" title="Niohuru">Niohuru clan</a> (鈕祜祿氏; 3 January 1748 – 1790) <ul><li><i>Miscarriage</i> (1776)</li></ul></li> <li><b>Noble Lady E</b> (鄂貴人) of the <a href="/wiki/Sirin_Gioro" title="Sirin Gioro">Sirin-Gioro clan</a> (西林覺羅氏; ? – 1808)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Rui</b> (瑞貴人) of the <a href="/wiki/Socoro" title="Socoro">Socoro clan</a> (索取羅氏; ? – 26 June 1765)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Bai</b> (白貴人) of the Bo clan (柏氏; 17 June 1730 – 26 May 1803)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Lu</b> (祿貴人) of the Lu clan (陸氏; ? – 1788)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Shou</b> (壽貴人) of the Bo clan (柏氏; ? – 1809)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Xiu</b> (秀貴人; ? – 1745)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Shen</b> (慎貴人; ? – 9 September 1777)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady</b> (贵人) of the Wu clan (武氏; ? – 1781)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Jin</b> (金貴人; ? – 1778)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Xin</b> (新貴人; ? – 1775)</li> <li><b>Noble Lady Fu</b> (福貴人; ? – 1764)</li></ul> <p><b>First Class Attendant</b> </p> <ul><li><b>First Class Attendant Kui</b> (揆常在; ? – 26 May 1756)</li> <li><b>First Class Attendant Yu</b> (裕常在) of the Zhang clan (张氏; ? – 1745)</li> <li><b>First Class Attendant Ping</b> (平常在; ? – 1778)</li> <li><b>First Class Attendant Ning</b> (寧常在; ? – 1781)</li></ul> <p><b>Second Class Attendant</b> </p> <ul><li><b>Second Class Attendant Xiang</b> (祥答应; ? – 28 March 1773)</li> <li><b>Second Class Attendant Na</b> (那答應)</li> <li><b>Second Class Attendant Wan</b> (莞答應)</li> <li><b>Second Class Attendant Cai</b> (采答應)</li> <li><b>Second Class Attendant</b> (答應)</li></ul> <p><b>Mistress</b> </p> <ul><li><b>Mistress</b> (格格; ? – October 1729)</li> <li><b>Mistress</b> (格格; ? – 30 July 1731)</li></ul> <p><b>Lady-in-waiting</b> </p> <ul><li><b>Lady-in-waiting</b> (官女子)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancestry">Ancestry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ancestry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886387087">.mw-parser-output table.ahnentafel{border-collapse:separate;border-spacing:0;line-height:130%}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel tr{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel-t{border-top:#000 solid 1px;border-left:#000 solid 1px}.mw-parser-output .ahnentafel-b{border-bottom:#000 solid 1px;border-left:#000 solid 1px}</style><div class="noresize"><table class="ahnentafel" style="font-size:88%;margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><tbody><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="28" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="13"> </td><td rowspan="12" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="5"> </td><td rowspan="4" colspan="2"> </td><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;"><a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> (1638–1661)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;"><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi Emperor</a> (1654–1722)</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;"><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaokangzhang" title="Empress Xiaokangzhang">Empress Xiaokangzhang</a> (1638–1663)</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fb9;"><a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a> (1678–1735)</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="15" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="14" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">Weiwu</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;"><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaogongren" title="Empress Xiaogongren">Empress Xiaogongren</a> (1660–1723)</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">Lady Saiheli</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fcc;">Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799)</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="11"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="24" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="15" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="14" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">Wulu</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">Lingzhu (1664–1754)</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">Lady Qiao</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #fb9;"><a href="/wiki/Empress_Xiaoshengxian" title="Empress Xiaoshengxian">Empress Xiaoshengxian</a> (1692–1777)</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="7"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="9"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="8" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="7" class="ahnentafel-b"> </td><td rowspan="6" colspan="2"> </td><td rowspan="3"> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #bfc;">Wugong</td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="3" class="ahnentafel-t"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td rowspan="2" colspan="4" style="border:1px solid black;height:0.5em; padding:0 0.2em;background-color: #ffc;">Lady Peng</td><td rowspan="2" colspan="3"> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td></tr><tr><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td><td> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Tony_Liu" title="Tony Liu">Tony Liu</a> in <i>The Adventures Of Emperor Chien Lung</i> (1977).</li> <li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Tielin" title="Zhang Tielin">Zhang Tielin</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/My_Fair_Princess" title="My Fair Princess">My Fair Princess</a></i> (1998).</li> <li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Kwong_Wa" title="Kwong Wa">Kwong Wa</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Happy_Ever_After_(Hong_Kong_TV_series)" title="Happy Ever After (Hong Kong TV series)">Happy Ever After</a></i> (1999).</li> <li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Nie_Yuan" title="Nie Yuan">Nie Yuan</a> in <i>World Granary</i> (2001), <i><a href="/wiki/Story_of_Yanxi_Palace" title="Story of Yanxi Palace">Story of Yanxi Palace</a></i> (2018) and <i>Yanxi Palace: Princess Adventures</i> (2019).</li> <li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Ti_Lung" title="Ti Lung">Ti Lung</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/My_Fair_Princess_III" title="My Fair Princess III">My Fair Princess III</a></i> (2003).</li> <li>Portrayed by Chiu Hsinchih in <i><a href="/wiki/New_My_Fair_Princess" title="New My Fair Princess">New My Fair Princess</a></i> (2011).</li> <li>Portrayed by Wang Wenjie in <i><a href="/wiki/Empresses_in_the_Palace" title="Empresses in the Palace">Empresses in the Palace</a></i> (2011).</li> <li>Portrayed by Chen Xu in <i><a href="/wiki/Palace_II" title="Palace II">Palace II</a></i> (2012).</li> <li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Kent_Tong" title="Kent Tong">Kent Tong</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Palace_3:_The_Lost_Daughter" title="Palace 3: The Lost Daughter">Palace 3: The Lost Daughter</a></i> (2014).</li> <li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guoqiang" title="Zhang Guoqiang">Zhang Guoqiang</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Succession_War_(TV_series)" title="Succession War (TV series)">Succession War</a></i> (2018).</li> <li>Portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Huo" title="Wallace Huo">Wallace Huo</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Ruyi%27s_Royal_Love_in_the_Palace" title="Ruyi's Royal Love in the Palace">Ruyi's Royal Love in the Palace</a></i> (2018).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works_by_the_Qianlong_Emperor">Works by the Qianlong Emperor</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Works by the Qianlong Emperor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1">Ch'ien Lung (emperor of China) (1810). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pFYUAAAAQAAJ"><i>The conquest of the Miao-tse, an imperial poem ... entitled A choral song of harmony for the first part of the Spring [tr.] by S. Weston, from the Chinese</i></a>. Translated by Stephen Weston. London, England: Printed & Sold by C. & R. Baldwin, New Bridge Street, Black Friars. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-02-237186-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-02-237186-6"><bdi>978-1-02-237186-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+conquest+of+the+Miao-tse%2C+an+imperial+poem+...+entitled+A+choral+song+of+harmony+for+the+first+part+of+the+Spring+%5Btr.%5D+by+S.+Weston%2C+from+the+Chinese&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Printed+%26+Sold+by+C.+%26+R.