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Topics: Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Fields, Women in Disasters, Wars, and Crises, Prevention of Sexual Assault and Harassment, Sexual Health and Reproductive Health, Feminist Activism and Social Movements, Abolition of Child, Early, and Forced Marriages, Women`s Employment (Equal pay, rights), Women in Business, Women and Literature, Women`s Health, Women`s Human Rights and Global Conventions (CEDAW, Beijing Declaration, Istanbul Convention), Women and Art, Safe Cities for Women and Girls, Safe Cyber Spaces for Women and Girls, Ending Violence against Women and Girls, Women and Poverty, Education of Girl Children and Vocational Training for Women, Women`s Political Participation and Leadership, Women in Media and Feminist Alternative Media, Feminist Approaches to Global Warming and Climate Change, Anti-Gender Movement, Refugee and Displaced Women, Local Governments and Women, Gender and Justice, Women`s Rights in Historical Context ", "organizer": { "@type": "Organization", "name": "\u0130stanbul Topkap\u0131 University", "url": "https://www.clocate.com/international-congress-on-women-in-a-global-world-iv-struggle-for-equality-wgw/97354/" }, "performers": { "@type": "EducationalOrganization", "name": "Speakers or Exhibitors" } }</script> <meta name="description" content="International Congress on Women in a Global World IV: Struggle for Equality (WGW 2025), 2025, Istanbul, Turkey. 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</script> </div> </div> </div> <div class="container-fluid bg-grey"> <div class="container py-4"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12"> <h3 class="mb-2">The event has no final dates - See other events instead: </h3><div class="more_desc"><div class="d-flex flex-row mb-3"><div class="me-2"><i class="fa fa-solid fa-play text-orange f-sm"></i></div><div><a href="/annual-international-conference-on-business-and-society-in-a-global-economy/19298/" title="18th Annual International Conference on Business and Society in a Global Economy 2024" class="text-orange">18th Annual International Conference on Business and Society in a Global Economy 2024</a> <br><span class="f-sm">18-21 Dec 2024</span><span class="f-sm ms-3">Athens, Greece</span> </div></div><div class="d-flex flex-row mb-3"><div class="me-2"><i class="fa fa-solid fa-play text-orange f-sm"></i></div><div><a href="/refugees-and-forced-immigration-vii-international-interdisciplinary-conference-on-refugee-and-forced-immigration-studies-in-social-sciences/64826/" title="Refugees and Forced Immigration 2024 - IX International Interdisciplinary Conference on Refugee and Forced Immigration Studies in Social Sciences" class="text-orange">Refugees and Forced Immigration 2024 - IX International Interdisciplinary Conference on Refugee and Forced Immigration Studies in Social Sciences</a> <br><span class="f-sm">06 Dec 2024</span><span class="f-sm ms-3">Online Event</span> </div></div><div class="d-flex flex-row mb-3"><div class="me-2"><i class="fa fa-solid fa-play text-orange f-sm"></i></div><div><a href="/international-interdisciplinary-conference-on-memory-and-the-past-memory-studies/64771/" title="IX International Interdisciplinary Conference on Memory and The Past (Memory Studies 2024)" class="text-orange">IX International Interdisciplinary Conference on Memory and The Past (Memory Studies 2024)</a> <br><span class="f-sm">06 Dec 2024</span><span class="f-sm ms-3">Online Event</span> </div></div><div class="row"><div class="col"> <a href="/conferences-on+social-issues/c3UtMjUz/" class="btn btn-orange" title="more conferences or exhibitions" role="button" rel="nofollow">More Events</a> </div></div></div> </div> </div> <div class="mt-4"> <div class="text-center"> <script async src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-7614143061394066" crossorigin="anonymous"></script>  <ins class="adsbygoogle" style="display:block" data-ad-client="ca-pub-7614143061394066" data-ad-slot="4216783004" data-ad-format="auto" data-full-width-responsive="true"></ins> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="container-fluid"> <div class="container py-4"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-sm-8 mb-3"> <h3>Description</h3> <div class="desc"> <p>The <strong>International Congress on Women in a Global World IV: Struggle for Equality (WGW 2025)</strong> is dedicated to provide a platform for researchers working in different disciplines to discuss their studies on women and gender.</p> <h5>Topics</h5> <ul> <li>Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Fields</li> <li>Women in Disasters, Wars, and Crises</li> <li>Prevention of Sexual Assault and Harassment</li> <li>Sexual Health and Reproductive Health</li> <li>Feminist Activism and Social Movements</li> <li>Abolition of Child, Early, and Forced Marriages</li> <li>Women`s Employment (Equal pay, rights)</li> <li>Women in Business</li> <li>Women and Literature</li> <li>Women`s Health</li> <li>Women`s Human Rights and Global Conventions (CEDAW, Beijing Declaration, Istanbul Convention)</li> <li>Women and Art</li> <li>Safe Cities for Women and Girls</li> <li>Safe Cyber Spaces for Women and Girls</li> <li>Ending Violence against Women and Girls</li> <li>Women and Poverty</li> <li>Education of Girl Children and Vocational Training for Women</li> <li>Women`s Political Participation and Leadership</li> <li>Women in Media and Feminist Alternative Media</li> <li>Feminist Approaches to Global Warming and Climate Change</li> <li>Anti-Gender Movement</li> <li>Refugee and Displaced Women</li> <li>Local Governments and Women</li> <li>Gender and Justice</li> <li>Women`s Rights in Historical Context</li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="col-sm-4 text-center"> <script async src="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/js/adsbygoogle.js?client=ca-pub-7614143061394066" crossorigin="anonymous"></script>  <ins class="adsbygoogle" style="display:block" data-ad-client="ca-pub-7614143061394066" data-ad-slot="3114231540" data-ad-format="auto" data-full-width-responsive="true"></ins> <script> (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); </script> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="container-fluid bg-grey"> <div class="container py-4"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-sm-12"> <h3>Venue</h3> <div class="row"> <div class="col-lg-12"> <ul class="fa-ul"> <li> <span class="fa-li text-orange"><i class="fas fa-map-marker-alt"></i></span> Istanbul Topkap谋 University , Kazl谋莽e艧me, Prof. Muammer Aksoy Cad. No: 10, Istanbul, Turkey </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="row mb-2"> <div class="col-sm-6"> <a id="venue_booking" href="/clocate_hotels.php?lbl=venue&conf=97354&city=17585&ven=14881&fdate=2025-05-01&tdate=2025-12-31" target="_blank" class="btn btn-success mb-1" rel="nofollow" title="View Hotels near Venue"> <div class="d-flex flex-row"> <div class="me-2"><i class="fa-solid fa-bed btn-icon fa-2x"></i></div> <div class="btn-text">View hotels near venue</div> </div> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row"> <div class="col-sm-12"> <ins class="bookingaff" data-aid="1775965" data-ds-target_aid="330901" data-prod="map" data-width="95%" data-height="350" data-lang="xu" data-currency="USD" data-dest_id="0" data-dest_type="landmark" data-latitude="40.9949527" data-longitude="28.9174405" data-landmark_name="Istanbul Topkap谋 University" data-mwhsb="1" data-checkin="2025-05-01" data-checkout="2025-05-02">  <a href="//www.booking.com?aid=1775965">Booking.com</a> </ins> <script> 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Women in a Global World IV: Struggle for Equality (WGW 2024) - 23-25 May 2024, Istanbul Topkap谋 University, Turkey <span class="f-sm">(102457)</span> </li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="container-fluid bg-grey"> <div class="container py-4"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-md-12"> <h3>Important</h3> <div>Please, check "International Congress on Women in a Global World IV: Struggle for Equality (WGW)" official website for possible changes, before making any traveling arrangements</div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="container-fluid"> <div class="container py-4"> <h3 class="mb-2">Event Categories</h3> <div class="row mb-1"><div class="col-12"><span class="fw-bold">Government & Global Issues: </span>Economy, Social issues</div></div><div class="row mb-2"><div class="col-12"><span class="fw-bold">Science: </span>Humanities, Multidisciplinary, Political science, Social sciences</div></div> </div> </div> <div class="container-fluid bg-grey"> <div class="container py-4"> <h3>Other 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class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+science-education/eGMtNg==/" class="text-orange" title="Science