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id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Early 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Cold War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Dissolution of the Soviet Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emergence_and_positioning_of_the_populist_left" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_and_positioning_of_the_populist_left"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.1 Emergence and positioning of the populist left </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_and_positioning_of_the_populist_left-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Far-left_terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Far-left_terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Far-left terrorism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Far-left_terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Far-left_politics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Far-left_politics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Far-left politics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Far-left_politics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anarchism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anarchism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Anarchism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anarchism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communism_and_Marxism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communism_and_Marxism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Communism and Marxism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communism_and_Marxism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terrorism_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrorism_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Terrorism bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrorism_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radical_left_parties_case_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radical_left_parties_case_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Radical left parties case studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radical_left_parties_case_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radical_left_and_radical_right" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radical_left_and_radical_right"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Radical left and radical right </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radical_left_and_radical_right-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrorism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrorism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Terrorism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrorism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Far-left politics</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%81" title="يسار متطرف – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يسار متطرف" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrema_izquierda" title="Estrema izquierda – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Estrema izquierda" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0frat_sol%C3%A7uluq" title="İfrat solçuluq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İfrat solçuluq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B4%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%DA%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D9%82" title="آشیری سولچولوق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آشیری سولچولوق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Ультралевыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ультралевыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE-%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="चरम-वामपंथी राजनीति – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="चरम-वामपंथी राजनीति" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tu_kleiz_pella%C3%B1_(politikerezh)" title="Tu kleiz pellañ (politikerezh) – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tu kleiz pellañ (politikerezh)" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrema_esquerra" title="Extrema esquerra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Extrema esquerra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krajn%C3%AD_levice" title="Krajní levice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Krajní levice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venstreekstremisme" title="Venstreekstremisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Venstreekstremisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linksextremismus" title="Linksextremismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Linksextremismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AC" title="Ακροαριστερά – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ακροαριστερά" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrema_izquierda" title="Extrema izquierda – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Extrema izquierda" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldekstra_ekstremismo" title="Maldekstra ekstremismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Maldekstra ekstremismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezker_iraultzaile" title="Ezker iraultzaile – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ezker iraultzaile" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%86%D9%BE_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88" title="سیاست‌های چپ تندرو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیاست‌های چپ تندرو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extr%C3%AAme_gauche" title="Extrême gauche – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Extrême gauche" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrema_esquerda" title="Extrema esquerda – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Extrema esquerda" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%B9%EC%A2%8C" title="극좌 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="극좌" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="चरम वामपंथी राजनीति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चरम वामपंथी राजनीति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krajnja_ljevica" title="Krajnja ljevica – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Krajnja ljevica" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politik_kiri_jauh" title="Politik kiri jauh – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Politik kiri jauh" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrema_sinistra" title="Estrema sinistra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Estrema sinistra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99" title="שמאל רדיקלי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שמאל רדיקלי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87epgir%C3%AAn_tund" title="Çepgirên tund – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Çepgirên tund" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estrema_sinistra" title="Estrema sinistra – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Estrema sinistra" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%B5%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="اقصى اليسار – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="اقصى اليسار" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politik_jauh_kiri" title="Politik jauh kiri – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Politik jauh kiri" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreemlinks" title="Extreemlinks – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Extreemlinks" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A5%B5%E5%B7%A6" title="極左 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="極左" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venstreekstremisme" title="Venstreekstremisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Venstreekstremisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skrajna_lewica" title="Skrajna lewica – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Skrajna lewica" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrema-esquerda" title="Extrema-esquerda – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Extrema-esquerda" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrema_st%C3%A2ng%C4%83" title="Extrema stângă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Extrema stângă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5" title="Ультралевые – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ультралевые" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_e_ekstremit_t%C3%AB_majt%C3%AB" title="Politika e ekstremit të majtë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Politika e ekstremit të majtë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected until June 11, 2025 at 16:41 UTC."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Far-left&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-left">Far-left</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Political alignment on the extreme end of left-wing politics</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Hard_left" title="Hard left">hard left</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ultra-leftism" title="Ultra-leftism">ultra-leftism</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Party politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.1em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Far-left</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centre</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.1em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centre</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0.1em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Far-right</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_political_ideologies" title="List of political ideologies">ideologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretic_politics" title="Syncretic politics">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bloc_party" title="Bloc party">Bloc party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_party" title="Elite party">Elite party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartel_party_theory" title="Cartel party theory">Cartel party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_competition" title="Electoral competition">Competitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_tent" title="Big tent">Catch-all party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business-firm_party" title="Business-firm party">Entrepreneurial party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_party" title="Ethnic party">Ethnic party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_party" title="Major party">Major party</a> / <a href="/wiki/Minor_party" title="Minor party">Minor party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_politics" title="Mass politics">Mass party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_party" title="Ruling party">Ruling party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_(politics)" title="Opposition (politics)">Opposition party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_opposition" title="Parliamentary opposition">Parliamentary opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_of_power" title="Party of power">Party of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_party_status" title="Official party status">Official party status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-issue_politics#Single-issue_parties" title="Single-issue politics">Single-issue party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_political_party" title="Transnational political party">Transnational</a> / <a href="/wiki/Political_international" title="Political international">International</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Leaders and organization</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backbencher" title="Backbencher">Backbencher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucus" title="Caucus">Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucus_chair" title="Caucus chair">Caucus chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontbencher" title="Frontbencher">Frontbencher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_candidate" title="Lead candidate">Lead candidate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leader_of_the_Opposition" title="Leader of the Opposition">Leader of the Opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_leader" title="Majority leader">Majority leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_leader" title="Minority leader">Minority leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_faction" title="Political faction">Political faction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_leader" title="Parliamentary leader">Parliamentary leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_chair" title="Party chair">Party chair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_leader" title="Party leader">Party leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_spokesperson" title="Party spokesperson">Party spokesperson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_(title)" title="Secretary (title)">Secretary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_cabinet" title="Shadow cabinet">Shadow cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whip_(politics)" title="Whip (politics)">Whip</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Internal elections</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="Partisan primary">Primary election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_election" title="Leadership election">Leadership election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_list" title="Open list">Open list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_conference" title="Party conference">Party convention/conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_convention" title="Leadership convention">Leadership convention</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Party_discipline" title="Party discipline">Party discipline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscience_vote" title="Conscience vote">Conscience vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_floor" title="Crossing the floor">Crossing the floor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_discipline" title="Party discipline">Party discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_line_(politics)" title="Party line (politics)">Party line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party-line_vote" title="Party-line vote">Party-line vote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Party_switching" title="Party switching">Party switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whip_(politics)" title="Whip (politics)">Whip</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Party_system" title="Party system">Party systems</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">One-party</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dominant-party_system" title="Dominant-party system">Dominant-party</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Two-party_system" title="Two-party system">Two-party</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-party_system" title="Multi-party system">Multi-party</a></li></ul></div> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-partisan_democracy" title="Non-partisan democracy">Non-partisan</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Coalition_government" title="Coalition government">Coalitions</a> between parties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_group" title="Parliamentary group">Parliamentary group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divided_government" title="Divided government">Divided government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition_government" title="Coalition government">Coalition government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confidence_and_supply" title="Confidence and supply">Confidence and supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_democracy" title="Consensus democracy">Consensus government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(politics)" title="Cordon sanitaire (politics)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_coalition" title="Grand coalition">Grand coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hung_parliament" title="Hung parliament">Hung parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majority_government" title="Majority government">Majority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_government" title="Minority government">Minority government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">National unity government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotation_government" title="Rotation government">Rotation government</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_political_parties" title="Lists of political parties">Lists of political parties</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ruling_political_parties_by_country" title="List of ruling political parties by country">Ruling parties by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_by_region" title="List of political parties by region">Political parties by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banned_political_parties" title="List of banned political parties">Banned political parties</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/20px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/40px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Party_politics" title="Template:Party politics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Party_politics" title="Template talk:Party politics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Party_politics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Party politics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Far-left politics, also known as extreme left politics or left-wing extremism, are politics further to the left on the <a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_political_spectrum" title="Left–right political spectrum">left–right political spectrum</a> than the standard <a href="/wiki/Political_left" class="mw-redirect" title="Political left">political left</a>. The term does not have a single, coherent definition; some scholars consider it to be the left of <a href="/wiki/Communist_party" title="Communist party">communist parties</a>, while others broaden it to include the left of <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a>. In certain instances—especially in the <a href="/wiki/News_media" title="News media">news media</a>—far left has been associated with some forms of <a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">authoritarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, or are characterized as groups that advocate for <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">revolutionary socialism</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Communist_ideologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist ideologies">communist ideologies</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Anti-capitalism" title="Anti-capitalism">anti-capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-globalization">anti-globalization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Far-left_terrorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-left terrorism">Far-left terrorism</a> consists of <a href="/wiki/Extremist" class="mw-redirect" title="Extremist">extremist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militant" title="Militant">militant</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Insurgent" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurgent">insurgent</a> groups that attempt to realize their ideals through <a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">political violence</a> rather than using democratic processes. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-2"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideologies">Ideologies</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Types_of_socialism" title="Types of socialism">Types of socialism</a></div> The far-left is heterogeneous, and wide variety exists between different far-left groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201610–11-2">[2]</a> The definition of the far-left varies in the literature and there is not a general agreement on what it entails or consensus on the core characteristics that constitute the far left, other than being to the left of mainstream <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing politics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECosseron200720-3">[3]</a> Far-left groups are alike in their support for <a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">radical politics</a> and systemic reorganisation of society, as opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Reformist_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformist politics">reformist politics</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Centre-left" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre-left">centre-left</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174-4">[4]</a> The far-left seeks to create a <a href="/wiki/Post-capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-capitalist">post-capitalist</a> society without exploitation, oppression, and class inequality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648,_202-5">[5]</a> This is often described as <a href="/wiki/Communist_society" title="Communist society">communist society</a>, though terms such as socialism or democratisation may be used to describe a similar concept.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201672,_202-6">[6]</a> The method to bring about communist society became the primary distinction among new far-left ideologies as they developed, and ideas of how communist society should function changed over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> Over time, far-left groups became more willing to work within liberal capitalist nations as revolutions failed to develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201651-8">[8]</a> As with all political alignments, the exact boundaries of <a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">centre-left</a> versus far-left politics are not clearly defined and can vary depending on context.<a href="#cite_note-:62-9">[9]</a> Far-left ideologies often include types of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Academic study of far-left politics often uses the term radical left as an all-encompassing term, though some far-left groups object to this usage as derogatory. Extreme left and anti-capitalist are also commonly used as synonyms for the far-left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174–175-12">[12]</a> Far-left political parties use a variety of descriptors for themselves, including workers', labour, socialist, communist, militant, and revolutionary parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174-4">[4]</a> The far-left is regarded as being to the left of social democracy. While it historically opposed social democracy over its reformist nature, the post-Soviet far-left accuses social democracy of being too comfortable with neoliberalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201610–11-2">[2]</a> Far-left politics is traditionally centred on the idea of a unified working class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201646-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> defined the working class as including all waged employees of all industries. The development of <a href="/wiki/Middle_management" title="Middle management">middle management</a> and decline of the <a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">petite bourgeoisie</a> complicated the definition over time. Students and intellectuals have often been inclined to support far-left politics. The far-left may appeal to independent producers or craftsmen who fear competition for large corporations. The unemployed, including the elderly and disabled, are associated with the working class as defined by the far-left because of the disadvantages they may face.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201646-13">[13]</a> The majority of left-leaning labourers preferred social democracy over far-left ideologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648-14">[14]</a> The radical-left is situated between the far-left and <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a>. Per Richard Dunphy, "the radical left" desires fundamental changes in <a href="/wiki/Neoliberal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoliberal">neoliberal</a> <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and progressive reform of <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a> and the inclusion of marginalized communities,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunphy2004-15">[15]</a> while per March "the extreme left" denounces <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> as a "compromise with <a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> political forces" and defines capitalism more strictly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarchMudde2005-16">[16]</a> Far-left politics is seen as <a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">radical politics</a> because it calls for fundamental change to the <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> socio-economic structure of society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2012b-17">[17]</a> Radical-left politics, rejecting both <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neo-liberal</a> social-democracy and revolutionary action, instead seeking to enact change from within government,<a href="#cite_note-:2-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2011202-19">[19]</a> prioritize <a href="/wiki/Equality_of_outcome" title="Equality of outcome">equality of outcome</a> over <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">equal opportunity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201110-20">[20]</a> Post-Soviet radical left-wing movements in Europe and the United States are associated with <a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization_movement" title="Anti-globalization movement">anti-globalization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-neoliberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-neoliberalism">anti-neoliberalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2011172-21">[21]</a> The far-left is sometimes divided into the <a href="/wiki/Old_Left" title="Old Left">Old Left</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023175-22">[22]</a> The New Left developed as a separate movement from Soviet-style communism. It came as a response to developments of the mid-20th century like <a href="/wiki/Deindustrialization" title="Deindustrialization">deindustrialization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a>, and neoliberalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201617-23">[23]</a> It is common for these far-left movements to define themselves based on their opposition to these concepts instead of affirmative descriptions of their ideologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016201-24">[24]</a> It emphasises ideas like civil rights, environmentalism, and feminism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer2023167-25">[25]</a> European Green parties formed from the New Left in the 1960s and 1970s, but these are not traditionally considered far-left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter2023186,_188-26">[26]</a> The revolutionary left places less emphasis on electoral politics and instead supports total rebellion against capitalist governments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023175-22">[22]</a> The revolutionary left has become less common over time as far-left groups have sought control through government, and <a href="/wiki/Deradicalization" title="Deradicalization">deradicalization</a> has become more common within left-wing politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023176-27">[27]</a> Post-Soviet far-left parties often take ideas from multiple schools of far-left thought or represent the far-left more generally instead of endorsing a specific ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016201-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_populism" title="Left-wing populism">Left-wing populism</a> occurs among the far-left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023179–180-28">[28]</a> The far-left also includes <a href="/wiki/Left-libertarianism" title="Left-libertarianism">left-libertarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201611-29">[29]</a> The far-left is historically minuscule in Southeast Asia where it has been repressed or failed to develop.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUfen2023377-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socialism">Socialism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></div> Various courants and movements of <a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a> are considered far-left. Socialism has historically been divided into <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing</a> <a href="/wiki/Reformist_socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformist socialism">reformist socialism</a> and far-left <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">revolutionary socialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Modern <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> is generally considered to be a centre-left socialist ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroninShochRoss20111–3-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-9">[9]</a> Socialism seeks to create a <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">socially equal</a> society in which every individual has access to basic necessities and in which prosperity and knowledge are shared.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden20221–2-33">[33]</a> It is derived from ideas of <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden20223-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20052-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Democratic_socialism" title="Democratic socialism">Democratic socialism</a> is generally considered to be a reformist left-wing<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> or radical-left<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201116-38">[38]</a> ideology, and it has historically been considered <a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">centre-left</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:4-39">[39]</a> though it is occasionally considered far-left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201194-40">[40]</a> Democratic socialists support the replacement of capitalism with nationalisation of industry in a <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649-41">[41]</a> Democratic socialism is sometimes used interchangeably with <a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">social democracy</a> in political rhetoric, but is often used to describe political movements to the left of or following radical social-democracy. Communists may also identify as democratic socialists to contrast themselves with <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201194-40">[40]</a> Democratic socialism supports far-left politics but rejects the authoritarian governance of Marxism–Leninism. It exists in opposition to social democracy and neoliberalism. Some democratic socialist groups adopt a stronger form of social democracy involving non-electoral political movements, while others espouse more traditional leftism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023175-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communism_and_Marxism">Communism and Marxism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a> is the belief that humanity should abandon class divisions in favor of a <a href="/wiki/Communist_society" title="Communist society">communist society</a> organized around the needs and abilities of its citizens. Modern communism is a form of <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">revolutionary socialism</a> based on support for the communist society described in the writing of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201118-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202111-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202210-44">[44]</a> Marxists believe that capitalism should be replaced by a <a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">dictatorship of the proletariat</a>, which would cause capitalism to degrade and quickly disappear.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648-14">[14]</a> The early Soviet Union applied this through <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviet councils</a>, which were to serve as a democratic method of achieving the dictatorship of the proletariat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> has historically been a major far-left ideology, especially before the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> supports a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> Conservative groups within Marxism–Leninism, such as the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Greece" title="Communist Party of Greece">Communist Party of Greece</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Communist_Party" title="Portuguese Communist Party">Portuguese Communist Party</a>, support revitalization of Soviet-style government and adhere to a classical <a href="/wiki/Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Leninist">Leninist</a> interpretation of communism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023175-22">[22]</a> Reform communists such as the Cypriot <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_of_Working_People" title="Progressive Party of Working People">Progressive Party of Working People</a> retain Soviet-style organization but adopt public involvement in government, the use of a market system, and acceptance of New Left policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023175-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a> supports a reformist, democratic approach to achieving communism and opposes the ideology of the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anarchism">Anarchism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></div> Anarchism seeks to create an alternate form of society that excludes the state entirely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202218-45">[45]</a> Anarchism incorporates elements of both socialism and <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranks2013388-46">[46]</a> and it was a prominent ideology among the far-left globally from 1900 to 1940.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202220-47">[47]</a> Anarchists hold that capitalism should be overthrown at once instead of dismantled over time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648-14">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Positions">Positions</h2></div> Under a communist society as envisioned by the far-left, all <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a> would be <a href="/wiki/Collective_ownership" title="Collective ownership">owned collectively</a> and resources would be subject to <a href="/wiki/To_each_according_to_his_need" class="mw-redirect" title="To each according to his need">distribution according to need</a>. The specific nature of this society is not strictly defined, but it is generally agreed among the far-left that it would be <a href="/wiki/Self-governing" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-governing">self-governing</a> and extend globally.