+Baldwin%2C+New+Bridge+Street%2C+Black+Friars&rft.date=1810&rft.isbn=978-1-02-237186-6&rft.au=Ch%27ien+Lung+%28emperor+of+China%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpFYUAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span 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portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Joseph_Marie_Amiot" title="Jean Joseph Marie Amiot">Jean Joseph Marie Amiot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canton_System" title="Canton System">Canton System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Chinese_monarchs_(late)" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)">Family tree of Chinese monarchs (late)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Corridor" title="Long Corridor">Long Corridor</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manwen_Laodang" title="Manwen Laodang">Manwen Laodang</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putuo_Zongcheng_Temple" title="Putuo Zongcheng Temple">Putuo Zongcheng Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Dynasty" title="Qianlong Dynasty">Qianlong Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianlong_Tongbao" title="Qianlong Tongbao">Qianlong Tongbao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Portuguese Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Macau_under_Portuguese_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Macau under Portuguese rule">Military of Macau under Portuguese rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Hong_Kong" title="British Hong Kong">British Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Forces_Overseas_Hong_Kong" title="British Forces Overseas Hong Kong">British Forces Overseas Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong%27s_cult_of_personality" title="Mao Zedong's cult of personality">Mao Zedong's cult of personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macartney_Embassy" title="Macartney Embassy">Macartney Embassy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yong_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Liu Yong (Qing dynasty)">Liu Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heshen" title="Heshen">Heshen</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Chenhan</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans-CN"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%B8%E7%BF%B0" class="extiw" title="wikt:宸翰">宸翰</a></span></span>, <i>Chénhàn</i>) seal used for calligraphy and handwritten works.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">She is the only Qing Empress who did not receive a posthumous name.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Her maiden clan is a matter of debate, either Ula-Nara or Hoifa-Nara.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The fictional <a href="/wiki/Fragrant_Concubine" title="Fragrant Concubine">Fragrant Concubine</a> (香妃; <i>Xiang Fei</i>) is based on her.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-nytjacobs-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nytjacobs_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytjacobs_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2008" class="citation news cs1">Jacobs, Andrew (31 December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/01/arts/design/01forb.html">"Dusting Off a Serene Jewel Box"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Dusting+Off+a+Serene+Jewel+Box&rft.date=2008-12-31&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2009%2F01%2F01%2Farts%2Fdesign%2F01forb.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHua2018" class="citation book cs1">Hua, Bin (2018). <i>大清高宗純皇帝乾隆</i>. 千華駐科技出版有限公司.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E5%A4%A7%E6%B8%85%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E7%B4%94%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86&rft.pub=%E5%8D%83%E8%8F%AF%E9%A7%90%E7%A7%91%E6%8A%80%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Hua&rft.aufirst=Bin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHui/惠2004" class="citation book cs1">Hui/惠, Huanzhang/焕章 (2004). <i>汉光武帝刘秀百谜/中国帝王百谜系列/ "Enigma of the Emperor Guang of Han Liu Xiubai/100 Secrets of the Chinese Emperors"</i>. Shaanxi: 陕西旅游出版社. p. 30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E6%B1%89%E5%85%89%E6%AD%A6%E5%B8%9D%E5%88%98%E7%A7%80%E7%99%BE%E8%B0%9C%2F%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%B8%9D%E7%8E%8B%E7%99%BE%E8%B0%9C%E7%B3%BB%E5%88%97%2F+%22Enigma+of+the+Emperor+Guang+of+Han+Liu+Xiubai%2F100+Secrets+of+the+Chinese+Emperors%22&rft.place=Shaanxi&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=%E9%99%95%E8%A5%BF%E6%97%85%E6%B8%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Hui%2F%E6%83%A0&rft.aufirst=Huanzhang%2F%E7%84%95%E7%AB%A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGao2001" class="citation book cs1">Gao, Yang (2001). <i>三春爭及初春景/Fight in the spring scenery</i>. 生活・讀書・新知三联书店. p. 686.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E4%B8%89%E6%98%A5%E7%88%AD%E5%8F%8A%E5%88%9D%E6%98%A5%E6%99%AF%2FFight+in+the+spring+scenery.&rft.pages=686&rft.pub=%E7%94%9F%E6%B4%BB%E3%83%BB%E8%AE%80%E6%9B%B8%E3%83%BB%E6%96%B0%E7%9F%A5%E4%B8%89%E8%81%94%E4%B9%A6%E5%BA%97&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Gao&rft.aufirst=Yang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDong_(董)2003" class="citation book cs1">Dong (董), Yiqiu (一秋) (2003). <i>10 great writers of China. Cao Xueqin / 中国十大文豪曹雪芹</i>. Beijing Book Co. Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=10+great+writers+of+China.+Cao+Xueqin+%2F+%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%8D%81%E5%A4%A7%E6%96%87%E8%B1%AA%E6%9B%B9%E9%9B%AA%E8%8A%B9.&rft.pub=Beijing+Book+Co.+Inc.&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Dong+%28%E8%91%A3%29&rft.aufirst=Yiqiu+%28%E4%B8%80%E7%A7%8B%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.dpm.org.cn/EXPLORE/ming-qing/2015-02-06/15.html">"Qianlong Reign|The Palace Museum"</a>. <i>en.dpm.org.cn</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=en.dpm.org.cn&rft.atitle=Qianlong+Reign%7CThe+Palace+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.dpm.org.cn%2FEXPLORE%2Fming-qing%2F2015-02-06%2F15.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>《高宗純皇帝實錄》</i>. Vol. 106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E7%B4%94%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E5%AF%A6%E9%8C%84%E3%80%8B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen_(陈)2010" class="citation book cs1">Chen (陈), Jiexian (捷先) (2010). <i>"Real Qianlong"</i>. 遠流出版. p. 62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Real+Qianlong%22&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=%E9%81%A0%E6%B5%81%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Chen+%28%E9%99%88%29&rft.aufirst=Jiexian+%28%E6%8D%B7%E5%85%88%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeng" class="citation book cs1">Feng, Jingzhi. <i>The art of weaving in the Qing. Chunfeng Cultural Press</i>. p. 1065.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+art+of+weaving+in+the+Qing.+Chunfeng+Cultural+Press.&rft.pages=1065&rft.aulast=Feng&rft.aufirst=Jingzhi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>《高宗純皇帝實錄》</i>. Vol. 1048.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E3%80%8A%E9%AB%98%E5%AE%97%E7%B4%94%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%E5%AF%A6%E9%8C%84%E3%80%8B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWei_Yuan1848" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a> (1848). <i>聖武記</i> [<i>Sheng Wu Ji</i>]. Military history of the Qing Dynasty, vol.4. (in Chinese). <q>計數十萬戶中，先痘死者十之四，繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二，卒殲於大兵者十之三。["Among the 100,000 households, 4 out of 10 died from the first pox, 2 out of 10 went into Russia Kazakh, and 3 out of 10 died in the army."]</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%E8%81%96%E6%AD%A6%E8%A8%98&rft.series=Military+history+of+the+Qing+Dynasty%2C+vol.4.&rft.date=1848&rft.au=Wei+Yuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perdue-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perdue_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perdue_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerdue2005">Perdue 2005</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClarke2004">Clarke 2004</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheobald2013" class="citation book cs1">Theobald, Ulrich (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DUodAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21"><i>War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776)</i></a>. Leiden: Brill. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-00425-567-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-00425-567-8"><bdi>978-9-00425-567-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+Finance+and+Logistics+in+Late+Imperial+China%3A+A+Study+of+the+Second+Jinchuan+Campaign+%281771%E2%80%931776%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-9-00425-567-8&rft.aulast=Theobald&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDUodAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manchustudiesgroup.org/2012/12/18/manchu-hymn-chanted-at-the-occasion-of-the-victory-over-the-jinchuan-rebels/">"Manchu hymn chanted at the occasion of the victory over the Jinchuan Rebels"</a>. <i>Manchu Studies Group</i>. 18 December 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Manchu+Studies+Group&rft.atitle=Manchu+hymn+chanted+at+the+occasion+of+the+victory+over+the+Jinchuan+Rebels&rft.date=2012-12-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.manchustudiesgroup.org%2F2012%2F12%2F18%2Fmanchu-hymn-chanted-at-the-occasion-of-the-victory-over-the-jinchuan-rebels%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMan-Cheong2004" class="citation book cs1">Man-Cheong, Iona (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I5a5J3ydmQQC&q=zhao+yi+dzungar&pg=PA180"><i>Class of 1761</i></a>. Stanford University Press. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80476-713-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80476-713-2"><bdi>978-0-80476-713-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C"><i>The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C1760-1860</i></a>. 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Xinjiang, China.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=A+Victory+Banquet+Given+by+the+Emperor+for+the+Distinguished+Officers+and+Soldiers&rft.date=1770&rft.aulast=Le+Bas&rft.aufirst=Jacques-Philippe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F7718%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gernet1996-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gernet1996_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGernet1996" class="citation book cs1">Gernet, Jacques (31 May 1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0"><i>A History of Chinese Civilization</i></a></span>. 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2000</a>, p. 504.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000505-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000505_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReardon-Anderson2000">Reardon-Anderson 2000</a>, p. 505.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000506-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000506_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReardon-Anderson2000">Reardon-Anderson 2000</a>, p. 506.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf">Scharping 1998</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000507-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000507_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReardon-Anderson2000">Reardon-Anderson 2000</a>, p. 507.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000508-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000508_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReardon-Anderson2000">Reardon-Anderson 2000</a>, p. 508.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000509-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReardon-Anderson2000509_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReardon-Anderson2000">Reardon-Anderson 2000</a>, p. 509.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1795" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Æneas (1795). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=foteAAAAcAAJ&q=five+fee+ten+inches"><i>A Narrative of the British Embassy to China, in the Years 1792, 1793, and 1794; Containing the Various Circumstances of the Embassy, with Accounts of Customs and Manners of the Chinese</i></a>. London: J. Debrett. p. 262.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Narrative+of+the+British+Embassy+to+China%2C+in+the+Years+1792%2C+1793%2C+and+1794%3B+Containing+the+Various+Circumstances+of+the+Embassy%2C+with+Accounts+of+Customs+and+Manners+of+the+Chinese&rft.place=London&rft.pages=262&rft.pub=J.+Debrett&rft.date=1795&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=%C3%86neas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfoteAAAAcAAJ%26q%3Dfive%2Bfee%2Bten%2Binches&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080424095218/http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E459.htm">"Qianlong Emperor (乾隆皇帝)"</a>. <i>Palace Museum, Beijing</i> (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E459.htm">the original</a> on 24 April 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Palace+Museum%2C+Beijing&rft.atitle=Qianlong+Emperor+%28%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpm.org.cn%2FChina%2Fphoweb%2FExpertsPage%2F1%2FE459.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShi2006" class="citation cs2">Shi Zhihong (2006), "China's Overseas Trade Policy and Its Historical Results: 1522–1840", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mLBgaa8d4aMC"><i>Intra-Asian Trade and the World Market</i></a>, Studies in the Modern History of Asia, Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 9–10, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-19408-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-19408-7"><bdi>978-1-134-19408-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=China%27s+Overseas+Trade+Policy+and+Its+Historical+Results%3A+1522%E2%80%931840&rft.btitle=Intra-Asian+Trade+and+the+World+Market&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.series=Studies+in+the+Modern+History+of+Asia&rft.pages=9-10&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-134-19408-7&rft.aulast=Shi&rft.aufirst=Zhihong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmLBgaa8d4aMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2017" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Harrison" title="Henrietta Harrison">Harrison, Henrietta</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:774c2dfc-2d31-48c4-a41e-1fab73655014">"The Qianlong Emperor's Letter to George III and the Early Twentieth Century Origins of Ideas About Traditional China's Foreign Relations"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a></i>. <b>122</b> (3): 680–701. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2F122.3.680">10.1093/ahr/122.3.680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Qianlong+Emperor%27s+Letter+to+George+III+and+the+Early+Twentieth+Century+Origins+of+Ideas+About+Traditional+China%27s+Foreign+Relations&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=680-701&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2F122.3.680&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Henrietta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3A774c2dfc-2d31-48c4-a41e-1fab73655014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a conventional European perspective of the audience question, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeyrefitte1992" class="citation book cs1">Peyrefitte, Alain (1992). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Immobile_Empire" title="The Immobile Empire">The Immobile Empire</a></i>. Translated by Rotschild, Jon. New York City: Knopf, distributed by Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-39458-654-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-39458-654-0"><bdi>978-0-39458-654-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immobile+Empire&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Knopf%2C+distributed+by+Random+House&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-39458-654-0&rft.aulast=Peyrefitte&rft.aufirst=Alain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span><br />For a critique, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHevia1995" class="citation book cs1">Hevia, James L. (1995). <i>Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793</i>. Durham: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-9628-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-9628-4"><bdi>978-0-8223-9628-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherishing+Men+from+Afar%3A+Qing+Guest+Ritual+and+the+Macartney+Embassy+of+1793&rft.place=Durham&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-9628-4&rft.aulast=Hevia&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span><br />For a discussion on Hevia's book, see exchange between Hevia and Joseph W. Esherick in <i>Modern China</i> Vol. 24, no. 2 (1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academics.wellesley.edu/Polisci/wj/China/208/READINGS/qianlong.html">"Qianlong's Letter to King George"</a>. <i>Annals and Memoirs of the Court of Peking</i>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Edmund_Backhouse,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir Edmund Backhouse, 2nd Baronet">Edmund Backhouse</a>; <a href="/wiki/J._O._P._Bland" class="mw-redirect" title="J. O. P. Bland">J. O. P. Bland</a>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1914. pp. 322–331<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2017</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Modern_History_Sourcebook" class="mw-redirect" title="Internet Modern History Sourcebook">Internet Modern History Sourcebook</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Qianlong%27s+Letter+to+King+George&rft.btitle=Annals+and+Memoirs+of+the+Court+of+Peking&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=322-331&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1914&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademics.wellesley.edu%2FPolisci%2Fwj%2FChina%2F208%2FREADINGS%2Fqianlong.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarrison2017690-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarrison2017690_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarrison2017">Harrison (2017)</a>, p. 690.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobbins1908" class="citation book cs1">Robbins, Helen H. (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181006125004/http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B36599578/"><i>Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney, with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737–1806</i></a>. London: John Murray. p. 386. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B36599578/">the original</a> on 6 October 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Our+First+Ambassador+to+China%3A+An+Account+of+the+Life+of+George%2C+Earl+of+Macartney%2C+with+Extracts+from+His+Letters%2C+and+the+Narrative+of+His+Experiences+in+China%2C+as+Told+by+Himself%2C+1737%E2%80%931806&rft.place=London&rft.pages=386&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Robbins&rft.aufirst=Helen+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febook.lib.hku.hk%2FCTWE%2FB36599578%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Neil1995" class="citation thesis cs1">O'Neil, Patricia O. (1995). <i>Missed Opportunities: Late 18th century Chinese Relations with England and the Netherlands</i> (PhD). University of Washington.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Missed+Opportunities%3A+Late+18th+century+Chinese+Relations+with+England+and+the+Netherlands&rft.inst=University+of+Washington&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=O%27Neil&rft.aufirst=Patricia+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuyvendak1938" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J.J.L._Duyvendak" class="mw-redirect" title="J.J.L. Duyvendak">Duyvendak, J.J.L.</a> (January 1938). "The Last Dutch Embassy to the Chinese Court (1794–1795)". <i><a href="/wiki/T%27oung_Pao" title="T'oung Pao">T'oung Pao</a></i>. <b>34</b> (1): 1–137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853238X00027">10.1163/156853238X00027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=The+Last+Dutch+Embassy+to+the+Chinese+Court+%281794%E2%80%931795%29&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-137&rft.date=1938-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853238X00027&rft.aulast=Duyvendak&rft.aufirst=J.J.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_Braam_Houckgeest1798" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Everardus_van_Braam_Houckgeest" title="Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest">van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus</a> (1798). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090215094026/http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B2962471X/"><i>Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1795</i></a> [<i>An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795</i>]. London: J. Debrett. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B2962471X/">the original</a> on 15 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voyage+de+l%27ambassade+de+la+Compagnie+des+Indes+Orientales+hollandaises+vers+l%27empereur+de+la+Chine%2C+dans+les+ann%C3%A9es+1794+et+1795&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+Debrett&rft.date=1798&rft.aulast=van+Braam+Houckgeest&rft.aufirst=Andreas+Everardus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Febook.lib.hku.hk%2FCTWE%2FB2962471X%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van Braam, <i>An authentic account...</i>, Vol. I (1798 English edition) pp. 283–288.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WMF-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WMF_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WMF_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wmf.org/project/juanqinzhai-qianlong-garden">"Juanqizhai in the Qianlong Garden"</a>. <i>World Monuments Fund</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Monuments+Fund&rft.atitle=Juanqizhai+in+the+Qianlong+Garden&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wmf.org%2Fproject%2Fjuanqinzhai-qianlong-garden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081022020753/http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E460.htm">"Jiaqing Emperor (嘉庆皇帝)"</a>. <i>Palace Museum, Beijing</i> (in Chinese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E460.htm">the original</a> on 22 October 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Palace+Museum%2C+Beijing&rft.atitle=Jiaqing+Emperor+%28%E5%98%89%E5%BA%86%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpm.org.cn%2FChina%2Fphoweb%2FExpertsPage%2F1%2FE460.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson1795" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Æneas (1795). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ANarrativeOfTheBritishEmbassyToChina1793"><i>A Narrative of the British Embassy to China, in the Years 1792, 1793, and 1794; Containing the Various Circumstances of the Embassy, with Accounts of Customs and Manners of the Chinese</i></a>. London: J. Debrett.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Narrative+of+the+British+Embassy+to+China%2C+in+the+Years+1792%2C+1793%2C+and+1794%3B+Containing+the+Various+Circumstances+of+the+Embassy%2C+with+Accounts+of+Customs+and+Manners+of+the+Chinese&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+Debrett&rft.date=1795&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=%C3%86neas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FANarrativeOfTheBritishEmbassyToChina1793&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger2003" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Patricia Ann (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BsyFU9FwCIkC"><i>Empire of Emptiness: Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China</i></a> (illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2563-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2563-8"><bdi>978-0-8248-2563-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+of+Emptiness%3A+Buddhist+Art+and+Political+Authority+in+Qing+China&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2563-8&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBsyFU9FwCIkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke2004" class="citation thesis cs1">Clarke, Michael Edmund (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114903/http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf"><i>In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia 1759–2004</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Doctoral thesis). Brisbane, QLD, Australia: Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies, Griffith University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/uploads/approved/adt-QGU20061121.163131/public/02Whole.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=In+the+Eye+of+Power%3A+China+and+Xinjiang+from+the+Qing+Conquest+to+the+%27New+Great+Game%27+for+Central+Asia+1759%E2%80%932004&rft.inst=Dept.+of+International+Business+%26+Asian+Studies%2C+Griffith+University&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Michael+Edmund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww4.gu.edu.au%3A8080%2Fadt-root%2Fuploads%2Fapproved%2Fadt-QGU20061121.163131%2Fpublic%2F02Whole.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley2000" class="citation book cs1">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC"><i>A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92884-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92884-8"><bdi>978-0-520-92884-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Translucent+Mirror%3A+History+and+Identity+in+Qing+Imperial+Ideology&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92884-8&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWn4iv_RJv8oC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunnellElliottForêtMillward2004" class="citation book cs1">Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Forêt, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC"><i>New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-36222-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-36222-6"><bdi>978-1-134-36222-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Qing+Imperial+History%3A+The+Making+of+Inner+Asian+Empire+at+Qing+Chengde&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-134-36222-6&rft.aulast=Dunnell&rft.aufirst=Ruth+W.&rft.au=Elliott%2C+Mark+C.&rft.au=For%C3%AAt%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Millward%2C+James+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6qFH-53_VnEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2000" class="citation journal cs1">Elliott, Mark C. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/elliott/files/elliott_jas_limits_of_tartary_0.pdf">"The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Asian_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Asian Studies">Journal of Asian Studies</a></i>. <b>59</b> (3): 603–646. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2658945">10.2307/2658945</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2658945">2658945</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162684575">162684575</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Limits+of+Tartary%3A+Manchuria+in+Imperial+and+National+Geographies&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=603-646&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162684575%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2658945%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2658945&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholar.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Felliott%2Ffiles%2Felliott_jas_limits_of_tartary_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2001" class="citation book cs1">—— (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC"><i>The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China</i></a>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-4684-7"><bdi>978-0-8047-4684-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchu+Way%3A+The+Eight+Banners+and+Ethnic+Identity+in+Late+Imperial+China&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_qtgoTIAiKUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElliott2009" class="citation book cs1">—— (2009). <i>Emperor Qianlong: Son of Heaven, Man of the World</i>. New York: Pearson Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-08444-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-08444-6"><bdi>978-0-321-08444-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emperor+Qianlong%3A+Son+of+Heaven%2C+Man+of+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pearson+Longman&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-321-08444-6&rft.aulast=Elliott&rft.aufirst=Mark+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElverskog2010" class="citation book cs1">Elverskog, Johan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/JohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoad"><i>Buddhism And Islam on the Silk Road</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4237-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4237-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-4237-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+And+Islam+on+the+Silk+Road&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-4237-9&rft.aulast=Elverskog&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FJohanElverskogBuddhismAndIslamOnTheSilkRoad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Guignes1808" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Chr%C3%A9tien-Louis-Joseph_de_Guignes" title="Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes">de Guignes, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph</a> (1808). <i>Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France</i> (in French). Paris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Voyage+a+P%C3%A9kin%2C+Manille+et+l%27Ile+de+France&rft.place=Paris&rft.date=1808&rft.aulast=de+Guignes&rft.aufirst=Chr%C3%A9tien-Louis-Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuy1987" class="citation book cs1">Guy, R. Kent (October 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bFA6a60_5LgC&q=The+Emperor%27s+Four+Treasuries:+Scholars+and+the+State+in+the+Late+Ch%27ien-lung+Era.&pg=PA78"><i>The Emperor's Four Treasures</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 167. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25115-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-25115-1"><bdi>978-0-674-25115-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor%27s+Four+Treasures&rft.pages=167&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987-10&rft.isbn=978-0-674-25115-1&rft.aulast=Guy&rft.aufirst=R.+Kent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbFA6a60_5LgC%26q%3DThe%2BEmperor%2527s%2BFour%2BTreasuries%3A%2BScholars%2Band%2Bthe%2BState%2Bin%2Bthe%2BLate%2BCh%2527ien-lung%2BEra.%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1960" class="citation book cs1">Hall, D.G.E. (1960). <i>Burma</i> (3rd ed.). London: Hutchinson University Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-3503-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-3503-1"><bdi>978-1-4067-3503-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Burma&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Hutchinson+University+Library&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-1-4067-3503-1&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=D.G.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuFaure1996" class="citation book cs1">Liu, Tao Tao; Faure, David (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FW8SBAAAQBAJ"><i>Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China</i></a>. Hong Kong University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-402-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-209-402-4"><bdi>978-962-209-402-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Unity+and+Diversity%3A+Local+Cultures+and+Identities+in+China&rft.pub=Hong+Kong+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-962-209-402-4&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Tao+Tao&rft.au=Faure%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFW8SBAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLopez1999" class="citation book cs1">Lopez, Donald S. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mjUHF7kQfVAC"><i>Prisoners of Shangri-La: Tibetan Buddhism and the West</i></a> (reprint, revised ed.). University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-49311-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-49311-4"><bdi>978-0-226-49311-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prisoners+of+Shangri-La%3A+Tibetan+Buddhism+and+the+West&rft.edition=reprint%2C+revised&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-226-49311-4&rft.aulast=Lopez&rft.aufirst=Donald+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmjUHF7kQfVAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward1998" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MC6sAAAAIAAJ"><i>Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759-1864</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2933-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-2933-8"><bdi>978-0-8047-2933-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Pass%3A+Economy%2C+Ethnicity%2C+and+Empire+in+Qing+Central+Asia%2C+1759-1864&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-2933-8&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMC6sAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillward2007" class="citation book cs1">Millward, James A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC"><i>Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13924-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13924-3"><bdi>978-0-231-13924-3</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eurasian+Crossroads%3A+A+History+of+Xinjiang&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-13924-3&rft.aulast=Millward&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8FVsWq31MtMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewby2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Newby, L. J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTmO416hNQ8C"><i>The Empire And the Khanate: A Political History of Qing Relations With Khoqand C.1760-1860</i></a>. Vol. 16 of Brill's Inner Asian Library (illustrated ed.). Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14550-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14550-4"><bdi>978-90-04-14550-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Empire+And+the+Khanate%3A+A+Political+History+of+Qing+Relations+With+Khoqand+C.1760-1860&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-14550-4&rft.aulast=Newby&rft.aufirst=L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTmO416hNQ8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue2005" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Peter C. (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinamarcheswest00pete"><i>China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia</i></a></span>. Cambridge, Mass.; London, England: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01684-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-01684-2"><bdi>978-0-674-01684-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Marches+West%3A+The+Qing+Conquest+of+Central+Eurasia&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.%3B+London%2C+England&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-674-01684-2&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchinamarcheswest00pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetech1972" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Petech, Luciano (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.260262/page/n221/mode/2up?q=slicing"><i>China and Tibet in the Early Xviiith Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet</i></a>. Vol. 1 of T'oung pao, archives concernant l'histoire, les langues, la géographie, l'ethnographie et les arts de l'Asie orientale. Monographie (illustrated ed.). Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-03442-0" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-03442-0"><bdi>90-04-03442-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+and+Tibet+in+the+Early+Xviiith+Century%3A+History+of+the+Establishment+of+Chinese+Protectorate+in+Tibet&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=90-04-03442-0&rft.aulast=Petech&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.260262%2Fpage%2Fn221%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dslicing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawski1998" class="citation book cs1">Rawski, Evelyn S. (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastemperorssoc00raws"><i>The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions</i></a></span>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92679-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92679-0"><bdi>978-0-520-92679-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Emperors%3A+A+Social+History+of+Qing+Imperial+Institutions&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-520-92679-0&rft.aulast=Rawski&rft.aufirst=Evelyn+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flastemperorssoc00raws&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReardon-Anderson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Reardon-Anderson, James (October 2000). "Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty". <i>Environmental History</i>. <b>5</b> (4): 503–530. