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vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_arsenide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1.2 Carbon arsenide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_arsenide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal_alloys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal_alloys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Metal alloys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal_alloys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2.1 Metals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Oxides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molybdenum_disulphide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molybdenum_disulphide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Molybdenum disulphide </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molybdenum_disulphide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_anodes_for_Na+" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_anodes_for_Na+"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.5 Other anodes for Na+ </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_anodes_for_Na+-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cathodes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cathodes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Cathodes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cathodes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oxides_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxides_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Oxides </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxides_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oxoanions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxoanions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Oxoanions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxoanions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Organic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prussian_blue_and_analogues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prussian_blue_and_analogues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3.1 Prussian blue and analogues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prussian_blue_and_analogues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quinone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quinone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3.2 Quinone </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quinone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electrolytes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electrolytes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Electrolytes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electrolytes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Comparison </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commercialization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercialization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Commercialization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Commercialization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Commercialization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Commercialization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electric_vehicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electric_vehicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Electric vehicles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electric_vehicles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Active </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Altris_AB" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altris_AB"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Altris AB </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altris_AB-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-BYD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#BYD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 BYD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-BYD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CATL" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CATL"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 CATL </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CATL-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Faradion_Limited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Faradion_Limited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 Faradion Limited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Faradion_Limited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-HiNA_Battery_Technology_Company" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#HiNA_Battery_Technology_Company"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.5 HiNA Battery Technology Company </div> </a> <ul id="toc-HiNA_Battery_Technology_Company-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-KPIT_Technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#KPIT_Technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.6 KPIT Technologies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-KPIT_Technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natron_Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natron_Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.7 Natron Energy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natron_Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northvolt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northvolt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.8 Northvolt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northvolt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-TIAMAT" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#TIAMAT"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.9 TIAMAT </div> </a> <ul id="toc-TIAMAT-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-SgNaPLus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#SgNaPLus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.10 SgNaPLus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-SgNaPLus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defunct" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defunct"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Defunct </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defunct-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aquion_Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquion_Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Aquion Energy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquion_Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sodium_metal_rechargeable_batteries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sodium_metal_rechargeable_batteries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Sodium metal rechargeable batteries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sodium_metal_rechargeable_batteries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sodium-ion battery</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" > 23 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="بطارية أيونات الصوديوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بطارية أيونات الصوديوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_de_ions_de_sodi" title="Bateria de ions de sodi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bateria de ions de sodi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sod%C3%ADk-iontov%C3%BD_akumul%C3%A1tor" title="Sodík-iontový akumulátor – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sodík-iontový akumulátor" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natriumbatteri" title="Natriumbatteri – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Natriumbatteri" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natrium-Ionen-Akkumulator" title="Natrium-Ionen-Akkumulator – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Natrium-Ionen-Akkumulator" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naatriumioonaku" title="Naatriumioonaku – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Naatriumioonaku" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bater%C3%ADa_de_ion_de_sodio" title="Batería de ion de sodio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Batería de ion de sodio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85-%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86" title="باتری سدیم-یون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="باتری سدیم-یون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accumulateur_sodium-ion" title="Accumulateur sodium-ion – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Accumulateur sodium-ion" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8C%EB%93%90_%EC%9D%B4%EC%98%A8_%EC%A0%84%EC%A7%80" title="소듐 이온 전지 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="소듐 이온 전지" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F-%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D" title="סוללת יון-סודיום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סוללת יון-סודיום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natrium-ion-accu" title="Natrium-ion-accu – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Natrium-ion-accu" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8A%E3%83%88%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A6%E3%83%A0%E3%82%A4%E3%82%AA%E3%83%B3%E4%BA%8C%E6%AC%A1%E9%9B%BB%E6%B1%A0" title="ナトリウムイオン二次電池 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ナトリウムイオン二次電池" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akumulator_sodowo-jonowy" title="Akumulator sodowo-jonowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Akumulator sodowo-jonowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bateria_de_%C3%ADon_de_s%C3%B3dio" title="Bateria de íon de sódio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Bateria de íon de sódio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9-%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Натрий-ионный аккумулятор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Натрий-ионный аккумулятор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natrij_ionski_akumulator" title="Natrij ionski akumulator – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Natrij ionski akumulator" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BC-%D1%98%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Натријум-јонска батерија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Натријум-јонска батерија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natriumioniakku" title="Natriumioniakku – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Natriumioniakku" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodyum_iyon_pil" title="Sodyum iyon pil – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sodyum iyon pil" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Sodium-ion battery</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Sodium-ion_battery_(size_18650).