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648-14">[14]</a> Far-left groups support <a href="/wiki/Redistribution_of_income_and_wealth" title="Redistribution of income and wealth">redistribution of income and wealth</a>. They argue that <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerism</a> cause <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a> and advocate their dissolution. Some far-left groups also support the abolition of <a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">private property</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-48">[48]</a> Scholars, such as Luke March and <a href="/wiki/Cas_Mudde" title="Cas Mudde">Cas Mudde</a>, propose that socio-economic rights are at the far left's core. Moreover, March and Mudde argue that the far left is to the left of the political left with regard to how parties or groups describe <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a> on the base of existing social and political arrangements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarchMudde2005-16">[16]</a> As an extension of left-wing politics, the far-left maintains that inequality is a fixable problem, and it supports internationalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174-4">[4]</a> It rejects neoliberalism, but it also rejects centre-left ideas like social democracy and <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023175-22">[22]</a> It supports social advances within capitalism, but only as temporary measures until capitalism's abolition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648-14">[14]</a> Far-left groups are <a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">anti-establishment</a>, opposing existing political and economic structures.<a href="#cite_note-:0-48">[48]</a> Both anarchist and statist far-left ideologies may support disestablishment of traditional sociopolitical structures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202224-49">[49]</a> They are opposed to <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201110-20">[20]</a> They may be classified as <a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">radical</a>, supporting a total reformation of society and its functions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch20118-50">[50]</a> Proponents of the <a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_theory" title="Horseshoe theory">horseshoe theory</a> interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_political_spectrum" title="Left–right political spectrum">left–right political spectrum</a> identify the far left and the <a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">far right</a> as having more in common with each other as <a href="/wiki/Extremists" class="mw-redirect" title="Extremists">extremists</a> than each of them has with <a href="/wiki/Centrists" class="mw-redirect" title="Centrists">centrists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Moderate" class="mw-redirect" title="Moderate">moderates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> This theory has received criticism, however, by many academics.<a href="#cite_note-Berlet_&_Lyons_2000,_p._342-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Communism has historically emphasized economics and class over social issues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201135-55">[55]</a> In the 1970s and 1980s, far-left movements in Western Europe were increasingly defined by the <a href="/wiki/New_social_movements" title="New social movements">new social movements</a>, which gave prominence to issues such as environmentalism, <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">peace movement</a>, and promoting the interests of the <a href="/wiki/Third_World" title="Third World">Third World</a>. These ideas as a singular movement became less prominent in far-left politics as they were subsumed by green politics, but they are still disparately supported by many in the far-left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2011172–173-56">[56]</a> Far-left parties hold a variety of positions on environmentalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter2023190-57">[57]</a> Members of the far-left have varying opinions on revolution and the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201611-29">[29]</a> The far-left may support militancy while also opposing militarist ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> The far-left supports <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalism</a> and rejects loyalty to the working class of one nation at the expense of others. During the Cold War, socialist internationalism was often applied to mean loyalty to the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> The post-Soviet far-left is strongly associated with <a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-globalization">anti-globalization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023179-58">[58]</a> The European far-left is typically <a href="/wiki/Eurosceptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurosceptic">Eurosceptic</a> and opposes the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, either challenging its liberal orientation or rejecting the idea of a union entirely from the perspective of left-wing nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVasilopoulou2023302–303-59">[59]</a> Many support entry into the European Union but wish to reorganize or repurpose it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023179-58">[58]</a> The far-left is typically <a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-imperialist">anti-imperialist</a>, though supporters of the Eastern and Western blocs were often more accepting of their own side's actions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electoral_dynamics">Electoral dynamics</h2></div> Far-left parties have historically been unable to win control of the government in parliamentary systems unless they join coalitions with social democratic governments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023178-60">[60]</a> They are commonly unsuccessful in enacting policy in times where they do lead the government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023178–179-61">[61]</a> The far-left does not benefit from an <a href="/wiki/Incumbency_advantage" class="mw-redirect" title="Incumbency advantage">incumbency advantage</a> as much as other ideological groups and is more likely to fail in reelection efforts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023179-58">[58]</a> The far-left gain more support in nations with long-term <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023176-27">[27]</a> and when there are poor economic conditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023178-60">[60]</a> Far-left voters are more likely to be working class, trade union members, and irreligious.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023178-60">[60]</a> Older, working class, male, and less educated voters are more likely to support communism over democratic socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023178-60">[60]</a> The far-left primarily competes with <a href="/wiki/Social_democratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Social democratic">social democratic</a> parties for votes in electoral systems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023176-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremer2023167-25">[25]</a> Green parties sometimes provide electoral competition for the far-left, as both groups appeal to similar demographics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter2023190-57">[57]</a> They vary in how willing they are to work alongside centre-left parties in electoral politics, which is a major point of dispute within many far-left groups. Alignment with centre-left parties sometimes causes far-left parties to moderate their positions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201671–73-62">[62]</a> Far-left politics often has a sizeable non-electoral aspect, made up of trade unions and social movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20166–7-63">[63]</a> The far-left has historically supported direct activism over electoral gains, seeing it as a better position to improve workers' rights and build support for communist society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201652–53-64">[64]</a> Movements in democratic nations may disagree over whether to participate in electoral politics, with some adhering to the Leninist belief that <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeois</a> governments should be overthrown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201643-65">[65]</a> Ideologies such as anarchism, left-communism, and some New Left positions reject electoral participation entirely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201652-66">[66]</a> When European far-left parties have gained power, they generally moved away from non-electoral activism and used their influence to limit its reach.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201653-67">[67]</a> Among the Western European far-left, support for electoral participation increased throughout the 20th century as revolution appeared unfeasible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201645–46-68">[68]</a> Communist parties were the most common far-left parties between the 1920s and the 1960s, and in many cases they were the only ones. Many other far-left parties emerged in the 1960s, including socialist and left-wing nationalist parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201654-69">[69]</a> Far-left parties in Europe are often affiliated with the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_the_European_Left" title="Party of the European Left">Party of the European Left</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_socialism" title="History of socialism">History of socialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_communism" title="History of communism">History of communism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_anarchism" title="History of anarchism">History of anarchism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div> Societies resembling communist society have been postulated throughout human history, and many have been proposed as the earliest socialist or communist ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013364-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20056-71">[71]</a> The ideas of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> have been described as an early type of socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20056-71">[71]</a> In medieval Europe, some philosophers argued that <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> believed in shared ownership of property and that the hierarchy of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> was contrary to his teachings. This included the <a href="/wiki/Taborites" title="Taborites">Taborites</a>, who attempted to create a social structure that resembled a communist society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013364-70">[70]</a> Numerous <a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">emancipation</a> movements have occurred throughout history, including <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave rebellions</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_peasant_revolts" title="List of peasant revolts">peasant revolts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201630-72">[72]</a> Early socialists believed that violent revolution against capitalism was virtually guaranteed to eventually take place, either because it would be initiated by the far-left or because democratic attempts to implement socialism would be fought by the far-right.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201651-8">[8]</a> Early examples of communist societies in fiction include <a href="/wiki/Utopia_(More_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopia (More book)">Utopia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a>, which proposed a society without personal property, and <a href="/wiki/The_City_of_the_Sun" title="The City of the Sun">The City of the Sun</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Tommaso Campanella</a>, which proposed a society without the <a href="/wiki/Family_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Family unit">family unit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013365-73">[73]</a> Modern far-left politics developed from support for socialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648-14">[14]</a> This can be traced to Europe and North America in the late 18th century, when industrialization and political upheaval caused discontent among the working class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden20227–8-74">[74]</a> Socialists were those who objected to the changing social and economic structures associated with industrialization, in that they promoted <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> over <a href="/wiki/Collectivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism">collectivism</a> and that they created wealth for some but not for others, creating <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">economic inequality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20056-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3></div> Early European socialism was developed in the 19th century as the concept of a <a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">working class</a> formed. It was influenced by numerous philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Blanc" title="Louis Blanc">Louis Blanc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Auguste_Blanqui" title="Louis Auguste Blanqui">Louis Auguste Blanqui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Henri de Saint-Simon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Charles Fourier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Lassalle" title="Ferdinand Lassalle">Ferdinand Lassalle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Robert Owen</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a>. The modern far-left developed during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> as their ideas were adopted as a response to <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a>. Marxism and anarchism joined reformist socialism as the predominant left-wing ideologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201630-72">[72]</a> The term socialism first came into use in the early 19th century to describe the egalitarian ideas of redistribution promoted by writers like <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-No%C3%ABl_Babeuf" title="François-Noël Babeuf">François-Noël Babeuf</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Thelwall" title="John Thelwall">John Thelwall</a>. Inspired by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, these writers objected to the existence of significant wealth, and Babeuf advocated a dictatorship on behalf of the people that would destroy those who caused inequality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden20224–5-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013365-73">[73]</a> Socialism was recognized as a coherent philosophy in the 1830s with the publications of British reformer Robert Owen, who self-identified as socialist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden20225–6-76">[76]</a> Owen, as well as others such as Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, and <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Cabet" title="Étienne Cabet">Étienne Cabet</a>, developed the utopian socialist movement, and these utopian socialists established several communes to implement their ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden20228-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20057–11-78">[78]</a> Cabet responded to More's Utopia with his own novel, <a href="/wiki/The_Voyage_to_Icaria" title="The Voyage to Icaria">The Voyage to Icaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20058-79">[79]</a> He is credited with first using the term communism, though his usage was unrelated to the ideologies that were later known as communism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013366-80">[80]</a> Early anarchists emerged in the 19th century, including Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin. These anarchists endorsed many utopian ideas, but they emphasized the importance of revolution against and complete abolition of the state for a utopian society to exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman200515-81">[81]</a> Bakunin argued that peasants rather than the working class should lead a socialist revolution, and he popularized calls to violence among the anarchist movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman200517-82">[82]</a> Anarchist ideology spread to the Americas shortly after its development.