Education Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Science Education Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+local-government/eGMtNA==/" class="text-orange" title="Local Government Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Local Government Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+public-policy/eGMtNA==/" class="text-orange" title="Public Policy Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Public Policy Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+government/eGMtNA==/" class="text-orange" title="Government Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Government Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+global-issues/eGMtNA==/" class="text-orange" title="Global Issues Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Global Issues Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+public-service/eGMtNA==/" class="text-orange" title="Public Service Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Public Service Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+media-studies/eHMtMTMy/" class="text-orange" title="Media Studies Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Media Studies Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+racism/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Racism Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Racism Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+abuse/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Abuse Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Abuse Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+social-and-cultural-history/eHMtMjIw/" class="text-orange" title="Social and Cultural History Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Social and Cultural History Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+society-problems/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Society Problems Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Society Problems Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+sociology-and-politics/eHMtMTMx/" class="text-orange" title="Sociology and Politics Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Sociology and Politics Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+diversity/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Diversity Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Diversity Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+humanities-and-social-sciences/eHMtMTMy/" class="text-orange" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Humanities and Social Sciences Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 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2025, 2026">Monetary Policy Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+child-maltreatment/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Child Maltreatment Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Child Maltreatment Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+trade/eHMtNDU2/" class="text-orange" title="Trade Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Trade Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+society/eHMtMTMy/" class="text-orange" title="Society Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Society Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+slums/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Slums Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Slums Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+cultural/eHMtMjIw/" class="text-orange" title="Cultural Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Cultural Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+aging-population/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Aging Population Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Aging Population Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+social/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Social Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Social Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+cross-cultural-communication/eHMtMTMy/" class="text-orange" title="Cross-cultural Communication Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Cross-cultural Communication Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+socioeconomic/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Socioeconomic Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Socioeconomic Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+digital-economy/eHMtNDU2/" class="text-orange" title="Digital Economy Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Digital Economy Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+ethnic/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Ethnic Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Ethnic Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+digital-heritage/eHMtMjIw/" class="text-orange" title="Digital Heritage Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Digital Heritage Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+alcohol/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Alcohol Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Alcohol Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+discourse/eHMtMTMx/" class="text-orange" title="Discourse Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Discourse Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+inequality/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Inequality Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Inequality Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+domestic-violence/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Domestic Violence Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Domestic Violence Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+weak/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Weak Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Weak Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+early-intervention/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Early Intervention Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Early Intervention Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+racial/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Racial Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Racial Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+economic-development/eHMtNDU2/" class="text-orange" title="Economic Development Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Economic Development Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+theft/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Theft Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Theft Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+economic-policy/eHMtNDU2/" class="text-orange" title="Economic Policy Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Economic Policy Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+wage/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Wage Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Wage Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+ethnoarchaeology/eHMtMjIw/" class="text-orange" title="Ethnoarchaeology Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Ethnoarchaeology Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+goods/eHMtNDU2/" class="text-orange" title="Goods Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Goods Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+eurasian-studies/eHMtMzIw/" class="text-orange" title="Eurasian Studies Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Eurasian Studies Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+consumption/eHMtNDU2/" class="text-orange" title="Consumption Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Consumption Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+gay/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Gay Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Gay Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+tourism-studies/eHMtMTMy/" class="text-orange" title="Tourism Studies Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Tourism Studies Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+inequalities/eHMtMjUz/" class="text-orange" title="Inequalities Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Inequalities Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+islamic-studies/eHMtMzIw/" class="text-orange" title="Islamic Studies Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Islamic Studies Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+latin-american-studies/eHMtMzIw/" class="text-orange" title="Latin American Studies Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Latin American Studies Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+liberalism/eHMtMTMx/" class="text-orange" title="Liberalism Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Liberalism Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center