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sodium-ion_battery_%28size_18650%29.jpg/220px-Sodium-ion_battery_%28size_18650%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sodium-ion_battery_%28size_18650%29.jpg/330px-Sodium-ion_battery_%28size_18650%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sodium-ion_battery_%28size_18650%29.jpg/440px-Sodium-ion_battery_%28size_18650%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="410" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A sodium-ion cell (size <a href="/wiki/18650_battery" title="18650 battery">18650</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">Specific energy</a></th><td class="infobox-data">0.27-0.72 <a href="/wiki/Megajoule" class="mw-redirect" title="Megajoule">MJ</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kg" class="mw-redirect" title="Kg">kg</a> (75–200 <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">W</a>·<a href="/wiki/Hour" title="Hour">h</a>/kg)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">Energy density</a></th><td class="infobox-data">250–375 W·h/<a href="/wiki/Litre" title="Litre">L</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cycle durability</th><td class="infobox-data">"thousands"<a href="#cite_note-faradion-1">[1]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charge_cycle" title="Charge cycle">cycles</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nominal cell voltage</th><td class="infobox-data">3.0-3.1 V</td></tr></tbody></table> Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs, SIBs, or Na-ion batteries) are several types of <a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Rechargeable batteries">rechargeable batteries</a>, which use <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> (Na+) as their <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a> carriers. In some cases, its <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery#Electrochemistry" title="Lithium-ion battery">working principle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery#Design" title="Lithium-ion battery">cell construction</a> are similar to those of <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion battery</a> (LIB) types, but it replaces <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> with <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(chemistry)" title="Intercalation (chemistry)">intercalating</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a>. Sodium belongs to the same <a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">group</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> as lithium and thus has similar <a href="/wiki/Chemical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical properties">chemical properties</a>. However, in some cases, such as aqueous batteries, SIBs can be quite different from LIBs. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sindelfingen_Haus_%26_Energie_2019_by-RaBoe_126.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sindelfingen_Haus_%26_Energie_2019_by-RaBoe_126.jpg/220px-Sindelfingen_Haus_%26_Energie_2019_by-RaBoe_126.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="429" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sindelfingen_Haus_%26_Energie_2019_by-RaBoe_126.jpg/330px-Sindelfingen_Haus_%26_Energie_2019_by-RaBoe_126.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Sindelfingen_Haus_%26_Energie_2019_by-RaBoe_126.jpg/440px-Sindelfingen_Haus_%26_Energie_2019_by-RaBoe_126.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1878" data-file-height="3666" /></a><figcaption>A sodium-ion accumulator stack (Germany, 2019)</figcaption></figure> SIBs received academic and commercial interest in the 2010s and early 2020s, largely due to lithium's high cost, uneven geographic distribution, and environmentally-damaging extraction process. An obvious advantage of sodium is its natural abundance,<a href="#cite_note-Abraham_How_Comparable_Are_Sodium-Ion_Batteries-2">[2]</a> particularly in <a href="/wiki/Saltwater" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltwater">saltwater</a>. Another factor is that <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a> are not required for many types of sodium-ion batteries, and more abundant <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-based materials (such as NaFeO2 with the <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Fe3+/Fe4+}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msubsup> <mtext>Fe</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msubsup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>Fe</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Fe3+/Fe4+}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f06fae1850dfca4ee04f215402173a62d69f498b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:9.284ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Fe3+/Fe4+}}}" /> redox pair)<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> work well in <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Na+}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>Na</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Na+}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3cd60e5dc2440b4978aea083de518303122c45c1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.416ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Na+}}}" /> batteries. This is because the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radius</a> of Na+ (116 pm) is substantially larger than that of Fe2+ and Fe3+ (69–92 pm depending on the <a href="/wiki/Spin_states_(d_electrons)" title="Spin states (d electrons)">spin state</a>), whereas the ionic radius of Li+ is similar (90 pm). Similar ionic radii of lithium and iron result in their mixing in the cathode material during battery cycling, and a resultant loss of cyclable charge. A downside of the larger ionic radius of Na+ is a slower <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(chemistry)" title="Intercalation (chemistry)">intercalation</a> kinetics of sodium-ion electrode materials.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-4">[4]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:R%26D_activity_in_the_sodium-ion_battery_field.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/R%26D_activity_in_the_sodium-ion_battery_field.png/250px-R%26D_activity_in_the_sodium-ion_battery_field.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/R%26D_activity_in_the_sodium-ion_battery_field.png/330px-R%26D_activity_in_the_sodium-ion_battery_field.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/R%26D_activity_in_the_sodium-ion_battery_field.png/500px-R%26D_activity_in_the_sodium-ion_battery_field.png 2x" data-file-width="2764" data-file-height="1864" /></a><figcaption>Number of simple patent families and of non-patent publications about Na+ batteries vs the earliest priority or publication year. Note: log scale, e.g. 3 ≡ 1000 publ.</figcaption></figure> The development of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Na+}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msup> <mtext>Na</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>+</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Na+}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/3cd60e5dc2440b4978aea083de518303122c45c1" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:4.416ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Na+}}}" /> batteries started in the 1990s. After three decades of development, NIBs are at a critical moment of commercialization. Several companies such as HiNa and CATL in China, Faradion in the United Kingdom, Tiamat in France, <a href="/wiki/Northvolt" title="Northvolt">Northvolt</a> in Sweden,<a href="#cite_note-Lawson-5">[5]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natron_Energy" title="Natron Energy">Natron Energy</a> in the US, are close to achieving the commercialization of NIBs, with the aim of employing sodium layered transition metal oxides (NaxTMO2), Prussian white (a <a href="/wiki/Prussian_blue" title="Prussian blue">Prussian blue</a> analogue<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>) or vanadium phosphate as cathode materials.