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202219–20-83">[83]</a> Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels introduced <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> in the 1840s, which advocated <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">revolutionary socialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden20229–10-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013366-80">[80]</a> As the state bureaucracy was developed in the late 19th century and <a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">labor rights</a> were increasingly recognized by national governments, socialist movements were divided on the role of the state. Some objected to the increase in the state's involvement, while others believed that the state was a stronger alternative to protect worker's rights than labor movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202214–17-85">[85]</a> Many of the former moved to anarchism, while many of the latter responded with the development of social democracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202218-45">[45]</a> There were relatively few waged workers in the 19th century, which was still dominated by <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence agriculture</a> and independent sale of basic goods and services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201646-13">[13]</a> The early far-left was primarily made up of industrial workers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201647-86">[86]</a> Labour groups led the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a>. The <a href="/wiki/First_International" class="mw-redirect" title="First International">First International</a> was created in 1864 and lasted until 1872. The <a href="/wiki/Paris_Commune" title="Paris Commune">Paris Commune</a> was created in 1871. Many national trade unions were established in the 1880s, which coalesced into the <a href="/wiki/Second_International" title="Second International">Second International</a> in 1889. This group was officially aligned with social democracy but was predominantly influenced by Marxism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201630-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_20th_century">Early 20th century</h3></div> East Asian anarchism developed in the 1900s during the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, based on the ideas of Japanese writer <a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dtoku_Sh%C5%ABsui" title="Kōtoku Shūsui">Kōtoku Shūsui</a>, who was in turn inspired by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>. This movement saw its greatest prominence in the 1920s in China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202219–20-83">[83]</a> Anarcho-syndicalism was developed as a form of anarchism in the late 19th century, and it grew popular around 1900. It remained relevant in far-left politics through 1940.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202220-47">[47]</a> One important syndicalist movement of this period was the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Workers_of_the_World" title="Industrial Workers of the World">Wobblies</a>. The modern revolutionary left emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">aftermath of World War I</a>. Socialist movements had gained considerable political power in Europe by the 1910s, but they were fractured during the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201630-72">[72]</a> Before World War I, socialism was intertwined with the labour movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> Moderate left-wing nationalist factions split from socialists in defence of their nations during the war, while the remaining far-left adopted a revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitan</a> ideology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201630-72">[72]</a> Opposition to World War I triggered <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1917%E2%80%931923" title="Revolutions of 1917–1923">a series of revolutions</a> across Europe. Those in Finland, Germany, Hungary, and Russia were led by socialist movements. Trade unions, workers' councils, and far-left parties were formed in many European nations. Numerous far-left movements developed with different ideological foundations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201630–31-87">[87]</a> The strongest far-left movement developed with the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a> and its establishment of Leninism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201611-29">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> seized power, under the rule of Vladimir Lenin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202146–48-88">[88]</a> The state ideology developed during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> from 1918 to 1921, setting the preservation of Bolshevik power as the highest priority to assure the building of socialism as well as seeking to spread communist revolution to other nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202151–53-89">[89]</a> Communist groups sought to emulate the Russian Revolution that replaced capitalism with a <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economy</a> and established a system of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_(council)" title="Soviet (council)">soviet councils</a> to serve as the dictatorship of the proletariat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648–49-90">[90]</a> Other communist governments were formed in <a href="/wiki/People%27s_State_of_Bavaria" title="People's State of Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finnish_Socialist_Workers%27_Republic" title="Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic">Finland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Soviet_Republic" title="Hungarian Soviet Republic">Hungary</a>, but they were short-lived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201642-91">[91]</a> Though the Bolsheviks identified as communist, the term socialist was often used interchangeably at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013372-92">[92]</a> Communism in early 20th century Europe often gained power in countries with significant polarization between segments of the population on an ethnic, religious, or economic basis,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201128-93">[93]</a> and in countries that were destabilized by war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer20213-94">[94]</a> It was less prominent in industrialised nations, where social democracy maintained electoral success over communist parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201133-95">[95]</a> The Russian Revolution was the only instance of a successful socialist revolution. The Bolsheviks created the <a href="/wiki/Communist_International" title="Communist International">Communist International</a> in 1919 to bring together the communist parties of several nations, and the <a href="/wiki/International_Working_Union_of_Socialist_Parties" title="International Working Union of Socialist Parties">International Working Union of Socialist Parties</a> existed from 1921 to 1923 for other socialist groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631-96">[96]</a> They hoped to join forces with Western social democrats, but the alliances were never formed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201652-66">[66]</a> Support for immediate revolution declined among the far-left; it seemed less feasible as state intervention within capitalist nations brought about improvements in quality of life for the working class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649–50-97">[97]</a> The social democratic movement moderated, and much of the European far-left lost influence outside of Russia by 1923.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631-96">[96]</a> By 1922, as <a href="/wiki/Russian_SFSR" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian SFSR">Russian SFSR</a> became one of the founding countries of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, it responded to widespread hunger and poverty with the <a href="/wiki/New_Economic_Policy" title="New Economic Policy">New Economic Policy</a>, which restored market enterprise for smaller industries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202156-98">[98]</a> After Lenin's death, a power struggle between <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Nikolai Bukharin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> ended with Stalin taking power by 1928.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202159–61-99">[99]</a> Stalin implemented his ideology of Marxism–Leninism, which reorganized society and created a cult of personality in his favor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202163–67-100">[100]</a> This also entailed the <a href="/wiki/Great_Purge" title="Great Purge">Great Purge</a> in the late 1930s, an interpretation of Lenin's revolutionary violence that saw hundreds of thousands of Stalin's opponents killed, often to be replaced by ambitious loyalists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202171–72-101">[101]</a> By this time, Marxism–Leninism was seen as the definitive implementation of communism by most communists globally, justifying the Great Purge as an effort to eradicate fascist infiltrators, with state censorship obscuring the Great Purge's extent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202191–92-102">[102]</a> This view was challenged by the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a>, including anarchists and Trotskyists. The Middle East developed an anti-colonial Marxist movement in the 1920s, where it spread from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023415-103">[103]</a> Western Europe largely adopted <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> by the mid-1920s, and social democracy drew socialists to a more moderate stance. The far-left did not have significant political power and instead acted through labour movements, which engaged in strikes and insurrections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631–32-104">[104]</a> Its interest in communist revolution declined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201645-105">[105]</a> There was not always a clear delineation between the far-left and the centre-left this time as they were often affiliated with the same organisations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201637-106">[106]</a> Far-left parties in France, Germany, and Spain briefly took power in the 1930s but were eradicated as fascism spread across the continent. Spain's far-left launched the strongest response to conservative governance when it fought the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> from 1936 to 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201632-107">[107]</a> Far-left <a href="/wiki/Popular_front" title="Popular front">popular front</a> groups arose in the mid-1930s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649-41">[41]</a> Under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, the Soviet Union adopted <a href="/wiki/Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a> in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649-41">[41]</a> While the Communist International was initially democratic between its members, it removed disloyal parties while Stalin was in charge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650–51-108">[108]</a> How to respond to <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a> was a question that divided the far left in the interwar years. During its <a href="/wiki/Ultra-leftism" title="Ultra-leftism">ultra-left</a> “<a href="/wiki/Third_Period" title="Third Period">Third Period</a>”, the Communist International saw social democrats (who it labelled “<a href="/wiki/Social_fascism" title="Social fascism">social fascists</a>”) as an equivalent enemy to Nazism. Trotsky, in contrast, argued for anti-fascist unity just within the far left, in the strategy of the <a href="/wiki/United_front" title="United front">United front</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> in the late 1930s, anarcho-syndicalists seized control of multiple regions in Spain, but this ended when the nationalist faction won the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202223-109">[109]</a> This, along with the rise of communism, ended the relevance of anarchism among the far-left globally after 1940.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202220,_23-110">[110]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass production</a> became more common, the traditional style of labor that anarcho-syndicalists objected to ceased to exist, preventing any significant resurgence in the movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202223–24-111">[111]</a> Far-left politics saw a brief resurgence in Western Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">aftermath of World War II</a>; the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Communist_Party" title="Italian Communist Party">Italian Communist Party</a> briefly became major parties in their respective nations, while the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Democratic_Front_(Italy)" title="Popular Democratic Front (Italy)">Popular Democratic Front</a> of Italy and the <a href="/wiki/Finnish_People%27s_Democratic_League" title="Finnish People's Democratic League">Finnish People's Democratic League</a> were formed as alliances between different far-left groups.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201632–33-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3></div> The <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> began when a major diplomatic rift occurred between liberal Western nations, led by the United States, and communist nations, led by the Soviet Union. Communist parties were effectively outcast within the West, and those that existed were typically aligned with Stalinism and the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201633-113">[113]</a> By the mid-1950s, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Socialist_Party" title="Italian Socialist Party">Italian Socialist Party</a> was the most influential anti-communist far-left party in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634-114">[114]</a> Violent revolution was discouraged as the Cold War began, emanating from fears that Western nations would intervene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201652-66">[66]</a> The Soviet Union's influence during and after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> spread communism, directly and indirectly, to the rest of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> and into <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202195,_104-115">[115]</a> Several of these countries became <a href="/wiki/People%27s_democracy_(Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism)" title="People's democracy (Marxism–Leninism)">people's democracies</a>, which maintained some liberal <a href="/wiki/Mixed_economies" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixed economies">mixed economies</a> before eventually coming under the influence of Stalinism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649-41">[41]</a> New communist governments were formed in <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania" title="People's Socialist Republic of Albania">Albania</a>, <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Bulgaria" title="People's Republic of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovakia</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Germany" title="East Germany">East Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_People%27s_Republic" title="Hungarian People's Republic">Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania" title="Socialist Republic of Romania">Romania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia" title="Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202195,_104-115">[115]</a> The development of <a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">post-industrial society</a> caused many of the traditional sectors associated with communism to dissipate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201135-55">[55]</a> Communist International had been dissolved in 1943, and it was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Cominform" title="Cominform">Cominform</a> as the main communist international in 1947. This lasted until 1956.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201654-69">[69]</a> Following Stalin's death, the workers of several Eastern European countries staged revolutions against communist rule, which were suppressed by the Soviet military.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021151-116">[116]</a> Many of these countries were led by Stalinist rulers, who were forced out and replaced by the subsequent Soviet government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021153-117">[117]</a> Yugoslavia distanced itself as a neutral communist nation, aligned with neither the East nor the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021154-118">[118]</a> <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab socialist">Arab socialist</a> groups took power in the Middle East during the 1950s and 1960s, and they persecuted the preexisting communist groups to replace them as the region's predominant far-left movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023415-103">[103]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Communist_Party" title="Japanese Communist Party">Japanese Communist Party</a>, supporting <a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">scientific socialism</a>, was the far-left opposition to the dominant <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Democratic_Party_(Japan)" title="Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)">Liberal Democratic Party</a> of Japan in the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene2010198-119">[119]</a> Indonesia's far-left was destroyed in <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">a series of anti-communist mass killings</a> in the mid-1960s, ending the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Indonesia" title="Communist Party of Indonesia">Communist Party of Indonesia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUfen2023377-30">[30]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> had been active since 1921, but it did not seize power in China until its victory in the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a> in 1949.