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id="toc-English_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Colonization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Colonization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Colonization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_linguistic_imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_linguistic_imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>History of linguistic imperialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_linguistic_imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_languages_and_class" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_languages_and_class"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Colonial languages and class</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_languages_and_class-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_discrimination_in_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_discrimination_in_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Linguistic discrimination in education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_discrimination_in_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Governance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguistic_prejudice_and_minority_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_prejudice_and_minority_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Linguistic prejudice and minority groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_prejudice_and_minority_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>In Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Francophones_in_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Francophones_in_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Francophones in Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Francophones_in_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anglophones_in_Quebec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anglophones_in_Quebec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Anglophones in Quebec</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anglophones_in_Quebec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>In Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Linguistic_disenfranchisement_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_disenfranchisement_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.1</span> <span>Linguistic disenfranchisement rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_disenfranchisement_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistic_discrimination_towards_languages_in_the_Celtic_nations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistic_discrimination_towards_languages_in_the_Celtic_nations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.2</span> <span>Linguistic discrimination towards languages in the Celtic nations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistic_discrimination_towards_languages_in_the_Celtic_nations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3.3</span> <span>Other examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>In the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perpetuation_of_discriminatory_practices_through_terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perpetuation_of_discriminatory_practices_through_terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.1</span> <span>Perpetuation of discriminatory practices through terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perpetuation_of_discriminatory_practices_through_terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Black_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Black_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.2</span> <span>Black Americans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Black_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hispanic_Americans_and_linguicism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hispanic_Americans_and_linguicism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.3</span> <span>Hispanic Americans and linguicism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hispanic_Americans_and_linguicism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.4</span> <span>Asians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Sign_Language_users" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Sign_Language_users"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4.5</span> <span>American Sign Language users</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Sign_Language_users-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>In Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>In the Middle East</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>In Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Texts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prejudice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prejudice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9</span> <span>Prejudice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prejudice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Linguistic discrimination</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taaldiskriminasie" title="Taaldiskriminasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Taaldiskriminasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%8A%D8%B2_%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%8A" title="تمييز لغوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تمييز لغوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminaci%C3%B3_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Discriminació lingüística – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Discriminació lingüística" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminazione_linguistica" title="Discriminazione linguistica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Discriminazione linguistica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguizismus" title="Linguizismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Linguizismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminaci%C3%B3n_ling%C3%BC%C3%ADstica" title="Discriminación lingüística – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Discriminación lingüística" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingva_diskriminacio" title="Lingva diskriminacio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Lingva diskriminacio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hizkuntzakeria" title="Hizkuntzakeria – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hizkuntzakeria" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%B6_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="تبعیض زبانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تبعیض زبانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_linguistique" title="Discrimination linguistique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Discrimination linguistique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%A5%D5%A6%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լեզվական խտրականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լեզվական խտրականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5" title="भाषाई भेदभाव – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भाषाई भेदभाव" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskriminasi_bahasa" title="Diskriminasi bahasa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Diskriminasi bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminazione_linguistica" title="Discriminazione linguistica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Discriminazione linguistica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskriminasiong_lingguistiku" title="Diskriminasiong lingguistiku – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Diskriminasiong lingguistiku" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glotofobia" title="Glotofobia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Glotofobia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingvicizmus" title="Lingvicizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Lingvicizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diskriminasi_bahasa" title="Diskriminasi bahasa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Diskriminasi bahasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taaldiscriminatie" title="Taaldiscriminatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taaldiscriminatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E5%B7%AE%E5%88%A5" title="言語差別 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="言語差別" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingwicyzm" title="Lingwicyzm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Lingwicyzm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preconceito_lingu%C3%ADstico" title="Preconceito linguístico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Preconceito linguístico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Языковая дискриминация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Языковая дискриминация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Discrimination on the basis of language of an individual</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Linguicist" redirects here. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li>Language</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Linguistic discrimination</b> (also called <b>glottophobia</b>, <b>linguicism</b> and <b>languagism</b>) is unfair treatment of people based upon <a href="/wiki/Usage_(language)" title="Usage (language)">their use of language</a> and the characteristics of their speech, such as their <a href="/wiki/First_language" title="First language">first language</a>, their <a href="/wiki/Accent_(sociolinguistics)" title="Accent (sociolinguistics)">accent</a>, the perceived size of their <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> (whether or not the speaker uses complex and varied words), their <a href="/wiki/Modality_(semiotics)" title="Modality (semiotics)">modality</a>, and their <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, an <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan speaker</a> in France will probably be treated differently from a <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French speaker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aclunc.org_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aclunc.org-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on a difference in use of language, a person may automatically form judgments about another person's <a href="/wiki/Wealth" title="Wealth">wealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">social status</a>, character or other traits, which may lead to discrimination. This has led to <a href="/wiki/Public_debate" title="Public debate">public debate</a> surrounding <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation#Willingness_to_assimilate_and_cultural_shock" title="Cultural assimilation">localisation theories</a>, likewise with overall <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism#Prevalence" title="Multiculturalism">diversity prevalence</a> in numerous nations across <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">the West</a>. </p><p>Linguistic discrimination was at first considered an act of racism. In the mid-1980s, <a href="/wiki/Linguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguist">linguist</a> <a href="/wiki/Tove_Skutnabb-Kangas" title="Tove Skutnabb-Kangas">Tove Skutnabb-Kangas</a> captured the idea of language-based discrimination as linguicism, which was defined as "ideologies and structures which are used to legitimize, effectuate, and reproduce unequal divisions of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although different names have been given to this form of discrimination, they all hold the same definition. Linguistic discrimination is culturally and socially determined due to preference for one use of language over others. </p><p>Scholars have analyzed the role of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">linguistic imperialism</a> in linguicism, with some asserting that speakers of dominant languages gravitate towards discrimination against speakers of other, less dominant languages, while disadvantaging themselves linguistically by remaining monolingual.<sup id="cite_ref-TBD1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TBD1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to scholar Carolyn McKinley, this phenomenon is most present in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, where the majority of the population speaks <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European languages</a> introduced during the <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">colonial era</a>; African states are also noted as instituting European languages as the main medium of instruction, instead of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-TBD1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TBD1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> reports have noted that this has historically benefitted only the African <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a>, conversely disadvantaging the majority of Africa's population who hold varying level of fluency in the European languages spoken across the continent.<sup id="cite_ref-TBD1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TBD1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars have also noted impact of the linguistic dominance of English on <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a>; scholar Anna Wierzbicka has described disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> being "locked in a conceptual framework grounded in English" which prevents academia as a whole from reaching a "more universal, culture-independent perspective".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Linguistic_prejudice">Linguistic prejudice</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Linguistic prejudice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Speakers with certain accents may experience prejudice. For example, some accents hold more <a href="/wiki/Prestige_(sociolinguistics)" title="Prestige (sociolinguistics)">prestige</a> than others depending on the cultural context. However, with so many dialects, it can be difficult to determine which is the most preferable. The best answer linguists can give, such as the authors of <i>Do You Speak American?</i>, is that it depends on the location and the speaker. Research has determined however that some sounds in languages may be determined to sound less pleasant naturally.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, certain accents tend to carry more prestige in some societies over other accents. For example, in the United States speaking <a href="/wiki/General_American" class="mw-redirect" title="General American">General American</a> (a variety associated with the <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">white</a> middle class) is widely preferred in many contexts such as television journalism. Also, in the United Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> is associated with being of higher class and thus more likable.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to prestige, research has shown that certain accents may also be associated with less intelligence, and having poorer social skills.