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</a> <ul id="toc-More_firsts_and_further_experiments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_commercial_satellite_projects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_commercial_satellite_projects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>International commercial satellite projects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_commercial_satellite_projects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_orbits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_orbits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Satellite orbits</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Satellite_orbits-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Satellite orbits subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Satellite_orbits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Low_Earth_orbit_(LEO)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_Earth_orbit_(LEO)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Low Earth orbit (LEO)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_Earth_orbit_(LEO)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_constellation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_constellation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Satellite constellation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite_constellation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medium_Earth_orbit_(MEO)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medium_Earth_orbit_(MEO)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Medium Earth orbit (MEO)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medium_Earth_orbit_(MEO)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_of_MEO" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_MEO"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Examples of MEO</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_MEO-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geostationary_orbit_(GEO)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geostationary_orbit_(GEO)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Geostationary orbit (GEO)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geostationary_orbit_(GEO)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_of_GEO" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_GEO"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Examples of GEO</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_GEO-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molniya_orbit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molniya_orbit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Molniya orbit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molniya_orbit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polar_orbit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polar_orbit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Polar orbit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polar_orbit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beyond_geostationary_orbit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beyond_geostationary_orbit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Beyond geostationary orbit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beyond_geostationary_orbit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Frequency_allocation_for_satellite_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Frequency_allocation_for_satellite_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Frequency allocation for satellite systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Frequency_allocation_for_satellite_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Applications</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applications-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Applications subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Telephony" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Telephony"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Telephony</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Telephony-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Television" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Television"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Television</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Television-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radio_broadcasting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radio_broadcasting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Radio broadcasting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radio_broadcasting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amateur_radio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amateur_radio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Amateur radio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amateur_radio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internet_access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internet_access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Internet access</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internet_access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_collection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_collection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Data collection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_collection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Communications satellite</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%85%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="قمر اصطناعي للاتصالات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قمر اصطناعي للاتصالات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sat%C3%A9lite_de_comunicaciones" title="Satélite de comunicaciones – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Satélite de comunicaciones" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikasiya_peyki" title="Kommunikasiya peyki – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kommunikasiya peyki" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B9" title="যোগাযোগ উপগ্রহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যোগাযোগ উপগ্রহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA_%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%96" title="Спадарожнік сувязі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Спадарожнік сувязі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%8A%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Комуникационен спътник – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Комуникационен спътник" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikacioni_satelit" title="Komunikacioni satelit – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Komunikacioni satelit" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sat%C3%A8l%C2%B7lit_de_comunicacions" title="Satèl·lit de comunicacions – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Satèl·lit de comunicacions" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telekomunika%C4%8Dn%C3%AD_dru%C5%BEice" title="Telekomunikační družice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Telekomunikační družice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikationssatellit" title="Kommunikationssatellit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kommunikationssatellit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidesatelliit" title="Sidesatelliit – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sidesatelliit" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%85%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Τηλεπικοινωνιακός δορυφόρος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τηλεπικοινωνιακός δορυφόρος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sat%C3%A9lite_de_comunicaciones" title="Satélite de comunicaciones – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Satélite de comunicaciones" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunika_satelito" title="Komunika satelito – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Komunika satelito" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikazio_satelite" title="Komunikazio satelite – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Komunikazio satelite" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ماهواره مخابراتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ماهواره مخابراتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_de_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9communications" title="Satellite de télécommunications – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Satellite de télécommunications" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sat%C3%A9lite_de_comunicaci%C3%B3ns" title="Satélite de comunicacións – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Satélite de comunicacións" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%B5%EC%8B%A0_%EC%9C%84%EC%84%B1" title="통신 위성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="통신 위성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%AB_%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Կապի արբանյակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կապի արբանյակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9" title="संचार उपग्रह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संचार उपग्रह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikacijski_satelit" title="Komunikacijski satelit – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Komunikacijski satelit" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelit_komunikasi" title="Satelit komunikasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Satelit komunikasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isivoko_sokuxhumana" title="Isivoko sokuxhumana – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Isivoko sokuxhumana" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecomunicazioni_satellitari" title="Telecomunicazioni satellitari – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Telecomunicazioni satellitari" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA" title="לוויין תקשורת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לוויין תקשורת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%89%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B9" title="ಸಂಪರ್ಕ ಉಪಗ್ರಹ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಂಪರ್ಕ ಉಪಗ್ರಹ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%81_%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%96" title="Байланыс серігі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Байланыс серігі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakaru_pavadonis" title="Sakaru pavadonis – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sakaru pavadonis" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikatiounssatellit" title="Kommunikatiounssatellit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kommunikatiounssatellit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ry%C5%A1i%C5%B3_palydovas" title="Ryšių palydovas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Ryšių palydovas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1vk%C3%B6zl%C3%A9si_m%C5%B1hold" title="Távközlési műhold – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Távközlési műhold" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%AF_%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%97%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%82" title="വാർത്താവിനിമയ ഉപഗ്രഹം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വാർത്താവിനിമയ ഉപഗ്രഹം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelit_komunikasi" title="Satelit komunikasi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Satelit komunikasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BB_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE" title="Хиймэл дагуулын холбоо – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хиймэл дагуулын холбоо" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicatiesatelliet" title="Communicatiesatelliet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Communicatiesatelliet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1%E8%A1%9B%E6%98%9F" title="通信衛星 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="通信衛星" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikasjonssatellitt" title="Kommunikasjonssatellitt – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kommunikasjonssatellitt" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikasjonssatellitt" title="Kommunikasjonssatellitt – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kommunikasjonssatellitt" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloqa_sun%CA%BBiy_yo%CA%BBldoshi" title="Aloqa sunʻiy yoʻldoshi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Aloqa sunʻiy yoʻldoshi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelita_telekomunikacyjny" title="Satelita telekomunikacyjny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Satelita telekomunikacyjny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sat%C3%A9lite_de_comunica%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Satélite de comunicação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Satélite de comunicação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelit_de_telecomunica%C8%9Bii" title="Satelit