d-flex"> <div class="card-body p-2 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-center"><a href="/conferences-on+financial-monitoring/eHMtNDU2/" class="text-orange" title="Financial Monitoring Conferences 2024, 2025, 2026">Financial Monitoring Conferences</a> </div> </div> </div><div class="col-6 col-sm-3 col-lg-2 mb-3"> <div class="card h-100 box bg-grey-fa text-center 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Influencing the Adoption of Tenera Oil Palm Practices among Smallholder Farmers in Edo State, Nigeria </a> </div> </div> <div id="article_0" class="collapse"> <div class="card"> <div class="card-header"><b>Article content. Press on the above link to close</b></div> <div class="card-body text-left"><div><strong><em>Abstract</em></strong><strong> - </strong>The study determined institutional and technological factors that influence the adoption of tenera oil plam production practices with a gender dimension among smallholder farmers in Edo State, Nigeria. Primary data were generated with use of questionnaire administered to 155 males and 137 female respondents. Results show that the level of adoption of <em>tenera</em> oil palm production practices was low for both male and females. Tobi regression result shows that land ownership structure and affordability at 1% significance influenced male adoption of <em>tenera </em>oil palm production practices while age and level of income at 1% significance influenced female in the adoption o. The major roles of male as reported in adopting process were purchase of seedlings, clearing of bush for planting and selling of cut bunches while the major roles of female were periodic weeding, gathering of cut bunches and mulching of palm field. The major constraint faced by male in adoption process were high cost of labour while for females is drudgery nature of the work. The study recommended that the Land Use Act of 1978 should be enforced to help women and non-indigenes to have sizeable farm lands, Government should empower Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) by employing more extension personnel to increase their contacts with the farmers.</div> <div> <p><strong>Key Words: </strong>Gender, Adoption, Variety, Oil, Tenera, Edo</p> <p> </p> <p>I. INTRODUCTION</p> <p>Oil palm (<em>Elaeis guineensis</em>) is native to West Africa countries especially Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. They are the major producers of both palm oil and palm kernel oil in the region (Ofosu and Sarpong, 2013). It is one of the most important economic crops in Nigeria (Ajieh, 2013). Its production serves as a major source of income and a means of livelihood to many rural dwellers in the country. Oil palm serves as source of raw material for industries and means of foreign exchange. It is a versatile tree crop with almost all the parts useful and of economic value (Ibitoye <em>et.al</em>, 2011). In the 1960s before crude oil became the dominant income earner for Nigeria, palm oil from the south eastern region of Nigeria was one of the tripods on which the economy of Nigeria stood (Adetola, 2015). With the discovery and dependence of Nigeria on crude oil, the role of agriculture as a whole and palm oil in particular dwindled. Nigeria not only ceased exporting palm oil, but also became a net importer of palm oil even from Malaysia. According to USDA (2017) palm oil which is a product of oil palm amounts to 537,000 metric tons in Nigeria in 1964, dwindles and rises to maximum production of 971,000 metric tons in 2010 and then maintains stagnancy at 970, 000 metric tons since 2011. According to Adetola (2015), the growth in oil palm has stagnated at 930,000 metric tons since 2013 while the consumption of palm oil in Nigeria amounts to 2.0 million metric tons per annum and the shortage in oil palm industry is estimated to be around 1,070,000 metric tons annually.</p> <p>Edo State is one of the leading States in oil palm production in Nigeria. The main producers of oil palm in the state Okomu Oil and Presco, have continued to increase their plantation area and are on course to meet their 2018 and 2020 targets of growing their respective land area to 12,000 hectares and 20,000 hectares respectively (Nwosu and Okeowo, 2016). In 2015, mature land constituted about 95% of the total land area for both producers combined, growing by 10.8% for Okomu and 46.2% for Presco. Total crude palm oil (CPO) produced during the year increased by 12% to 35,600 tons and 10% to 39,328 tons for both companies respectively (Nwosu and Okeowo, 2016).</p> <p>The end products of oil palm pass through activities that require the efforts and collaboration of both men and women for maximum output. The role of both could be either complimentary or supportive to achieve high productivity. Issues about gender have taken a global dimension especially in the 20<sup>th</sup> and 21<sup>st</sup> century (Chukwu and Nwaiwu, 2012). Gender in agricultural production in Nigeria is attracting significant attention especially in the area of processing, marketing, power and right of input ownership and policy. According to United States Agency for International Development (USAID, 2005), gender is a socially constructed role differences between men and women for the purpose of allocating powers, duties, status, responsibilities and role in any given social context. It applies to one sex or the other, and relates to the way each behaves in a given situation, while sex is biologically determined, and cannot normally be changed (Ekenta <em>et al</em>., 2012).</p> <p>Ironkwe (2011) explained that gender deals with the social relationship between man and woman and how these relationships are negotiated in the production of goods and services. Gender relations manifest in the different roles, priorities, opportunities and limitations of men and women in a social setting. Gender in the adoption of improved production technologies of oil palm as being postulated in this research examines the awareness, interest, evaluation, trial and subsequent constant use (adoption) of the technologies by men and women, and the possible impediments therein.</p> <p>The involvements of women in agriculture in Nigeria have attracted great attention (Odurukwe <em>et al</em>., 2006). Women in Nigeria form an active and reserve labour force but rarely own the means of production (Rahman, 2004). They are involved in all aspects of agricultural activities; making of ridges, yam moulds, yam staking, weeding, fertilizer application, harvesting, processing, storage and marketing (Ekenta <em>et al</em>., 2012). Several researcher agrees that much of the work done is by women living in the rural areas; women who constitute more than one third of the total population in developing countries produce most of the food for domestic consumption and millions of women work as farmers, farm workers and natural resource managers (Sulo <em>et al</em>., 2012 and Onyemobi, 2000). In doing so, they contribute to national agricultural output, maintenance of the environment and family food security (Brown <em>et al</em>., 2001).</p> <p>The adoption of tenera production practices is a continuous process which requires the farmer to be aware of the practices, indicate interest in it, make evaluations, try out the technology in a small scale and make a decision to adopt the technology over a long period. According to Nin <em>et al</em>. (2003), technical change in the form of adoption of improved agricultural production technologies has been reported to have positive impacts on agricultural productivity growth in the developing world. Adopting the improved oil palm recommended technologies such as nursery planting, <em>tenera </em>improved seedlings<strong>, </strong>9 metres triangular planting space<strong>, w</strong>eed control by hoeing<strong>, </strong>weed control by cover crop<strong>, </strong>weed control with Glyphasate and Diuro mixture, disease control with Dithane m45, pest control with Cypermettin application of NPK 20:10:10<strong>, </strong>use of harvesting chisel and harvesting with machete are expected to improve the productivity of oil palm.</p> <p>The adoption of the improved technologies with high potentials to produce palm oil and palm kernel, becomes very vital to re-engineering the declining level of palm oil production and its foreign earnings in the country. Further, if the roles of men and women in their different capacities and abilities are explored, and the improved technologies adopted, oil palm production will be enhanced and this will improve farmers’ well-being, income, and food security at the family level and the nation at large. Against this background, the research was conducted to analyze factors influencing the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies in Edo State, Nigeria.