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021117–118-120">[120]</a> As with the Soviet Union, the newly formed People's Republic of China carried out purges of political enemies, killing millions of land owners. The peasants were not targeted, however, instead using them as a base of political support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021126-121">[121]</a> In the late 1950s and early 1960s, China under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a> distanced itself from the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021164–166-122">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a> then grew in popularity as an alternative to Soviet-style communism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201136-123">[123]</a> At the same time, North Korea and <a href="/wiki/North_Vietnam" title="North Vietnam">North Vietnam</a> were established as communist governments, triggering the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> against South Korea and <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021135-124">[124]</a> By the late 1970s, Maoism in China was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping_Theory" title="Deng Xiaoping Theory">the ideology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>, which restored the private sector and market pricing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013381-125">[125]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> becoming the ruler of Cuba in 1959. Though he was not a communist, he aligned the nation with the communist movement to seek Soviet support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013379–380-126">[126]</a> Many other nations adopted socialism distinct from Marxism–Leninism during the Cold War, particularly in Africa and Latin America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20054–5-127">[127]</a> Left-wing nationalist movements developed in colonial territories in the 1960s, leading to rapid decolonisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634-114">[114]</a> In the mid-20th century, agricultural workers, the unemployed, and white-collar workers replaced industrial workers as the main far-left demographics in Western Europe. Highly-educated people surpassed blue-collar workers as the primary far-left demographic by the end of the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201647-86">[86]</a> The New Left developed in Western Europe as an alternative to communism in the 1950s, taking positions on social issues and <a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">identity politics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201135-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a> developed as an offshoot of the New Left, but it was <a href="/wiki/Deradicalization" title="Deradicalization">deradicalized</a> by the end of the 20th century and became a centre-left movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201137–38-128">[128]</a> The rose of the New Left was also associated with the rise of <a href="/wiki/New_social_movements" title="New social movements">new social movements</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">counterculture of the 1960s</a>, which also saw the revival of anarchism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter200213Curran200440-129">[129]</a> The Western far-left resurged in the 1960s and 1970s as <a href="/wiki/American_hegemony" class="mw-redirect" title="American hegemony">American hegemony</a> and capitalist systems came under scrutiny. There were periods of civil unrest and youth revolts in several European nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634-114">[114]</a> New far-left socialist parties were formed across Western Europe, many communist parties cut ties with the Soviet Union, and other Marxist movements such as <a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Workerism" title="Workerism">workerism</a> gained a presence in several countries' politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201635-130">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a> developed in response to the Soviet Union in the 1960s and 1970s to provide a democratic alternative for far-left ideas. It supports the expansion of European-style <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare states</a> and mixed economies until they resemble communist society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">[7]</a> The spread of Eurocommunism meant that Soviet-aligned communist parties declined in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201654-69">[69]</a> Smaller far-left groups revitalised interest in revolutionary communism in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649,_52-131">[131]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a> in Italy, far-left militants, such as the <a href="/wiki/Red_Brigades" title="Red Brigades">Red Brigades</a>, justified the usage of <a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">political violence</a> as a revolutionary means and defense against <a href="/wiki/Far-right_terrorism" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-right terrorism">far-right terrorism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-fascism_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-fascism in Italy">neo-fascism in Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossi2021-132">[132]</a> Far-left parties had representation in the Nordic countries. The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Communist_Party" title="Portuguese Communist Party">Portuguese Communist Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Democratic_Movement" title="Portuguese Democratic Movement">Portuguese Democratic Movement</a> played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201642-91">[91]</a> The French Communist Party was included in the French government of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a> in the early 1980s. This wave of European far-left support dissipated in the 1980s as workers lost influence in the economy, <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a> became more popular, and the United States re-exerted influence over Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634–36-133">[133]</a> As the economies of developed nations shifted, the far-left aligned with the workers of large corporations as opposed to small businesses and subcontractors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201646-13">[13]</a> Arabic far-left groups reemerged in the 1980s and 1990s, but they often aligned with the traditional authoritarian governments as a means to oppose <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a>. This prevented them from creating a party structure and caused leftists to act through decentralized movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023416-134">[134]</a> Far-left <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialists" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab socialists">Arab socialists</a> were one of two groups alongside <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab nationalists">Arab nationalists</a> that made up the <a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Arab_Left&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Arab Left (page does not exist)">New Arab Left</a>, which began in Palestine and influenced other left-wing movements in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJebari202123-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hadash" title="Hadash">Hadash</a> formed as a communist coalition in Israel with a focus on <a href="/wiki/Arab_citizens_of_Israel" title="Arab citizens of Israel">the country's Arab population</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarreñada2021208-136">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_nationalism" title="Kurdish nationalism">Kurdish nationalism</a> emerged as the predominant far-left ideology in Turkey after <a href="/wiki/Political_violence_in_Turkey_(1976%E2%80%931980)" title="Political violence in Turkey (1976–1980)">a period of political violence</a> and <a href="/wiki/1980_Turkish_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">the subsequent coup</a> eradicated the previous leftist groups in 1980.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGumuscu2021194-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</h3></div> Communist nations in Europe struggled economically in the 1980s, and many faced popular revolts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201660–61-138">[138]</a> The Soviet Union moved away from ideas of international communism as such efforts came to be seen as too inconvenient.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2011149-139">[139]</a> By 1988, Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> had effectively abandoned communism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013381-125">[125]</a> Communist and socialist parties severely declined in Western Europe after the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173–174-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201661-141">[141]</a> Many of the communist parties effectively disappeared from politics, while others rebranded or moderated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201661,_72-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173–174-140">[140]</a> They remained largely irrelevant for several years until a period of regrowth toward the end of the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-:0-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–65-143">[143]</a> Academics at the time generally agreed that far-left politics no longer had relevance in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20161-144">[144]</a> In many Eastern European countries, communist parties were banned by the new governments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201145-145">[145]</a> In others such as Moldova, they saw continued electoral success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201172-146">[146]</a> The far-left was able to rebuild limited support by the end of the decade.<a href="#cite_note-:0-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–65-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023176-27">[27]</a> Supporters of the far-left in Europe at this time were more likely to be professional workers, students, and the unemployed. The share of working class supporters declined as they sought other ideologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201673-147">[147]</a> It appealed to anti-neoliberalism and tried to rebuild ties with the working class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662-148">[148]</a> Most far-left parties in Europe prioritised a broader societal shift to the left instead of disputing individual policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201674-149">[149]</a> Many of them became more open to reformist politics as a temporary means to combat neoliberalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201616-150">[150]</a> Detailed platforms of societal reconstructions were avoided so as not to emulate Stalinism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201672-151">[151]</a> The far-left primarily expressed itself through movements led by unions, pacifists, and <a href="/wiki/Alter-globalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alter-globalisation">alter-globalisation</a> advocates instead of traditional political parties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–63-152">[152]</a> Over time, unions became less involved in these and social activism became more common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201673-147">[147]</a> Far-left parties reappeared in <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">post-Soviet states</a> in response to voter frustration with the new governments. Leftist parties in Russia and the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> exchanged Marxism–Leninism for left-wing nationalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazzoleniHeinisch202314–15-153">[153]</a> The Indonesian party system destabilised after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Suharto" title="Fall of Suharto">fall of Suharto</a> in 1998, and the traditional leftist electorate—trade unions and peasant associations–did not develop political representation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUfen2023372-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3></div> Of the five Communist states that survived into the 21st century, three of them — China, Vietnam, and Laos — had restored private ownership and reintegrated with global capitalist markets<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer20211-155">[155]</a> although state and public control continued as well. For instance, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Nolan" title="Peter Nolan">Peter Nolan</a> argues that land in China was decollectivized but not privatized, with control of land remaining in the hands of the community.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> At the start of the 21st century, the far-left was associated with the <a href="/wiki/Global_justice_movement" title="Global justice movement">global justice movement</a> and supported populist leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174-4">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Party_of_the_European_Left" title="Party of the European Left">Party of the European Left</a> was established in 2004 as a pan-European political party for the far-left.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2011162-157">[157]</a> The far-left parties during this time were rarely new creations, instead descending from earlier far-left parties of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201124-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202225-159">[159]</a> Among the European <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>, Germany was the only one where the far-left made strong electoral performances in the 2000s, with the prominence of the <a href="/wiki/Party_of_Democratic_Socialism_(Germany)" title="Party of Democratic Socialism (Germany)">Party of Democratic Socialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labour_and_Social_Justice_%E2%80%93_The_Electoral_Alternative" title="Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative">WASG</a>, which merged to become <a href="/wiki/Die_Linke" class="mw-redirect" title="Die Linke">Die Linke</a> in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201681-160">[160]</a> While the Italian Communist Party was historically the most prominent communist party in Western Europe, the Italian far-left fractured and was dissolved into the centre-left in the 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016155–156-161">[161]</a> The French far-left did not face significant gains or losses as other European far-left groups did at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016162-162">[162]</a> Leftist politics diminished in the Arab world by the 21st century as autocratic governments placed <a href="/wiki/Token_opposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Token opposition">token opposition</a> from leftist figures in the legislature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJebari202125-163">[163]</a> Revolutionary left-wing politics were not prominent during the 2011 <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDel_Panta2021295-164">[164]</a> although socialist groups played a role e.g. in the <a href="/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution" title="2011 Egyptian revolution">Egyptian revolution</a> and anarchist ideas were put into practice in the <a href="/wiki/Local_Coordination_Committees_of_Syria" title="Local Coordination Committees of Syria">local councils</a> established as part of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_revolution" title="Syrian revolution">Syrian revolution</a>. In 2012, the autonomous region <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Administration_of_North_and_East_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria">Rojava</a> in northwestern Syria established self-governance based on an anarchist direct democracy at the local level and a one-party state at the regional level. The 2010s also saw a <a href="/wiki/Anti-austerity_movement" title="Anti-austerity movement">global wave of protest movements</a> against <a href="/wiki/Austerity" title="Austerity">austerity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finance_capitalism" title="Finance capitalism">finance capitalism</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Occupy_movement" title="Occupy movement">Occupy movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indignados" class="mw-redirect" title="Indignados">indignados</a>, in which radical left ideas were prominent. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emergence_and_positioning_of_the_populist_left">Emergence and positioning of the populist left</h4></div> Far-left parties became more prominent in democratic systems following the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173-1">[1]</a> There is disagreement as to whether this is associated with an overall increase in support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023176-27">[27]</a> Some of these parties, such as <a href="/wiki/La_France_Insoumise" title="La France Insoumise">La France Insoumise</a> in France, <a href="/wiki/Podemos_(Spanish_political_party)" title="Podemos (Spanish political party)">Podemos</a> in Spain, and <a href="/wiki/Syriza" title="Syriza">Syriza</a> in Greece, deliberately incorporated populism into their identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023181-165">[165]</a> At the same time, in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a>, populist movements formed around <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Corbyn" title="Jeremy Corbyn">Jeremy Corbyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-18">[18]</a> The communist <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Party_of_Working_People" title="Progressive Party of Working People">Progressive Party of Working People</a> controlled the government in Cyprus from 2008 to 2013.