de telecomunicații – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Satelit de telecomunicații" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B8" title="Спутники связи – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Спутники связи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikimet_satelitore" title="Komunikimet satelitore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Komunikimet satelitore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Communications satellite" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikacijski_satelit" title="Komunikacijski satelit – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Komunikacijski satelit" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%95%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مانگی دەستکردی پەیوەندییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مانگی دەستکردی پەیوەندییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikacioni_satelit" title="Komunikacioni satelit – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Komunikacioni satelit" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komunikacijski_satelit" title="Komunikacijski satelit – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Komunikacijski satelit" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelit_Komunikasi" title="Satelit Komunikasi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Satelit Komunikasi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietoliikennesatelliitti" title="Tietoliikennesatelliitti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietoliikennesatelliitti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kommunikationssatellit" title="Kommunikationssatellit – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kommunikationssatellit" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="தகவல் தொடர்பு செயற்கைக்கோள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தகவல் தொடர்பு செயற்கைக்கோள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9A%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0_%E0%B0%89%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B9%E0%B0%82" title="సమాచార ఉపగ్రహం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సమాచార ఉపగ్రహం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3" title="ดาวเทียมสื่อสาร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ดาวเทียมสื่อสาร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haberle%C5%9Fme_uydusu" title="Haberleşme uydusu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Haberleşme uydusu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%B7%D0%B2%27%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BA%D1%83" title="Супутник зв'язку – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Супутник зв'язку" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%86%DB%81" title="مواصلاتی سیارچہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مواصلاتی سیارچہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BB%87_tinh_th%C3%B4ng_tin" title="Vệ tinh thông tin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vệ tinh thông tin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satelayt_pankomunikasyon" title="Satelayt pankomunikasyon – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Satelayt pankomunikasyon" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1%E5%8D%AB%E6%98%9F" title="通信卫星 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="通信卫星" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E8%A8%8A%E8%A1%9E%E6%98%9F" title="通訊衞星 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="通訊衞星" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E8%A8%8A%E8%A1%9B%E6%98%9F" title="通訊衛星 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="通訊衛星" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q149918#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Artificial satellite that relays radio signals</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iridium_satellite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Iridium_satellite.jpg/290px-Iridium_satellite.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Iridium_satellite.jpg/435px-Iridium_satellite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Iridium_satellite.jpg/580px-Iridium_satellite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Iridium_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridium (satellite)">Iridium</a> satellite for <a href="/wiki/Satellite_telephony" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite telephony">satellite 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companies">Companies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#000 2px solid; border-bottom:#000 2px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/16px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/24px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/RocketSunIcon.svg/32px-RocketSunIcon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Spaceflight portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight_sidebar" title="Template:Spaceflight sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight_sidebar" title="Template talk:Spaceflight sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spaceflight_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spaceflight sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>communications satellite</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Artificial_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial satellite">artificial satellite</a> that relays and amplifies <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> telecommunication signals via a <a href="/wiki/Transponder_(satellite_communications)" title="Transponder (satellite communications)">transponder</a>; it creates a <a href="/wiki/Communication_channel" title="Communication channel">communication channel</a> between a source <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">receiver</a> at different locations on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. Communications satellites are used for <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> applications.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many communications satellites are in <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">geostationary orbit</a> 22,236 miles (35,785 km) above the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a>, so that the satellite appears stationary at the same point in the sky; therefore the <a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">satellite dish</a> antennas of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot and do not have to move to track the satellite. Others form <a href="/wiki/Satellite_constellation" title="Satellite constellation">satellite constellations</a> in <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a>, where antennas on the ground have to follow the position of the satellites and switch between satellites frequently. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a> used for telecommunications links travel by <a href="/wiki/Line-of-sight_propagation" title="Line-of-sight propagation">line of sight</a> and so are obstructed by the curve of the Earth. The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated geographical points.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> <a href="/wiki/Frequencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequencies">frequencies</a>. To avoid signal interference, international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or "bands" certain organizations are allowed to use. This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference.<sup id="cite_ref-aerospace.org_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aerospace.org-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In October 1945, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a> published an article titled "Extraterrestrial Relays" in the British magazine <i><a href="/wiki/Wireless_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless World">Wireless World</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-ww-october1945_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ww-october1945-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The article described the fundamentals behind the deployment of <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">artificial satellites</a> in geostationary orbits to relay radio signals. Because of this, Arthur C. Clarke is often quoted as being the <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventor</a> of the concept of the communications satellite, and the term 'Clarke Belt' is employed as a description of the orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-wapo-19970803_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wapo-19970803-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sputnik_asm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg/220px-Sputnik_asm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg/330px-Sputnik_asm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg/440px-Sputnik_asm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1094" data-file-height="896" /></a><figcaption>Replica of Sputnik 1</figcaption></figure> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">artificial Earth satellite</a> was <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, which was put into orbit by the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> on 4 October 1957. It was developed by <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tikhonravov" title="Mikhail Tikhonravov">Mikhail Tikhonravov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Korolev" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergey Korolev">Sergey Korolev</a>, building on work by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky" title="Konstantin Tsiolkovsky">Konstantin Tsiolkovsky</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-airandspace-200711_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-airandspace-200711-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sputnik 1 was equipped with an on-board <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> <a href="/wiki/Transmitter" title="Transmitter">transmitter</a> that worked on two frequencies of 20.005 and 40.002 MHz, or 7 and 15 meters wavelength. The satellite was not placed in orbit to send data from one point on Earth to another, but the radio transmitter was meant to study the properties of radio wave distribution throughout the ionosphere. The launch of Sputnik 1 was a major step in the exploration of space and rocket development, and marks the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-russianspaceweb-sputnikdesign_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-russianspaceweb-sputnikdesign-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_active_and_passive_satellite_experiments">Early active and passive satellite experiments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early active and passive satellite experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two major classes of communications satellites, <i><a href="/wiki/Balloon_satellite" title="Balloon satellite">passive</a></i> and <i>active</i>. Passive satellites only <a href="/wiki/Reflector_(antenna)" title="Reflector (antenna)">reflect</a> the signal coming from the source, toward the direction of the receiver. With passive satellites, the reflected signal is not amplified at the satellite, and only a small amount of the transmitted energy actually reaches the receiver. Since the satellite is so far above Earth, the radio signal is attenuated due to <a href="/wiki/Free-space_path_loss" title="Free-space path loss">free-space path loss</a>, so the signal received on Earth is very weak. Active satellites, on the other hand, amplify the received signal before retransmitting it to the receiver on the ground.<sup id="cite_ref-aerospace.org_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aerospace.org-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Passive satellites were the first communications satellites, but are little used now. </p><p>Work that was begun in the field of electrical intelligence gathering at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Research_Laboratory" title="United States Naval Research Laboratory">United States Naval Research Laboratory</a> in 1951 led to a project named <a href="/wiki/Communication_Moon_Relay" title="Communication Moon Relay">Communication Moon Relay</a>. Military planners had long shown considerable interest in secure and reliable communications lines as a tactical necessity, and the ultimate goal of this project was the creation of the longest communications circuit in human history, with the Moon, Earth's natural satellite, acting as a passive relay. After achieving the first transoceanic communication between <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, and Hawaii on 23 January 1956, this system was publicly inaugurated and put into formal production in January 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa-sp-4217_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-sp-4217-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas-B_with_Score_payload.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Atlas-B_with_Score_payload.jpg/220px-Atlas-B_with_Score_payload.