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Synthesis_of_published_material" title="Wikipedia:No original research">improper synthesis?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Sodium-ion accumulators are operational for fixed electrical <a href="/wiki/Battery_storage_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery storage power station">grid storage</a>, but <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">vehicles</a> using sodium-ion <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery" title="Electric vehicle battery">battery packs</a> are not yet commercially available. However, <a href="/wiki/CATL" title="CATL">CATL</a>, the world's biggest lithium-ion battery manufacturer, announced in 2022 the start of mass production of SIBs. In February 2023, the Chinese <a href="#HiNA_Battery_Technology_Company">HiNA Battery Technology Company</a>, Ltd. placed a 140 Wh/kg sodium-ion battery in an electric test car for the first time,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> and energy storage manufacturer Pylontech obtained the first sodium-ion battery certificate[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] from <a href="/wiki/T%C3%9CV_Rheinland" class="mw-redirect" title="TÜV Rheinland">TÜV Rheinland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> Sodium-ion battery development took place in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, by the 1990s, lithium-ion batteries had demonstrated more commercial promise, causing interest in sodium-ion batteries to decline.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In the early 2010s, sodium-ion batteries experienced a resurgence, driven largely by the increasing cost of lithium-ion battery raw materials.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a> Also, the number of patent families reached the number of non-patent publication after ca. 2020, which usually signify the fact that the technology reached the commercialization stage. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operating_principle">Operating principle</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Operating principle">edit</a>]</div> SIB cells consist of a <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> based on a sodium-based material, an <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> (not necessarily a sodium-based material) and a liquid <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> containing dissociated sodium salts in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polar</a> <a href="/wiki/Protic_solvent" title="Protic solvent">protic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Polar_aprotic_solvent" title="Polar aprotic solvent">aprotic</a> solvents. During charging, sodium ions move from the cathode to the anode while electrons travel through the external circuit. During discharge, the reverse process occurs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Materials">Materials</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Materials">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sodium-ion_battery_systems.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Sodium-ion_battery_systems.png/300px-Sodium-ion_battery_systems.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Sodium-ion_battery_systems.png/450px-Sodium-ion_battery_systems.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Sodium-ion_battery_systems.png/600px-Sodium-ion_battery_systems.png 2x" data-file-width="1434" data-file-height="813" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the various electrode structures in sodium-ion batteries</figcaption></figure> Due to the physical and electrochemical properties of sodium, SIBs require different materials from those used for LIBs.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anodes">Anodes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Anodes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbons">Carbons</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Carbons">edit</a>]</div> SIBs can use <a href="/wiki/Hard_carbon" title="Hard carbon">hard carbon</a>, a disordered carbon material consisting of a non-graphitizable, non-crystalline and amorphous carbon. Hard carbon's ability to absorb sodium was discovered in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> This anode was shown to deliver 300 mAh/g with a sloping potential profile above ⁓0.15 V vs Na/Na+. It accounts for roughly half of the capacity and a flat potential profile (a potential plateau) below ⁓0.15 V vs Na/Na+. Such capacities are comparable to 300–360 mAh/g of <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> anodes in <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_batteries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-ion batteries">lithium-ion batteries</a>. The first sodium-ion cell using hard carbon was demonstrated in 2003 and showed a 3.7 V average voltage during discharge.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Hard carbon was the preferred choice of <a href="#Faradion_Limited">Faradion</a> due to its excellent combination of capacity, (lower) working potentials, and cycling stability.<a href="#cite_note-Rudola_Commercialisation_of_high_energy-21">[21]</a> Notably, nitrogen-doped hard carbons display even larger specific capacity of 520 mAh/g at 20 mA/g with stability over 1000 cycles.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In 2015, researchers demonstrated that graphite could co-intercalate sodium in ether-based electrolytes. Low capacities around 100 mAh/g were obtained with relatively high working potentials between 0 – 1.2 V vs Na/Na+.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> One drawback of carbonaceous materials is that, because their intercalation potentials are fairly negative, they are limited to non-aqueous systems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Graphene">Graphene</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Graphene">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Graphene" title="Graphene">Graphene</a> <a href="/wiki/Janus_particles" title="Janus particles">Janus particles</a> have been used in experimental sodium-ion batteries to increase <a href="/wiki/Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a>. One side provides interaction sites while the other provides inter-layer separation. Energy density reached 337 mAh/g.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Carbon_arsenide">Carbon arsenide</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Carbon arsenide">edit</a>]</div> Carbon arsenide (AsC5) mono/bilayer has been explored as an anode material due to high specific gravity (794/596 mAh/g), low expansion (1.2%), and ultra low diffusion barrier (0.16/0.09 eV), indicating rapid charge/discharge cycle capability, during sodium intercalation.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> After sodium adsorption, a carbon arsenide anode maintains structural stability at 300 K, indicating long cycle life. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metal_alloys">Metal alloys</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Metal alloys">edit</a>]</div> Numerous reports described anode materials storing sodium via alloy reaction and/or conversion reaction.<a href="#cite_note-:0-16">[16]</a> Alloying sodium metal brings the benefits of regulating sodium-ion transport and shielding the accumulation of electric field at the tip of sodium <a href="/wiki/Dendrite_(crystal)" title="Dendrite (crystal)">dendrites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Wang, et al. reported that a self-regulating alloy interface of nickel antimony (NiSb) was chemically deposited on Na metal during discharge. This thin layer of NiSb regulates the uniform electrochemical plating of Na metal, lowering overpotential and offering dendrite-free plating/stripping of Na metal over 100 h at a high areal capacity of 10 mAh cm−2.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Metals">Metals</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Metals">edit</a>]</div> Many metals and semi-metals (Pb, P, Sn, Ge, etc.) form stable alloys with sodium at room temperature. Unfortunately, the formation of such alloys is usually accompanied by a large volume change, which in turn results in the pulverization (crumbling) of the material after a few cycles. For example, with <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> sodium forms an alloy Na 15Sn 4, which is equivalent to 847 mAh/g specific capacity, with a resulting enormous volume change up to 420%.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> In one study, Li et al. prepared sodium and metallic tin Na 15Sn 4/Na through a spontaneous reaction.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This anode could operate at a high temperature of 90 °C (194 °F) in a carbonate solvent at 1 mA cm−2 with 1 mA h cm−2 loading, and the full cell exhibited a stable charge-discharge cycling for 100 cycles at a current density of 2C.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] (2C means that full charge or discharge was achieved in 0.5 hour). Despite sodium alloy's ability to operate at extreme temperatures and regulate dendritic growth, the severe stress-strain experienced on the material in the course of repeated storage cycles limits cycling stability, especially in large-format cells. Researchers from <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_University_of_Science" title="Tokyo University of Science">Tokyo University of Science</a> achieved 478 mAh/g with nano-sized <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> particles, announced in December 2020.