</p> <p>II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY</p> <p>The stud was carried out in Edo State located on longitude 06<sup>o</sup> 04`E and 06<sup>o</sup> 43`E and latitude 05<sup>o</sup>44` N and 07<sup>o</sup>34` N. It occupies a land area of about 17,802 square kilometres but only 400 square kilometres is used for oil palm production in the State. The State is classified as a rainforest Zone. The rainy season starts from April till about the end of October. The annual rainfall is between 1750mm and 2100mm with an average rainfall of 1920mm. The temperature is between 22°C and 30°C with an average annual relative humidity of 82% which is very suitable for oil palm production (Ekunwe <em>et al., </em>2016). With Benin City as the capital, the state has a population of 3,778,860 people. In 2018, the projected population was 4, 467,410 with a population growth rate of 2.7% per annum (NPC, 2006). It is made up of three major ethnic groups; namely the Bini’s, Esan and Afemai. However, the State has a high presence of residents from across the country and the world because of its cosmopolitan tendencies. Benin City the capital has a history of being one of the foremost destinations of Europeans during their exploration of Africa continent many centuries ago. Some of the flash points have remained enviable tourists’ attraction for the state. It is notable for the production of cassava, oil palm, plantain, maize, yam, melon, coconut and vegetables.</p> <p>Multi stages sampling comprising purposive, random and stratified sampling techniques were used in selecting Local Government Areas and Villages. From the sampling frame in each village, 10% of respondents were selected. A total of 155 males and 137 females making 292 respondents were sampled for the study. The primary data used were collected through the administration of structured questionnaire, focus group discussion and key informant interview. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics and Tobit Regressions Analysis.</p> <p><em>Tobit regressions analysis</em></p> <p>Tobit regression is an inferential statistical tool used in this study to determine the socio-economic, institutional and technological variables that influence the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies. It is often used when there are multiple dependent variables and multiple independent variables. It is expected that the socio-economic, institutional and technological variables will have either positive or negative influence on the adoption of improved Oil palm technologies in the study area. Tobit model used by Ayanlere (2016) was adapted for this study as specified. Adoption was measure by adoption ratio as specified by Orebiyi (2005) and Onemolease and Alakpa (2009) respectively.</p> <p>V = β<sub>0</sub> + β<sub>1</sub>X<sub>1</sub> + β<sub>2</sub>X<sub>2</sub> + β<sub>3</sub>X<sub>3</sub> + β<sub>4</sub>X<sub>4</sub> + β<sub>5</sub>X<sub>5</sub> + β<sub>6</sub>X<sub>6 </sub>+ β<sub>7</sub>X<sub>7 </sub>+ β<sub>8</sub>X<sub>8 </sub>+ β<sub>9</sub>X<sub>9 </sub>+ β<sub>10</sub>X<sub>10 </sub>+ β<sub>11</sub>X<sub>11 </sub>+ β<sub>12</sub>X<sub>12 </sub>+ β<sub>n</sub>X<sub>n</sub>+ e…...(1)</p> <p>Where</p> <p>V = limited dependent variables and is defined as</p> <p>V = V<sub>j</sub>*if V<sub>j </sub>> 0 ......................................................(2)</p> <p>V<sub>j </sub>= 0 if V<sub>j</sub>* <u><</u> 0.......................................................(3)</p> <p>j = 1…155,137</p> <p>V = <span lang="EN-GB" style="`font-size: 10.0pt;">(Z-Y<sub>j </sub></span><sub><span lang="EN-GB" style="`font-size: 10.0pt;">)</span></sub> <img alt="" /> (Adoption Ratio)..................................(4)</p> <p>Z = number of recommended tenera production practices</p> <p>Y<sub>j </sub>= number of recommended tenera production practices</p> <p>adopted by jth farmers</p> <p>X<sub>1</sub> – X<sub>15</sub> = Independent variables</p> <p>X<sub>1</sub> = Age (Years)</p> <p>X<sub>2</sub> = Educational Level (Years)</p> <p>X<sub>3 </sub>= Farm Size (Hectares)</p> <p>X<sub>4</sub> = Household Size (Number)</p> <p>X<sub>5</sub> = Land Ownership (inherited, purchased, rented and gift)</p> <p>X<sub>6</sub> = Tenera Farming Experience (Years)</p> <p>X<sub>7</sub> = Level Income (<s>N</s>/K)</p> <p>X<sub>8 </sub>= Extension contact (Frequency of contact)</p> <p>X<sub>9</sub> = Relative advantage (Farmers’ Perception; Has advantage, Yes =1; Otherwise, No = 0)</p> <p>X<sub>10</sub> = Compatibility (Farmers’ Perception; Compatible - Yes =1; Otherwise – No = 0)</p> <p>X<sub>11</sub> = Affordability (Farmers’ Perception; Affordable - Yes =1; Otherwise – No = 0)</p> <p>X<sub>12</sub> = Complexity (Farmers’ Perception; Complex - Yes =1; Otherwise – No = 0)</p> <p>e = Error term</p> <p>β<sub>0</sub> = constant</p> <p>β<sub>1 </sub>- β<sub>12 </sub>= Regression coefficient</p> <p><em>Weighted average score (WAS) </em></p> <p>Weighted average is an average where each value is assigned a specific weight or frequency. A weighted average takes different scores, or grades, with assigned weights, or percentage. Weighted average score was used to achieve objective (iv) of the study.</p> <p>Weighted Avg<sub>x</sub> = <em>W<sub>1</sub>X<sub>1</sub></em> + <em>W<sub>2</sub>X<sub>2</sub></em> +….. <em>WnXn</em> ………. (5)</p> <p>Where</p> <p>W= Relative weight of the levels of adoption (Awareness = 1, Interest = 2, Evaluation = 3, Trial = 4, Adoption = 5)</p> <p>X= Nominal value of the adoption levels of tenera oil palm variety</p> <p> </p> </div> <div> <p>III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION</p> <p>Table 1: Socio-economic Characteristics</p> <div class="table-responsive"> <table class="table table-bordered"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Characteristics</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Male (n = 155)</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Female (n = 137)</strong></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>F</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>%</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Mean</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>SD</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>F</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>%</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Mean</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>SD</strong></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Age (Yrs)</strong></p> <p>20 – 39</p> <p>40 – 59</p> <p>>59</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>39</p> <p>100</p> <p>16</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>25</p> <p>65</p> <p>10</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>46.10</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>11.77</p> <p> </p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>46</p> <p>77</p> <p>14</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>34</p> <p>56</p> <p>10</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>43.71</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>11.77</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Educational Level (Yrs)</strong></p> <p>Non Formal</p> <p>Primary</p> <p>Secondary</p> <p>Tertiary</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>0</p> <p>61</p> <p>75</p> <p>19</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>0</p> <p>39</p> <p>49</p> <p>12</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>9.47</p> <p> </p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>3.22</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>27</p> <p>31</p> <p>72</p> <p>7</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>20</p> <p>23</p> <p>52</p> <p>5</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>7.79</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>4.58</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Household Size (No.)