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example can be seen in the difference between Southerners and Northerners in the United States, where people from the North are typically perceived as being less likable in character, and Southerners are perceived as being less intelligent. As sociolinguist, Lippi-Green, argues, "It has been widely observed that when histories are written, they focus on the dominant class... Generally studies of the development of language over time are very narrowly focused on the smallest portion of speakers: those with power and resources to control the distribution of information."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linguistic discrimination appeared before the term was established. During the 1980s, scholars explored the connection between racism and languages. Linguistic discrimination was a part of <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> when it was first studied. The first case found that helped establish the term was in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, where white <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonizers</a> judge the native population, <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_language" title="Māori language">Māori</a>, by judging their language. Linguistic discrimination may originate from fixed institutions and <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypes</a> of the elite class. Elites reveal strong racism through writing, speaking, and other communication methods, providing a basis for discrimination. Their way of speaking the language is considered the higher class, emphasizing the idea that how one speaks a language is related to social, economic, and political status.<sup id="cite_ref-May_651–661_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-May_651–661-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As sociolinguistics evolved, scholars began to recognize the need for a more nuanced framework to analyze the complex interactions between language and social identity. This led to the introduction of linguistic ideology, a critical concept that specifically addresses the nuances of linguistic discrimination without conflating it with broader issues of racism. Linguistic ideology can be defined as the beliefs, attitudes, and assumptions that society holds about language, including the idea that the way an individual speaks can serve as a powerful indicator of their social status and identity within a community. This perspective enables researchers to unpack how certain linguistic features—such as accents, dialects, and speech patterns—are often laden with social meanings that can perpetuate stereotypes about different groups. The implication is that these ideologies shape our perceptions and evaluations of speakers, leading to discriminatory practices based on linguistic characteristics. Consequently, linguistic discrimination can be understood as a phenomenon deeply rooted in societal beliefs and cognitive biases, which highlight the intersectionality of language, identity, and power dynamics within various populations. By focusing on linguistic ideology, sociolinguistics provides a more targeted lens through which to examine the social consequences of language use and the systemic inequalities that arise from such perceptions. This innovative approach not only enriches our understanding of language as a social tool but also emphasizes the importance of critically examining the underlying ideologies that inform our judgments about speech and the speakers themselves. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language_and_social_group_saliency">Language and social group saliency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Language and social group saliency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patriotic_propaganda_(16627007085).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Patriotic_propaganda_%2816627007085%29.jpg/150px-Patriotic_propaganda_%2816627007085%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Patriotic_propaganda_%2816627007085%29.jpg/225px-Patriotic_propaganda_%2816627007085%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Patriotic_propaganda_%2816627007085%29.jpg/300px-Patriotic_propaganda_%2816627007085%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>Linguistic discrimination is sometimes linked with belonging to a social group, as in <a href="/wiki/Patriotism" title="Patriotism">patriotism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. This poster is propaganda from <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>It is natural for human beings to want to identify with others. One way we do this is by categorizing individuals into specific <a href="/wiki/Social_identity_theory" title="Social identity theory">social groups</a>. While some groups are often assumed to be readily noticeable (such as those defined by ethnicity or gender), other groups are less <a href="/wiki/Salience_(language)" title="Salience (language)">salient</a>. Linguist Carmen Fought explains how an individual's use of language may allow another person to categorize them into a specific social group that may otherwise be less apparent.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the United States it is common to perceive Southerners as less intelligent. Belonging to a social group such as the South may be less salient than membership to other groups that are defined by ethnicity or gender. Language provides a bridge for prejudice to occur for these less salient social groups.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linguistic discrimination is a form of <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a>. Impact of linguistic discrimination ranges from physical violence to <a href="/wiki/Mental_trauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental trauma">mental trauma</a>, and then to extinction of a language. Victims of linguistic discrimination may experience physical bullying in school and a decrease in earnings in jobs. In countries where a variety of languages exist, it is hard for people to obtain basic social service such as <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and health care<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since they do not understand the language. Mentally, they may be ashamed or feel guilty to speak their home language.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People who speak another language that is not the mainstream language does not feel social acceptance. Researches show that countries with assimilation policies result in higher stress.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are forced to accept this mainstream language and foreign culture.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to statistics, every two weeks an endangered language will be extinct. This is because, on the country level, linguistically <a href="/wiki/Marginalized" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalized">marginalized</a> populations must learn the common language to obtain resources. Their opportunities are very limited when they cannot communicate in a way everyone else understands.<b><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English_language">English language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: English language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, being a language that most countries speak in the world, experiences a lot of linguistic discrimination when people from different linguistic backgrounds meet. Regional differences and native languages may have an impact on how people speak the language. For example, many non-native speakers in other countries fail to pronounce the “th” sound. Instead, they use the "s" sound, which is more common in other languages, to replace it. “Thank” becomes “sank,” and “mother” becomes “mozer.” In <a href="/wiki/Runglish" title="Runglish">Russian-English</a> pronunciation, “Hi, where were you” may be pronounced like “Hi, veir ver you” since it is closer to Russian. It may be considered an inappropriate ways to speak the language and be ridiculed by native speakers. Research has shown that this linguistic discrimination may lead to bullying and violence in the worst case. However, linguistic discrimination may not always be bad bias or cause superiority. A mixed pronunciation of different languages may also lead to mixed reactions. Some people who are native to the language may find these mixes to be special and good, while some others are unfriendly with these speakers. Nonetheless, all these are stereotypes of certain languages and may lead to cognition bias. Former president Donald Trump's wife, <a href="/wiki/Melania_Trump" title="Melania Trump">Melania Trump</a>, was harshly mocked and insulted on the internet due to her Slovenian accent of speaking English.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, in many countries where English is the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a>, accent is a part of identity.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonization">Colonization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Colonization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_linguistic_imperialism">History of linguistic imperialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History of linguistic imperialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism#History" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic imperialism § History</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_imperialism&action=edit#History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>The impacts of colonization on linguistic traditions vary based on the form of colonization experienced: trader, settler or exploitation.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Congolese-American linguist <a href="/wiki/Salikoko_Mufwene" title="Salikoko Mufwene">Salikoko Mufwene</a> describes trader colonization as one of the earliest forms of European colonization. In regions such as the western coast of Africa as well as the Americas, trade relations between European colonizers and indigenous peoples led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of these languages, such as Delaware Pidgin and <a href="/wiki/Mobilian_Jargon" title="Mobilian Jargon">Mobilian Jargon</a>, were based on Native American languages, while others, such as <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Pidgin" title="Nigerian Pidgin">Nigerian Pidgin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cameroonian_Pidgin_English" title="Cameroonian Pidgin English">Cameroonian Pidgin</a>, were based on European ones.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:7_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As trader colonization proceeded mainly via these hybrid languages, rather than the languages of the colonizers, scholars like Mufwene contend that it posed little threat to indigenous languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:7_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:7-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carlisle_pupils.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Carlisle_pupils.jpg/220px-Carlisle_pupils.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Carlisle_pupils.jpg/330px-Carlisle_pupils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Carlisle_pupils.jpg/440px-Carlisle_pupils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>A photo of students at the Carlisle Indian Industrial School</figcaption></figure> <p>Trader colonization was often followed by settler colonization, where European colonizers settled in these colonies to build new homes.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hamel, a Mexican linguist, argues that "segregation" and "integration" were two primary ways through which settler colonists engaged with aboriginal cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:6_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:6-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In countries such as Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and those in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, segregation and genocide decimated indigenous societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:6_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:6-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Widespread death due to war and illness caused many indigenous populations to lose their <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, in countries that pursued policies of "integration", such as Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and the Andean states, indigenous cultures were lost as aboriginal tribes mixed with colonists.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:6_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:6-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these countries, the establishment of new European orders led to the adoption of colonial languages in governance and industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, European colonists also viewed the dissolution of indigenous societies and traditions as necessary for the development of a unified <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:6_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:6-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to efforts to destroy tribal languages and cultures: in Canada and the United States, for example, Native children were sent to boarding schools such as Col. Richard Pratt's <a href="/wiki/Carlisle_Indian_Industrial_School" title="Carlisle Indian Industrial School">Carlisle Indian Industrial School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, in countries such as the United States, Canada and Australia, which were once settler colonies, indigenous languages are spoken by only a small minority of the populace. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg/220px-Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg/330px-Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg/440px-Thomas_Babington_Macaulay_portret.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2217" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Lord Macaulay</figcaption></figure> Mufwene also draws a distinction between settler colonies and exploitation colonies. In the latter, the process of colonization was focused on the extraction of raw materials needed in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, Europeans were less invested in their exploitation colonies, and few colonists planned to build homes in these colonies. As a result, indigenous languages were able to survive to a greater extent in these colonies compared to settler colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In exploitation colonies, colonial languages were often only taught to a small local elite. During the period of <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British rule in India</a>, for example, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Babington_Macaulay" title="Thomas Babington Macaulay">Lord Macaulay</a> highlighted the need for "...<span class="nowrap"> </span>a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions who govern... a class of persons, Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in my opinion, in morals and in intellect" in his now-famous "Macaulay minutes", which were written in support of the <a href="/wiki/English_Education_Act_1835" title="English Education Act 1835">English Education Act of 1835</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_Parameswaran_21–41_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_Parameswaran_21–41-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The linguistic differences between the local elite and other locals exacerbated class stratification, and also increased inequality in access to education, industry and civic society in postcolonial states.