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In 2024, <a href="/wiki/Dalhousie_University" title="Dalhousie University">Dalhousie University</a> researchers enhanced sodium-ion battery performance by replacing hard carbon in the negative electrode with lead (Pb) and single wall <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotube" title="Carbon nanotube">carbon nanotubes</a> (SWCNTs). This combination significantly increased volumetric energy density and eliminated capacity fade in half cells. SWCNTs endured active material connectivity, boosting capacity to 475 mAh/g and reducing losses, compared to 430 mAh/g in Pb cell without SWCNTs.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oxides">Oxides</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Oxides">edit</a>]</div> Some sodium <a href="/wiki/Titanate" title="Titanate">titanate</a> phases such as Na2Ti3O7,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> or NaTiO2,<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> delivered capacities around 90–180 mAh/g at low working potentials (< 1 V vs Na/Na+), though cycling stability was limited to a few hundred cycles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Molybdenum_disulphide">Molybdenum disulphide</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Molybdenum disulphide">edit</a>]</div> In 2021, researchers from China tried layered structure <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>MoS2 as a new type of anode for sodium-ion batteries. A dissolution-recrystallization process densely assembled carbon layer-coated <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />MoS2 nanosheets onto the surface of <a href="/wiki/Polyimide" title="Polyimide">polyimide</a>-derived N-doped <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon nanotubes">carbon nanotubes</a>. This kind of C-<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />MoS2/NCNTs anode can store 348 mAh/g at 2 A/g, with a cycling stability of 82% capacity after 400 cycles at 1 A/g.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />TiS2 is another potential material for SIBs because of its layered structure, but has yet to overcome the problem of capacity fade, since <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />TiS2 suffers from poor electrochemical kinetics and relatively weak structural stability. In 2021, researchers from Ningbo, China employed pre-potassiated <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />TiS2, presenting rate capability of 165.9mAh/g and a cycling stability of 85.3% capacity after 500 cycles.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_anodes_for_Na+">Other anodes for <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Na+</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other anodes for Na+">edit</a>]</div> Some other materials, such as <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electroactive_polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroactive polymers">electroactive polymers</a> and sodium <a href="/wiki/Terephthalate" class="mw-redirect" title="Terephthalate">terephthalate</a> derivatives,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> have also been demonstrated in laboratories, but did not provoke commercial interest.<a href="#cite_note-Rudola_Commercialisation_of_high_energy-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cathodes">Cathodes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Cathodes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oxides_2">Oxides</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Oxides">edit</a>]</div> Many layered <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metal</a> oxides can reversibly intercalate sodium ions upon reduction. These oxides typically have a higher <a href="/wiki/Bulk_density" title="Bulk density">tap density</a> and a lower electronic <a href="/wiki/Resistivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistivity">resistivity</a>, than other posode materials (such as phosphates). Due to a larger size of the Na+ ion (116 pm) compared to Li+ ion (90 pm), cation mixing between Na+ and first row transition metal ions (which is common in the case of Li+) usually does not occur. Thus, low-cost iron and manganese oxides can be used for Na-ion batteries, whereas Li-ion batteries require the use of more expensive cobalt and nickel oxides. The drawback of the larger size of Na+ ion is its slower intercalation kinetics compared to Li+ ion and the presence of multiple intercalation stages with different voltages and kinetic rates.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-4">[4]</a> A P2-type Na2/3Fe1/2Mn1/2O2 oxide from earth-abundant Fe and Mn resources can reversibly store 190 mAh/g at average discharge voltage of 2.75 V vs Na/Na+ utilising the Fe3+/4+ <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox couple</a> – on par or better than commercial lithium-ion cathodes such as LiFePO4 or LiMn2O4.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> However, its sodium deficient nature lowered energy density. Significant efforts were expended in developing Na-richer oxides. A mixed P3/P2/O3-type Na0.76Mn0.5Ni0.3Fe0.1Mg0.1O2 was demonstrated to deliver 140 mAh/g at an average discharge voltage of 3.2 V vs Na/Na+ in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> In particular, the O3-type NaNi1/4Na1/6Mn2/12Ti4/12Sn1/12O2 oxide can deliver 160 mAh/g at average voltage of 3.22 V vs Na/Na+,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> while a series of doped Ni-based oxides of the <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometry</a> NaaNi(1−x−y−z)MnxMgyTizO2 can deliver 157 mAh/g in a sodium-ion "full cell" with a hard carbon anode at average discharge voltage of 3.2 V utilising the Ni2+/4+ redox couple.<a href="#cite_note-:1-41">[41]</a> Such performance in full cell configuration is better or on par with commercial lithium-ion systems. A Na0.67Mn1−xMgxO2 cathode material exhibited a discharge capacity of 175 mAh/g for Na0.67Mn0.95Mg0.05O2. This cathode contained only abundant elements.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Copper-substituted Na0.67Ni0.3−xCuxMn0.7O2 cathode materials showed a high reversible capacity with better capacity retention. In contrast to the copper-free Na0.67Ni0.3−xCuxMn0.7O2 electrode, the as-prepared Cu-substituted cathodes deliver better sodium storage. However, cathodes with Cu are more expensive.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Oxoanions">Oxoanions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Oxoanions">edit</a>]</div> Research has also considered cathodes based on <a href="/wiki/Oxoanions" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxoanions">oxoanions</a>. Such cathodes offer lower tap density, lowering energy density than oxides. On the other hand, a stronger <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonding</a> of the polyanion positively impacts cycle life and safety and increases the cell voltage. Among polyanion-based cathodes, sodium vanadium phosphate<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monofluorophosphate" title="Monofluorophosphate">fluorophosphate</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> have demonstrated excellent cycling stability and in the latter, an acceptably high capacity (⁓120 mAh/g) at high average discharge voltages (⁓3.6 V vs Na/Na+).<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Besides that, sodium manganese silicate has also been demonstrated to deliver a very high capacity (>200 mAh/g) with decent cycling stability.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> A French startup TIAMAT develops Na+ ion batteries based on a sodium-vanadium-phosphate-fluoride cathode material Na3V2(PO4)2F3, which undergoes two reversible 0.5 e-/V transitions: at 3.2V and at 4.0 V.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> A startup from Singapore, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sgnaplus.com/">SgNaPlus</a> is developing and commercialising Na3V2(PO4)2F3 cathode material, which shows very good cycling stability, utilising the non-flammable glyme-based electrolyte.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Organic">Organic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Organic">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Prussian_blue_and_analogues">Prussian blue and analogues</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Prussian blue and analogues">edit</a>]</div> Numerous research groups investigated the use of <a href="/wiki/Prussian_blue" title="Prussian blue">Prussian blue</a> and various Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) as cathodes for Na+-ion batteries. The ideal formula for a discharged material is Na2M[Fe(CN)6], and it corresponds to the theoretical capacity of ca. 170 mAh/g, which is equally split between two one-electron voltage plateaus. Such high specific charges are rarely observed only in PBA samples with a low number of structural defects. For example, the patented rhombohedral Na2MnFe(CN)6 displaying 150–160 mAh/g in capacity and a 3.4 V average discharge voltage<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> and rhombohedral Prussian white Na1.88(5)Fe[Fe(CN)6]·0.18(9)H2O displaying initial capacity of 158 mAh/g and retaining 90% capacity after 50 cycles.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> While Ti, Mn, Fe and Co PBAs show a two-electron electrochemistry, the Ni PBA shows only one-electron (Ni is not electrochemically active in the accessible voltage range). Iron-free PBA Na2MnII[MnII(CN)6] is also known. It has a fairly large reversible capacity of 209 mAh/g at C/5, but its voltage is unfortunately low (1.8 V versus Na+/Na).