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Atlas-B_with_Score_payload.jpg/330px-Atlas-B_with_Score_payload.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Atlas-B_with_Score_payload.jpg/440px-Atlas-B_with_Score_payload.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1300" /></a><figcaption>The Atlas-B with SCORE on the launch pad; the rocket (without booster engines) constituted the satellite.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first satellite purpose-built to actively relay communications was <a href="/wiki/SCORE_(satellite)" title="SCORE (satellite)">Project SCORE</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Research Projects Agency">Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (ARPA) and launched on 18 December 1958, which used a tape recorder to carry a stored voice message, as well as to receive, store, and retransmit messages. It was used to send a Christmas greeting to the world from U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>. The satellite also executed several realtime transmissions before the non-rechargeable batteries failed on 30 December 1958 after eight hours of actual operation.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The direct successor to SCORE was another ARPA-led project called Courier. <a href="/wiki/Courier_1B" title="Courier 1B">Courier 1B</a> was launched on 4 October 1960 to explore whether it would be possible to establish a global military communications network by using "delayed repeater" satellites, which receive and store information until commanded to rebroadcast them. After 17 days, a command system failure ended communications from the satellite.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PR1960_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PR1960-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s satellite applications program launched the first artificial satellite used for passive relay communications in <a href="/wiki/Echo_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Echo 1">Echo 1</a> on 12 August 1960. Echo 1 was an aluminized <a href="/wiki/Balloon_satellite" title="Balloon satellite">balloon satellite</a> acting as a passive <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflector</a> of <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> signals. Communication signals were bounced off the satellite from one point on Earth to another. This experiment sought to establish the feasibility of worldwide broadcasts of telephone, radio, and television signals.<sup id="cite_ref-PR1960_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PR1960-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="More_firsts_and_further_experiments">More firsts and further experiments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: More firsts and further experiments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Telstar" title="Telstar">Telstar</a> was the first active, direct relay communications commercial satellite and marked the first transatlantic transmission of television signals. Belonging to <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation" title="AT&T Corporation">AT&T</a> as part of a multi-national agreement between AT&T, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Telephone Laboratories</a>, NASA, the British <a href="/wiki/General_Post_Office" title="General Post Office">General Post Office</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Orange_S.A." title="Orange S.A.">French National PTT</a> (Post Office) to develop satellite communications, it was launched by NASA from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral" title="Cape Canaveral">Cape Canaveral</a> on 10 July 1962, in the first privately sponsored space launch.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PR1962_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PR1962-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another passive relay experiment primarily intended for military communications purposes was <a href="/wiki/Project_West_Ford" title="Project West Ford">Project West Ford</a>, which was led by <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincoln Laboratory">Lincoln Laboratory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BTI-8_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BTI-8-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After an initial failure in 1961, a launch on 9 May 1963 dispersed 350 million copper needle dipoles to create a passive reflecting belt. Even though only about half of the dipoles properly separated from each other,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the project was able to successfully experiment and communicate using frequencies in the <a href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">SHF</a> <a href="/wiki/X_band" title="X band">X band</a> spectrum.<sup id="cite_ref-NASAComp5_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAComp5-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An immediate antecedent of the geostationary satellites was the <a href="/wiki/Hughes_Aircraft_Company" title="Hughes Aircraft Company">Hughes Aircraft Company</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Syncom" title="Syncom">Syncom 2</a>, launched on 26 July 1963. Syncom 2 was the first communications satellite in a <a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">geosynchronous orbit</a>. It revolved around the Earth once per day at constant speed, but because it still had north–south motion, special equipment was needed to track it.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its successor, <a href="/wiki/Syncom" title="Syncom">Syncom 3</a>, launched on 19 July 1964, was the first geostationary communications satellite. Syncom 3 obtained a geosynchronous orbit, without a north–south motion, making it appear from the ground as a stationary object in the sky.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A direct extension of the passive experiments of Project West Ford was the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Experimental_Satellite" title="Lincoln Experimental Satellite">Lincoln Experimental Satellite</a> program, also conducted by the Lincoln Laboratory on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">United States Department of Defense</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BTI-8_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BTI-8-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/LES-1" title="LES-1">LES-1</a> active communications satellite was launched on 11 February 1965 to explore the feasibility of active solid-state X band long-range military communications. A total of nine satellites were launched between 1965 and 1976 as part of this series.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASAComp9_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAComp9-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_commercial_satellite_projects">International commercial satellite projects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: International commercial satellite projects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, 1962 saw the creation of the <a href="/wiki/COMSAT" title="COMSAT">Communications Satellite Corporation</a> (COMSAT) private corporation, which was subject to instruction by the US Government on matters of national policy.<sup id="cite_ref-HSA-1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSA-1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the next two years, international negotiations led to the Intelsat Agreements, which in turn led to the launch of Intelsat 1, also known as Early Bird, on 6 April 1965, and which was the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NASAComp10_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASAComp10-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent Intelsat launches in the 1960s provided multi-destination service and video, audio, and data service to ships at sea (Intelsat 2 in 1966–67), and the completion of a fully global network with Intelsat 3 in 1969–70. By the 1980s, with significant expansions in commercial satellite capacity, Intelsat was on its way to become part of the competitive private telecommunications industry, and had started to get competition from the likes of <a href="/wiki/PanAmSat" title="PanAmSat">PanAmSat</a> in the United States, which, ironically, was then bought by its archrival in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-HSA-1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSA-1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Intelsat was launched, the United States was the only launch source outside of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, who did not participate in the Intelsat agreements.<sup id="cite_ref-HSA-1_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HSA-1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union launched its first communications satellite on 23 April 1965 as part of the <a href="/wiki/Molniya_(satellite)" title="Molniya (satellite)">Molniya</a> program.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This program was also unique at the time for its use of what then became known as the <a href="/wiki/Molniya_orbit" title="Molniya orbit">Molniya orbit</a>, which describes a <a href="/wiki/Highly_elliptical_orbit" title="Highly elliptical orbit">highly elliptical orbit</a>, with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere. This orbit provides a long dwell time over Russian territory as well as over Canada at higher latitudes than geostationary orbits over the equator.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Satellite_orbits">Satellite orbits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Satellite orbits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg/250px-Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg/375px-Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg/500px-Comparison_satellite_navigation_orbits.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>Clickable image, highlighting <a href="/wiki/Medium_Earth_Orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Medium Earth Orbit">medium altitude orbits around Earth</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low Earth</a> to the lowest <a href="/wiki/High_Earth_orbit" title="High Earth orbit">High Earth orbit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geostationary_Earth_orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Geostationary Earth orbit">geostationary orbit</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Graveyard_orbit" title="Graveyard orbit">graveyard orbit</a>, at one ninth of the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_distance" title="Lunar distance">Moon's orbital distance</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the <a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> to scale</figcaption></figure> <p>Communications satellites usually have one of three primary types of <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a>, while other <a href="/wiki/List_of_orbits" title="List of orbits">orbital classifications</a> are used to further specify orbital details. MEO and LEO are non-geostationary orbit (NGSO). </p> <ul><li>Geostationary satellites have a <i><a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">geostationary orbit</a></i> (GEO), which is 22,236 miles (35,785 km) from Earth's surface. This orbit has the special characteristic that the apparent position of the satellite in the sky when viewed by a ground observer does not change, the satellite appears to "stand still" in the sky. This is because the satellite's orbital period is the same as the rotation rate of the Earth. The advantage of this orbit is that ground antennas do not have to track the satellite across the sky, they can be fixed to point at the location in the sky the satellite appears.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">Medium Earth orbit</a></i> (MEO) satellites are closer to Earth. <a href="/wiki/Orbital_altitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital altitude">Orbital altitudes</a> range from 2,000 to 36,000 kilometres (1,200 to 22,400 mi) above Earth.</li> <li>The region below medium orbits is referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a></i> (LEO), and is about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above Earth.