<sup id="cite_ref-Linguistic_imperialism_:03_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linguistic_imperialism_:03-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several postcolonial literary theorists have drawn a link between linguistic discrimination and the oppression of indigenous cultures. Prominent <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenyan</a> author <a href="/wiki/Ng%C5%A9g%C4%A9_wa_Thiong%27o" title="Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o">Ngugi wa Thiong'o</a>, for example, argues in his book <a href="/wiki/Decolonising_the_Mind" title="Decolonising the Mind"><i>Decolonizing the Mind</i></a> that language is both a medium of communication, as well as a carrier of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamoche-1987_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamoche-1987-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, linguistic discrimination resulting from colonization has facilitated the erasure of pre-colonial histories and identities.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamoche-1987_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamoche-1987-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">African slaves</a> were taught English and forbidden to use their indigenous languages. This severed the slaves' linguistic and thus cultural connection to Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Kamoche-1987_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kamoche-1987-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_languages_and_class">Colonial languages and class</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Colonial languages and class"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to settler colonies, in exploitation colonies, education in colonial tongues was only accessible to a small indigenous elite.<sup id="cite_ref-Mufwene-2008_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mufwene-2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the British Macaulay Doctrine, as well as French and Portuguese systems of <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(French_colonialism)" title="Assimilation (French colonialism)">assimilation</a>, for example, sought to create an "elite class of colonial auxiliaries" who could serve as intermediaries between the colonial government and local populace.<sup id="cite_ref-Mufwene-2008_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mufwene-2008-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, fluency in colonial languages became a signifier of class in colonized lands.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In postcolonial states, linguistic discrimination continues to reinforce notions of class. In Haiti, for example, working-class Haitians predominantly speak <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a>, while members of the local bourgeoisie are able to speak both French and Creole.<sup id="cite_ref-Chitpin-2019_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chitpin-2019-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Members of this local elite frequently conduct business and politics in French, thereby excluding many of the working-class from such activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Chitpin-2019_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chitpin-2019-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, D. L. Sheath, an advocate for the use of indigenous languages in India, also writes that the Indian elite associates nationalism with a unitary identity, and in this context, "uses English as a means of exclusion and an instrument of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">cultural hegemony</a>”.<sup id="cite_ref-Parameswaran_21–41_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Parameswaran_21–41-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_discrimination_in_education">Linguistic discrimination in education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Linguistic discrimination in education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haitian_school_children_(8116999996).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Haitian_school_children_%288116999996%29.jpg/220px-Haitian_school_children_%288116999996%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Haitian_school_children_%288116999996%29.jpg/330px-Haitian_school_children_%288116999996%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Haitian_school_children_%288116999996%29.jpg/440px-Haitian_school_children_%288116999996%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="2912" /></a><figcaption>Photo of school children in Haiti</figcaption></figure> <p>Class disparities in postcolonial nations are often reproduced through education. In countries such as <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, schools attended by the bourgeoisie are usually of higher quality and use colonial languages as their means of instruction. On the other hand, schools attended by the rest of the population are often taught in <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chitpin-2019_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chitpin-2019-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars such as Hebblethwaite argue that Creole-based education will improve learning, literacy and socioeconomic mobility in a country where 95% of the population are monolingual in Creole.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, resultant disparities in colonial language fluency and educational quality can impede social mobility.<sup id="cite_ref-Chitpin-2019_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chitpin-2019-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, areas such as <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> have chosen to teach colonial languages in all schools, often to the exclusion of local indigenous languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunyi-1999_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunyi-1999-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As colonial languages were viewed by many as the "civilized" tongues, being "educated" often meant being able to speak and write in these colonial tongues.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunyi-1999_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunyi-1999-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indigenous language education was often seen as an impediment to achieving fluency in these colonial languages, and thus deliberately suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-Bunyi-1999_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunyi-1999-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:School_in_Uganda_(5348565315).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/School_in_Uganda_%285348565315%29.jpg/220px-School_in_Uganda_%285348565315%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/School_in_Uganda_%285348565315%29.jpg/330px-School_in_Uganda_%285348565315%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/School_in_Uganda_%285348565315%29.jpg/440px-School_in_Uganda_%285348565315%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Photo of a school in Uganda</figcaption></figure> <p>Certain <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth nations</a> such as Uganda and Kenya have historically had a policy of teaching in indigenous languages and only introducing English in the upper grades.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-2011-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This policy was a legacy of the "dual mandate" as conceived by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Lugard,_1st_Baron_Lugard" title="Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard">Lord Lugard</a>, a British colonial administrator in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Nigeria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-2011-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the post-war period, English was increasingly viewed as necessary skill for accessing professional employment and better economic opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-2011-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, there was increasing support amongst the populace for English-based education, which Kenya's Ministry of Education adopted post-independence, and Uganda following their civil war. Later on, members of the Ominde Commission in Kenya expressed the need for <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Kiswahili</a> in promoting a national and pan-African identity. Kenya therefore began to offer Kiswahili as a compulsory, non-examinable subject in primary school, but it remained secondary to English as a medium of instruction.<sup id="cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fishman-2011-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the mastery of colonial languages may provide better economic opportunities, the <a href="/wiki/Convention_against_Discrimination_in_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention against Discrimination in Education">Convention against Discrimination in Education</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">UN Convention on the Rights of the Child</a> also states that minority children have the right to "use [their] own [languages]". The suppression of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">indigenous languages</a> within the education system appears to contravene this treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, children who speak indigenous languages can also be disadvantaged when educated in foreign languages, and often have high illiteracy rates. For example, when the French arrived to "civilize" Algeria, which included imposing French on local Algerians, the literacy rate in Algeria was over 40%, higher than that in France at the time. However, when the French left in 1962, the literacy rate in Algiers was at best 10-15%.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Governance">Governance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Governance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As colonial languages are used as the languages of governance and commerce in many colonial and postcolonial states,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> locals who only speak indigenous languages can be disenfranchised. By forcing the locals to speak the colonizers' language, colonizers assimilate the indigenous people and hold colonies longer. For example, when representative institutions were introduced to the <a href="/wiki/Algoma_District" title="Algoma District">Algoma</a> region in what is now modern-day Canada, the local returning officer only accepted the votes of individuals who were enfranchised, which required indigenous peoples to "read and write fluently... [their] own and another language, either English or French".<sup id="cite_ref-Evans-2003_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-2003-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This caused political parties to increasingly identify with settler perspectives rather than indigenous ones.<sup id="cite_ref-Evans-2003_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-2003-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is a common approach for colonizers to set language limitations. Japanese government in 1910 enacted decrees in colony Korea to eliminate existing Korean culture and language. All schools must teach Japanese and Hanja. By doing so, Japanese government was able to make Korea more dependent on Japan and colonize Korea longer. </p><p>Even today, many postcolonial states continue to use colonial languages in their public institutions, even though these languages are not spoken by the majority of their residents.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South African</a> justice system still relies primarily on English and <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> as its primary languages, even though most South Africans, particularly <a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples_of_South_Africa" title="Bantu peoples of South Africa">Black South Africans</a>, speak indigenous languages.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these situations, the use of colonial languages can present barriers to participation in public institutions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linguistic discrimination is often defined in terms of prejudice of language. It is important to note that although there is a relationship between prejudice and discrimination, they are not always directly related.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a> can be defined as negative attitudes towards a person based on their membership of a social group, whereas <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a> can be seen as the acts towards them. The difference between the two should be recognized because prejudice may be held against someone, but it may not be acted on.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following are examples of linguistic prejudice which may result in discrimination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistic_prejudice_and_minority_groups">Linguistic prejudice and minority groups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Linguistic prejudice and minority groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While, theoretically, any speaker may be the victim of linguicism regardless of social and ethnic status, oppressed and <a href="/wiki/Marginalized" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalized">marginalized</a> social minorities are often the most consistent targets, due to the fact that the speech varieties that come to be associated with such groups have a tendency to be <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">stigmatized</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Canada">In Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Francophones_in_Canada">Francophones in Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Francophones in Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: explanations, examples and additional citations. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=1">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Canada was first colonized by French settlers. Later, the British took control of Canada, while the influence of French culture and languages were still enormous. Historically, the Canadian government and <a href="/wiki/English_Canadians" title="English Canadians">English Canadians</a> have <a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">discriminated against Canada's French-speaking population</a>, during some periods in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada" title="History of Canada">history of Canada</a>, they have treated its members as <a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class citizens</a>, and they have favored the members of the more powerful English-speaking population. This form of discrimination has resulted in or contributed to many developments in Canadian history, including the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Quebec_sovereignty_movement" title="Quebec sovereignty movement">Quebec sovereignty movement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebecois_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Quebecois nationalism">Quebecois nationalism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Canada_Rebellion" title="Lower Canada Rebellion">Lower Canada Rebellion</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Red_River_Rebellion" title="Red River Rebellion">Red River Rebellion</a>, a proposed <a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_provinces_and_territories_of_Canada" title="List of proposed provinces and territories of Canada">Acadia province</a>, extreme poverty and low <a href="/wiki/Socio-economic_status" class="mw-redirect" title="Socio-economic status">socio-economic status</a> of the <a href="/wiki/French_Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="French Canadian">French Canadian</a> population, low francophone graduation rates as a result of the outlawing of francophone schools across Canada, differences in average earnings between francophones and anglophones in the same positions, fewer chances of being hired or promoted for francophones, and many other things. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anglophones_in_Quebec">Anglophones in Quebec</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anglophones in Quebec"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_French_Language" title="Charter of the French Language">Charter of the French Language</a>, first established in 1977 and amended several times since, has been accused of being discriminatory by English-speakers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The law makes French the <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> of Quebec and mandates its use (with exceptions) in government offices and communiques, schools, and in commercial public relations. The law is a way of preventing linguistic discrimination against the majority francophone population of Quebec who were for a very long time controlled by the English minority of the province. The law also seeks to protect French against the growing social and economic dominance of English. Though the English-speaking population had been shrinking since the 1960s, it was hastened by the law, and the 2006 census showed a net loss of 180,000 native English-speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-collectiverightsquebec_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collectiverightsquebec-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite this, speaking English at work continues to be strongly correlated with higher earnings, with French-only speakers earning significantly less.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The law is credited with successfully raising the status of French in a predominantly English-speaking economy, and it has been influential in countries facing similar circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-collectiverightsquebec_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collectiverightsquebec-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, amendments have made it less powerful under the pressure from society and thus less effective than it was in the past.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Europe">In Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: In Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linguistic_disenfranchisement_rate">Linguistic disenfranchisement rate</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Linguistic disenfranchisement rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The linguistic disenfranchisement rate in the EU can significantly vary across countries. For residents in two EU-countries that are either native speakers of English or proficient in English as a foreign language the disenfranchisement rate is equal to zero. In his study "Multilingual communication for whom? Language policy and fairness in the European Union", <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michele_Gazzola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michele Gazzola (page does not exist)">Michele Gazzola</a> comes to the conclusion that the current multilingual policy of the EU is not in the absolute the most effective way to inform Europeans about the EU; in certain countries, additional languages may be useful to minimize linguistic exclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-Michele_Gazzola_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michele_Gazzola-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 24 countries examined, an English-only <a href="/wiki/Language_policy" title="Language policy">language policy</a> would exclude 51% to 90% of adult residents. A language regime based on English, French and German would disenfranchise 30% to 56% of residents, whereas a regime based on six languages would bring the shares of excluded population down to 9–22%. After <a href="/wiki/Brexit" title="Brexit">Brexit</a>, the rates of linguistic exclusion associated with a monolingual policy and with a trilingual and a hexalingual regime are likely to increase.<sup id="cite_ref-Michele_Gazzola_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Michele_Gazzola-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Linguistic_discrimination_towards_languages_in_the_Celtic_nations">Linguistic discrimination towards languages in the Celtic nations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Linguistic discrimination towards languages in the Celtic nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>During the period of <a href="/wiki/British_rule_in_Ireland" title="British rule in Ireland">British rule in Ireland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish language</a> was not taught in schools and held no official status until the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Free_State" title="Irish Free State">Irish Free State</a> in 1922.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The Republic of Ireland wasn't established until 1949 per Republic of Ireland Act 1948 (September 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In 2022 the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament of the United Kingdom</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Identity_and_Language_(Northern_Ireland)_Act_2022" title="Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022">Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act</a>. This granted official status to the Irish language in Northern Ireland.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, English was seen as the language of progress and, at the behest of the children's parents, the speaking of <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> was discouraged in schools, and the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Not" title="Welsh Not">Welsh Not</a> was used in some places to help with this during the 18th and 19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> was not taught in the educational system due to being "one of the chief, principal causes of barbarity and incivility" in the words of one statute.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scottish Gaelic has no official status in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>. Although the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Parliament" title="Scottish Parliament">Scottish Parliament</a> is considering legislation that would grant it alongside Scots official status.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> was in 1946 not considered "a suitable medium of education or culture".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_examples">Other examples</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Other examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Euskarazko_hitz_egiteagatik_zigortutako_Bedaioko_ikasle_baten_koadernoa_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Euskarazko_hitz_egiteagatik_zigortutako_Bedaioko_ikasle_baten_koadernoa_2.jpg/220px-Euskarazko_hitz_egiteagatik_zigortutako_Bedaioko_ikasle_baten_koadernoa_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Euskarazko_hitz_egiteagatik_zigortutako_Bedaioko_ikasle_baten_koadernoa_2.jpg/330px-Euskarazko_hitz_egiteagatik_zigortutako_Bedaioko_ikasle_baten_koadernoa_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Euskarazko_hitz_egiteagatik_zigortutako_Bedaioko_ikasle_baten_koadernoa_2.jpg/440px-Euskarazko_hitz_egiteagatik_zigortutako_Bedaioko_ikasle_baten_koadernoa_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Lines assigned as punishment to a student during Franco's dictatorial regime, reading "I must not speak Basque at school".</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>: <a href="/wiki/Language_policies_of_Francoist_Spain" title="Language policies of Francoist Spain">Public usage</a> of Basque was persecuted and restricted during <a href="/wiki/Francoist_Spain" title="Francoist Spain">Francoist Spain</a>, 1936 to 1978. <a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> have similar histories.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vergonha" title="Vergonha">Vergonha</a> is the term used for the effect of various policies of the government of France on its citizens whose <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongue">mother tongue</a> was one of so-called patois. In 1539, with Article 111 of the <a href="/wiki/Ordinance_of_Villers-Cotter%C3%AAts" title="Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts">Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts</a>, French, the language of the <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-de-France" title="Île-de-France">Île-de-France</a>, became the only official language in the country although it was spoken by only a minority of the population. In education and administration, it was forbidden to use regional languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>. The French government still has not ratified the <a href="/wiki/European_Charter_for_Regional_or_Minority_Languages" title="European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages">European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 8 April 2021, the Breton MP <a href="/wiki/Paul_Molac" title="Paul Molac">Paul Molac</a> tried to pass a law to protect <a href="/wiki/Minority_language" title="Minority language">minority languages</a>, and this law was passed by the French Parliament in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the French Minister of Education, opposed to the teaching in minority languages, asked the <a href="/wiki/Conseil_Constitutionnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Conseil Constitutionnel">Conseil Constitutionnel</a> to declare it unconstitutional. This led to the law being constitutionally struck down on 21 May 2021.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decision recognizes the right of central administration to oppose the spelling of Basque and Breton names when they contain an <a href="/wiki/%C3%91" title="Ñ">ñ</a> letter and forbid such names.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_in_Belgium" title="Dutch in Belgium">Dutch in Belgium</a> after its independence in 1830. French was for a long time the only official language and the only language of education, administration, law and justice despite Dutch being the most common language because it was rejected in the ruling class since it was identified with the Dutch rule between 1815 and 1830. That has led to widespread <a href="/wiki/Francisation_of_Brussels" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisation of Brussels">language shift in Brussels</a>. Discrimination slowly faded over the decades and formally ended in the 1960s, when the Dutch version of the constitution became equal to the French version.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanisation" title="Germanisation">Germanisation</a>: <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> discrimination of <a href="/wiki/West_Slavs" title="West Slavs">West Slavs</a> in the 19th century, such as the removal of <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> from secondary (1874) and primary (1886) schools, the use of <a href="/wiki/School_corporal_punishment" title="School corporal punishment">corporal punishment</a> leading to such events as the <a href="/wiki/Wrze%C5%9Bnia_children_strike" title="Września children strike">Września school strike</a>.</li> <li>Low Saxon (<a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a>) in Germany: <a href="/wiki/Middle_Saxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Saxon">Middle Saxon</a> served as a lingua franca in the North and Baltic Sea areas from around the 12th/13th century until the early 16th century, but the nobility, institutions of authority and influential people in the 16th century started to force writers in Northern Germany to use <a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a> as their written language. This caused a change first in the written language and later on in the spoken language through a strong social stigmatization by what this process has been called an inner colonization by linguist <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_von_Polenz" class="extiw" title="de:Peter von Polenz">Peter von Polenz</a> that was similar to the Germanisation of Slavic peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was also the time when the name of the language changed from <i>sassesch</i> or <i>sassesche sprâke</i> (Saxon language) to <i>Plattdütsch</i> (lit. <i>Flat German</i>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magyarisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Magyarisation">Magyarisation</a>: For most of its existence, the Kingdom of Hungary had been a linguistically inclusionary state, but with the rise of ethnic nationalism in the early 19th century, this tradition was completely reversed due to a gradual adoption of nationalist and anti-minority policies by Hungary's ruling elites. The policy of Magyarisation (sometimes also "Hungarianisation") emerged in the 19th-century Kingdom of Hungary, and was practiced until the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918. Magyarization saw efforts to marginalize and erase the use of minority languages in culture, education, politics, placenames and even everyday use. Targets included a number of Slavic languages (Slovak, Rusyn, Ukrainian, etc.), Romanian, and others. During the 1890s, hundreds of villages and towns throughout the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary were forcibly renamed to more Hungarian forms. This included the renaming of already existing Hungarian placenames, previously in use for centuries, largely to promote the exclusionary nationalist ideology of the era. The strictest pro-Magyarization policies were adopted as legislation in 1907, known as the Apponyi Laws (Lex Apponyi), spearheaded by <a href="/wiki/Albert_Apponyi" title="Albert Apponyi">Albert Apponyi</a>. The laws, as adopted, intentionally discriminated all minority languages, in an effort to completely exclude them from use in public life.