</strong></p> <p>1 – 5</p> <p>6 – 10</p> <p>11 – 15</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>83</p> <p>66</p> <p>6</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>54</p> <p>43</p> <p>3</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>5.6</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>2.3</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>71</p> <p>61</p> <p>5</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>51</p> <p>44</p> <p>5</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>5.5</p> <p> </p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>2.1</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Land Ownership Structure</strong></p> <p>Inherited</p> <p>Purchased</p> <p>Rented</p> <p>Gift</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>62</p> <p>20</p> <p>63</p> <p>10</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>40</p> <p>13</p> <p>41</p> <p>6</p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>31</p> <p>56</p> <p>29</p> <p>7</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>23</p> <p>41</p> <p>29</p> <p>7</p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Farm Size (Ha)</strong></p> <p>1.0 – 1.5</p> <p>2.0 – 2.5</p> <p>>2.5</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>94</p> <p>46</p> <p>15</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>60</p> <p>30</p> <p>10</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>1.6</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>0.7</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>94</p> <p>31</p> <p>0</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>69</p> <p>31</p> <p>0</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>1.4</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>0.4</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Tenera Farming Experience</strong></p> <p>1 – 5</p> <p>6 – 10</p> <p>11 – 15</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>25</p> <p>35</p> <p>95</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>16</p> <p>23</p> <p>61</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>10</p> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>48</p> <p>53</p> <p>36</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>35</p> <p>39</p> <p>26</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>8</p> </td> <td> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Level of Income (N)</strong></p> <p>100, 000 – 290, 000</p> <p>300, 000 - 490, 000</p> <p>500, 000 – 690, 000</p> <p>>690, 000</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>5</p> <p>67</p> <p>46</p> <p>37</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>3</p> <p>43</p> <p>30</p> <p>24</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>532,967</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>169,887</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>26</p> <p>104</p> <p>7</p> <p>0</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>19</p> <p>76</p> <p>5</p> <p>0</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>360,109</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>89,612</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Extent of Extension Contact (f)</strong></p> <p>No Contact</p> <p>Thrice a Week</p> <p>Twice a Week</p> <p>Once a Week</p> <p>Once a Month</p> <p>Once in two Months</p> <p>Quarterly</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>4</p> <p>1</p> <p>8</p> <p>108</p> <p>31</p> <p>5</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>3</p> <p>1</p> <p>5</p> <p>68</p> <p>20</p> <p>3</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>2.8</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>0.79</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>20</p> <p>4</p> <p>4</p> <p>1</p> <p>67</p> <p>39</p> <p>2</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p>14</p> <p>3</p> <p>3</p> <p>1</p> <p>49</p> <p>29</p> <p>2</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>2.4</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>1.3</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> <p>Table 1 show that 75% of the female farmers are married more than the male (67%). This might be so because more of the females than male did not attend formal education and therefore went into marriage. This finding is contrary to the findings of Ewebiyi and Kayode (2013) and Deji and Koledoye (2013). The frequency of extension contact reveals that 68% of male had contact with extension agents once in a month as against females (49%) who had contact with extension agents once a month. This shows that the extent of extension contact with the farmers in the study area is low but in favour of the male. This finding corroborates Adeola and Ayoade (2009)</p> <p> </p> <div> <p>Table 2: Distribution of farmers’ levels of adoption of tenera production practice among gender</p> <div class="table-responsive"> <table class="table table-bordered"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <p> </p> <p>Variables</p> </td> <td> <p>Men</p> </td> <td> <p>Women</p> </td> <td> <p>Judgment Criteria for the Levels of Adoption</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>WAS</p> </td> <td> <p>MS</p> </td> <td> <p>WAS</p> </td> <td> <p>MS</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Nursery planting</p> </td> <td> <p>721</p> </td> <td> <p>4.59</p> </td> <td> <p>622</p> </td> <td> <p>4.54</p> </td> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>A = 1.00 – 1.49</p> <p>I = 1.50 – 2.49</p> <p>E = 2.50 – 3.49</p> <p>T = 3.50 – 4.49</p> <p>A = 4.50 – 5.00</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><em>Tenera</em> improved seedling</p> </td> <td> <p>753</p> </td> <td> <p>4.85</p> </td> <td> <p>634</p> </td> <td> <p>4.63</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>9 metres triangular planting space</p> </td> <td> <p>740</p> </td> <td> <p>4.77</p> </td> <td> <p>610</p> </td> <td> <p>4.50</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Weed control by hoeing</p> </td> <td> <p>690</p> </td> <td> <p>4.45</p> </td> <td> <p>621</p> </td> <td> <p>4.53</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Weed control by cover crop</p> </td> <td> <p>370</p> </td> <td> <p>2.38</p> </td> <td> <p>421</p> </td> <td> <p>3.07</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Weed control by Glyphasate and Diuron mixture</p> </td> <td> <p>724</p> </td> <td> <p>4.67</p> </td> <td> <p>540</p> </td> <td> <p>3.94</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Disease control with Dithanem45</p> </td> <td> <p>234</p> </td> <td> <p>1.50</p> </td> <td> <p>198</p> </td> <td> <p>1.44</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Pest control with Cypermettin (1.0 litre/ha)</p> </td> <td> <p>711</p> </td> <td> <p>4.58</p> </td> <td> <p>342</p> </td> <td> <p>2.49</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Application of NPK 20:10:10 (39-40kg/ha)</p> </td> <td> <p>733</p> </td> <td> <p>4.72</p> </td> <td> <p>511</p> </td> <td> <p>3.72</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Use of harvesting chisel</p> </td> <td> <p>295</p> </td> <td> <p>1.90</p> </td> <td> <p>148</p> </td> <td> <p>1.08</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Harvesting with machete</p> </td> <td> <p>706</p> </td> <td> <p>4.55</p> </td> <td> <p>618</p> </td> <td> <p>4.51</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>Average Mean Score (AMS)</strong></p> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p><strong>3.90</strong></p> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p><strong>3.49</strong></p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <p>WAS = Weighted Average Score; MS = Mean Score. A = Awareness; I = Interest, E = Evaluation; T = Trial and A = Adoption</p> </div> <p>Table 2 presented the weighted average and mean scores for each of the oil palm production technologies. The mean score determined the level or stage of adoption of the technologies by the men and women farmers. The result showed that the average adoption mean score for men farmers was 3.90 and that for women farmers was 3.49. This shows that averagely the men farmers are at the trial level of adoption while the women farmers are at the evaluation level of adoption of tenera oil palm variety in the study area. The trial level of adoption is a stage characterized by small scale experimental use of the technologies. At this level, the men practically adopted the technologies at a small scale level; understand its workability, the actual cost, the compatibility and usability of the technologies at the long run. On the hand, the evaluation stage of adoption is characterized with mental assessment of the technologies. At this stage, the women farmers made mental assessment such as the cost, complexity, usability, compatibility and the profitability of the production technologies over their old practices. The men farmers therefore are ahead of the women in the adoption level of the technologies. The implication of this is that men farmers have adopted the technologies at a small scale level and stand a better chance of adopting the technologies constantly over a long period of time than the women farmers. This result however indicates a low adoption of the technologies in the study area. The finding is contrary to the finding of Orebiyi <em>et al. </em>(2005) who reported a 61% adoption of the entire IITA cassava production technology package in their study. The difference in these findings may be attributed to the different crops involved and the fact that oil palm production is more labour intensive; drudgery and requires large farm size.