</li></ul> <p>As satellites in MEO and LEO orbit the Earth faster, they do not remain visible in the sky to a fixed point on Earth continually like a geostationary satellite, but appear to a ground observer to cross the sky and "set" when they go behind the Earth beyond the visible horizon. Therefore, to provide continuous communications capability with these lower orbits requires a larger number of satellites, so that one of these satellites will always be visible in the sky for transmission of communication signals. However, due to their closer distance to the Earth, LEO or MEO satellites can communicate to ground with reduced latency and at lower power than would be required from a geosynchronous orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low_Earth_orbit_(LEO)"><span id="Low_Earth_orbit_.28LEO.29"></span>Low Earth orbit (LEO)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Low Earth orbit (LEO)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low Earth orbit</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:cyan; color:black;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low Earth orbit</a></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">low Earth orbit</a> (LEO) typically is a circular orbit about 160 to 2,000 kilometres (99 to 1,243 mi) above the Earth's surface and, correspondingly, a period (time to revolve around the Earth) of about 90 minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of their low altitude, these satellites are only visible from within a radius of roughly 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the sub-satellite point. In addition, satellites in low Earth orbit change their position relative to the ground position quickly. So even for local applications, many satellites are needed if the mission requires uninterrupted connectivity. </p><p>Low-Earth-orbiting satellites are less expensive to launch into orbit than geostationary satellites and, due to proximity to the ground, do not require as high <a href="/wiki/Signal_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal strength">signal strength</a> (signal strength falls off as the square of the distance from the source, so the effect is considerable). Thus there is a trade off between the number of satellites and their cost. </p><p>In addition, there are important differences in the onboard and ground equipment needed to support the two types of missions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellite_constellation">Satellite constellation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Satellite constellation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_constellation" title="Satellite constellation">Satellite constellation</a></div> <p>A group of satellites working in concert is known as a <a href="/wiki/Satellite_constellation" title="Satellite constellation">satellite constellation</a>. Two such constellations, intended to provide <a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">satellite phone</a> and low-speed data services, primarily to remote areas, are the <a href="/wiki/Iridium_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iridium (satellite)">Iridium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globalstar" title="Globalstar">Globalstar</a> systems. The Iridium system has 66 satellites, which <a href="/wiki/Orbital_inclination" title="Orbital inclination">orbital inclination</a> of 86.4° and inter-satellite links provide service availability over the entire surface of Earth. <a href="/wiki/Starlink" title="Starlink">Starlink</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Satellite_internet_constellation" title="Satellite internet constellation">satellite internet constellation</a> operated by <a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a>, that aims for global <a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">satellite Internet access</a> coverage. </p><p>It is also possible to offer discontinuous coverage using a low-Earth-orbit satellite capable of storing data received while passing over one part of Earth and transmitting it later while passing over another part. This will be the case with the CASCADE system of Canada's <a href="/wiki/CASSIOPE" title="CASSIOPE">CASSIOPE</a> communications satellite. Another system using this store and forward method is <a href="/wiki/Orbcomm" title="Orbcomm">Orbcomm</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medium_Earth_orbit_(MEO)"><span id="Medium_Earth_orbit_.28MEO.29"></span>Medium Earth orbit (MEO)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Medium Earth orbit (MEO)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medium_Earth_orbit" title="Medium Earth orbit">Medium Earth orbit</a></div> <p>A medium Earth orbit is a satellite in orbit somewhere between 2,000 and 35,786 kilometres (1,243 and 22,236 mi) above the Earth's surface. MEO satellites are similar to LEO satellites in functionality. MEO satellites are visible for much longer periods of time than LEO satellites, usually between 2 and 8 hours. MEO satellites have a larger coverage area than LEO satellites. A MEO satellite's longer duration of visibility and wider footprint means fewer satellites are needed in a MEO network than a LEO network. One disadvantage is that a MEO satellite's distance gives it a longer time delay and weaker signal than a LEO satellite, although these limitations are not as severe as those of a GEO satellite. </p><p>Like LEOs, these satellites do not maintain a stationary distance from the Earth. This is in contrast to the geostationary orbit, where satellites are always 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) from Earth. </p><p>Typically the orbit of a medium Earth orbit satellite is about 16,000 kilometres (10,000 mi) above Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In various patterns, these satellites make the trip around Earth in anywhere from 2 to 8 hours. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_MEO">Examples of MEO</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Examples of MEO"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In 1962, the communications satellite, <b>Telstar</b>, was launched. It was a medium Earth orbit satellite designed to help facilitate high-speed telephone signals. Although it was the first practical way to transmit signals over the horizon, its major drawback was soon realised. Because its orbital period of about 2.5 hours did not match the Earth's rotational period of 24 hours, continuous coverage was impossible. It was apparent that multiple MEOs needed to be used in order to provide continuous coverage.</li> <li>In 2013, the first four of a constellation of 20 MEO satellites was launched. The <a href="/wiki/O3b" title="O3b">O3b</a> satellites provide <a href="/wiki/Internet_access" title="Internet access">broadband internet services</a>, in particular to remote locations and maritime and in-flight use, and orbit at an altitude of 8,063 kilometres (5,010 mi)).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geostationary_orbit_(GEO)"><span id="Geostationary_orbit_.28GEO.29"></span>Geostationary orbit (GEO)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Geostationary orbit (GEO)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">Geostationary orbit</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geostat.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Geostat.gif/220px-Geostat.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Geostat.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Geostationary_orbit" title="Geostationary orbit">Geostationary orbit</a></figcaption></figure> <p>To an observer on Earth, a satellite in a gestationary orbit appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. This is because it revolves around the Earth at Earth's own <a href="/wiki/Angular_velocity" title="Angular velocity">angular velocity</a> (one revolution per <a href="/wiki/Sidereal_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidereal day">sidereal day</a>, in an <a href="/wiki/Non-inclined_orbit" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-inclined orbit">equatorial orbit</a>). </p><p>A geostationary orbit is useful for communications because ground antennas can be aimed at the satellite without their having to track the satellite's motion. This is relatively inexpensive. </p><p>In applications that require many ground antennas, such as <a href="/wiki/DirecTV" title="DirecTV">DirecTV</a> distribution, the savings in ground equipment can more than outweigh the cost and complexity of placing a satellite into orbit. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Examples_of_GEO">Examples of GEO</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Examples of GEO"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The first geostationary satellite was <a href="/wiki/Syncom_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncom 3">Syncom 3</a>, launched on 19 August 1964, and used for communication across the Pacific starting with television coverage of the <a href="/wiki/1964_Summer_Olympics" title="1964 Summer Olympics">1964 Summer Olympics</a>. Shortly after Syncom 3, <a href="/wiki/Intelsat_I" title="Intelsat I">Intelsat I</a>, aka <i>Early Bird</i>, was launched on 6 April 1965 and placed in orbit at 28° west longitude. It was the first geostationary satellite for telecommunications over the Atlantic Ocean.</li> <li>On 9 November 1972, Canada's first geostationary satellite serving the continent, <a href="/wiki/Anik_A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Anik A1">Anik A1</a>, was launched by <a href="/wiki/Telesat_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Telesat Canada">Telesat Canada</a>, with the United States following suit with the launch of <a href="/wiki/Westar_1" title="Westar 1">Westar 1</a> by <a href="/wiki/Western_Union" title="Western Union">Western Union</a> on 13 April 1974.</li> <li>On 30 May 1974, the first geostationary communications satellite in the world to be <a href="/wiki/Three-axis_stabilized" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-axis stabilized">three-axis stabilized</a> was launched: the experimental satellite <a href="/wiki/ATS-6" title="ATS-6">ATS-6</a> built for <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>.</li> <li>After the launches of the Telstar through Westar 1 satellites, RCA Americom (later GE Americom, now <a href="/wiki/SES_(company)" title="SES (company)">SES</a>) launched <a href="/wiki/Satcom_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Satcom 1">Satcom 1</a> in 1975. It was Satcom 1 that was instrumental in helping early <a href="/wiki/Cable_TV" class="mw-redirect" title="Cable TV">cable TV</a> channels such as WTBS (now <a href="/wiki/TBS_(U.S._TV_channel)" class="mw-redirect" title="TBS (U.S. TV channel)">TBS</a>), <a href="/wiki/HBO" title="HBO">HBO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christian_Broadcasting_Network" title="Christian Broadcasting Network">CBN</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Freeform_(TV_channel)" title="Freeform (TV channel)">Freeform</a>) and <a href="/wiki/The_Weather_Channel_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Weather Channel (United States)">The Weather Channel</a> become successful, because these channels distributed their programming to all of the local cable TV <a href="/wiki/Cable_television_headend" title="Cable television headend">headends</a> using the satellite. Additionally, it was the first satellite used by broadcast television networks in the United States, like <a href="/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company" title="American Broadcasting Company">ABC</a>, <a href="/wiki/NBC" title="NBC">NBC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a>, to distribute programming to their local affiliate stations. Satcom 1 was widely used because it had twice the communications capacity of the competing Westar 1 in America (24 <a href="/wiki/Transponder_(Satellite_communications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transponder (Satellite communications)">transponders</a> as opposed to the 12 of Westar 1), resulting in lower transponder-usage costs. Satellites in later decades tended to have even higher transponder numbers.</li></ul> <p>By 2000, Hughes Space and Communications (now <a href="/wiki/Boeing_Satellite_Development_Center" title="Boeing Satellite Development Center">Boeing Satellite Development Center</a>) had built nearly 40 percent of the more than one hundred satellites in service worldwide. Other major satellite manufacturers include <a href="/wiki/Space_Systems/Loral" class="mw-redirect" title="Space Systems/Loral">Space Systems/Loral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orbital_Sciences_Corporation" title="Orbital Sciences Corporation">Orbital Sciences Corporation</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Star_Bus" title="Star Bus">Star Bus</a> series, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_Space_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockheed Martin Space Systems">Lockheed Martin</a> (owns the former RCA Astro Electronics/GE Astro Space business), <a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman" title="Northrop Grumman">Northrop Grumman</a>, Alcatel Space, now <a href="/wiki/Thales_Alenia_Space" title="Thales Alenia Space">Thales Alenia Space</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Spacebus" title="Spacebus">Spacebus</a> series, and <a href="/wiki/Astrium" title="Astrium">Astrium</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Molniya_orbit">Molniya orbit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Molniya orbit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molniya_orbit" title="Molniya orbit">Molniya orbit</a></div> <p>Geostationary satellites must operate above the equator and therefore appear lower on the horizon as the receiver gets farther from the equator. This will cause problems for extreme northerly latitudes, affecting connectivity and causing <a href="/wiki/Multipath_interference" class="mw-redirect" title="Multipath interference">multipath interference</a> (caused by signals reflecting off the ground and into the ground antenna). </p><p>Thus, for areas close to the North (and South) Pole, a geostationary