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegianization" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegianization">Norwegianization</a>: Former policy carried out by the Norwegian government directed at the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sámi people">Sámi</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Kven_people" title="Kven people">Kven people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sapmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapmi">Sapmi region</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Norway" title="Northern Norway">Northern Norway</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">Russification</a>: The <a href="/wiki/Russification#Lithuania_and_Poland" title="Russification">19th-century policies</a> on the territoriesthat were seized by the <a href="/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland" title="Partitions of Poland">Partitions of Poland</a>, such as banning <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belarusian_language" title="Belarusian language">Belarusian</a> in public places (1864), later (1880s), Polish was banned in schools and offices of <a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Ukrainian_language_suppression" title="Chronology of Ukrainian language suppression">Ukrainian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a> were also discriminated against. Under the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, there were some attempts in 1899–1917 to <a href="/wiki/Russification_of_Finland" title="Russification of Finland">make Russian the only official language of Finland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>In the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, following the phase of <a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Korenizatsiya">Korenizatsiya</a> ("indigenization") and before <a href="/wiki/Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a> (late 1930s to late 1980s), Russian was called "the language of friendship of nations" to the disadvantage of other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Languages of the Soviet Union">languages of the Soviet Union</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The Russification and restraining of the linguistic rights of federal subjects in Russia, most notably in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_subjects_of_Russia" title="Federal subjects of Russia">federal subject</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tatarstan" title="Tatarstan">Tatarstan</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_law_of_Slovakia" title="Language law of Slovakia">Controversy over 2009 amendment to Slovak language law</a>: The 1995 Slovak language law defined <a href="/wiki/Slovak_language" title="Slovak language">Slovak</a> as the official language of the <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovak Republic</a>, with other related laws guaranteeing rights to the country's minority languages (e.g. in bureaucracy, education, cultural venues, multilingual street and road signs). The law was subsequently amended in 1999, to guarantee further protection to minority language use and comply with EU standards. The law saw controversial amendments in 2009. Slovakia's 2006-2010 government passed a controversial amendment to aspects of the language law in 2009. <a href="/wiki/Hungarians_in_Slovakia" title="Hungarians in Slovakia">Hungarians in Slovakia</a> and politicians in Hungary accused the law of being discriminatory to their language group, claiming it endangers the rights to use <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> in the country. The 2010-2012 Slovak government opened the law again in 2011, voting to remove the previous controversial amendments.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbs_of_Montenegro" title="Serbs of Montenegro">Serb</a> organisations in <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> have reported discrimination of Serbian.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Spain: <a href="/wiki/Language_policies_of_Francoist_Spain" title="Language policies of Francoist Spain">Language policies of Francoist Spain</a> refers to the attempted elevation of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Castilian</a> over the other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Spain" title="Languages of Spain">languages of Spain</a> during the dictatorship of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a> from 1936 to 1975.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>: In 1804, all Ukrainian-language schools <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Ukrainian_language_suppression" title="Chronology of Ukrainian language suppression">were banned</a> in Ukraine under the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>. Ukrainian was denied its right of existence by the Russian rulers based on the <a href="/wiki/Valuev_Circular" title="Valuev Circular">Valuev Circular</a>. In 1892, books were not allowed to be translated from Russian to Ukrainian.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hannoverism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hannoverism (page does not exist)">Hannoverism</a>: A linguistic ideology that undoubtedly plays a prominent role within the German language community in Germany. This ideology includes the conviction that the best High German is spoken in Northern Germany, respectively in and around Hannover, and is of fundamental importance in the Assessment or evaluation of language use among linguistic laypersons in Germany. From the perspective of professional linguists, the fact that linguistic Hanoverism is also held by people who may never have been to Hanover themselves or heard a Hanoverian speak, and ironically even by people who live in the south of Germany and whose language use is judged and stigmatised as deficient precisely in the light of this ideology, is decisive here.(Maitz 2014, König 2013) Linguistic ideologies can be explicit and implicit. Explicit: In the first case, they are consciously represented and appear, for example, in the form of assertions on the linguistic surface. Implicit: In the second case, they are either hidden between the lines, i.e. recognisable in the form of implicatures behind meta-linguistic statements, or can only be inferred from what is (consciously) not said but could be said.(Pollak 2002) Implicit linguistic ideologies are thus not directly accessible to the observer, often they are not even conscious to those who represent them.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Homogenism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Homogenism (page does not exist)">Homogenism</a>: Of several variants of a dependent linguistic variable, only one tends to be accepted as correct, usually the one that corresponds to the written or formal language use of a northern German educated elite.(Maitz/Elspass 2007) In this sense, linguistic ideologies are latent instruments of power, characterised as "naturalised power, as power which no longer looks like power".(Blommaert 1997) The German linguistic community of Germany, for example, is very much influenced by the ideology of standardism. Learning and using the homogeneous standard language are thus usually presented as the common interests of every speaker of German. The suspicion arises that standardism serves less the common good than the interests of certain social groups who are interested in maintaining the status quo, for instance because they perceive linguistic diversity as problematic and/or simply because their own language use is aligned with the standard and they enjoy social privileges as a result.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_United_States">In the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: In the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Perpetuation_of_discriminatory_practices_through_terminology">Perpetuation of discriminatory practices through terminology</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Perpetuation of discriminatory practices through terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Here and elsewhere the terms 'standard' and 'non-standard' make analysis of linguicism difficult. These terms are used widely by linguists and non-linguists when discussing varieties of American English that engender strong opinions, a <a href="/wiki/False_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="False dichotomy">false dichotomy</a> which is rarely challenged or questioned. This has been interpreted by linguists Nicolas Coupland, <a href="/wiki/Rosina_Lippi-Green" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosina Lippi-Green">Rosina Lippi-Green</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robin_Queen" title="Robin Queen">Robin Queen</a> (among others) as a discipline-internal lack of consistency which undermines progress; if linguists themselves cannot move beyond the ideological underpinnings of 'right' and 'wrong' in language, there is little hope of advancing a more nuanced understanding in the general population.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Black_Americans">Black Americans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Black Americans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because some black Americans speak a particular non-standard variety of English which is often seen as substandard, they are often targets of linguicism.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English" class="mw-redirect" title="African American Vernacular English">AAVE</a> is often perceived by members of mainstream American society as indicative of low intelligence or limited education, and as with many other non-standard dialects and especially creoles, it is usually called "lazy" or "bad" English. According to researches, AAVE was initially a language that black people in America used to clearly express the life of oppression.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People reflect that it is usually more difficult and understand and respond to an AAVE speaker.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>AAVE usually contains words and phrases that have a different meaning from their original meaning in standard English. <a href="/wiki/Pronunciation" title="Pronunciation">Pronunciation</a> also differs from standard English. Some phrases require sufficient cultural background to understand. From the grammatic aspect, AAVE shows more complex structures that allow speaker to express a wider range with more specificity. However, since the majority of AAVE speakers are African Americans, they easily become target of discrimination due to the long existing racism and <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The linguist <a href="/wiki/John_McWhorter" title="John McWhorter">John McWhorter</a> has described this particular form of linguicism as particularly problematic in the United States, where non-standard linguistic structures are often deemed "incorrect" by teachers and potential employers in contrast to other countries such as Morocco, Finland and Italy where <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a> (the ability to switch between two or more dialects or languages) is an accepted norm, and non-standard usage in conversation is seen as a mark of regional origin, not of intellectual capacity or achievement. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_education#Ann_Arbor_Decision" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American Vernacular English and education">1977 Ann Arbor</a> court case, AAVE was compared against standard English to determine how much of an education barrier existed for children that had been primarily raised with AAVE. The assigned linguists determined that the differences, stemming from a history of racial segregation, were significant enough for the children to receive supplementary teaching to better understand standard English.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, a black American who uses a typical AAVE sentence such as "He be comin' in every day and sayin' he ain't done nothing" may be judged as having a deficient command of grammar, whereas, in fact, such a sentence is constructed based on a complex grammar which is different from that of standard English, not a degenerate form of it.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A listener may misjudge the user of such a sentence to be unintellectual or uneducated. The speaker may be intellectually capable, educated, and proficient in standard English, but chose to say the sentence in AAVE for social and sociolinguistic reasons such as the intended audience of the sentence, a phenomenon known as <a href="/wiki/Code-switching" title="Code-switching">code switching</a>. Currently, AAVE is unique and organized enough to be a new language that derives from English but becomes its own new language. It shares many similar characteristics with standard English, but it has its own complexity with African American culture and history. Nonetheless, AAVE is only used in non-formal situations. It is not uncommon for AAVE speakers to speak in formal and standard English under formal situations. </p><p>Reports have shown that black workers who sound more "black" earn on average 12% less than their peers (data in 2009).<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In education, students who speak in AAVE are educated by their teachers that AAVE is not proper or is not correct. According to a survey, when a person speaks in AAVE, listeners tend to believe that the speaker is an African American from North America and is more related to adjectives such as poor, uneducated, and unintelligent.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By merely sounding like black, a person may be assumed to be in certain image. </p><p>Furthermore, the legal system in the United States has been found to produce worse outcomes for speakers of AAVE. Court reporters are less accurate at transcribing black speakers,<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and judges can misinterpret the meaning of black speech in cases.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hispanic_Americans_and_linguicism">Hispanic Americans and linguicism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Hispanic Americans and linguicism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another form of linguicism is evidenced by the following: in some parts of the United States, a person who has a strong Spanish accent and uses only simple English words may be thought of as poor, poorly educated, and possibly an <a href="/wiki/Undocumented_immigrant" class="mw-redirect" title="Undocumented immigrant">undocumented immigrant</a>. However, if the same person has a diluted accent or no noticeable accent at all and can use a myriad of words in complex sentences, they are likely to be perceived as more successful, better educated, and a "legitimate <a href="/wiki/Citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen">citizen</a>". Accent has two parts, the speaker and the listener. Thus, some people may perceive an accent as strong because they are not used to hearing them and the emphasis is on an unexpected syllable or as soft and imperceptible. The bias and discrimination that ensues is tied to the difficulty the listener has in understanding that accent. The fact that the person uses a very broad vocabulary creates even more <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">cognitive dissonance</a> on the part of the listener who will immediately think of the speaker as either undocumented, poor, uneducated or even insulting to their intelligence. </p> <ul><li>Mock Spanish: <a href="/wiki/Mock_Spanish" title="Mock Spanish">Mock Spanish</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">loaded</a> term,introduced by Socialinguist Jane Hill, used to describe a variety of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>-inspired phrases used by speakers of <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>. It include the English accent of speaking Spanish and the modification of Spanish phrases. For a majority of instances, Mock Spanish intentionally changes the original meaning in order to create a sense of mocking and derogation.