<a href="#cite_note-auto1-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Quinone">Quinone</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Quinone">edit</a>]</div> Bis-tetraaminobenzoquinone, a low-bandgap, conductive, and highly insoluble layered metal-free material was used as a cathode. It exhibited a theoretical capacity of 355 mAh g–1. Researchers used a four-electron redox process, and achieved an electrode-level energy density of 606 Wh kg–1electrode (90 wt % active material) with excellent cycling stability. Forming the material in the presence of as little as 2 wt % carboxyl-functionalized <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon nanotubes">carbon nanotubes</a> improved charge transport and kinetics. Cathode energy density reached 472 Wh kg–1 when charging/discharging in 90 s with specific power of 31.6 kW kg–1.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electrolytes">Electrolytes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Electrolytes">edit</a>]</div> Sodium-ion batteries can use <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_battery" title="Aqueous battery">aqueous</a> and non-aqueous electrolytes. The limited <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_window" title="Electrochemical window">electrochemical stability window</a> of water results in lower voltages and limited energy densities. Non-aqueous <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_ester" title="Carbonate ester">carbonate ester</a> polar aprotic solvents extend the voltage range. These include <a href="/wiki/Ethylene_carbonate" title="Ethylene carbonate">ethylene carbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_carbonate" title="Dimethyl carbonate">dimethyl carbonate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diethyl_carbonate" title="Diethyl carbonate">diethyl carbonate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Propylene_carbonate" title="Propylene carbonate">propylene carbonate</a>. The most widely used salts in non-aqueous electrolytes are NaClO4 and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hexafluorophosphate" title="Sodium hexafluorophosphate">sodium hexafluorophosphate</a> (NaPF6) dissolved in a mixture of these solvents. It is a well-established fact that these carbonate-based electrolytes are flammable, which pose safety concerns in large-scale applications. A type of glyme-based electrolyte, with <a href="/wiki/Sodium_tetrafluoroborate" title="Sodium tetrafluoroborate">sodium tetrafluoroborate</a> as the salt is demonstrated to be non-flammable.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In addition, NaTFSI (TFSI = bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide) and NaFSI (FSI = bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, NaDFOB (DFOB = difluoro(oxalato)borate) and NaBOB (bis(oxalato)borate) anions have emerged lately as new interesting salts. Of course, electrolyte additives can be used as well to improve the performance metrics.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison">Comparison</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Comparison">edit</a>]</div> Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, better safety characteristics (for the aqueous versions), and similar power delivery characteristics, but also a lower energy density (especially the aqueous versions).<a href="#cite_note-:9-57">[57]</a> The table below compares how NIBs in general fare against the two established rechargeable battery technologies in the market currently: the lithium-ion battery and the rechargeable <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">lead–acid battery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Battery comparison </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Sodium-ion battery </th> <th>Lithium-ion battery </th> <th>Lead–acid battery </th></tr> <tr> <th>Cost per kilowatt-hour of capacity </th> <td>$40–77 (theoretical in 2019)<a href="#cite_note-:5-59">[59]</a> </td> <td>$137 (average in 2020)<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> </td> <td>$100–300<a href="#cite_note-doecostreport-61">[61]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Volumetric energy density </th> <td>250–375 W·h/L, based on prototypes<a href="#cite_note-Abraham_How_Comparable_Are_Sodium-Ion_Batteries-2">[2]</a> </td> <td>200–683 W·h/L<a href="#cite_note-Ding_Automotive_Li-Ion_Batteries-62">[62]</a> </td> <td>80–90 W·h/L<a href="#cite_note-:3-63">[63]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Specific_energy" title="Specific energy">Gravimetric energy density (specific energy)</a> </th> <td>75–200 W·h/kg, based on prototypes and product announcements<a href="#cite_note-Abraham_How_Comparable_Are_Sodium-Ion_Batteries-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-catl_announcement-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Low end for aqueous, high end for carbon batteries<a href="#cite_note-:9-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>120–260 W·h/kg (without protective case needed for battery pack in vehicle)<a href="#cite_note-Ding_Automotive_Li-Ion_Batteries-62">[62]</a> </td> <td>35–40 Wh/kg<a href="#cite_note-:3-63">[63]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Power-to-weight_ratio" title="Power-to-weight ratio">Power-to-weight ratio</a> </th> <td>~1000 W/kg<a href="#cite_note-:8-66">[66]</a> </td> <td>~340-420 W/kg (NMC),<a href="#cite_note-:8-66">[66]</a> ~175-425 W/kg (LFP)<a href="#cite_note-:8-66">[66]</a> </td> <td>180 W/kg <a href="#cite_note-trojan-67">[67]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Cycles at 80% depth of discharge<a href="#cite_note-68">[a]</a> </th> <td>Hundreds to thousands<a href="#cite_note-faradion-1">[1]</a> </td> <td>3,500<a href="#cite_note-doecostreport-61">[61]</a> </td> <td>900<a href="#cite_note-doecostreport-61">[61]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Safety </th> <td>Low risk for aqueous batteries, high risk for Na in carbon batteries<a href="#cite_note-:9-57">[57]</a> </td> <td>High risk<a href="#cite_note-69">[b]</a> </td> <td>Moderate risk </td></tr> <tr> <th>Materials </th> <td>Abundant </td> <td>Scarce and toxic </td> <td>Abundant and toxic </td></tr> <tr> <th>Cycling stability </th> <td>High (negligible self-discharge)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </td> <td>High (negligible self-discharge) [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </td> <td>Moderate (high <a href="/wiki/Self-discharge" title="Self-discharge">self-discharge</a>)<a href="#cite_note-70">[68]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Direct current round-trip efficiency </th> <td>up to 92%<a href="#cite_note-faradion-1">[1]</a> </td> <td>85–95%<a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a> </td> <td>70–90%<a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Temperature range<a href="#cite_note-73">[c]</a> </th> <td>−20 °C to 60 °C<a href="#cite_note-faradion-1">[1]</a> </td> <td>Acceptable:−20 °C to 60 °C. Optimal: 15 °C to 35 °C<a href="#cite_note-74">[71]</a> </td> <td>−20 °C to 60 °C<a href="#cite_note-75">[72]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Commercialization">Commercialization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Commercialization">edit</a>]</div> Companies around the world have been working to develop commercially viable sodium-ion batteries. A 2-hour 5MW/10MWh <a href="/wiki/Battery_storage_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery storage power station">grid battery</a> was installed in China in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-76">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electric_vehicles">Electric vehicles</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Electric vehicles">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Farasis_Energy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Farasis Energy (page does not exist)">Farasis Energy</a>’s <a href="/wiki/JMEV_EV3" title="JMEV EV3">JMEV EV3</a> (Youth Edition) sets a new standard as the world's first serial-production A00-class <a href="/wiki/Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">electric vehicle</a> equipped with sodium batteries (sodium-ion batteries), offering a range of 251 kilometres (156 mi).<a href="#cite_note-77">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dongfeng_Motor_Corporation" title="Dongfeng Motor Corporation">Dongfeng</a> revealed the <a href="/wiki/Nammi_01" title="Nammi 01">Nammi 01</a> electric vehicle, which Dongfeng claimed features a sodium solid state battery at a launch event.<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active">Active</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Active">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Altris_AB">Altris AB</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Altris AB">edit</a>]</div> Altris AB was founded by Associate Professor Reza Younesi, his former PhD student, Ronnie Mogensen, and Associate Professor William Brant as a spin-off from <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_University" title="Uppsala University">Uppsala University</a>, Sweden,<a href="#cite_note-79">[76]</a> launched in 2017 as part of research efforts from the team on sodium-ion batteries. The research was conducted at the Ångström Advanced Battery Centre led by Prof. <a href="/wiki/Kristina_Edstr%C3%B6m" title="Kristina Edström">Kristina Edström</a> at <a href="/wiki/Uppsala_University" title="Uppsala University">Uppsala University</a>. The company offers a proprietary iron-based Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode in non-aqueous sodium-ion batteries that use hard carbon as the anode.