satellite may appear below the horizon. Therefore, Molniya orbit satellites have been launched, mainly in Russia, to alleviate this problem. </p><p>Molniya orbits can be an appealing alternative in such cases. The Molniya orbit is highly inclined, guaranteeing good elevation over selected positions during the northern portion of the orbit. (Elevation is the extent of the satellite's position above the horizon. Thus, a satellite at the horizon has zero elevation and a satellite directly overhead has elevation of 90 degrees.) </p><p>The Molniya orbit is designed so that the satellite spends the great majority of its time over the far northern latitudes, during which its ground footprint moves only slightly. Its period is one half day, so that the satellite is available for operation over the targeted region for six to nine hours every second revolution. In this way a constellation of three Molniya satellites (plus in-orbit spares) can provide uninterrupted coverage. </p><p>The first satellite of the <a href="/wiki/Molniya_(satellite)" title="Molniya (satellite)">Molniya</a> series was launched on 23 April 1965 and was used for experimental <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(telecommunications)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (telecommunications)">transmission</a> of TV <a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">signals</a> from a Moscow <a href="/wiki/Uplink" class="mw-redirect" title="Uplink">uplink</a> station to <a href="/wiki/Downlink" class="mw-redirect" title="Downlink">downlink</a> stations located in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> and the Russian Far East, in <a href="/wiki/Norilsk" title="Norilsk">Norilsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khabarovsk" title="Khabarovsk">Khabarovsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magadan" title="Magadan">Magadan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a>. In November 1967 Soviet engineers created a unique <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> of national TV <a href="/wiki/Television_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Television network">network</a> of <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">satellite television</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Orbita_(TV_system)" title="Orbita (TV system)">Orbita</a>, that was based on Molniya satellites. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polar_orbit">Polar orbit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Polar orbit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Polar_orbit" title="Polar orbit">Polar orbit</a></div> <p>In the United States, the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) was established in 1994 to consolidate the polar satellite operations of NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). NPOESS manages a number of satellites for various purposes; for example, METSAT for meteorological satellite, EUMETSAT for the European branch of the program, and METOP for meteorological operations. </p><p>These orbits are Sun synchronous, meaning that they cross the equator at the same local time each day. For example, the satellites in the NPOESS (civilian) orbit will cross the equator, going from south to north, at times 1:30 P.M., 5:30 P.M., and 9:30 P.M. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beyond_geostationary_orbit">Beyond geostationary orbit</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Beyond geostationary orbit"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are plans and initiatives to bring dedicated communications satellite beyond geostationary orbits. NASA proposed <a href="/wiki/LunaNet" title="LunaNet">LunaNet</a> as a data network aiming to provide a „Lunar Internet for <a href="/wiki/Cis-lunar_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Cis-lunar space">cis-lunar</a> spacecraft and Installations. The <a href="/wiki/Moonlight_Initiative" title="Moonlight Initiative">Moonlight Initiative</a> is an equivalent ESA project<sup id="cite_ref-Moonlight-Draft-2021_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moonlight-Draft-2021-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moonlight-Webinar-2022_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moonlight-Webinar-2022-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that is stated to be compatible and providing navigational services for the lunar surface. Both programmes are satellite constellstions of several satellites in various orbits around the Moon. </p><p>Other orbits are also planned to be used. Positions in the <a href="/wiki/Lagrange_point" title="Lagrange point">Earth-Moon-Libration points</a> are also proposed for communication satellites covering the Moon alike communication satellites in <a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">geosynchronous orbit</a> cover the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-TychoESAmoonlight_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TychoESAmoonlight-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TychoVideo_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TychoVideo-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, dedicated communication satellites in orbits around <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> supporting different missions on surface and other orbits are considered, such as the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Telecommunications_Orbiter" title="Mars Telecommunications Orbiter">Mars Telecommunications Orbiter</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Communications Satellites are usually composed of the following subsystems: </p> <ul><li>Communication Payload, normally composed of <a href="/wiki/Transponder_(satellite_communications)" title="Transponder (satellite communications)">transponders</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antennas</a>, amplifiers and switching systems</li> <li>Engines used to bring the satellite to its desired orbit</li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Orbital_station-keeping" title="Orbital station-keeping">station keeping tracking and stabilization subsystem</a> used to keep the satellite in the right orbit, with its antennas pointed in the right direction, and its power system pointed towards the Sun</li> <li>Power subsystem, used to power the Satellite systems, normally composed of <a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">solar cells</a>, and batteries that maintain power during <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">solar eclipse</a></li> <li>Command and Control subsystem, which maintains communications with ground control stations. The ground control Earth stations monitor the satellite performance and control its functionality during various phases of its life-cycle.</li></ul> <p>The bandwidth available from a satellite depends upon the number of transponders provided by the satellite. Each service (TV, Voice, Internet, radio) requires a different amount of bandwidth for transmission. This is typically known as link budgeting and a <a href="/wiki/Network_simulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Network simulator">network simulator</a> can be used to arrive at the exact value. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Frequency_allocation_for_satellite_systems">Frequency allocation for satellite systems</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Frequency allocation for satellite systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Allocating frequencies to satellite services is a complicated process which requires international coordination and planning. This is carried out under the auspices of the <a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telecommunication Union</a> (ITU). To facilitate frequency planning, the world is divided into three regions: </p> <ul><li>Region 1: Europe, Africa, the Middle East, what was formerly the Soviet Union, and Mongolia</li> <li>Region 2: North and South America and Greenland</li> <li>Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia, and the southwest Pacific</li></ul> <p>Within these regions, frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services, although a given service may be allocated different frequency bands in different regions. Some of the services provided by satellites are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fixed-satellite_service" title="Fixed-satellite service">Fixed satellite service (FSS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct-broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-broadcast satellite">Broadcasting satellite service (BSS)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile-satellite_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile-satellite service">Mobile-satellite service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Radionavigation-satellite service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Meteorological-satellite service</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telephony">Telephony</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Telephony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Satellite phone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Satellite_phone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Satellite_phone.jpg/220px-Satellite_phone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Satellite_phone.jpg/330px-Satellite_phone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Satellite_phone.jpg/440px-Satellite_phone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1312" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Satellite phone (<a href="/wiki/Inmarsat" title="Inmarsat">Inmarsat</a>) in use in <a href="/wiki/Nias" title="Nias">Nias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, in April 2005 after the <a href="/wiki/2005_Nias%E2%80%93Simeulue_earthquake" title="2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake">Nias–Simeulue earthquake</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The first and historically most important application for communication satellites was in intercontinental <a href="/wiki/Long_distance_telephony" class="mw-redirect" title="Long distance telephony">long distance telephony</a>. The fixed <a href="/wiki/Public_Switched_Telephone_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Switched Telephone Network">Public Switched Telephone Network</a> relays <a href="/wiki/Telephone_call" title="Telephone call">telephone calls</a> from <a href="/wiki/Land_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Land line">land line</a> telephones to an <a href="/wiki/Earth_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth station">Earth station</a>, where they are then transmitted to a geostationary satellite. The downlink follows an analogous path. Improvements in <a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">submarine communications cables</a> through the use of <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-optics">fiber-optics</a> caused some decline in the use of satellites for fixed telephony in the late 20th century. </p><p>Satellite communications are still used in many applications today. Remote islands such as <a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diego_Garcia" title="Diego Garcia">Diego Garcia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>, where no submarine cables are in service, need satellite telephones. There are also regions of some continents and countries where landline telecommunications are rare to non existent, for example large regions of South America, Africa, Canada, China, Russia, and Australia. Satellite communications also provide connection to the edges of <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>. Other land use for satellite phones are rigs at sea, a backup for hospitals, military, and recreation. Ships at sea, as well as planes, often use satellite phones.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Satellite phone systems can be accomplished by a number of means. On a large scale, often there will be a local telephone system in an isolated area with a link to the telephone system in a main land area. There are also services that will patch a radio signal to a telephone system. In this example, almost any type of satellite can be used. Satellite phones connect directly to a constellation of either geostationary or low-Earth-orbit satellites. Calls are then forwarded to a satellite <a href="/wiki/Earth_station#Telecommunications_port" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth station">teleport</a> connected to the Public Switched Telephone Network . </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Television">Television</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Television"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Satellite television</a></div> <p>As television became the main market, its demand for simultaneous delivery of relatively few signals of large <a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> to many receivers being a more precise match for the capabilities of <a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">geosynchronous</a> comsats. Two satellite types are used for North American television and radio: <a href="/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct broadcast satellite">Direct broadcast satellite</a> (DBS), and <a href="/wiki/Fixed_Service_Satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed Service Satellite">Fixed Service Satellite</a> (FSS). </p><p>The definitions of FSS and DBS satellites outside of North America, especially in Europe, are a bit more ambiguous. Most satellites used for direct-to-home television in Europe have the same high power output as DBS-class satellites in North America, but use the same linear polarization as FSS-class satellites. Examples of these are the <a href="/wiki/SES_Astra" title="SES Astra">Astra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eutelsat" title="Eutelsat">Eutelsat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hotbird" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotbird">Hotbird</a> spacecraft in orbit over the European continent. Because of this, the terms FSS and DBS are more so used throughout the North American continent, and are uncommon in Europe. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fixed_Service_Satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed Service Satellite">Fixed Service Satellites</a> use the <a href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C band</a>, and the lower portions of the <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub> band</a>. They are normally used for broadcast feeds to and from television networks and local affiliate stations (such as program feeds for network and syndicated programming, <a href="/wiki/Remote_broadcast" title="Remote broadcast">live shots</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Backhaul_(broadcasting)" title="Backhaul (broadcasting)">backhauls</a>), as well as being used for <a href="/wiki/Distance_learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Distance learning">distance learning</a> by schools and universities, <a href="/wiki/Business_television" class="mw-redirect" title="Business television">business television</a> (BTV), <a href="/wiki/Videoconferencing" class="mw-redirect" title="Videoconferencing">Videoconferencing</a>, and general commercial telecommunications. FSS satellites are also used to distribute national cable channels to cable television headends. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Free-to-air" title="Free-to-air">Free-to-air</a> satellite TV channels are also usually distributed on FSS satellites in the K<sub>u</sub> band. The <a href="/wiki/Intelsat_Americas_5" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelsat Americas 5">Intelsat Americas 5</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_10R" title="Galaxy 10R">Galaxy 10R</a> and <a href="/wiki/AMC_3" class="mw-redirect" title="AMC 3">AMC 3</a> satellites over North America provide a quite large amount of FTA channels on their K<sub>u</sub> band <a href="/wiki/Transponder" title="Transponder">transponders</a>. </p><p>The American <a href="/wiki/Dish_Network" title="Dish Network">Dish Network</a> <a href="/wiki/Direct-broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-broadcast satellite">DBS</a> service has also recently used FSS technology as well for their programming packages requiring their <a href="/wiki/SuperDish" title="SuperDish">SuperDish</a> antenna, due to Dish Network needing more capacity to carry local television stations per the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Communications_Commission" title="Federal Communications Commission">FCC</a>'s "must-carry" regulations, and for more bandwidth to carry <a href="/wiki/HDTV" class="mw-redirect" title="HDTV">HDTV</a> channels. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Direct_broadcast_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct broadcast satellite">direct broadcast satellite</a> is a communications satellite that transmits to small DBS <a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">satellite dishes</a> (usually 18 to 24 inches or 45 to 60 cm in diameter). Direct broadcast satellites generally operate in the upper portion of the microwave <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub> band</a>. DBS technology is used for DTH-oriented (<a href="/wiki/Direct-To-Home" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct-To-Home">Direct-To-Home</a>) satellite TV services, such as <a href="/wiki/DirecTV" title="DirecTV">DirecTV</a>, DISH Network and Orby TV<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the United States, <a href="/wiki/Bell_Satellite_TV" title="Bell Satellite TV">Bell Satellite TV</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shaw_Direct" title="Shaw Direct">Shaw Direct</a> in Canada, <a href="/wiki/Freesat" title="Freesat">Freesat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sky_(UK_and_Ireland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sky (UK and Ireland)">Sky</a> in the UK, Ireland, and New Zealand and <a href="/wiki/DSTV" class="mw-redirect" title="DSTV">DSTV</a> in South Africa. </p><p>Operating at lower frequency and lower power than DBS, FSS satellites require a much larger dish for reception (3 to 8 feet (1 to 2.5 m) in diameter for K<sub>u</sub> band, and 12 feet (3.6 m) or larger for C band). They use <a href="/wiki/Linear_polarization" title="Linear polarization">linear polarization</a> for each of the transponders' RF input and output (as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Circular_polarization" title="Circular polarization">circular polarization</a> used by DBS satellites), but this is a minor technical difference that users do not notice. FSS satellite technology was also originally used for DTH satellite TV from the late 1970s to the early 1990s in the United States in the form of <a href="/wiki/TVRO" class="mw-redirect" title="TVRO">TVRO</a> (Television Receive Only) receivers and dishes. It was also used in its K<sub>u</sub> band form for the now-defunct <a href="/wiki/Primestar" class="mw-redirect" title="Primestar">Primestar</a> satellite TV service. </p><p>Some satellites have been launched that have transponders in the <a href="/wiki/Ka_band" title="Ka band">K<sub>a</sub> band</a>, such as DirecTV's <a href="/wiki/SPACEWAY-1" class="mw-redirect" title="SPACEWAY-1">SPACEWAY-1</a> satellite, and <a href="/wiki/Anik_(satellite)" title="Anik (satellite)">Anik F2</a>. NASA and <a href="/wiki/ISRO" title="ISRO">ISRO</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have also launched experimental satellites carrying K<sub>a</sub> band beacons recently.<sup id="cite_ref-spaceref-20050426_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spaceref-20050426-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some manufacturers have also introduced special antennas for mobile reception of DBS television. Using <a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System (GPS)</a> technology as a reference, these antennas automatically re-aim to the satellite no matter where or how the vehicle (on which the antenna is mounted) is situated. These mobile satellite antennas are popular with some <a href="/wiki/Recreational_vehicle" title="Recreational vehicle">recreational vehicle</a> owners. Such mobile DBS antennas are also used by <a href="/wiki/JetBlue_Airways" class="mw-redirect" title="JetBlue Airways">JetBlue Airways</a> for DirecTV (supplied by <a href="/wiki/LiveTV" title="LiveTV">LiveTV</a>, a subsidiary of JetBlue), which passengers can view on-board on LCD screens mounted in the seats. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radio_broadcasting">Radio broadcasting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Radio broadcasting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Satellite radio</a></div> <p>Satellite radio offers audio <a href="/wiki/Broadcast" class="mw-redirect" title="Broadcast">broadcast</a> services in some countries, notably the United States. Mobile services allow listeners to roam a continent, listening to the same audio programming anywhere. </p><p>A satellite radio or subscription radio (SR) is a digital radio signal that is broadcast by a communications satellite, which covers a much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio signals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amateur_radio">Amateur radio</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Amateur radio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite" title="Amateur radio satellite">Amateur radio satellite</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">Amateur radio</a> operators have access to amateur satellites, which have been designed specifically to carry amateur radio traffic. Most such satellites operate as spaceborne repeaters, and are generally accessed by amateurs equipped with <a href="/wiki/Ultra_high_frequency" title="Ultra high frequency">UHF</a> or <a href="/wiki/VHF" class="mw-redirect" title="VHF">VHF</a> radio equipment and highly directional <a href="/wiki/Antenna_(radio)" title="Antenna (radio)">antennas</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Yagi_antenna" class="mw-redirect" title="Yagi antenna">Yagis</a> or dish antennas. Due to launch costs, most current amateur satellites are launched into fairly low Earth orbits, and are designed to deal with only a limited number of brief contacts at any given time. Some satellites also provide data-forwarding services using the <a href="/wiki/X.25" title="X.25">X.25</a> or similar protocols. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_access">Internet access</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Internet access"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Satellite Internet access</a></div> <p>After the 1990s, satellite communication technology has been used as a means to connect to the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> via broadband data connections. This can be very useful for users who are located in remote areas, and cannot access a <a href="/wiki/Broadband" title="Broadband">broadband</a> connection, or require high availability of services. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_communications_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Military communications satellite">Military communications satellite</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/X_Band_Satellite_Communication" title="X Band Satellite Communication">X Band Satellite Communication</a></div> <p>Communications satellites are used for <a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">military communications</a> applications, such as <a href="/wiki/Global_Command_and_Control_System" title="Global Command and Control System">Global Command and Control Systems</a>. Examples of military systems that use communication satellites are the <a href="/wiki/MILSTAR" class="mw-redirect" title="MILSTAR">MILSTAR</a>, the <a href="/wiki/DSCS" class="mw-redirect" title="DSCS">DSCS</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/FLTSATCOM" class="mw-redirect" title="FLTSATCOM">FLTSATCOM</a> of the United States, <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> satellites, United Kingdom satellites (for instance <a href="/wiki/Skynet_(satellite)" title="Skynet (satellite)">Skynet</a>), and satellites of the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. India has launched its first Military Communication satellite <a href="/wiki/GSAT-7" title="GSAT-7">GSAT-7</a>, its transponders operate in <a href="/wiki/UHF" class="mw-redirect" title="UHF">UHF</a>, <a href="/wiki/F_band_(NATO)" title="F band (NATO)">F</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_band_(IEEE)" title="C band (IEEE)">C</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ku_band" title="Ku band">K<sub>u</sub> band</a> bands.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically military satellites operate in the UHF, <a href="/wiki/Super_High_Frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Super High Frequency">SHF</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/X-band" class="mw-redirect" title="X-band">X-band</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Extremely_high_frequency" title="Extremely high frequency">EHF</a> (also known as <a href="/wiki/Ka_band" title="Ka band">K<sub>a</sub> band</a>) frequency bands. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Data_collection">Data collection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Data collection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Near-ground <a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a> <a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">environmental monitoring</a> equipment (such as <a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">tide gauges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weather_station" title="Weather station">weather stations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weather_buoy" title="Weather buoy">weather buoys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiosondes" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiosondes">radiosondes</a>), may use satellites for one-way <a href="/wiki/Data_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Data transmission">data transmission</a> or two-way <a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">telemetry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telecontrol" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecontrol">telecontrol</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kramer_2002_pp._311–328_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramer_2002_pp._311–328-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be based on a secondary payload of a <a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">weather satellite</a> (as in the case of <a href="/wiki/GOES" class="mw-redirect" title="GOES">GOES</a> and <a href="/wiki/METEOSAT" class="mw-redirect" title="METEOSAT">METEOSAT</a> and others in the <a href="/wiki/Argos_(satellite_system)" title="Argos (satellite system)">Argos system</a>) or in dedicated satellites (such as <a href="/wiki/SCD_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="SCD (satellite)">SCD</a>). The data rate is typically much lower than in <a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite Internet">satellite Internet</a> access. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercialization_of_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercialization of space">Commercialization of space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_platform_station" title="High-altitude platform station">High-altitude platform station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History of telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-satellite_communications_satellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-satellite communications satellite">Inter-satellite communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communication_satellite_companies" title="List of communication satellite companies">List of communication satellite companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communications_satellite_firsts" title="List of communications satellite firsts">List of communications satellite firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NewSpace" class="mw-redirect" title="NewSpace">NewSpace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relay_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Relay (disambiguation)">Relay (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satcom_On_The_Move" class="mw-redirect" title="Satcom On The Move">Satcom On The Move</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_data_unit" title="Satellite data unit">Satellite data unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_delay" title="Satellite delay">Satellite delay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_modem" title="Satellite modem">Satellite modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_space_segment" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite space segment">Satellite space segment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling-wave_tube" title="Traveling-wave tube">Traveling-wave tube</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4π<sup>2</sup><i>R</i><sup>3</sup> = <i>T</i><sup>2</sup><i>GM</i> and <i>V</i><sup>2</sup><i>R</i> = <i>GM</i>, where <i>R</i> is the radius of orbit in metres; <i>T</i> is the orbital period in seconds; <i>V</i> is the orbital speed in m/s; <i>G</i> is the gravitational constant, approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6989667300000000000♠"></span>6.673<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−11</sup> Nm<sup>2</sup>/kg<sup>2</sup></span>; <i>M</i> is the mass of Earth, approximately 5.98<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>24</sup> kg (1.318<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>25</sup> lb).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Approximately 8.6 times when the Moon is nearest <span class="nowrap">(that is, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">363,104 km</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">42,164 km</span></span>⁠</span>)</span>, to 9.6 times when the Moon is farthest <span class="nowrap">(that is, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035"><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">405,696 km</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">42,164 km</span></span>⁠</span>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLabrador2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Labrador, Virgil (2015-02-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/524891/satellite-communication">"satellite communication"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DIRECTV%27s+Spaceway+F1+Satellite+Launches+New+Era+in+High-Definition+Programming%3B+Next+Generation+Satellite+Will+Initiate+Historic+Expansion+of+DIRECTV&rft.pub=SpaceRef&rft.date=2005-04-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspaceref.com%2Fpress-release%2Fdirectvs-spaceway-f1-satellite-launches-new-era-in-high-definition-programming-next-generation-satellite-will-initiate-historic-expansion-of-directv%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunications+satellite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/india-s-first-military-satellite-poor-country-satellite-put-into-earth-s-orbit-414080">"India's first 'military' satellite GSAT-7 put into earth's orbit"</a>. <i>NDTV.com</i>. 2013-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-09-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NDTV.com&rft.atitle=India%27s+first+%27military%27+satellite+GSAT-7+put+into+earth%27s+orbit&rft.date=2013-09-04&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ndtv.com%2Farticle%2Findia%2Findia-s-first-military-satellite-poor-country-satellite-put-into-earth-s-orbit-414080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunications+satellite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramer_2002_pp._311–328-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kramer_2002_pp._311–328_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer2002" class="citation book cs1">Kramer, Herbert J. (2002). "Data Collection (Messaging) Systems". <i>Observation of the Earth and Its Environment</i>. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 311–328. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-56294-5_4">10.1007/978-3-642-56294-5_4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-62688-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-62688-3"><bdi>978-3-642-62688-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Data+Collection+%28Messaging%29+Systems&rft.btitle=Observation+of+the+Earth+and+Its+Environment&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.pages=311-328&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-56294-5_4&rft.isbn=978-3-642-62688-3&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Herbert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunications+satellite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://library.wmo.int/fb.php?title=Satellite%20Data%20Telecommunication%20Handbook&url=index.php%3Flvl%3Dnotice_display%26id%3D20662">"Satellite Data Telecommunication Handbook"</a>. <i>library.wmo.int</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=library.wmo.int&rft.atitle=Satellite+Data+Telecommunication+Handbook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibrary.wmo.int%2Ffb.php%3Ftitle%3DSatellite%2520Data%2520Telecommunication%2520Handbook%26url%3Dindex.php%253Flvl%253Dnotice_display%2526id%253D20662&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunications+satellite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIntergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commission" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Oceanographic_Commission" title="Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission">Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission</a>. "Equipment needed for Telemetry of Data". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246981"><i>Manual on sea level measurement and interpretation, volume V: Radar gauges</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Equipment+needed+for+Telemetry+of+Data&rft.btitle=Manual+on+sea+level+measurement+and+interpretation%2C+volume+V%3A+Radar+gauges&rft.au=Intergovernmental+Oceanographic+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000246981&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommunications+satellite" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Slotten, Hugh R. <i>Beyond Sputnik and the Space Race: The Origins of Global Satellite Communications</i> (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2022); <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=57929">online review</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Communications_satellite&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sia.org/">Satellite Industry Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html">Communications satellites short history</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150512124220/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/satcomhistory.html">Archived</a> 2015-05-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by David J. Whalen</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4217/sp4217.htm"><i>Beyond The Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication</i> (NASA SP-4217, 1997)</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Satcomm" title="Template:Satcomm"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Satcomm" title="Template talk:Satcomm"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Satcomm" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Satcomm"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Satellite_communications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Satellite communications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Satellite television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Satellite radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Satellite Internet access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite" title="Amateur radio satellite">Amateur satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-throughput_satellite" title="High-throughput satellite">High-throughput satellite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Relay satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transponder_(satellite_communications)" title="Transponder (satellite communications)">Transponder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carriage_dispute" title="Carriage dispute">Carriage dispute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hardware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sat-IP" title="Sat-IP">SAT>IP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoblock_LNB" title="Monoblock LNB">Monoblock LNB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DiSEqC" title="DiSEqC">DiSEqC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Satellites_Automatic_Location_System" title="Universal Satellites Automatic Location System">USALS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_Tracking_Satellite_Dish" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic Tracking Satellite Dish">Automatic Tracking Satellite Dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish#Motor-driven_dish" title="Satellite dish">Motor-driven Satellite dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish#Multi-satellite" title="Satellite dish">Multi-satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_dish" title="Satellite dish">Satellite dish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Parabolic_antenna" title="Parabolic antenna">Parabolic antennas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Satellite phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_modem" title="Satellite modem">Satellite modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_data_unit" title="Satellite data unit">Satellite data unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacebus" title="Spacebus">Spacebus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-small-aperture_terminal" title="Very-small-aperture terminal">Very-small-aperture terminal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Satellite radio</a> / <a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">TV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DVB-SH" title="DVB-SH">DVB-SH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-DMB" title="S-DMB">S-DMB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVB-RCS" title="DVB-RCS">DVB-RCS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVB-S2" title="DVB-S2">DVB-S2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVB-S2X" title="DVB-S2X">DVB-S2X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISDB#ISDB-S3" title="ISDB">ISDB-S3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_radio_service" title="Digital audio radio service">Digital audio radio service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Broadcast companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astra_Digital_Radio" title="Astra Digital Radio">Astra Digital Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DirecTV" title="DirecTV">DirecTV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dish_Network" title="Dish Network">Dish Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirius_XM" title="Sirius XM">Sirius XM Holdings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sky_UK" title="Sky UK">Sky UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allente" title="Allente">Allente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1worldspace" title="1worldspace">1worldspace</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relay