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3985584">10.2307/3985584</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3985584">3985584</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143541438">143541438</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+History&rft.atitle=Land+Use+and+Society+in+Manchuria+and+Inner+Mongolia+during+the+Qing+Dynasty&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=503-530&rft.date=2000-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143541438%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3985584%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3985584&rft.aulast=Reardon-Anderson&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181006125004/http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B36599578/"><i>Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737–1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents.</i></a> London : John Murray. [digitized by <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong" title="University of Hong Kong">University of Hong Kong</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong#Libraries_and_museums" title="University of Hong Kong">Libraries</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.hku.hk/database/">Digital Initiatives</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070425165629/http://www.spurgeons.ac.uk/site/pages/ui_college_history.aspx">"China Through Western Eyes."</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScharping1998" class="citation journal cs1">Scharping, Thomas (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de/fileadmin/chinastudien/papers/No_1998-1.pdf">"Minorities, Majorities and National Expansion: The History and Politics of Population Development in Manchuria 1610–1993"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cologne China Studies Online – Working Papers on Chinese Politics, Economy and Society (Kölner China-Studien Online – Arbeitspapiere zu Politik, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft Chinas)</i> (1)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cologne+China+Studies+Online+%E2%80%93+Working+Papers+on+Chinese+Politics%2C+Economy+and+Society+%28K%C3%B6lner+China-Studien+Online+%E2%80%93+Arbeitspapiere+zu+Politik%2C+Wirtschaft+und+Gesellschaft+Chinas%29&rft.atitle=Minorities%2C+Majorities+and+National+Expansion%3A+The+History+and+Politics+of+Population+Development+in+Manchuria+1610%E2%80%931993&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Scharping&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phil-fak.uni-koeln.de%2Ffileadmin%2Fchinastudien%2Fpapers%2FNo_1998-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Everardus_van_Braam_Houckgeest" title="Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest">van Braam Houckgeest</a>, Andreas Everardus. (1797). <i>Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1795.</i> Philadelphia: M.L.E. Moreau de Saint-Méry.</li> <li>Van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1798). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090215094026/http://ebook.lib.hku.hk/CTWE/B2962471X/"><i>An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795,</i> Vol. I.</a> London : R. Phillips. [digitized by <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong" title="University of Hong Kong">University of Hong Kong</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong#Libraries_and_museums" title="University of Hong Kong">Libraries</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lib.hku.hk/database/">Digital Initiatives</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070425165629/http://www.spurgeons.ac.uk/site/pages/ui_college_history.aspx">"China Through Western Eyes."</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodside2002" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Woodside, Alexander (December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hi2THl2FUZ4C&q=The+Literary+Inquisition+of+Ch%27ien-Lung.&pg=PA290">"The Ch'ien-Lung Reign"</a>. In Peterson, Willard J. (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of China</i>. Vol. 9. Cambridge University Press. pp. 230–309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24334-6"><bdi>978-0-521-24334-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ch%27ien-Lung+Reign&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China&rft.pages=230-309&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-12&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24334-6&rft.aulast=Woodside&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhi2THl2FUZ4C%26q%3DThe%2BLiterary%2BInquisition%2Bof%2BCh%2527ien-Lung.%26pg%3DPA290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhao2006" class="citation journal cs1">Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century". <i>Modern China</i>. <b>32</b> (1): 3–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0097700405282349">10.1177/0097700405282349</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062627">20062627</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144587815">144587815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+China&rft.atitle=Reinventing+China+Imperial+Qing+Ideology+and+the+Rise+of+Modern+Chinese+National+Identity+in+the+Early+Twentieth+Century&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=3-30&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144587815%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20062627%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0097700405282349&rft.aulast=Zhao&rft.aufirst=Gang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoBronson2004" class="citation book cs1">Ho, Chuimei & Bronson, Bennet (2004). <i>Splendors of China's Forbidden City: The Glorious Reign of Emperor Qianlong</i>. London: Merrell, in association with The Field Museum, Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85894-203-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-85894-203-9"><bdi>1-85894-203-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Splendors+of+China%27s+Forbidden+City%3A+The+Glorious+Reign+of+Emperor+Qianlong&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Merrell%2C+in+association+with+The+Field+Museum%2C+Chicago&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-85894-203-9&rft.aulast=Ho&rft.aufirst=Chuimei&rft.au=Bronson%2C+Bennet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn1971" class="citation book cs1">Kahn, Harold L. (1971). <i>Monarchy in the Emperor's Eyes: Image and Reality in the Ch'ien-Lung Reign</i>. Harvard East Asian Series. Vol. 59. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-58230-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-58230-6"><bdi>0-674-58230-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Monarchy+in+the+Emperor%27s+Eyes%3A+Image+and+Reality+in+the+Ch%27ien-Lung+Reign&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.series=Harvard+East+Asian+Series&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-674-58230-6&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=Harold+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1990" class="citation book cs1">Kuhn, Philip A. (1990). <i>Soulstealers: The Chinese Sorcery Scare of 1768</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-82151-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-82151-3"><bdi>0-674-82151-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soulstealers%3A+The+Chinese+Sorcery+Scare+of+1768&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-674-82151-3&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span> (alk. paper)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerliner2010" class="citation book cs1">Berliner, Nancy (2010). <i>The Emperor's Private Paradise: Treasures from the Forbidden City</i>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87577-221-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87577-221-9"><bdi>978-0-87577-221-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor%27s+Private+Paradise%3A+Treasures+from+the+Forbidden+City&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-87577-221-9&rft.aulast=Berliner&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHummel1943" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Hummel_Sr." title="Arthur W. Hummel Sr.">Hummel, Arthur W. Sr.</a>, ed. (1943). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period/Hung-li"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period/Hung-li">"Hung-li" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Eminent_Chinese_of_the_Ch%27ing_Period" title="Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period">Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hung-li&rft.btitle=Eminent+Chinese+of+the+Ch%27ing+Period&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=1943&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AQianlong+Emperor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Qianlong_Emperor" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Qianlong_Emperor" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a> at Wikiquote</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Qianlong Emperor </div><div><b><a href="/wiki/Aisin-Gioro" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin-Gioro">House of Aisin-Gioro</a></b></div><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"><b>Born:</b> 25 September 1711</span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"> <b>Died:</b> 7 February 1799</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ACE777;">Regnal titles </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng Emperor</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_emperors_of_the_Qing_dynasty" title="List of emperors of the Qing dynasty">Emperor of the Qing dynasty</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Emperor of China</a> </b><br />1735–1796 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing Emperor</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><span style="font-size:85%;"><b>Later Jin rulers posthumously regarded as Qing emperors</b></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nurhaci" title="Nurhaci">Taizu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Taizong</a></li></ul> <p><span style="font-size:85%;"><b>Enthroned in 1626 as <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Hong Taiji</a> changed the dynastic name to "Great Qing" in 1636 and claimed the title of emperor.<br />In 1644, the <a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi Emperor</a> began to rule over <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>, replacing the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>.</b></span> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Taiji" title="Hong Taiji">Taizong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Shunzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor" title="Kangxi Emperor">Kangxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Yongzheng</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qianlong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Jiaqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Daoguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianfeng_Emperor" title="Xianfeng Emperor">Xianfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhi_Emperor" title="Tongzhi Emperor">Tongzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guangxu_Emperor" title="Guangxu Emperor">Guangxu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Xuantong</a></li></ul></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_China_(1889%E2%80%931912).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of the Qing 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Dynasties</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Northern_dynasties_emperors" title="Template:Northern dynasties emperors">N. Dynasties</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Sui_emperors" title="Template:Sui emperors">Sui</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Tang_emperors" title="Template:Tang emperors">Tang</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_rulers" title="Template:Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms rulers">5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Liao_emperors" title="Template:Liao emperors">Liao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Song_emperors" title="Template:Song emperors">Song</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Western_Xia_emperors" title="Template:Western Xia emperors">W. Xia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Jin_emperors_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Template:Jin emperors (1115–1234)">Jīn</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Yuan_emperors" title="Template:Yuan emperors">Yuan</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Ming_emperors" title="Template:Ming emperors">Ming</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_emperors" title="Template:Qing emperors">Qing</a> → <a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Template:Presidents of the Republic of China">ROC</a> / <a href="/wiki/Template:Paramount_leaders_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Template:Paramount leaders of the People's Republic of China">PRC</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Qing_dynasty_qinwangs_(first-rank_princes)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Qing_dynasty_qinwangs" title="Template:Qing dynasty qinwangs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Qing_dynasty_qinwangs" title="Template talk:Qing dynasty qinwangs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Qing_dynasty_qinwangs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Qing dynasty qinwangs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Qing_dynasty_qinwangs_(first-rank_princes)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Royal_and_noble_ranks_of_the_Qing_dynasty#Male_members" title="Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty"><i>qinwang</i>s (first-rank princes)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Absorbed into <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">the Crown</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yongzheng_Emperor" title="Yongzheng Emperor">Prince Yong</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Prince Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaqing_Emperor" title="Jiaqing Emperor">Prince Jia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daoguang_Emperor" title="Daoguang Emperor">Prince Zhi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Non-downgrading peerages<br />(<a href="/wiki/Aisin_Gioro#Iron-cap_princes_and_their_descendants" class="mw-redirect" title="Aisin Gioro">"iron-cap" princes</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Li_(%E7%A6%AE)" title="Prince Li (禮)">Prince Li ** Prince Xun ** Prince Kang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rui_(%E7%9D%BF)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Rui (睿)">Prince Rui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Yu_(%E8%B1%AB)" title="Prince Yu (豫)">Prince Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Zheng" title="Prince Zheng">Prince Zheng (Prince Jian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Su" title="Prince Su">Prince Su (Prince Xian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Zhuang" title="Prince Zhuang">Prince Chengze (Prince Zhuang)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Shuncheng" title="Prince Shuncheng">Prince Shuncheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Yi_(%E6%80%A1)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Yi (怡)">Prince Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Gong_(peerage)" title="Prince Gong (peerage)">Prince Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Chun_(%E9%86%87)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Chun (醇)">Prince Chun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Qing" title="Prince Qing">Prince Qing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Demoted but non-downgrading peerages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Keqin" title="Prince Keqin">Prince Cheng</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Downgrading peerages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Jingjin" title="Prince Jingjin">Prince Jingjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Ying_(%E7%A9%8E)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Ying (穎)">Prince Ying (穎)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Ying_(%E8%8B%B1)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Ying (英)">Prince Ying (英)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Duanzhong" title="Prince Duanzhong">Prince Duanzhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_An" title="Prince An">Prince An</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomubogor" title="Bomubogor">Prince Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Yu_(%E8%A3%95)" title="Prince Yu (裕)">Prince Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Gong_(peerage)" title="Prince Gong (peerage)">Prince Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Chun_(%E7%B4%94)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Chun (純)">Prince Chun (純)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Li_(%E7%90%86)" title="Prince Li (理)">Prince Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Heng" title="Prince Heng">Prince Heng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Chun_(%E6%B7%B3)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Chun (淳)">Prince Chun (淳)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunsi" title="Yunsi">Prince Lian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_L%C3%BC" title="Prince Lü">Prince Lü</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Guo" title="Prince Guo">Prince Guo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Xian_(%E8%AB%B4)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Xian (諴)">Prince Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_He" title="Prince He">Prince He</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Ding" title="Prince Ding">Prince Ding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rong" title="Prince Rong">Prince Rong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Shen" title="Prince Shen">Prince Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Yi_(%E5%84%80)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Yi (儀)">Prince Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Cheng_(%E6%88%90)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Cheng (成)">Prince Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Dun" title="Prince Dun">Prince Dun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Rui_(%E7%91%9E)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince Rui (瑞)">Prince Rui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Hui_(first_rank)" title="Prince Hui (first rank)">Prince Hui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Posthumous titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shunzhi_Emperor#Sons" title="Shunzhi Emperor">Prince Rong</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Honghui&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Honghui (page does not exist)">Prince Duan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fuhui&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fuhui (page does not exist)">Prince Huai</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yongcong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yongcong (page does not exist)">Prince Zhe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Thonburi_Period_(1767–1782)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#EEDC82"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Thonburi" title="Template:Thonburi"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Thonburi" title="Template talk:Thonburi"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Thonburi" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Thonburi"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Thonburi_Period_(1767–1782)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Thonburi_Kingdom" title="Thonburi Kingdom">Thonburi Period (1767–1782)</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background:#CCCCFF;">Monarchs</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background:#CCCCFF;">Individuals</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background:#CCCCFF;">Key events</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:33.3%;"><div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Thonburi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Thonburi dynasty">Thonburi dynasty</a></b><br /> <b><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Thailand" title="Monarchy of Thailand">Kings</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taksin" title="Taksin">Taksin</a> (Borommaracha IV)</li></ul> <p><b>Royalty</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yong_Saetae" title="Yong Saetae">Yong Saetae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phithak_Thephamat" class="mw-redirect" title="Phithak Thephamat">Queen Mother Phithak Thephamat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inthraphithak" title="Inthraphithak">Prince Inthraphithak (Chui)</a> (<a href="/wiki/Front_Palace" title="Front Palace">Front Palace</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kromma_Khun_Anurak_Songkhram&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kromma Khun Anurak Songkhram (page does not exist)">Prince Anurak Songkhram</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kromma_Khun_Ramphubet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kromma Khun Ramphubet (page does not exist)">Prince Ramphubet</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chao_Chom_Manda_Samlee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chao Chom Manda Samlee (page does not exist)">Princess Samlee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaophraya_Nakhon_(Noi)" title="Chaophraya Nakhon (Noi)">Prince Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaophraya_Nakhon_Ratchasima_(Thong-in_Na_Ratchasima)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chaophraya Nakhon Ratchasima (Thong-in Na Ratchasima) (page does not exist)">Prince Thong-in</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:33.3%;"><div> <p><b>Siamese</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rama_I" title="Rama I">Chaophraya Chakri (Thongduang)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Sura_Singhanat" title="Maha Sura Singhanat">Chaophraya Surasi (Bunma)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaophraya_Chakri_(Mud)" title="Chaophraya Chakri (Mud)">Chaophraya Chakri (Mud)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaophraya_Nakhon_(Nu)" title="Chaophraya Nakhon (Nu)">Chaophraya Nakhon (Nu)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraya_Phichai" title="Phraya Phichai">Phraya Phichai (Thongdi)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaophraya_Phichairacha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chaophraya Phichairacha (page does not exist)">Chaophraya Phichairacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phraya_Rachasetthi_(Chen_Lian)" title="Phraya Rachasetthi (Chen Lian)">Phraya Rachasetthi (Chen Lian)</a></li></ul> <p><b>Foreigners</b> </p> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Qianlong Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Light" title="Francis Light">Francis Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maha_Thiha_Thura" title="Maha Thiha Thura">Maha Thiha Thura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ang_Non_II" title="Ang Non II">Ang Non II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_Thi%C3%AAn_T%E1%BB%A9" title="Mạc Thiên Tứ">Phraya Rachasetthi Yuan (Mo Shilin)</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:33.3%;"><div> <p><b>Key events</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taksin%27s_reunification_of_Siam" title="Taksin's reunification of Siam">Taksin's reunification of Siam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siamese%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War_(1771%E2%80%931773)" title="Siamese–Vietnamese War (1771–1773)">Siamese–Vietnamese War (1771–1773)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1774%E2%80%931775)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmese–Siamese War (1774–1775)">Expedition to Chiangmai (1774–1775)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1775%E2%80%931776)" title="Burmese–Siamese War (1775–1776)">Burmese–Siamese War (1775–1776)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao%E2%80%93Siamese_War_(1778%E2%80%931779)" title="Lao–Siamese War (1778–1779)">Lao–Siamese War (1778–1779)</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phraya_San%27s_Rebellion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phraya San's Rebellion (page does not exist)">Phraya San's Rebellion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>← <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya Kingdom (1351–1767)</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rattanakosin_Kingdom_(1782%E2%80%931932)" title="Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)">Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)</a> →</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19133#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19133#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q19133#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000108570110">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/44314689">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/111185/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjXjXgbWVmxf99KMPGT73">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/119080648">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n83047720">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120344066">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120344066">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00623131">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36731959">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jx20060714005&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p146441842">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/97005104">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000210568&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201717738">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/dbqt06gx5sxkzfr">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810604297305606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/383242">Vatican</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/383244">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007266720305171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA10329385?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500372572">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/8a6484d9-93fa-45a2-8e29-9a67725f8b8e">KulturNav</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/e9c36af2-6989-462c-91e8-9e84516b4efd">2</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1439765">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd119080648.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/119080648">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/028525264">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61g1w8p">SNAC</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&oldid=1255661235">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qianlong_Emperor&oldid=1255661235</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Qianlong_Emperor" title="Category:Qianlong Emperor">Qianlong Emperor</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1711_births" title="Category:1711 births">1711 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1799_deaths" 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