<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> Altris holds patents on non-flammable fluorine-free electrolytes consisting of NaBOB in alkyl-phosphate solvents, Prussian white cathode, and cell production. Clarios is partnering to produce batteries using Altris technology.<a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="BYD">BYD</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: BYD">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/BYD_Company" title="BYD Company">BYD Company</a> is a Chinese electric vehicle manufacturer and battery manufacturer. In 2023, they invested $1.4B USD into the construction of a sodium-ion battery plant in Xuzhou with an annual output of 30 GWh.<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="CATL">CATL</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: CATL">edit</a>]</div> Chinese battery manufacturer <a href="/wiki/CATL" title="CATL">CATL</a> announced in 2021 that it would bring a sodium-ion based battery to market by 2023.<a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a> It uses Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode and porous carbon for the negative electrode. They claimed a specific energy density of 160 Wh/kg in their first generation battery.<a href="#cite_note-catl_announcement-64">[64]</a> In 2024, CATL unveiled the Freevoy hybrid chemistry battery pack for use in <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_electric_vehicle" title="Hybrid electric vehicle">hybrid vehicles</a> with a mix of sodium ion and lithium ion cells. This battery pack features an expected range of over 400 kilometres (250 mi), 4C fast charging capability, the ability to be discharged at −40 °C (−40 °F), and no difference to the driving experience at −20 °C (−4 °F). By 2025, around 30 different hybrid vehicle models are expected to be equipped with this pack.<a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a> On November 18th 2024, CATL announced its second generation sodium-ion battery to be released in 2025 and reach mass market by 2027. The battery is expected to be able to be discharged normally at temperatures of −40 °C (−40 °F). <a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Faradion_Limited">Faradion Limited</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Faradion Limited">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faradion_sodium-ion_battery_-_Science_Museum,_London.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Faradion_sodium-ion_battery_-_Science_Museum%2C_London.jpg/220px-Faradion_sodium-ion_battery_-_Science_Museum%2C_London.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Faradion_sodium-ion_battery_-_Science_Museum%2C_London.jpg/330px-Faradion_sodium-ion_battery_-_Science_Museum%2C_London.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Faradion_sodium-ion_battery_-_Science_Museum%2C_London.jpg/440px-Faradion_sodium-ion_battery_-_Science_Museum%2C_London.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2353" data-file-height="3125" /></a><figcaption>A Faradion sodium-ion battery manufactured in 2022</figcaption></figure> Faradion Limited is a subsidiary of India's <a href="/wiki/Reliance_Industries" title="Reliance Industries">Reliance Industries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a> Its cell design uses oxide cathodes with hard carbon anode and a liquid electrolyte. Their <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery#Formats" title="Lithium-ion battery">pouch cells</a> have energy densities comparable to commercial Li-ion batteries (160 Wh/kg at cell-level), with good rate performance up to <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery#C_rate" title="Electric battery">3C</a>, and cycle lives of 300 (100% <a href="/wiki/Depth_of_discharge" title="Depth of discharge">depth of discharge</a>) to over 1,000 cycles (80% depth of discharge). Its battery packs have demonstrated use for e-bike and e-scooter applications.<a href="#cite_note-:1-41">[41]</a> They demonstrated transporting sodium-ion cells in the shorted state (at 0 V), eliminating risks from commercial transport of such cells.<a href="#cite_note-:2-87">[84]</a> It is partnering with AMTE Power plc<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a> (formerly known as AGM Batteries Limited).<a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[89]</a> In November 2019, Faradion co-authored a report with Bridge India<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a> titled 'The Future of Clean Transportation: Sodium-ion Batteries'<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> looking at the growing role India can play in manufacturing sodium-ion batteries. On December 5, 2022, Faradion installed its first sodium-ion battery for Nation in New South Wales Australia.<a href="#cite_note-95">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="HiNA_Battery_Technology_Company">HiNA Battery Technology Company</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: HiNA Battery Technology Company">edit</a>]</div> HiNa Battery Technology Co., Ltd is, a spin-off from the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Chinese Academy of Sciences">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (CAS). It leverages research conducted by Prof. Hu Yong-sheng's group at the Institute of Physics at CAS. HiNa's batteries are based on Na-Fe-Mn-Cu based oxide cathodes and <a href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">anthracite</a>-based carbon anode. In 2023, HiNa partnered with JAC as the first company to put a sodium-ion battery in an electric car, the Sehol E10X. HiNa also revealed three sodium-ion products, the NaCR32140-ME12 cylindrical cell, the NaCP50160118-ME80 square cell and the NaCP73174207-ME240 square cell, with gravimetric energy densities of 140 Wh/kg, 145 Wh/kg and 155 Wh/kg respectively.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a> The cycle life of Hina's Battery was reported to by 4,500 cycles in 2022. The company's goals were increasing specific energy to 180-200 Wh/kg and the cycle life to 8,000-10,000 cycles. <a href="/wiki/CATL" title="CATL">CATL</a> and <a href="/wiki/BYD_Company" title="BYD Company">BYD</a> also made similar statements around the same time.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a> In 2019, it was reported that HiNa installed a 100 kWh sodium-ion battery energy storage system in East China.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> Chinese automaker Yiwei debuted the first sodium-ion battery-powered car in 2023. It uses JAC Group's UE module technology, which is similar to CATL's cell-to-pack design.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> The car has a 23.2 kWh battery pack with a CLTC range of 230 kilometres (140 mi).<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="KPIT_Technologies">KPIT Technologies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: KPIT Technologies">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/KPIT_Technologies" title="KPIT Technologies">KPIT Technologies</a> introduced India's first sodium-ion battery technology, marking a significant breakthrough in the country. This newly developed technology is predicted to reduce the cost of batteries for electric vehicles by 25-30%. It has been developed in cooperation with Pune's Indian Institute of Science Education and Research over the course of almost a decade and claims several notable benefits over existing alternatives such as lead-acid and lithium-ion. Among its standout features are a longer lifespan of 3,000–6,000 cycles, faster charging than traditional batteries, greater resistance to below-freezing temperatures and with varied energy densities between 100 and 170 Wh/Kg.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natron_Energy">Natron Energy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Natron Energy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Natron_Energy" title="Natron Energy">Natron Energy</a>, a spin-off from <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>, uses Prussian blue analogues for both cathode and anode with an aqueous electrolyte.<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> Clarios is partnering to produce a battery using Natron technology.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northvolt">Northvolt</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Northvolt">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Northvolt" title="Northvolt">Northvolt</a>, Europe's only large homegrown electric battery maker, has said it has made a "breakthrough" sodium-ion battery. Northvolt said its new battery, which has an energy density of more than 160 watt-hours per kilogram, has been designed for electricity storage plants but could in future be used in electric vehicles, such as two wheeled scooters.<a href="#cite_note-Lawson-5">[5]</a> The company filed for bankruptcy in November 2024.<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="TIAMAT">TIAMAT</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: TIAMAT">edit</a>]</div> TIAMAT spun off from the <a href="/wiki/Centre_national_de_la_recherche_scientifique" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre national de la recherche scientifique">CNRS</a>/<a href="/wiki/French_Alternative_Energies_and_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission">CEA</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Framework_Programmes_for_Research_and_Technological_Development#Horizon_2020" title="Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development">H2020</a> EU-project called NAIADES.