satellite companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AST_SpaceMobile" title="AST SpaceMobile">AST SpaceMobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EchoStar" title="EchoStar">EchoStar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutelsat" title="Eutelsat">Eutelsat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalstar" title="Globalstar">Globalstar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispasat" title="Hispasat">Hispasat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hughes_Network_Systems" title="Hughes Network Systems">Hughes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inmarsat" title="Inmarsat">Inmarsat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelsat" title="Intelsat">Intelsat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersputnik" title="Intersputnik">Intersputnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridium_Communications" title="Iridium Communications">Iridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SED_Systems" title="SED Systems">SED Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SES_(company)" title="SES (company)">SES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qianfan" title="Qianfan">Shanghai Spacecom Satellite Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_One_(satellite_operator)" title="Star One (satellite operator)">Star One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlink" title="Starlink">Starlink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telesat" title="Telesat">Telesat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tooway" title="Tooway">Tooway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrksat_(satellite)" title="Türksat (satellite)">Turksat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viasat_(American_company)" title="Viasat (American company)">Viasat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellite manufacturers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbus_Defence_and_Space" title="Airbus Defence and Space">Airbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boeing_Defense,_Space_%26_Security" title="Boeing Defense, Space & Security">Boeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/INVAP" title="INVAP">INVAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Martin_Space" title="Lockheed Martin Space">Lockheed Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northrop_Grumman" title="Northrop Grumman">Northrop Grumman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaceX" title="SpaceX">SpaceX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SSL_(company)" title="SSL (company)">SSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_Alenia_Space" title="Thales Alenia Space">Thales Alenia Space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consultative_Committee_for_Space_Data_Systems" title="Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems">Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ETSI_Satellite_Digital_Radio" title="ETSI Satellite Digital Radio">ETSI Satellite Digital Radio</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communications_satellite_firsts" title="List of communications satellite firsts">List of communications satellite firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_communication_satellite_companies" title="List of communication satellite companies">List of communication satellite companies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telephony" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telephony" title="Template:Telephony"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telephony" title="Template talk:Telephony"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telephony" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telephony"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telephony" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">Telephony</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landline" title="Landline">Landline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_telephony" title="Cable telephony">Cable telephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Satellite phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accessories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Answering_machine" title="Answering machine">Answering machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caller_ID" title="Caller ID">Caller ID</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connectivity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Communications satellites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fibre-optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone_signal" title="Mobile phone signal">Mobile phone signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plain_old_telephone_service" title="Plain old telephone service">POTS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">PSTN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable" title="Submarine communications cable">Submarine cables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_over_IP" title="Voice over IP">VoIP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Calls</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missed_call" title="Missed call">Missed call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misdialed_call" title="Misdialed call">Misdialed call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuisance_call" title="Nuisance call">Nuisance call</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phone_tag" title="Phone tag">Phone tag</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fax" title="Fax">Fax transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_call" title="Telephone call">Telephone calls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_newspaper" title="Telephone newspaper">Telephone newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A9%C3%A2trophone" title="Théâtrophone">Théâtrophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Videotelephony" title="Videotelephony">Video calls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/28px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/42px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/56px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="telephone icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg/28px-Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg/42px-Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg/56px-Telephone_icon_blue_gradient.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="722" data-file-height="722" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telephones" title="Portal:Telephones">Telephones portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Telecommunications" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Telecommunications" title="Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Telecommunications" title="Template talk:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Telecommunications"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Telecommunications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#History">Communications satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">DCT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edholm%27s_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax#History" title="Fax">Fax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Satellite communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vint_Cerf" title="Vint Cerf">Vint Cerf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Kahn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bob Kahn">Bob Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell de Moura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br />media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br />and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)" title="Bandwidth (computing)">Bandwidth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_area_network" title="Local area network">LAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-generation_network" title="Next-generation network">NGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UUCP" title="UUCP">UUCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_area_network" title="Wide area network">WAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Africa" title="Category:Telecommunications in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li>Americas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_North_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in North America">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_South_America" title="Category:Telecommunications in South America">South</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Communications_in_Antarctica" title="Category:Communications in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Asia" title="Category:Telecommunications in Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Europe" title="Category:Telecommunications in Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications_in_Oceania" title="Category:Telecommunications in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/24px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/32px-Telecom-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Telecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" title="Category:Telecommunications">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaceflight" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight" title="Template:Spaceflight"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight" title="Template talk:Spaceflight"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spaceflight" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spaceflight"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spaceflight" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Astrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Space_programme_of_Australia" title="Category:Space programme of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency_Science_Programme" title="European Space Agency Science Programme">European Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Space_Programme" title="European Union Space Programme">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_space_program" title="Japanese space program">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Agreement" title="Rescue Agreement">Rescue Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Liability_Convention" title="Space Liability Convention">Space Liability Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registration_Convention" title="Registration Convention">Registration Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_command" title="Space command">Space command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarisation_of_space" title="Militarisation of space">Militarisation of space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billionaire_space_race" title="Billionaire space race">Billionaire space race</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Imagery and mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Weather and environment monitoring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Communications satellite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use of space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Space architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">commercial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">Extravehicular activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overview_effect" title="Overview effect">Overview effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Space toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_diving" title="Space diving">Space diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">Shenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program">Tiangong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_medicine" title="Space medicine">Space medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_sexology" title="Space sexology">Space sexology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">Launch vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_module" title="Orbital module">Orbital module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reentry_capsule" title="Reentry capsule">Reentry capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_module" title="Service module">Service module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rover_(space_exploration)" title="Rover (space exploration)">Rover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion" title="Spacecraft electric propulsion">Electric propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Destinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_ascent" title="Direct ascent">Direct ascent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_vehicle" title="Reusable launch vehicle">reusable launch systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">Ground segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_controller" title="Flight controller">Flight controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_pass" 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