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20162-166">[166]</a> Far-left parties in Greece, Portugal, and Spain made significant electoral gains in 2015, including Syriza taking control of the Greek government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20162-166">[166]</a> Gains beyond these countries were limited, as <a href="/wiki/Right-wing_populism" title="Right-wing populism">right-wing populism</a> was instead boosted in other countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201660-167">[167]</a> While left-wing populist parties were in power in the 2010s, they were often forced to put aside their strong anti-neoliberalism and accept neoliberal policies, either proposed by their larger allies or imposed due to the international context.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016"Filling_the_vacuum?_The_trajectory_of_the_contemporary_radical_left_in_Western_Europe"-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2016-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatsourides2020-170">[170]</a> In Europe, the support for populist left politics comes from three overlapping groups: far-left subcultures, disaffected social democrats, and protest voters—those who are opposed to their country's <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> membership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmaldone2013304-171">[171]</a> European populist left politics share many of the values of <a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">centre-left politics</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">cosmopolitanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-172">[172]</a> They overlap in some areas with <a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">far-right politics</a> concerning <a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">radicalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_nationalism" title="Economic nationalism">economic nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euroscepticism" title="Euroscepticism">Euroscepticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populism</a>. Two clear distinctions emerge: first, "education [...] tends to statistically significantly lower chances of voting for radical right but increases the chance of voting radical left"; and second, radical-left voters tend not to share the social nationalism of the radical-right, instead having a socio-tropic, or other-regarding, bias based on the ideological concern for economic egalitarianism.<a href="#cite_note-:1-172">[172]</a> Other characteristics may include <a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">anti-Americanism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-globalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-globalization">anti-globalization</a>, opposition to <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, and in some cases a rejection of <a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHloušekKopeček201046-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Far-left_terrorism">Far-left terrorism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_terrorism" title="Left-wing terrorism">Left-wing terrorism</a></div> Many far-left <a href="/wiki/Militant" title="Militant">militant</a> organizations were formed by members of existing political parties in the 1960s and 1970s,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPedahzurPerligerWeinberg200953-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalz2015297–314-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark201830–42,_48–59-176">[176]</a> among them the <a href="/wiki/CPI_(Maoist)" class="mw-redirect" title="CPI (Maoist)">CPI (Maoist)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montoneros" title="Montoneros">Montoneros</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_People%27s_Army" title="New People's Army">New People's Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prima_Linea" title="Prima Linea">Prima Linea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army_Faction" title="Red Army Faction">Red Army Faction</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_Brigades" title="Red Brigades">Red Brigades</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tupamaros" title="Tupamaros">Tupamaros</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaufer1993-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaliand2010227–257-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark201830–42,_48–59-176">[176]</a> These groups generally aimed to overthrow capitalism and the wealthy ruling classes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Irish_Times'',_22_April_1998-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECISAC_2008-180">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Far-left_politics">Far-left politics</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_left_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Radical left (disambiguation)">Radical left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_camp" title="Third camp">Third camp</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anarchism_2">Anarchism</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_without_adjectives" title="Anarchism without adjectives">Anarchism without adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivist_anarchism" title="Collectivist anarchism">Collectivist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_anarchism" title="Contemporary anarchism">Contemporary anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurrectionist_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Insurrectionist anarchism">Insurrectionist anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(economic_theory)" title="Mutualism (economic theory)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-left_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-left anarchism">Post-left anarchism</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communism_and_Marxism_2">Communism and Marxism</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Marxism" title="Centrist Marxism">Centrist Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_communism" title="Left communism">Left communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeithMarch2023">Keith & March 2023</a>, p. 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201610–11-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201610–11_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201610–11_2-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECosseron200720-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECosseron200720_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCosseron2007">Cosseron 2007</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023174_4-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeithMarch2023">Keith & March 2023</a>, p. 174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648,_202-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648,_202_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 48, 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201672,_202-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201672,_202_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 72, 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650_7-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201651-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201651_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201651_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-:62-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:62_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:62_9-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited 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href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 51–53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648–49-90"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201648–49_90-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 48–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201642-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201642_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201642_91-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013372-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2013372_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2013">Brown 2013</a>, p. 372. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201128-93"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch201128_93-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer20213-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer20213_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201133-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch201133_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631_96-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649–50-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649–50_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202156-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202156_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202159–61-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202159–61_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 59–61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202163–67-100"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202163–67_100-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 63–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202171–72-101"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202171–72_101-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 71–72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202191–92-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202191–92_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 91–92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023415-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023415_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023415_103-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKraetzschmarResta2023">Kraetzschmar & Resta 2023</a>, p. 415. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631–32-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201631–32_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 31–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201645-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201645_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201637-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201637_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201632-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201632_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650–51-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201650–51_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202223-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202223_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_der_Linden2022">van der Linden 2022</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202220,_23-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202220,_23_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_der_Linden2022">van der Linden 2022</a>, pp. 20, 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202223–24-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202223–24_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_der_Linden2022">van der Linden 2022</a>, pp. 23–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201632–33-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201632–33_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201633-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201633_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634_114-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202195,_104-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202195,_104_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer202195,_104_115-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 95, 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021151-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021151_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021153-117"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021153_117-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021154-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021154_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreene2010198-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreene2010198_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreene2010">Greene 2010</a>, p. 198. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021117–118-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021117–118_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 117–118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021126-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021126_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021164–166-122"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021164–166_122-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, pp. 164–166. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201136-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch201136_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021135-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer2021135_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 135. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013381-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2013381_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2013381_125-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2013">Brown 2013</a>, p. 381. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2013379–380-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2013379–380_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2013">Brown 2013</a>, pp. 379–380. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENewman20054–5-127"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENewman20054–5_127-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNewman2005">Newman 2005</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201137–38-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch201137–38_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, pp. 37–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarter200213Curran200440-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarter200213Curran200440_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarter2002">Carter 2002</a>, p. 13; <a href="#CITEREFCurran2004">Curran 2004</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201635-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201635_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649,_52-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201649,_52_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 49, 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERossi2021-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERossi2021_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRossi2021">Rossi 2021</a>: "The 1970s in Italy were characterized by the persistence and prolongation of political and social unrest that many Western countries experienced during the late 1960s. The decade saw the multiplication of far-left extra-parliamentary organizations, the presence of a militant far right movement, and an upsurge in the use of politically motivated violence and state repressive measures. The increasing militarization and the use of political violence, from sabotage and damage to property, to kidnappings and targeted assassinations, were justified by left-wing groups both as necessary means to achieve a revolutionary project and as defences against the threat of a neo-fascist coup." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634–36-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201634–36_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 34–36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023416-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKraetzschmarResta2023416_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKraetzschmarResta2023">Kraetzschmar & Resta 2023</a>, p. 416. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJebari202123-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJebari202123_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJebari2021">Jebari 2021</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarreñada2021208-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarreñada2021208_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarreñada2021">Barreñada 2021</a>, p. 208. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGumuscu2021194-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGumuscu2021194_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGumuscu2021">Gumuscu 2021</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201660–61-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201660–61_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 60–61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2011149-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch2011149_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173–174-140">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173–174_140-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023173–174_140-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeithMarch2023">Keith & March 2023</a>, pp. 173–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201661-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201661_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201661,_72-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201661,_72_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 61, 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–65-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–65_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–65_143-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 62–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20161-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20161_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201145-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch201145_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201172-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch201172_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201673-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201673_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201673_147-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201674-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201674_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201616-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201616_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201672-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201672_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–63-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201662–63_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 62–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazzoleniHeinisch202314–15-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMazzoleniHeinisch202314–15_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMazzoleniHeinisch2023">Mazzoleni & Heinisch 2023</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUfen2023372-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUfen2023372_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFUfen2023">Ufen 2023</a>, p. 372. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreslauer20211-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreslauer20211_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreslauer2021">Breslauer 2021</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNolan1995" class="citation book cs1">Nolan, Peter (9 December 1995). China's Rise Russia's fall. MACMILLAN PRESS LTD. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-62265-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-62265-0"><bdi>0-333-62265-0</bdi></a>. <q>Farmland was 'de-collectivised' in the early 1980s. This was not followed by the establishment of private property rights in land. Because the CCP wished to prevent the emergence of a landlord class, it did not permit the purchase and sale of farmland. Still in 1994, the Party 'adhered to the collective ownership of farmland'. The village community remained the owner, controlling the terms on which land was contracted out and operated by peasant households. It endeavoured to ensure that farm households had equal access to farmland, while the village government obtained part of the Ricardian rents from the land to use for community purposes. The Chinese government, through the communist party remained substantially in control of the de-collectivisation of farmland. Farmland was not distributed via a free market auction, which would have helped to produce a locally unequal outcome. Rather the massively dominant form was distribution of land contracts on a locally equal per capita basis</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Rise+Russia%27s+fall&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=MACMILLAN+PRESS+LTD&rft.date=1995-12-09&rft.isbn=0-333-62265-0&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch2011162-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch2011162_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarch201124-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarch201124_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarch2011">March 2011</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202225-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEvan_der_Linden202225_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFvan_der_Linden2022">van der Linden 2022</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201681-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201681_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016155–156-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016155–156_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, pp. 155–156. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016162-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016162_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJebari202125-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJebari202125_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJebari2021">Jebari 2021</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDel_Panta2021295-164"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDel_Panta2021295_164-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDel_Panta2021">Del Panta 2021</a>, p. 295. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023181-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKeithMarch2023181_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKeithMarch2023">Keith & March 2023</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20162-166">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20162_166-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti20162_166-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201660-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti201660_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016"Filling_the_vacuum?_The_trajectory_of_the_contemporary_radical_left_in_Western_Europe"-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChiocchetti2016"Filling_the_vacuum?_The_trajectory_of_the_contemporary_radical_left_in_Western_Europe"_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChiocchetti2016">Chiocchetti 2016</a>, "Filling the vacuum? The trajectory of the contemporary radical left in Western Europe". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMudde2016-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMudde2016_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMudde2016">Mudde 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatsourides2020-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatsourides2020_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKatsourides2020">Katsourides 2020</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmaldone2013304-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmaldone2013304_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmaldone2013">Smaldone 2013</a>, p. 304. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-172">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_172-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_172-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRooduijnBurgoonvan_Elsasvan_de_Werfhorst2017" class="citation journal cs1">Rooduijn, Matthijs; Burgoon, Brian; van Elsas, Erika J; van de Werfhorst, Herman G (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5697563">"Radical distinction: Support for radical left and radical right parties in Europe"</a>. European Union Politics. 18 (4): 536–559. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1465116517718091">10.1177/1465116517718091</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1465-1165">1465-1165</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5697563">5697563</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29187802">29187802</a>. <q>The radicalisms of both left and right share concerns about the European Union, but they yield diametrically opposed attitudes about immigration—where the radical left shows marked signs of cosmopolitanism and the radical right clear nativism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Union+Politics&rft.atitle=Radical+distinction%3A+Support+for+radical+left+and+radical+right+parties+in+Europe&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E536-%3C%2Fspan%3E559&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5697563%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1465-1165&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29187802&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1465116517718091&rft.aulast=Rooduijn&rft.aufirst=Matthijs&rft.au=Burgoon%2C+Brian&rft.au=van+Elsas%2C+Erika+J&rft.au=van+de+Werfhorst%2C+Herman+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5697563&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHloušekKopeček201046-173"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHloušekKopeček201046_173-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHloušekKopeček2010">Hloušek & Kopeček 2010</a>, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPedahzurPerligerWeinberg200953-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPedahzurPerligerWeinberg200953_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPedahzurPerligerWeinberg2009">Pedahzur, Perliger & Weinberg 2009</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBalz2015297–314-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBalz2015297–314_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBalz2015">Balz 2015</a>, pp. 297–314. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClark201830–42,_48–59-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark201830–42,_48–59_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClark201830–42,_48–59_176-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFClark2018">Clark 2018</a>, pp. 30–42, 48–59. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaufer1993-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaufer1993_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaufer1993">Raufer 1993</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChaliand2010227–257-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChaliand2010227–257_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChaliand2010">Chaliand 2010</a>, pp. 227–257. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTE''The_Irish_Times'',_22_April_1998-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTE''The_Irish_Times'',_22_April_1998_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThe_Irish_Times,_22_April_1998">The Irish Times, 22 April 1998</a>: "German detectives yesterday confirmed as authentic a declaration by the Red Army Faction (RAF) terrorist group that its struggle to overthrow the German state is over." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECISAC_2008-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECISAC_2008_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCISAC_2008">CISAC 2008</a>: "The PL [Prima Linea] sought to overthrow the capitalist state in Italy and replace it with a dictatorship of the proletariat." </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBreslauer2021" class="citation book cs1">Breslauer, George W. 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OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-166371-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-166371-0"><bdi>978-0-19-166371-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Political+Ideologies&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2013-08-15&rft.isbn=978-0-19-166371-0&rft.aulast=Freeden&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Sargent%2C+Lyman+Tower&rft.au=Stears%2C+Marc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordhandbookof0000unse_k5b8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" />Brown, Archie. "Communism". 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The European Radical Left After 1989: Decline and Mutation"</a>. Comparative European Politics. 3 (1). London, England: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>: 23–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.cep.6110052">10.1057/palgrave.cep.6110052</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1740-388X">1740-388X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55197396">55197396</a>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-15487-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-15487-8"><bdi>978-0-203-15487-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radical+Left+Parties+in+Europe&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-203-15487-8&rft.aulast=March&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fradicalleftparti0000marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMarch2012b" class="citation journal cs1">—— (September 2012b). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271926910">"Problems and Perspectives of Contemporary European Radical Left Parties: Chasing a Lost World or Still a World to Win?"</a>. 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London, England: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>: 314–339. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21598282.2012.706777">10.1080/21598282.2012.706777</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154948426">154948426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Critical+Thought&rft.atitle=Problems+and+Perspectives+of+Contemporary+European+Radical+Left+Parties%3A+Chasing+a+Lost+World+or+Still+a+World+to+Win%3F&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E314-%3C%2Fspan%3E339&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F21598282.2012.706777&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154948426%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=March&rft.aufirst=Luke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F271926910&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMudde2016" class="citation book cs1">Mudde, Cas (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0smADQAAQBAJ">SYRIZA: The Failure of the Populist Promise</a> (E-book ed.). 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OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157789-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157789-5"><bdi>978-0-19-157789-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Socialism%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-157789-5&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialismverysho0000newm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRossi2021" class="citation journal cs1">Rossi, Federica (April 2021). Treiber, Kyle (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14773708211008441">"The failed amnesty of the 'years of lead' in Italy: Continuity and transformations between (de)politicization and punitiveness"</a>. <a href="/wiki/European_Journal_of_Criminology" title="European Journal of Criminology">European Journal of Criminology</a>. 20 (2). <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a> on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/European_Society_of_Criminology" title="European Society of Criminology">European Society of Criminology</a>: 381–400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F14773708211008441">10.1177/14773708211008441</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1741-2609">1741-2609</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:234835036">234835036</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Criminology&rft.atitle=The+failed+amnesty+of+the+%27years+of+lead%27+in+Italy%3A+Continuity+and+transformations+between+%28de%29politicization+and+punitiveness&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E381-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A234835036%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1741-2609&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F14773708211008441&rft.aulast=Rossi&rft.aufirst=Federica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F14773708211008441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmaldone2013" class="citation book cs1">Smaldone, William (8 August 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2EpEjEwIr94C">European Socialism: A Concise History with Documents</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a> Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0909-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-0909-1"><bdi>978-1-4422-0909-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Socialism%3A+A+Concise+History+with+Documents&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2013-08-08&rft.isbn=978-1-4422-0909-1&rft.aulast=Smaldone&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2EpEjEwIr94C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_Linden2022" class="citation book cs1">van der Linden, Marcel (2022). The Cambridge History of Socialism. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48134-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-48134-2"><bdi>978-1-108-48134-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Socialism&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-108-48134-2&rft.aulast=van+der+Linden&rft.aufirst=Marcel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrorism_bibliography">Terrorism bibliography</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBalz2015" class="citation book cs1">Balz, Hanno (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZCsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA297">"Section III: Terrorism in the Twentieth Century – Militant Organizations in Western Europe in the 1970s and 1980s"</a>. In Law, Randall D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZCsBwAAQBAJ">The Routledge History of Terrorism</a>. Routledge Histories (1st ed.). London, England: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 297–314. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-86705-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-367-86705-8"><bdi>978-0-367-86705-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2014039877">2014039877</a>. Retrieved 3 December 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Section+III%3A+Terrorism+in+the+Twentieth+Century+%E2%80%93+Militant+Organizations+in+Western+Europe+in+the+1970s+and+1980s&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+History+of+Terrorism&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.series=Routledge+Histories&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E297-%3C%2Fspan%3E314&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2014039877&rft.isbn=978-0-367-86705-8&rft.aulast=Balz&rft.aufirst=Hanno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3ZCsBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChaliand2010" class="citation book cs1">Chaliand, Gérard (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofterrori00grar">The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda</a> (1st ed.). Berkeley, California: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24709-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24709-3"><bdi>978-0-520-24709-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 November 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Terrorism%3A+From+Antiquity+to+Al+Qaeda&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24709-3&rft.aulast=Chaliand&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A9rard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofterrori00grar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClark2018" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Simon (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2V9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">"Post-War Italian Politics: Stasis and Chaos"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z2V9DwAAQBAJ">Terror Vanquished: The Italian Approach to Defeating Terrorism</a> (E-book ed.). Arlington, Virginia: Center for Security Policy Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-732-94780-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-732-94780-1"><bdi>978-1-732-94780-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2018955266">2018955266</a>. Retrieved 28 November 2021 – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Post-War+Italian+Politics%3A+Stasis+and+Chaos&rft.btitle=Terror+Vanquished%3A+The+Italian+Approach+to+Defeating+Terrorism&rft.place=Arlington%2C+Virginia&rft.edition=E-book&rft.pub=Center+for+Security+Policy+Studies&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2018955266&rft.isbn=978-1-732-94780-1&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz2V9DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPedahzurPerligerWeinberg2009" class="citation book cs1">Pedahzur, Ami; Perliger, Arie; Weinberg, Leonard (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qzXjwAEACAAJ">Political Parties and Terrorist Groups</a> (hardback 2nd ed.). London, England: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77536-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-77536-6"><bdi>978-0-415-77536-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Parties+and+Terrorist+Groups&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.edition=hardback+2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-415-77536-6&rft.aulast=Pedahzur&rft.aufirst=Ami&rft.au=Perliger%2C+Arie&rft.au=Weinberg%2C+Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqzXjwAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaufer1993" class="citation journal cs1">Raufer, Xavier (October–December 1993). "The Red Brigades: A Farewell to Arms". Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. 16 (4). London, England: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>: 315–325. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10576109308435937">10.1080/10576109308435937</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+Conflict+and+Terrorism&rft.atitle=The+Red+Brigades%3A+A+Farewell+to+Arms&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E315-%3C%2Fspan%3E325&rft.date=1993-10%2F1993-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10576109308435937&rft.aulast=Raufer&rft.aufirst=Xavier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCISAC_2008" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/red-brigades">"Red Brigades"</a>. CISAC. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. May 2008. Retrieved 1 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CISAC&rft.atitle=Red+Brigades&rft.date=2008-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcisac.fsi.stanford.edu%2Fmappingmilitants%2Fprofiles%2Fred-brigades&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThe_Irish_Times,_22_April_1998" class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irishtimes.com/news/red-brigades-announce-end-of-their-struggle-to-overthrow-german-state-1.144785">"Red Brigades announce end of their struggle to overthrow German state"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Irish_Times" title="The Irish Times">The Irish Times</a>. 22 April 1998. Retrieved 1 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Irish+Times&rft.atitle=Red+Brigades+announce+end+of+their+struggle+to+overthrow+German+state&rft.date=1998-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fnews%2Fred-brigades-announce-end-of-their-struggle-to-overthrow-german-state-1.144785&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNorwood2013" class="citation book cs1">Norwood, Stephen H. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=paIxAAAAQBAJ">Antisemitism and the American Far Left</a> (paperback ed.). Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139565806">10.1017/CBO9781139565806</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-65700-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-65700-7"><bdi>978-1-107-65700-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153120694">153120694</a>. Retrieved 19 November 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antisemitism+and+the+American+Far+Left&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.edition=paperback&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153120694%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139565806&rft.isbn=978-1-107-65700-7&rft.aulast=Norwood&rft.aufirst=Stephen+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpaIxAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radical_left_parties_case_studies">Radical left parties case studies</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKioupkiolis2016" class="citation journal cs1">Kioupkiolis, Alexandros (March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/297655852">"Podemos: The Ambiguous Promises of Left-wing Populism in Contemporary Spain"</a>. Journal of Political Ideologies. 21 (2). London, England: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>: 99–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13569317.2016.1150136">10.1080/13569317.2016.1150136</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147247286">147247286</a>. Retrieved 21 November 2021 – via ResearchGate.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Political+Ideologies&rft.atitle=Podemos%3A+The+Ambiguous+Promises+of+Left-wing+Populism+in+Contemporary+Spain&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13569317.2016.1150136&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147247286%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kioupkiolis&rft.aufirst=Alexandros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F297655852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKatsourides2016" class="citation book cs1">Katsourides, Yannos (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EYQgDQAAQBAJ">Radical Left Parties in Government: The Cases of SYRIZA and AKEL</a> (hadrback ed.). London, England: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F978-1-137-58841-8">10.1057/978-1-137-58841-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-58840-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-58840-1"><bdi>978-1-137-58840-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 November 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Radical+Left+Parties+in+Government%3A+The+Cases+of+SYRIZA+and+AKEL&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.edition=hadrback&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F978-1-137-58841-8&rft.isbn=978-1-137-58840-1&rft.aulast=Katsourides&rft.aufirst=Yannos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEYQgDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radical_left_and_radical_right">Radical left and radical right</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFel-OjeiliTaylor2018" class="citation journal cs1">el-Ojeili, Chamsy; Taylor, Dylan (September 2018). Cheng, Enfu; Schweickart, David; Andreani, Tony (eds.). "The Revaluation of All Values: Extremism, The Ultra-Left, and Revolutionary Anthropology". International Critical Thought. 8 (3). <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a> on behalf of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: 410–425. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21598282.2018.1506262">10.1080/21598282.2018.1506262</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2159-8312">2159-8312</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2159-8282">2159-8282</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158719628">158719628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Critical+Thought&rft.atitle=The+Revaluation+of+All+Values%3A+Extremism%2C+The+Ultra-Left%2C+and+Revolutionary+Anthropology&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E410-%3C%2Fspan%3E425&rft.date=2018-09&rft.issn=2159-8282&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A158719628%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.eissn=2159-8312&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F21598282.2018.1506262&rft.aulast=el-Ojeili&rft.aufirst=Chamsy&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Dylan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChongMcClosky1985" class="citation journal cs1">Chong, Dennis; McClosky, Herbert (July 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007123400004221/type/journal_article">"Similarities and Differences Between Left-Wing and Right-Wing Radicals"</a>. British Journal of Political Science. 15 (3): 329–363. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007123400004221">10.1017/S0007123400004221</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1234">0007-1234</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154330828">154330828</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Similarities+and+Differences+Between+Left-Wing+and+Right-Wing+Radicals&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E329-%3C%2Fspan%3E363&rft.date=1985-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154330828%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0007-1234&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007123400004221&rft.aulast=Chong&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft.au=McClosky%2C+Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fproduct%2Fidentifier%2FS0007123400004221%2Ftype%2Fjournal_article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKopyciokSilver2021" class="citation journal cs1">Kopyciok, Svenja; Silver, Hilary (6 October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8222516">"Left-Wing Xenophobia in Europe"</a>. Frontiers in Sociology. 6: 666–717. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffsoc.2021.666717">10.3389/fsoc.2021.666717</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2297-7775">2297-7775</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8222516">8222516</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34179182">34179182</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Sociology&rft.atitle=Left-Wing+Xenophobia+in+Europe&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E666-%3C%2Fspan%3E717&rft.date=2021-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8222516%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=2297-7775&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34179182&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffsoc.2021.666717&rft.aulast=Kopyciok&rft.aufirst=Svenja&rft.au=Silver%2C+Hilary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8222516&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrorism">Terrorism</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartinPrager2019" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Augustus; Prager, Fynnwin (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f8p-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189">"Part II: The Terrorists – Terror from Below: Terrorism by Dissidents"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f8p-DwAAQBAJ">Terrorism: An International Perspective</a>. Thousand Oaks, California: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>. pp. 189–193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-526-45995-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-526-45995-4"><bdi>978-1-526-45995-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2018948259">2018948259</a>. Retrieved 27 December 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Part+II%3A+The+Terrorists+%E2%80%93+Terror+from+Below%3A+Terrorism+by+Dissidents&rft.btitle=Terrorism%3A+An+International+Perspective&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E193&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2018948259&rft.isbn=978-1-526-45995-4&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Augustus&rft.au=Prager%2C+Fynnwin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df8p-DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFar-left+politics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Far-left_politics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Far-left politics">Far-left politics</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_spectrum253" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_spectrum" title="Template:Political spectrum"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_spectrum" title="Template talk:Political spectrum"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_spectrum" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political spectrum"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_spectrum253" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Far-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre-left_politics" title="Centre-left politics">Centre-left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centre-right_politics" title="Centre-right politics">Centre-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_politics" title="Far-right politics">Far-right</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Political positions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-left_anarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-left anarchy">Post-leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-leftism" title="Ultra-leftism">Ultra-leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Stalinist_left" title="Anti-Stalinist left">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Left" title="New Left">New Left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Marxism" title="Centrist Marxism">Centrist Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_centrism" title="Radical centrism">Radical centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New Right</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Political ideologies <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Religious politics <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Buddhist socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Christian left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Jewish left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_socialism" title="Islamic socialism">Islamic socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious Zionism</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Political pejoratives <li><a href="/wiki/Baizuo" title="Baizuo">Baizuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champagne_socialist" title="Champagne socialist">Champagne socialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_left" title="Hard left">Hard left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_elite" title="Liberal elite">Liberal elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loony_left" title="Loony left">Loony left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonbat" title="Moonbat">Moonbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_fascism" title="Red fascism">Red fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regressive_left" title="Regressive left">Regressive left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_fascism" title="Social fascism">Social fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice_warrior" title="Social justice warrior">Social justice warrior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_left" title="Soft left">Soft left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wingnut_(politics)" title="Wingnut (politics)">Wingnut</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">Models <li><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe_theory" title="Horseshoe theory">Horseshoe theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left%E2%80%93right_political_spectrum" title="Left–right political spectrum">Left–right political spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nolan_Chart" title="Nolan Chart">Nolan Chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open%E2%80%93closed_political_spectrum" title="Open–closed political spectrum">Open–closed political spectrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pournelle_chart" title="Pournelle chart">Pournelle chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_authoritarianism" title="Right-wing authoritarianism">Right-wing authoritarianism</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">See also <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-authoritarianism" title="Anti-authoritarianism">Anti-authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_transition" title="Democratic transition">Democratic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndicalism" title="Syndicalism">Syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_politics" title="Identity politics">Identity politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary" title="Revolutionary">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary" title="Reactionary">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-establishment" title="Anti-establishment">Anti-establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Establishment" title="The Establishment">The Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardline" title="Hardline">Hardline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">Radical politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(politics)" title="Triangulation (politics)">Triangulation</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox624" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1129409#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11948045k">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11948045k">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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