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Ricans" title="Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rican</a> are concerned whether they have an accent in speaking Spanish. However, Americans may concern less or does not concern their accent when they are speaking <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>. Americans would speak Spanish in exaggerated American accent.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill_680–689_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill_680–689-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although short training will allow Americans to speak in a more original accent, people refuse to do so, and instead intentionally maintain this attitude toward Spanish. Furthermore, people would mix English with Spanish and modify standard Spanish to create jokes. For example, "hasta mañana" is modified to "hasta banana." Another example is "No problemo." while "problemo" is not a word in Spanish. This is considered an inappropriate joke that shows linguistic racism to Spanish. Many Spanish speaker reflect that mock Spanish is offensive. <a href="/wiki/Jane_H._Hill" title="Jane H. Hill">Jane Hill</a> believes that this intentional <a href="/wiki/Jocular" class="mw-redirect" title="Jocular">jocular</a> and disrecpectful accent and modification represents "elevation of whiteness" and direct racism. Since white people consider Spanish-speaking people to be lower in social status, they refuse to respect the language.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill_680–689_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill_680–689-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asians">Asians</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Asians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linguistic discrimination against <a href="/wiki/Asian_people" title="Asian people">Asians</a> is still a topic understudied. A scholar in paper includes a short story that an Asian reporter was asked whether she can speak English every time she meets a stranger. Everyone was assuming that she may not understand English because she has an Asian appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Americans assume Asian cannot speak English. Among Asian immigrants, 60% are able to speak English fluently. The proportion is much lower for new immigrants. However, this low English literacy level and lack of translation discourages many Asian immigrants to obtain access social services, such as health care. Asian immigrants, especially younger students, experience a language barrier. They are forced to learn a new language.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chinglish" title="Chinglish">Chinglish</a> is a common point of attack. It is the mixture of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> and English. It is considered a confusion of Chinese and English grammar, accompanied by Chinese accent. An example would be "Open the light," since "open" and "turn on" are the same word ("开") in Chinese. Another example would be "Yes, I have."<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the literal translation from Chinese to English, and it is hard for Chinese people to learn this quickly. Speaking Chinglish may result in racial discrimination, while this is only the nuance between Chinese and English grammar. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="American_Sign_Language_users">American Sign Language users</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: American Sign Language users"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Users of <a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> (ASL) have faced linguistic discrimination based on the perception of the legitimacy of signed languages compared to spoken languages. This attitude was explicitly expressed in the <a href="/wiki/Second_International_Congress_on_Education_of_the_Deaf" title="Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf">Milan Conference</a> of 1880 which set precedence for public opinion of manual forms of communication, including ASL, creating lasting consequences for members of the Deaf community.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conference almost unanimously (save a handful of allies such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hopkins_Gallaudet" title="Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet">Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet</a>), reaffirmed the use of <a href="/wiki/Oralism" title="Oralism">oralism</a>, instruction conducted exclusively in spoken language, as the preferred education method for Deaf individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ideas were outlined in eight resolutions which ultimately resulted in the removal of Deaf individuals from their own educational institutions, leaving generations of Deaf persons to be educated single-handedly by hearing individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to misconceptions about ASL, it was not recognized as its own, fully functioning language until recently. In the 1960s, linguist <a href="/wiki/William_Stokoe" title="William Stokoe">William Stokoe</a> proved ASL to be its own language based on its unique structure and grammar, separate from that of English. Before this, ASL was thought to be merely a collection of gestures used to represent English. Because of its use of visual space, it was mistakenly believed that its users are of a lesser mental capacity. The misconception that ASL users are incapable of complex thought was prevalent, although this has decreased as further studies about its recognition of a language have taken place. For example, ASL users faced overwhelming discrimination for the supposedly "lesser" language that they use and were met with condescension especially when using their language in public.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another way discrimination against ASL is evident is how, despite research conducted by linguists like Stokoe or <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Valli" title="Clayton Valli">Clayton Valli</a> and Cecil Lucas of <a href="/wiki/Gallaudet_University" title="Gallaudet University">Gallaudet University</a>, ASL is not always recognized as a language.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its recognition is crucial both for those learning ASL as an additional language, and for prelingually-deaf children who learn ASL as their first language. Linguist Sherman Wilcox concludes that given that it has a body of literature and international scope, to single ASL out as unsuitable for a foreign language curriculum is inaccurate. Russel S. Rosen also writes about government and academic resistance to acknowledging ASL as a foreign language at the high school or college level, which Rosen believes often resulted from a lack of understanding about the language. Rosen and Wilcox's conclusions both point to discrimination ASL users face regarding its status as a language, that although decreasing over time is still present.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the medical community, there is immense bias against deafness and ASL. This stems from the belief that spoken languages are superior to sign languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyde-2010_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyde-2010-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because 90% of deaf babies are born to hearing parents, who are usually unaware of the existence of the <a href="/wiki/Deaf_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Deaf community">Deaf community</a>, they often turn to the medical community for guidance.<sup id="cite_ref-Crouch-1997_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crouch-1997-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medical and audiological professionals, who are typically biased against sign languages, encourage parents to get a <a href="/wiki/Cochlear_implant" title="Cochlear implant">cochlear implant</a> for their deaf child in order for the child to use spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyde-2010_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyde-2010-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research shows, however, that deaf kids without cochlear implants acquire ASL with much greater ease than deaf kids with cochlear implants acquire spoken English. In addition, medical professionals discourage parents from teaching ASL to their deaf kid to avoid compromising their English<sup id="cite_ref-Skutnabb-Kangas-2014_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skutnabb-Kangas-2014-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although research shows that learning ASL does not interfere with a child's ability to learn English. In fact, the early acquisition of ASL proves to be useful to the child in learning English later on. When making a decision about cochlear implantation, parents are not properly educated about the benefits of ASL or the Deaf Community.<sup id="cite_ref-Crouch-1997_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crouch-1997-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is seen by many members of the Deaf Community as cultural and linguistic genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-Skutnabb-Kangas-2014_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skutnabb-Kangas-2014-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Africa">In Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: In Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglophone_Cameroonian" title="Anglophone Cameroonian">Anglophone Cameroonians</a>: the central Cameroonian government has pushed <i>francophonization</i> in the English-speaking regions of the country despite constitutional stipulations on bilingualism.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measures include appointing French-speaking teachers and judges (in regions with <a href="/wiki/Common_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Law">Common Law</a>) despite local opposition. However, Anglophones in Cameroon are not all those who have English as their first official language, as opposed to those who speak French as their first official language. As stated by Professor Simo Bobda (2001), Anglophony in Cameroon is more an ethnic, cultural and regional concept than a linguistic one. This definition excludes Francophones who have been settled for a long time in the English-speaking area, even if they have property and ties there. This analysis also excludes Francophones who master English because they have acquired an Anglo-Saxon education, or studied in establishments of the Anglophone subsystem which proliferate in the Francophone zone. Clearly, the Anglophones of Cameroon are indeed a very particular cultural identity, a limited geographical space and a specific historical course, before being a simple linguistic community. With this preliminary clarification, we can better understand the nature and contours of the English-speaking problem which today is raising socio-political tension in the South-West and North-West regions of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>: Carolyn McKinley<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is highly critical of the language policy in the South African educational system, which she describes as 'anglonormatif', because the increasing <a href="/wiki/Anglicisation" title="Anglicisation">anglicisation</a> becomes 'normative' in the education system. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pretoria" title="University of Pretoria">universities of Pretoria</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_Free_State" title="University of the Free State">Free State</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Africa" title="University of South Africa">Unisa</a> want to anglicise completely.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Middle_East">In the Middle East</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: In the Middle East"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>At the turn of the eighth century, the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a> decreed that <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> would replace <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek">Medieval Greek</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a> as the administrative language of the empire. Coptic gradually declined within a few hundred years and suffered violent persecutions, especially under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluke Sultanate of Cairo</a>, leading to its virtual extinction by the 17th century.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish languages</a> are under pressure in many countries where they are spoken. Publishing materials in Kurdish in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> is forbidden,<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though this prohibition is not enforced any more due to the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until 2002, Turkey placed severe restrictions on the use of Kurdish, including a ban on its use in education and broadcast media.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many mayors were tried for issuing public documents in the Kurdish language.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Kurdish alphabet is not recognized in Turkey, and prior to 2013 the use of Kurdish names containing the letters <i>Q</i>, <i>W</i>, and <i>X</i>, which do not exist in the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Turkish alphabet</a>, was not allowed.<sup id="cite_ref-cla3a_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cla3a-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Turkey began to allow private television channels to broadcast in Kurdish on a limited basis in 2006,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with most restrictions lifted by 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The state-run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation (TRT) started its <a href="/wiki/TRT_Kurd%C3%AE" title="TRT Kurdî">24-hour Kurdish television station</a> in 2009, with full use of the letters <i>Q</i>, <i>W</i>, and <i>X</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast began printing <a href="/wiki/Marriage_certificate" title="Marriage certificate">marriage certificates</a>, water bills, construction and <a href="/wiki/Road_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Road sign">road signs</a>, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Also, Imams began to deliver Friday <a href="/wiki/Khutbah" title="Khutbah">sermons</a> in Kurdish and <a href="/wiki/Esnaf" title="Esnaf">Esnaf</a> price tags in Kurdish. In 2012, Kurdish-language lessons became an elective subject in public schools. Previously, Kurdish education had only been possible in private institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Asia">In Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: In Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>During the time when Korea was under Japanese rule from <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">1910 to 1945</a>, the Japanese government forced Korean people to learn and speak Japanese. They were forced to take Japanese names and the order of names in Japanese. In 1911, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseon_Education_Decree&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseon Education Decree (page does not exist)">Joseon Education Decree</a> was enacted. The <i>Joseon Education Decree</i> is interpreted to have the purpose of obliterating all Korean cultural and spiritual independence to keep Koreans colonized forever. Japanese was required to teach in schools.