<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> Its technology focuses on the development of <a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_sizes#Lithium-ion_batteries_(rechargeable)" title="List of battery sizes">18650-format</a> cylindrical cells based on polyanionic materials. It achieved energy density between 100 Wh/kg to 120 Wh/kg. The technology targets applications in the fast charge and discharge markets. Power density is between 2 and 5 kW/kg, allowing for a 5 min charging time. Lifetime is 5000+ cycles to 80% of capacity.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> They are responsible for one of the first commercialized product powered by Sodium-Ion battery technology, as of October 2023, through the commercialization of an electric screw-driver.<a href="#cite_note-:6-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="SgNaPLus">SgNaPLus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: SgNaPLus">edit</a>]</div> SgNaPlus is a spin off from <a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Singapore" title="National University of Singapore">National University of Singapore</a>, that uses a propeitary electrode and electrolyte. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.sgnaplus.com/technology/">[1]</a> It is based in Singapore and leverages on research conducted by Alternative Energy Systems Laboratory (AESL) from Energy and Bio-Thermal Systems Division in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore (NUS). The division is founded by Prof Palani Balaya. SgNaPlus also has rights for the patent for a non-flammable sodium-ion batteries.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defunct">Defunct</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Defunct">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aquion_Energy">Aquion Energy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Aquion Energy">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Aquion_Energy" title="Aquion Energy">Aquion Energy</a> was (between 2008 and 2017) a <a href="/wiki/Research_spin-off" title="Research spin-off">spin-off</a> from <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University" title="Carnegie Mellon University">Carnegie Mellon University</a>. Their batteries (salt water battery) were based on sodium titanium phosphate anode, <a href="/wiki/Manganese_dioxide" title="Manganese dioxide">manganese dioxide</a> cathode, and aqueous <a href="/wiki/Sodium_perchlorate" title="Sodium perchlorate">sodium perchlorate</a> electrolyte. After receiving government and private loans, the company filed for bankruptcy in 2017. Its assets were sold to a Chinese manufacturer Juline-Titans, who abandoned most of Aquion's patents.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sodium_metal_rechargeable_batteries">Sodium metal rechargeable batteries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Sodium metal rechargeable batteries">edit</a>]</div> Types are:<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten-sodium battery</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-sulfur_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-sulfur battery">Sodium-sulfur battery</a> (NaS).</li> <li>Sodium-metal halide or Sodium-nickel chloride battery (<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {Na-NiCl2}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Na</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> <msubsup> <mtext>NiCl</mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mspace width="0pt" height="0pt" depth=".2em"></mspace> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {Na-NiCl2}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ffc947fdbd2ee98ef046dbbe6f4fc81cd6364f9f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:10.483ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {Na-NiCl2}}}" /> or <a href="/wiki/Zebra_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Zebra battery">Zebra battery</a>).</li></ul></li> <li>Sodium-ion battery (NaIBs).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battery_types" title="List of battery types">List of battery types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_commercial_battery_types" title="Comparison of commercial battery types">Comparison of commercial battery types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_metal" title="Alkali metal">Alkali metal</a>-ion batteries: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium-ion battery</a></li> <li>Sodium-ion battery</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium-ion battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">Alkaline earth metal</a>-ion batteries: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_battery" title="Calcium battery">Calcium-ion battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Rechargeable battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_state_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state battery">Solid state battery</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> The number of charge-discharge cycles a battery supports depends on multiple considerations, including depth of discharge, rate of discharge, rate of charge, and temperature. The values shown here reflect generally favorable conditions. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery#Safety" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium-ion battery safety.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Temperature affects charging behavior, capacity, and battery lifetime, and affects each of these differently, at different temperature ranges for each. The values given here are general ranges for battery operation. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-faradion-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-faradion_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-faradion_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-faradion_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-faradion_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.faradion.co.uk/technology-benefits/strong-performance/">"Performance"</a>. Faradion Limited. Retrieved 17 March 2021. <q>The (round trip) energy efficiency of sodium-ion batteries is 92% at a discharge time of 5 hours.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Performance&rft.pub=Faradion+Limited&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.faradion.co.uk%2Ftechnology-benefits%2Fstrong-performance%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abraham_How_Comparable_Are_Sodium-Ion_Batteries-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_How_Comparable_Are_Sodium-Ion_Batteries_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_How_Comparable_Are_Sodium-Ion_Batteries_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abraham_How_Comparable_Are_Sodium-Ion_Batteries_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbraham2020" class="citation journal cs1">Abraham, K. M. (13 November 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsenergylett.0c02181">"How Comparable Are Sodium-Ion Batteries to Lithium-Ion Counterparts?"</a>. ACS Energy Letters. 5 (11): 3544–3547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facsenergylett.0c02181">10.1021/acsenergylett.0c02181</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Energy+Letters&rft.atitle=How+Comparable+Are+Sodium-Ion+Batteries+to+Lithium-Ion+Counterparts%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3544-%3C%2Fspan%3E3547&rft.date=2020-11-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Facsenergylett.0c02181&rft.aulast=Abraham&rft.aufirst=K.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1021%252Facsenergylett.0c02181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXieWuHuang2022" class="citation book cs1">Xie, Man; Wu, Feng; Huang, Yongxin (2022). 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Ce tournevis sans fil 🪛 sera en rayon dans certains @leroymerlinfr dès le mois d'octobre"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)" title="Tweet (social media)">Tweet</a>) – via <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+spin-off+du+CNRS+%40TiamatEnergy+commercialise+le+1er+produit+grand+public+aliment%C3%A9+par+la+technologie+de+batteries+sodium-ion.+Ce+tournevis+sans+fil+%F0%9F%AA%9B+sera+en+rayon+dans+certains+%40leroymerlinfr+d%C3%A8s+le+mois+d%27octobre.&rft.date=2023-10-26&rft.au=CNRS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fx.com%2FCNRS%2Fstatus%2F1717520365184852183&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US8298701B2/en?assignee=Aquion&oq=Aquion">"Aqueous electrolyte energy storage device"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aqueous+electrolyte+energy+storage+device&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS8298701B2%2Fen%3Fassignee%3DAquion%26oq%3DAquion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US8652672B2/en?assignee=Aquion&oq=Aquion">"Large format electrochemical energy storage device housing and module"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Large+format+electrochemical+energy+storage+device+housing+and+module&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS8652672B2%2Fen%3Fassignee%3DAquion%26oq%3DAquion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sandia.gov/a0pp/uploads/sites/163/2022/02/ESHB_Ch4_Sodium_Spoerke-1.pdf">"DOE ESHB Chapter 4: Sodium-Based Battery Technologies"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DOE+ESHB+Chapter+4%3A+Sodium-Based+Battery+Technologies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sandia.gov%2Fa0pp%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F163%2F2022%2F02%2FESHB_Ch4_Sodium_Spoerke-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sodium-ion_battery&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMaLeeBai2021" class="citation journal cs1">Ma, Bingyuan; Lee, Youngju; Bai, Peng (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8224441">"Dynamic Interfacial Stability Confirmed by Microscopic Optical Operando Experiments Enables High-Retention-Rate Anode-Free Na Metal Full Cells"</a>. Advanced Science. 