</p> <div> </div> <div> <p>Table 3: Multiple Responses of the Roles of Gender in <em>Tenera</em> Oil Palm Adoption</p> </div> <div> <div class="table-responsive"> <table class="table table-bordered"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p><strong>Adoption Roles</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Male (N = 155)</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Female (N = 137)</strong></p> <p> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>F</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>%</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Rank</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>F</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>%</strong></p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Rank</strong></p> <p> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Nursery planting of palms</p> </td> <td> <p>15</p> </td> <td> <p>9.6</p> </td> <td> <p>14<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>35</p> </td> <td> <p>25.5</p> </td> <td> <p>13th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Watering nursery planted palms</p> </td> <td> <p>10</p> </td> <td> <p>6.45</p> </td> <td> <p>15<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>29</p> </td> <td> <p>21.1</p> </td> <td> <p>14th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Clearing of bush for planting</p> </td> <td> <p>108</p> </td> <td> <p>69.6</p> </td> <td> <p>2<sup>nd</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>65</p> </td> <td> <p>47.4</p> </td> <td> <p>6th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Purchase of the seedlings</p> </td> <td> <p>132</p> </td> <td> <p>85.1</p> </td> <td> <p>1<sup>st</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>54</p> </td> <td> <p>39.4</p> </td> <td> <p>7th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Mapping of the farm land for planting</p> </td> <td> <p>84</p> </td> <td> <p>54.1</p> </td> <td> <p>5<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>48</p> </td> <td> <p>35</p> </td> <td> <p>8th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Planting of the oil palm</p> </td> <td> <p>67</p> </td> <td> <p>43.2</p> </td> <td> <p>8<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>40</p> </td> <td> <p>29.1</p> </td> <td> <p>11th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Making hedge around the planted palm</p> </td> <td> <p>69</p> </td> <td> <p>44.5</p> </td> <td> <p>7<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>78</p> </td> <td> <p>56.9</p> </td> <td> <p>4th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Periodic weeding of newly planted palms</p> </td> <td> <p>23</p> </td> <td> <p>14.8</p> </td> <td> <p>12<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>94</p> </td> <td> <p>68.6</p> </td> <td> <p>1st</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Mulching of the palm in the field</p> </td> <td> <p>28</p> </td> <td> <p>18</p> </td> <td> <p>11<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>82</p> </td> <td> <p>59.8</p> </td> <td> <p>3rd</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Application of chemicals</p> </td> <td> <p>56</p> </td> <td> <p>36.1</p> </td> <td> <p>10<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>69</p> </td> <td> <p>50.3</p> </td> <td> <p>5th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Clearing bush for grown palms</p> </td> <td> <p>88</p> </td> <td> <p>56.7</p> </td> <td> <p>4<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>45</p> </td> <td> <p>32.8</p> </td> <td> <p>9th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Periodic pruning of the palms</p> </td> <td> <p>65</p> </td> <td> <p>41.9</p> </td> <td> <p>9<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>38</p> </td> <td> <p>27.7</p> </td> <td> <p>12th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Cutting of mature bunches (Harvesting)</p> </td> <td> <p>73</p> </td> <td> <p>47</p> </td> <td> <p>6<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>10</p> </td> <td> <p>7.2</p> </td> <td> <p>15th</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Gathering of already cut bunches</p> </td> <td> <p>22</p> </td> <td> <p>14.1</p> </td> <td> <p>13<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>87</p> </td> <td> <p>63.5</p> </td> <td> <p>2nd</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Selling of cut bunches</p> </td> <td> <p>89</p> </td> <td> <p>57.4</p> </td> <td> <p>3<sup>rd</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>43</p> </td> <td> <p>31.3</p> </td> <td> <p>10th</p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <p>Table 3 indicates that both men and women farmers played several different specific roles in the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies in the study area. Most predominantly, the men farmers played the following roles; purchase of bunches, clearing of bush for planting, selling of bunches, clearing of bush for already grown plants and mapping of the farm land for planting. On the other hand, women farmers played the roles of periodic weeding of newly planted palm, gathering of already cut bunches, mulching of the palm in the field, making hedges around the planted palm and application of chemicals. Roles are specific functions expected of individuals to play at a particular time. The adoption of oil palm production technologies involves various activities which are carried out as roles by individuals involved in the adoption process. The roles of women farmers are associated with household responsibilities while the roles of men farmers are viewed to be providing for the family and engaging in productive ventures for the family’s well-being. A woman who is seen as playing the roles expected of a man is sometimes nick named “the super woman” while a man seen as playing the roles socially expected of a woman is considered to be weak. These social ideas of the roles of men and women affected the roles played by both of them in the adoption of oil palm production technologies. The males played the following major roles; purchase of bunches (85.1%), clearing of bush for planting (69.6%) and selling of bunches (57.4%). On the other hand, female played the roles of periodic weeding (68.6%), gathering of already cut bunches (63.5%) and mulching of (59.8%).</p> </div> <div> </div> <div> <p>Table 4: Decision Making by Gender in the Adoption of Improved Oil Palm Technologies</p> <div class="table-responsive"> <table class="table table-bordered"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <p> </p> <p>Adoption Decisions</p> </td> <td> <p>Men (N= 155)*</p> </td> <td> <p>Women (N = 137)*</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>F</p> </td> <td> <p>%</p> </td> <td> <p>Rank</p> <p> </p> </td> <td> <p>F</p> </td> <td> <p>%</p> </td> <td> <p><strong>Rank</strong></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>The hectare of farm land to be used</p> </td> <td> <p>125</p> </td> <td> <p>80.64</p> </td> <td> <p>1<sup>st</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>31</p> </td> <td> <p>22.62</p> </td> <td> <p>12<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>To take loan or credit facility from the bank</p> </td> <td> <p>93</p> </td> <td> <p>60</p> </td> <td> <p>2<sup>nd</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>25</p> </td> <td> <p>18.24</p> </td> <td> <p>13<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>When to harvest matured bunches</p> </td> <td> <p>86</p> </td> <td> <p>55.48</p> </td> <td> <p>3<sup>rd</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>41</p> </td> <td> <p>29.92</p> </td> <td> <p>7<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>The number of times and period of pruning the palms</p> </td> <td> <p>82</p> </td> <td> <p>52.90</p> </td> <td> <p>4<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>55</p> </td> <td> <p>40.14</p> </td> <td> <p>6<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>The kind of agrochemicals to be used</p> </td> <td> <p>78</p> </td> <td> <p>50.32</p> </td> <td> <p>5<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>65</p> </td> <td> <p>47.44</p> </td> <td> <p>4<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>The number of hybrid seedlings to be bought</p> </td> <td> <p>76</p> </td> <td> <p>49.03</p> </td> <td> <p>6<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>34</p> </td> <td> <p>24.81</p> </td> <td> <p>10<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>How much to pay the labourers</p> </td> <td> <p>73</p> </td> <td> <p>47.09</p> </td> <td> <p>7<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>35</p> </td> <td> <p>25.54</p> </td> <td> <p>9<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>How much a bunch should be sold</p> </td> <td> <p>68</p> </td> <td> <p>43.87</p> </td> <td> <p>8<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>21</p> </td> <td> <p>15.32</p> </td> <td> <p>15<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>The chemicals to be used for pest and diseases</p> </td> <td> <p>66</p> </td> <td> <p>42.58</p> </td> <td> <p>9<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>22</p> </td> <td> <p>16.05</p> </td> <td> <p>14<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>How