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_legislation_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia">Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia</a></li> <li>The brutality and linguicism against Tamils in Sri Lanka which took thousands of Tamil lives because of their language. This was rooted from "<a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Only_Act#cite_note-Consolidated_Acts-1" title="Sinhala Only Act">The Sinhala Only Act</a>", formerly the Official Language Act No. 33 of 1956, that was passed in the Parliament of Ceylon in 1956. <a href="/wiki/Black_July" title="Black July">Black July</a> was the peak of the violence against Tamils in 1983.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>China: In the 2000s the Chinese government began promoting the use of <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin Chinese</a> in areas where <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a> is spoken. Cantonese is a regional dialect in Guangdong, Hong Kong and nearby regions, and Mandarin is the major language spoken in majority of China. Chinese government intended to advocate inter-regional communication by educating Mandarin rather than in Cantonese throughout the country. In 2010 this gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Television_Cantonese_controversy" title="Guangzhou Television Cantonese controversy">Guangzhou Television Cantonese controversy</a>. Guangzhou Television once proposed that all television program were to be in Mandarin rather than in Cantonese. This has also been a point of contention with <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, which is located in the general area where Cantonese is spoken. Cantonese has become a means of asserting Hong Kong's political identity as separate from mainland China. Later, this movement of abolishing this regional dialect was proven to be fake.</li> <li>After the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> retreated to <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>, the Nationalist government promoted <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a> and banned the public use of <a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Hokkien" title="Taiwanese Hokkien">Taiwanese</a> and other native languages as part of a deliberate political repression, especially in schools and broadcast media.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1964 use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden,<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and transgression in schools punished with beatings, fines and humiliation. This discrimination started to decrease and ended when <a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_Taiwan" title="Martial law in Taiwan">martial law</a> ended in 1987.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_language_movement" title="Bengali language movement">Bengali language movement</a> occurred in a move to recognise <a href="/wiki/Bengali_language" title="Bengali language">Bengali</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Official_language" title="Official language">official language</a> in the then-<a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_Pakistan" title="Dominion of Pakistan">Dominion of Pakistan</a> of 1947.</li> <li>Kannada supremacism widely known as "activism" is common in <a href="/wiki/Karnataka" title="Karnataka">Karnataka</a> and enjoys political support. It forces all residents including those from outside Karnataka to speak <a href="/wiki/Kannada" title="Kannada">Kannada</a>.</li> <li>Marathi superamacy in <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>) perpuated by <a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">ultranationalist</a> regional <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativist</a> parties like <a href="/wiki/Shiv_Sena_(1966%E2%80%932022)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shiv Sena (1966–2022)">Shiv Sena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra_Navnirman_Sena" title="Maharashtra Navnirman Sena">MNS</a> which labelled immigrants as 'job stealers' and 'outsiders', with South Indian <a href="/wiki/Kannada_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kannada people">Kannadigas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tulu_people" title="Tulu people">Tuluvas</a><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> becoming the target of <a href="/wiki/Bal_Thackeray" title="Bal Thackeray">Bal Thackeray</a>'s racist slurs and attack<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by Marathi goons who prided on their 'Marathi Manoos' <sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> status. Subsequently, Bihari,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gujarati and other North Indian communities were targeted and attacked <a href="/wiki/2008_attacks_on_Uttar_Pradeshi_and_Bihari_migrants_in_Maharashtra" title="2008 attacks on Uttar Pradeshi and Bihari migrants in Maharashtra">resulting in an exodus in 2008</a>. Till date, there have been sporadic attacks and discrimination towards non-Marathi communities in Mumbai.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindi_imposition" title="Hindi imposition">Imposition of Hindi</a> by the Indian Government on non-Hindi speaking states, especially that of <a href="/wiki/South_India" title="South India">South India</a> has led to anti Hindi agitations in states like <a href="/wiki/Gokak_agitation" title="Gokak agitation">Karnataka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindi_agitations_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a>. The prioritization of Hindi in non-Hindi speaking states has led to discrimination towards people who do not know Hindi.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In south Asia, more than 800 languages are spoken, while only about 40% of them have language education.<sup id="cite_ref-Skillsphere_Education-2018_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skillsphere_Education-2018-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguistic minorities do not have same education opportunities.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> has more than 60 languages existing in its territory. There are a total of six major languages which are <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punjabi_language" title="Punjabi language">Punjabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pashto" title="Pashto">Pushto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sindhi_language" title="Sindhi language">Sindhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balochistan,_Pakistan" title="Balochistan, Pakistan">Balochi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hindko" title="Hindko">Hindko</a>. All of them have an ethnolinguistic group. Currently, these large ethnolinguistic groups are demanding a separate <a href="/wiki/Province" title="Province">province</a> based on languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Skillsphere_Education-2018_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Skillsphere_Education-2018-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Texts">Texts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Texts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Linguicism applies to <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spoken_language" title="Spoken language">spoken</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">signed languages</a>. The quality of a book or article may be judged by the language in which it is written. In the scientific community, for example, those who evaluated a text in two language versions, English and the national <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian language">Scandinavian language</a>, rated the English-language version as being of higher scientific content.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a> operates a great deal using written language. Readers of a <a href="/wiki/Web_page" title="Web page">web page</a>, <a href="/wiki/Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a> group, <a href="/wiki/Internet_forum" title="Internet forum">forum</a> post, or chat session may be more inclined to take the author seriously if the language is written in accordance with the standard language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prejudice">Prejudice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Prejudice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to the previous examples of linguistic prejudice, linguistic discrimination involves the actual treatment of individuals based on use of language. Examples may be clearly seen in the workplace, in marketing, and in education systems. For example, some workplaces enforce an <a href="/wiki/English-only_movement" title="English-only movement">English-only</a> policy, which is part of an American political movement that pushes for English to be accepted as the official language. In the United States, the federal law, Titles VI and VII of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> protects non-native speakers from discrimination in the workplace based on their national origin or use of dialect. There are state laws which also address the protection of non-native speakers, such as the California Fair Employment and Housing Act. However, industries often argue in retrospect that clear, understandable English is often needed in specific work settings in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-aclunc.org_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aclunc.org-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_language" title="Economics of language">Economics of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_language_system" title="Global language system">Global language system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottopolitics" title="Glottopolitics">Glottopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitism">Humanitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlinguistics" title="Interlinguistics">Interlinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Language death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Language ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_insecurity" title="Linguistic insecurity">Linguistic insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_prescription" title="Linguistic prescription">Linguistic prescription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_profiling" title="Linguistic profiling">Linguistic profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_racism" title="Linguistic racism">Linguistic racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoritized_language" title="Minoritized language">Minoritized language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolingualism" title="Monolingualism">Monolingualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonstandard_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonstandard dialect">Nonstandard dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raciolinguistics" title="Raciolinguistics">Raciolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schizoglossia" title="Schizoglossia">Schizoglossia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_language_ideology" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard language ideology">Standard language ideology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The controversy concerning the reductions of Finnish autonomy is considered to already have begun in the early 1890s, see <a href="/wiki/Woldemar_von_Daehn" title="Woldemar von Daehn">Woldemar von Daehn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-kansallisbiografia_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kansallisbiografia-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSkutnabb-Kangas1988" class="citation cs2">Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove (1988), <i>Multilingualism and the education of minority children.</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multilingualism+and+the+education+of+minority+children.&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Skutnabb-Kangas&rft.aufirst=Tove&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.workplacefairness.org/language-discrimination">"Language Discrimination"</a>. <i>Workplace Fairness</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Workplace+Fairness&rft.atitle=Language+Discrimination&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.workplacefairness.org%2Flanguage-discrimination&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aclunc.org-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aclunc.org_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aclunc.org_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120904172551/https://www.aclunc.org/library/publications/asset_upload_file489_3538.pdf">"Language Discrimination: Your Legal Rights"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ACLU Foundation of North California</i>. The Legal Aid Society-Employment Law Center. 2002. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aclunc.org/library/publications/asset_upload_file489_3538.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 September 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ACLU+Foundation+of+North+California&rft.atitle=Language+Discrimination%3A+Your+Legal+Rights&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclunc.org%2Flibrary%2Fpublications%2Fasset_upload_file489_3538.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove, and Phillipson, Robert, <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'Mother Tongue': The Theoretical and Sociopolitical Construction of a Concept". In Ammon, Ulrich (ed.) (1989). <i>Status and Function of Languages and Language Varieties</i>, p. 455. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter & Co. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-011299-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-011299-X">3-11-011299-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TBD1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TBD1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TBD1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TBD1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDommisse2016" class="citation news cs1">Dommisse, Ebbe (16 November 2016). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/life/books/2016-11-16-single-dominant-tongue-keeps-inequality-in-place/">"Single dominant tongue keeps inequality in place"</a></span>. <i>The Business Day</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"French and underdevelopment, Haitian Creole and development: Educational language policy problems and solutions in Haiti". <i>Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages</i>. <b>27</b> (2): 255–302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fjpcl.27.2.03heb">10.1075/jpcl.27.2.03heb</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0920-9034">0920-9034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Pidgin+and+Creole+Languages&rft.atitle=French+and+underdevelopment%2C+Haitian+Creole+and+development%3A+Educational+language+policy+problems+and+solutions+in+Haiti&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=255-302&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fjpcl.27.2.03heb&rft.issn=0920-9034&rft.aulast=Hebblethwaite&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunyi-1999-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bunyi-1999_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bunyi-1999_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bunyi-1999_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunyi1999" class="citation journal cs1">Bunyi, Grace (July 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/handle/123456789/10121">"Rethinking the place of African indigenous languages in African education"</a>. <i>International Journal of Educational Development</i>. <b>19</b> (4–5): 337–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0738-0593%2899%2900034-6">10.1016/s0738-0593(99)00034-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0738-0593">0738-0593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Educational+Development&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+place+of+African+indigenous+languages+in+African+education&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=337-350&rft.date=1999-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0738-0593%2899%2900034-6&rft.issn=0738-0593&rft.aulast=Bunyi&rft.aufirst=Grace&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fir-library.ku.ac.ke%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F10121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fishman-2011-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fishman-2011_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFishmanRubal-LopezConrad2011" class="citation book cs1">Fishman, Andrew W.; Rubal-Lopez, Joshua A.; Conrad, Alma (13 October 2011). <i>Post-Imperial English : Status Change in Former British and American Colonies, 1940-1990</i>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-087218-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-087218-7"><bdi>978-3-11-087218-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/979587836">979587836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Post-Imperial+English+%3A+Status+Change+in+Former+British+and+American+Colonies%2C+1940-1990&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011-10-13&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F979587836&rft.isbn=978-3-11-087218-7&rft.aulast=Fishman&rft.aufirst=Andrew+W.&rft.au=Rubal-Lopez%2C+Joshua+A.&rft.au=Conrad%2C+Alma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinMartin2005" class="citation book cs1">Lin, Angel; Martin, Peter, eds. 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"American Sign Language as a Foreign Language in U.S. High Schools: State of the Art". <i>The Modern Language Journal</i>. <b>92</b> (1): 10–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-4781.2008.00684.x">10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00684.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25172990">25172990</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Modern+Language+Journal&rft.atitle=American+Sign+Language+as+a+Foreign+Language+in+U.S.+High+Schools%3A+State+of+the+Art&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=10-38&rft.date=2008-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1540-4781.2008.00684.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25172990%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Russell+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hyde-2010-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hyde-2010_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hyde-2010_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHydePunchKomesaroff2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hyde, Merv; Punch, Renée; Komesaroff, Linda (1 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fdeafed%2Fenq004">"Coming to a Decision About Cochlear Implantation: Parents Making Choices for their Deaf Children"</a>. <i>Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education</i>. <b>15</b> (2): 162–178. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fdeafed%2Fenq004">10.1093/deafed/enq004</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/42659026">42659026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20139157">20139157</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Deaf+Studies+and+Deaf+Education&rft.atitle=Coming+to+a+Decision+About+Cochlear+Implantation%3A+Parents+Making+Choices+for+their+Deaf+Children&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=162-178&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20139157&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F42659026%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fdeafed%2Fenq004&rft.aulast=Hyde&rft.aufirst=Merv&rft.au=Punch%2C+Ren%C3%A9e&rft.au=Komesaroff%2C+Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fdeafed%252Fenq004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crouch-1997-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crouch-1997_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crouch-1997_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrouch1997" class="citation journal cs1">Crouch, Robert A. (1 January 1997). "Letting the Deaf Be Deaf Reconsidering the Use of Cochlear Implants in Prelingually Deaf Children". <i>The Hastings Center Report</i>. <b>27</b> (4): 14–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3528774">10.2307/3528774</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3528774">3528774</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9271717">9271717</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2566163">2566163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hastings+Center+Report&rft.atitle=Letting+the+Deaf+Be+Deaf+Reconsidering+the+Use+of+Cochlear+Implants+in+Prelingually+Deaf+Children&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=14-21&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9271717&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A2566163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3528774%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3528774&rft.aulast=Crouch&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Skutnabb-Kangas-2014-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Skutnabb-Kangas-2014_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Skutnabb-Kangas-2014_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkutnabb-KangasSolomonSkuttnab-Kangas2014" class="citation book cs1">Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove; Solomon, Andrew; Skuttnab-Kangas, Tove (1 January 2014). <i>Deaf Gain</i>. Raising the Stakes for Human Diversity. University of Minnesota Press. pp. 492–502. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816691227" title="Special:BookSources/9780816691227"><bdi>9780816691227</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctt9qh3m7.33">10.5749/j.ctt9qh3m7.33</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deaf+Gain&rft.series=Raising+the+Stakes+for+Human+Diversity&rft.pages=492-502&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.5749%2Fj.ctt9qh3m7.33%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9780816691227&rft.aulast=Skutnabb-Kangas&rft.aufirst=Tove&rft.au=Solomon%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Skuttnab-Kangas%2C+Tove&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForetia2017" class="citation news cs1">Foretia, Denis (21 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2017/03/21/cameroon-continues-its-oppression-of-english-speakers/">"Cameroon continues its oppression of English speakers"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Cameroon+continues+its+oppression+of+English+speakers&rft.date=2017-03-21&rft.aulast=Foretia&rft.aufirst=Denis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fglobal-opinions%2Fwp%2F2017%2F03%2F21%2Fcameroon-continues-its-oppression-of-english-speakers%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.editions-harmattan.fr/auteurs/article_pop.asp?no=31905&no_artiste=18165">"Le problème anglophone au Cameroun"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Le+probl%C3%A8me+anglophone+au+Cameroun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.editions-harmattan.fr%2Fauteurs%2Farticle_pop.asp%3Fno%3D31905%26no_artiste%3D18165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Associate professor in the education department of the University of Cape Town and author of 'Language and Power in Post-Colonial Schooling: Ideologies in Practice'</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.amnesty.org/wire/March2005/Syria">Repression of Kurds in Syria is widespread</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071015034722/http://web.amnesty.org/wire/March2005/Syria">Archived</a> 15 October 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> Report, March 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/11/syria-kurdistan-self-governance-teach-kurdish-language.html">"After 52-year ban, Syrian Kurds now taught Kurdish in schools"</a>. 6 November 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160510184634/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/11/syria-kurdistan-self-governance-teach-kurdish-language.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=After+52-year+ban%2C+Syrian+Kurds+now+taught+Kurdish+in+schools&rft.date=2015-11-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.al-monitor.com%2Fpulse%2Foriginals%2F2015%2F11%2Fsyria-kurdistan-self-governance-teach-kurdish-language.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnestyusa.org/action/special/zana.html">Special Focus Cases: Leyla Zana, Prisoner of Conscience</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050510082350/http://www.amnestyusa.org/action/special/zana.html">Archived</a> 2005-05-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.freemuse.org/sw6195.asp">Kurdish performers banned, Appeal from International PEN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120113034636/http://www.freemuse.org/sw6195.asp">Archived</a> 2012-01-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130615172358/http://en.firatnews.com/news/features/on-trial-for-speaking-kurdish.htm">"On trial for speaking Kurdish"</a>. <i>ANF-Firatnews</i>. 11 May 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.firatnews.com/news/features/on-trial-for-speaking-kurdish.htm">the original</a> on 15 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ANF-Firatnews&rft.atitle=On+trial+for+speaking+Kurdish&rft.date=2011-05-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.firatnews.com%2Fnews%2Ffeatures%2Fon-trial-for-speaking-kurdish.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cla3a-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cla3a_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarakaş2004" class="citation web cs1">Karakaş, Saniye (March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070628171743/http://www.unhchr.ch/minorities/statements10/CLA3a.doc">"Submission to the Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: Working Group of Minorities; Tenth Session, Agenda Item 3 (a)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhchr.ch/minorities/statements10/CLA3a.doc">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Word" title="Microsoft Word">MS Word</a>)</span> on 28 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 November</span> 2006</span>. <q>Kurds have been officially allowed since September 2003 to take Kurdish names, but cannot use the letters x, w, or q, which are common in Kurdish but do not exist in Turkey's version of the Latin alphabet. [...] Those letters, however, are used in Turkey in the names of companies, TV and radio channels, and trademarks. For example <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish Army">Turkish Army</a> has company under the name of AXA <a href="/wiki/OYAK" title="OYAK">OYAK</a> and there is <a href="/wiki/Show_TV" title="Show TV">SHOW TV</a> television channel in Turkey.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Submission+to+the+Sub-Commission+on+Promotion+and+Protection+of+Human+Rights%3A+Working+Group+of+Minorities%3B+Tenth+Session%2C+Agenda+Item+3+%28a%29&rft.pub=United+Nations+Commission+on+Human+Rights&rft.date=2004-03&rft.aulast=Karaka%C5%9F&rft.aufirst=Saniye&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhchr.ch%2Fminorities%2Fstatements10%2FCLA3a.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_Liberman2013" class="citation web cs1">Mark Liberman (24 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/blogs/lexicon_valley/2013/10/24/turkey_prime_minister_erdogan_s_democratizaton_package_legalizes_letters.html">"Turkey legalizes the letters Q, W, and X. Yay Alphabet!"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Slate_(magazine)" title="Slate (magazine)">Slate</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=Turkey+legalizes+the+letters+Q%2C+W%2C+and+X.+Yay+Alphabet%21&rft.date=2013-10-24&rft.au=Mark+Liberman&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Fblogs%2Flexicon_valley%2F2013%2F10%2F24%2Fturkey_prime_minister_erdogan_s_democratizaton_package_legalizes_letters.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALinguistic+discrimination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D4687417-BAB7-426A-9F30-8D16A9DEE206.htm">Turkey to get Kurdish television</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060513082443/http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/D4687417-BAB7-426A-9F30-8D16A9DEE206.htm">Archived</a> 13 May 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trt.net.tr/Haber/HaberDetay.aspx?HaberKodu=139bfcf2-18ef-46b2-937b-010ad9411f0f">"TRT HABER - Özel Kürtçe Kanala Yeşil Işık"</a>. Trt.net.tr. 28 November 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120118223608/http://www.trt.net.tr/Haber/HaberDetay.aspx?HaberKodu=139bfcf2-18ef-46b2-937b-010ad9411f0f">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25805-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-25805-7">0-415-25805-7</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literature">Literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Skutnabb-Kangas et al. (eds.), <i>Linguistic human rights: overcoming linguistic discrimination</i>, Walter de Gruyter (1995), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-014878-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-014878-1">3-11-014878-1</a>.</li> <li>R. Wodak and D. Corson (eds.), <i>Language policy and political issues in education</i>, Springer, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-4713-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-4713-7">0-7923-4713-7</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistic_discrimination&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linguistic-rights.org/en/Violations_of_Linguistic_Rights.html">Action Linguistic Rights: Violations of Linguistic Rights</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3d7cbEVJcjA">Language Discrimination</a>, YouTube</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Discrimination" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination" title="Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination" title="Template talk:Discrimination"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Discrimination" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attributes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">National</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discriminatory<br />policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Countermeasures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;padding:0.26em 0; line-height:1.5em; background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" 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