8 (12): 2005006. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fadvs.202005006">10.1002/advs.202005006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8224441">8224441</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34194939">34194939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advanced+Science&rft.atitle=Dynamic+Interfacial+Stability+Confirmed+by+Microscopic+Optical+Operando+Experiments+Enables+High-Retention-Rate+Anode-Free+Na+Metal+Full+Cells&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2005006&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8224441%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34194939&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fadvs.202005006&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Bingyuan&rft.au=Lee%2C+Youngju&rft.au=Bai%2C+Peng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8224441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWunderlich-Pfeiffer2023" class="citation web cs1">Wunderlich-Pfeiffer, Frank (April 19, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://intercalationstation.substack.com/p/na-ion-a-battery-worth-its-salt">"Na-ion: A battery worth its salt?"</a>. intercalationstation.substack.com. Retrieved 2023-04-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=intercalationstation.substack.com&rft.atitle=Na-ion%3A+A+battery+worth+its+salt%3F&rft.date=2023-04-19&rft.aulast=Wunderlich-Pfeiffer&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fintercalationstation.substack.com%2Fp%2Fna-ion-a-battery-worth-its-salt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWu2024" class="citation audio-visual cs1">Wu, Billy (January 3, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3jjJb-CcCU">Sodium ion batteries - The low-cost future of energy storage?</a> (Podcast). Retrieved 2024-01-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sodium+ion+batteries+-+The+low-cost+future+of+energy+storage%3F&rft.date=2024-01-03&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Billy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DO3jjJb-CcCU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASodium-ion+battery" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flow_battery" title="Flow battery">Flow battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trough_battery" title="Trough battery">Trough battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermogalvanic_cell" title="Thermogalvanic cell">Thermogalvanic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">Voltaic pile</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Galvanic_Cell.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Galvanic cell"><img alt="Galvanic cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/150px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Galvanic_Cell.svg/225px-Galvanic_Cell.svg.png 1.5x, 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cell">Daniell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">Dry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edison%E2%80%93Lalande_cell" title="Edison–Lalande cell">Edison–Lalande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grove_cell" title="Grove cell">Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leclanch%C3%A9_cell" title="Leclanché cell">Leclanché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_metal_battery" title="Lithium metal battery">Lithium metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_hybrid_organic_battery" title="Lithium hybrid organic battery">Lithium organic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_battery" title="Mercury battery">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air electrochemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_oxyhydroxide_battery" title="Nickel oxyhydroxide battery">Nickel oxyhydroxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Silicon–air battery">Silicon–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_oxide_battery" title="Silver oxide battery">Silver oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weston_cell" title="Weston cell">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamboni_pile" title="Zamboni pile">Zamboni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Zinc–air battery">Zinc–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93carbon_battery" title="Zinc–carbon battery">Zinc–carbon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_battery" title="Rechargeable battery">Secondary cell</a> (rechargeable)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_battery" title="Automotive battery">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">Lead–acid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VRLA_battery" title="VRLA battery">gel–VRLA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93air_battery" title="Lithium–air battery">Lithium–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">Lithium ion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carbon_battery" title="Dual carbon battery">Dual carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_iron_phosphate_battery" title="Lithium iron phosphate battery">Lithium–iron–phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_polymer_battery" title="Lithium polymer battery">Lithium–polymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Lithium–sulfur battery">Lithium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium-titanate_battery" title="Lithium-titanate battery">Lithium–titanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93air_electrochemical_cell" title="Metal–air electrochemical cell">Metal–air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-salt_battery" title="Molten-salt battery">Molten salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanopore_battery" title="Nanopore battery">Nanopore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanowire_battery" title="Nanowire battery">Nanowire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Nickel–cadmium battery">Nickel–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93hydrogen_battery" title="Nickel–hydrogen battery">Nickel–hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93iron_battery" title="Nickel–iron battery">Nickel–iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93lithium_battery" title="Nickel–lithium battery">Nickel–lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93metal_hydride_battery" title="Nickel–metal hydride battery">Nickel–metal hydride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel%E2%80%93zinc_battery" title="Nickel–zinc battery">Nickel–zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polysulfide%E2%80%93bromide_battery" title="Polysulfide–bromide battery">Polysulfide–bromide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium-ion_battery" title="Potassium-ion battery">Potassium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rechargeable_alkaline_battery" title="Rechargeable alkaline battery">Rechargeable alkaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery" title="Silver–cadmium battery">Silver–cadmium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silver_zinc_battery" title="Silver zinc battery">Silver–zinc</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sodium ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium%E2%80%93sulfur_battery" title="Sodium–sulfur battery">Sodium–sulfur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_battery" title="Solid-state battery">Solid state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery" title="Vanadium redox battery">Vanadium redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93bromine_battery" title="Zinc–bromine battery">Zinc–bromine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc%E2%80%93cerium_battery" title="Zinc–cerium battery">Zinc–cerium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Other cell</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">Atomic battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuel_cell" title="Fuel cell">Fuel cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cell" title="Solar cell">Solar cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">Anode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binder_(material)" title="Binder (material)">Binder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalyst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">Cathode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrode" title="Electrode">Electrode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">Electrolyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half-cell" title="Half-cell">Half-cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_bridge" title="Salt bridge">Salt bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">Semipermeable membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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