many bunches should be kept for family use</p> </td> <td> <p>65</p> </td> <td> <p>41.93</p> </td> <td> <p>19<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>40</p> </td> <td> <p>29.19</p> </td> <td> <p>8<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Whether some bunches should be kept for family use</p> </td> <td> <p>59</p> </td> <td> <p>38.06</p> </td> <td> <p>11<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>33</p> </td> <td> <p>24.08</p> </td> <td> <p>11<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>When to clear the bush for planting</p> </td> <td> <p>55</p> </td> <td> <p>35.48</p> </td> <td> <p>12<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>78</p> </td> <td> <p>56.93</p> </td> <td> <p>2<sup>nd</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>When to plant the seedlings</p> </td> <td> <p>45</p> </td> <td> <p>29.03</p> </td> <td> <p>13<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>75</p> </td> <td> <p>54.74</p> </td> <td> <p>3<sup>rd</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>The number of labour to be used</p> </td> <td> <p>45</p> </td> <td> <p>29.03</p> </td> <td> <p>14<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>81</p> </td> <td> <p>59.12</p> </td> <td> <p>1<sup>st</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>How many times and the periods of weeding</p> </td> <td> <p>23</p> </td> <td> <p>14.83</p> </td> <td> <p>15<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>56</p> </td> <td> <p>40.87</p> </td> <td> <p>5<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p><strong>% Average</strong></p> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p><strong>45</strong></p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p><strong>34</strong></p> </td> <td> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <p>Table 4 depicts the areas of decisions by men and women in the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies. It reveals that men farmers majorly took the following decisions in the adoption of oil palm production technology; hectare of farm land to be used, to take loan or credit facility from bank, when to harvest matured bunches, the number of times and period of pruning the palms and the kind of agrochemicals to be used. Similarly, women took the following decisions; the number of persons to be used for labour, when to clear the bush for planting, when to plant the seedlings, the agrochemicals to use and how many times and periods of weeding. Further, the table shows that on the average, men (45%) took more of the decisions as against the women (34%) in the adoption process of improved oil palm production technologies. Decision making in the household is often seen as the responsibility of the men. Even when the woman conceives ideas, she is not expected to take decisions on them unless rectified by the man. In this situation, if a woman has an idea that is productive, worthwhile and beneficial and such idea is not supported by the man, the idea will be relegated. This scenario is prevalent in the study area. The men farmers took the most important decisions in the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies than the women farmers.</p> </div> <div> <p> </p> <p>Table 5: Tobit Regressions of Socio-economic, Institutional and Technological Factors Influencing Adoption of Improved Oil Palm Production Technologies by Gender</p> </div> <div> <div class="table-responsive"> <table class="table table-bordered"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p>Variables</p> </td> <td> <p>Men</p> </td> <td> <p>Women</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Β</p> </td> <td> <p>SE</p> </td> <td> <p>t-ratio</p> </td> <td> <p>Β</p> </td> <td> <p>SE</p> </td> <td> <p>t-ratio</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>(Constant)</p> </td> <td> <p>.3909</p> </td> <td> <p>.0921</p> </td> <td> <p>4.2442</p> </td> <td> <p>.2950</p> </td> <td> <p>.0728</p> </td> <td> <p>4.0521</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Age</p> </td> <td> <p>-.0037</p> </td> <td> <p>.0041</p> </td> <td> <p>-.9024</p> </td> <td> <p>-.0091</p> </td> <td> <p>.0029</p> </td> <td> <p>-3.1379***</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Education</p> </td> <td> <p>.0100</p> </td> <td> <p>.0133</p> </td> <td> <p>.7518</p> </td> <td> <p>.0024</p> </td> <td> <p>.0025</p> </td> <td> <p>.9600</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Farm Size</p> </td> <td> <p>.0179</p> </td> <td> <p>.0074</p> </td> <td> <p>2.4189**</p> </td> <td> <p>.0095</p> </td> <td> <p>.0149</p> </td> <td> <p>.6375</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Household Size</p> </td> <td> <p>.0042</p> </td> <td> <p>.0050</p> </td> <td> <p>.8400</p> </td> <td> <p>.0097</p> </td> <td> <p>.0115</p> </td> <td> <p>.8434</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Land Ownership Structure</p> </td> <td> <p>.0351</p> </td> <td> <p>.0101</p> </td> <td> <p>3.4752***</p> </td> <td> <p>.0102</p> </td> <td> <p>.0237</p> </td> <td> <p>.4304</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Farming Experience</p> </td> <td> <p>.0041</p> </td> <td> <p>.0051</p> </td> <td> <p>.8039</p> </td> <td> <p>.0019</p> </td> <td> <p>.0026</p> </td> <td> <p>.7307</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Level of Income</p> </td> <td> <p>.8026</p> </td> <td> <p>.2787</p> </td> <td> <p>2.8797**</p> </td> <td> <p>.4553</p> </td> <td> <p>.1155</p> </td> <td> <p>3.9419***</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Extension Contact</p> </td> <td> <p>.0211</p> </td> <td> <p>.0121</p> </td> <td> <p>1.7438</p> </td> <td> <p>.0068</p> </td> <td> <p>.0078</p> </td> <td> <p>.8717</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Relative Advantage</p> </td> <td> <p>.0405</p> </td> <td> <p>.0199</p> </td> <td> <p>2.0351**</p> </td> <td> <p>.0212</p> </td> <td> <p>.0094</p> </td> <td> <p>2.2553**</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Compatibility</p> </td> <td> <p>.0272</p> </td> <td> <p>.0190</p> </td> <td> <p>1.4315</p> </td> <td> <p>.0149</p> </td> <td> <p>.0133</p> </td> <td> <p>1.1203</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Affordability</p> </td> <td> <p>.0217</p> </td> <td> <p>.0070</p> </td> <td> <p>3.1000***</p> </td> <td> <p>.0572</p> </td> <td> <p>.0215</p> </td> <td> <p>2.6604**</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Complexity</p> </td> <td> <p>-.0336</p> </td> <td> <p>.0149</p> </td> <td> <p>-2.2550**</p> </td> <td> <p>-.0296</p> </td> <td> <p>.0121</p> </td> <td> <p>-2.4462**</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Sigma</p> </td> <td> <p>.3234</p> </td> <td> <p>.0236</p> </td> <td> <p>13.692</p> </td> <td> <p>.1313</p> </td> <td> <p>.0145</p> </td> <td> <p>17.607</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Log Likelihood Function</p> </td> <td> <p>-124.9433</p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> <p>-110.3113</p> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> <p>** = Sig @ 5%; *** = Sig @ 1%</p> </div> <p> </p> <div> <p>The Tobit analysis presented in table 5 reveals that for men, farm size, level of income and relative advantage had positive and significant influence at 5% level of probability while complexity had negative and significant influence at 5% probability. Also land ownership structure, access to credit and affordability had positive and significant influence at the probability of 1%. This means that these variables influenced men in the adoption of the recommended practices. The estimated sigma of 0.32 implies that 32% variation in the adoption of improved oil palm technologies was accounted for by the influence of the independent variables for men farmers. This means that the tendency of a farmer to adopt improved oil palm production technologies is dependent on the independent variables employed. Similarly, for women, marital status and level of income were positive and significantly influenced adoption at 1% level of probability while relative advantage and affordability had positive and significant influence at 5% probability. Further, age and complexity had negative but significant influence at 1% and 5% levels of probability respectively. The estimated sigma of 0.13 implies that 13% of the variations in the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies were accounted for by the independent variables. The positive significant influence of some of the variables for men and women indicate that a unit increase in any of the variables will lead to a unit increase in the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies. Similarly, the negatively significant influence observed of some of the variables shows an inverse relationship. This explains that a unit increase in any of the variables will lead to a unit decrease in the adoption of improved oil palm production technologies. In the regressions analysis, age of the farmers and complexity of the technologies were negatively significant. This implies that the higher the age of the farmer, the lower the adoption of improved oil palm technologies. Similarly, the more complex a technology is perceived by the farmers, the less the tendency of the farmers to adopt it. The socio-economic, institutional and technological factors had influence on men and women farmers in the adoption of oil palm production technologies at different probability levels. However, the factors had more influence on the women as 17% of the factors which is indicated by the value of the sigma influenced the decision of the women farmers to adopt while 13% influenced the decision of the men farmers to adoption. The influences may be positive or negative but as observed in the results, the factors had negative influences. This accounted for the reason the men farmers adopted the technologies more than the women farmers in the study area.</p> <p> </p> </div> <div> <p>Table 6: Factors that Constrained Farmers in Adopting the Tenera Variety by Gender</p> <div class="table-responsive"> <table class="table table-bordered"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <p> </p> <p>Constraining Factors</p> </td> <td> <p>Male (N = 155)</p> </td> <td> <p>Female (N = 137)</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>F</p> </td> <td> <p>%</p> </td> <td> <p>Rank</p> </td> <td> <p>F</p> </td> <td> <p>%</p> </td> <td> <p>Rank</p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>High cost of labour</p> </td> <td> <p>130</p> </td> <td> <p>83.87</p> </td> <td> <p>1<sup>st</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>118</p> </td> <td> <p>86.13</p> </td> <td> <p>2<sup>nd</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>High cost of the seedlings</p> </td> <td> <p>105</p> </td> <td> <p>67.74</p> </td> <td> <p>2<sup>nd</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>91</p> </td> <td> <p>66.42</p> </td> <td> <p>4<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>High cost of material inputs</p> </td> <td> <p>98</p> </td> <td> <p>63.22</p> </td> <td> <p>3<sup>rd</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>96</p> </td> <td> <p>70.07</p> </td> <td> <p>3<sup>rd</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Long period of maturity</p> </td> <td> <p>91</p> </td> <td> <p>58.70</p> </td> <td> <p>4<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>87</p> </td> <td> <p>63.50</p> </td> <td> <p>5<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Inadequate access to Land</p> </td> <td> <p>85</p> </td> <td> <p>54.83</p> </td> <td> <p>5<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>72</p> </td> <td> <p>52.55</p> </td> <td> <p>6<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Pest and disease</p> </td> <td> <p>71</p> </td> <td> <p>45.80</p> </td> <td> <p>6<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>60</p> </td> <td> <p>43.79</p> </td> <td> <p>7<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Inadequate credit facility</p> </td> <td> <p>65</p> </td> <td> <p>41.93</p> </td> <td> <p>7<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>58</p> </td> <td> <p>42.33</p> </td> <td> <p>8<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Inadequate availability of ready market</p> </td> <td> <p>60</p> </td> <td> <p>38.70</p> </td> <td> <p>8<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>52</p> </td> <td> <p>37.95</p> </td> <td> <p>9<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Poor road network</p> </td> <td> <p>54</p> </td> <td> <p>34.83</p> </td> <td> <p>9<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>47</p> </td> <td> <p>34.30</p> </td> <td> <p>10<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Drudgery nature of the work</p> </td> <td> <p>51</p> </td> <td> <p>32.90</p> </td> <td> <p>10<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>125</p> </td> <td> <p>91.24</p> </td> <td> <p>1<sup>st</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Complexity of the technology involved</p> </td> <td> <p>49</p> </td> <td> <p>31.61</p> </td> <td> <p>11<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>45</p> </td> <td> <p>32.84</p> </td> <td> <p>11<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p>Culture and tradition of the people</p> </td> <td> <p>35</p> </td> <td> <p>22.58</p> </td> <td> <p>12<sup>th</sup></p> </td> <td> <p>39</p> </td> <td> <p>28.46</p> </td> <td> <p>12<sup>th</sup></p> </td> </tr> </tbody> </table> </div> </div> <p><strong><br /> </strong></p> <p><strong><br /> </strong></p> <p>The problem farmers encountered presented in table 6 indicates that the men farmers were constrained by high cost of labour, high cost of seedlings, high cost of material input, long period of maturity and inadequate access to land. On the other hand, women farmers were constrained to adopt the technologies due to the drudgery nature of the work, inadequate access to land, high cost of material inputs, high cost of seedlings, long period of maturity and high cost of labour. Both men and women encountered almost the same problems. High cost of labour on the farmer is expected to affect the level of returns to the farmers on their investment. Farmers are billed by labourers for manual work done especially in the clearing of the field for planting, weeding, pruning, application of chemicals and gathering of cut matured oil palm bunches. These bills most often are high and therefore affect the farmers in come. In his finding, Olagunju (2008) reported that hired labour was 8.3% above all other variable cost components of palm oil processing. Similarly, Ekine and Onu (2008) reported that labour accounted for 20.8% of the variable cost in oil palm processing in their findings. They asserted that the high cost of labour was likely as a result of the use of manual machines that require human effort and also the short supply of labour over its demand in the study area. Access to farm land is a very important consideration in the adoption process. The size of the farmer’s farm land encourages or discourages the famer from adopting innovations. According to Akudugu <em>et al</em>. (2012) in their finding, farm size has positive relationship with the probability of adoption of modern agricultural production technologies. Inadequate access to farm land will restrict the farmer’s potentials of adoption. According to Olagunju and Salimonu (2010), cultivation of large farm size makes it more economical for farmers to apply fertilizers. Further, the larger the size of farm cultivated, the more the output produced and the more commercialized the farm would be Ogunsumi <em>et al</em>. (2010) in their finding reported that farmers who have large farms and high socio-economic status are more likely to use improved production technology. The drudgery nature of oil palm production requires human energy and strength for the various activities. According to Jekanyinfa and Bamgboye (2007), energy is one of the essential resources needed by man for the survival of the economy and the use of energy in the various sectors of any nation’s economy cannot be over-emphasized. This implies that use of energy either human or mechanical is very essential for the progress in a work environment that is exhausting in nature. In a similar research finding, Ohimain <em>et al</em>. (2014 and 2012) reported that oil palm production and processing require human energy in the activities including fruit bunch reception, bunch slicing, threshing, sieving, pressing, fiber separation, and fiber repressing.</p> <p> </p> <p><strong>CONCLUSION </strong></p> <p>The farmers had not large farm size for <em>tenera </em>oil palm adoption because of the land ownership structure that was based on inheritance and culture of the people. The extent of extension contact in the study area was low. Majority of the respondents both male and female had one extension contact in one farming season</p> <p><strong>RECOMMENDATIONS</strong></p> <p>The Land Use Act of 1978 should be enforced to help women and non-indigenes to have sizeable farm lands, Government should empower Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) by employing more extension personnel to increase their contacts with the farmers.</p> <p><strong>ACKNOWLEDGMENT </strong></p> <p><em>I </em><em>acknowledge Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETfund), Nigeria for sponsoring the research from where this article was written.</em></p> <p><strong>REFERENCES</strong></p> <p>Adetola, S. (2015). Palm oil importation: A strategic stabiliser for palm oil industry in Nigeria. Retrieved on 26/01/17 from <a>http://www.thisdaylive.com/articles/palm-oil</a> importation-a- strategic-stabiliser-for-palm-oil-industry-innigeria/198476/</p> <p>Adeola, R. G. and Ayoade, A. R. (2009). 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