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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Rare nuclides created when high-energy cosmic rays interact with the nucleus of an atom</div> <p><b>Cosmogenic nuclides</b> (or <b>cosmogenic isotopes</b>) are rare <a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">nuclides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>) created when a high-energy <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic ray</a> interacts with the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> of an <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i> Solar System <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>, causing nucleons (protons and neutrons) to be expelled from the atom (see <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">cosmic ray spallation</a>). These nuclides are produced within Earth materials such as <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rocks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth's</a> <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, and in extraterrestrial items such as <a href="/wiki/Meteoroid" title="Meteoroid">meteoroids</a>. By measuring cosmogenic nuclides, <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">scientists</a> are able to gain insight into a range of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> processes. There are both <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive isotope">radioactive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">stable</a> cosmogenic nuclides. Some of these radionuclides are <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus-32" title="Phosphorus-32">phosphorus-32</a>. </p><p>Certain light (low atomic number) <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclides" class="mw-redirect" title="Primordial nuclides">primordial nuclides</a> (isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>) are thought to have been created not only during the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a>, but also (and perhaps primarily) to have been made after the Big Bang, but before the condensation of the Solar System, by the process of cosmic ray spallation on interstellar gas and dust. This explains their higher abundance in cosmic dust as compared with their abundances on Earth. This also explains the overabundance of the early <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metals</a> just before <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> in the periodic table – the cosmic-ray spallation of iron produces <a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">scandium</a> through <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> on the one hand and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> through boron on the other.<sup id="cite_ref-GE1315_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GE1315-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the arbitrary defining qualification for cosmogenic nuclides of being formed "in situ in the Solar System" (meaning inside an already aggregated piece of the Solar System) prevents primordial nuclides formed by cosmic ray spallation <i>before</i> the formation of the Solar System from being termed "cosmogenic nuclides"—even though the mechanism for their formation is exactly the same. These same nuclides still arrive on Earth in small amounts in cosmic rays, and are formed in meteoroids, in the atmosphere, on Earth, "cosmogenically". However, beryllium (<a href="/wiki/Mononuclidic_element" title="Mononuclidic element">all of it</a> stable beryllium-9) is present<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> primordially in the Solar System in much larger amounts, having existed prior to the condensation of the Solar System, and thus present in the materials from which the Solar System formed. </p><p>To make the distinction in another fashion, the <i>timing</i> of their formation determines which subset of cosmic ray spallation-produced nuclides are termed <b>primordial</b> or <b>cosmogenic</b> (a nuclide cannot belong to both classes). By convention, certain stable nuclides of lithium, beryllium, and boron are thought to have been produced by cosmic ray spallation in the period of time <i>between</i> the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> and the Solar System's formation (thus making these <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclides</a>, by definition) are not termed "cosmogenic", even though they were formed by the same process as the cosmogenic nuclides (although at an earlier time).<sup id="cite_ref-GE1315_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GE1315-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primordial nuclide beryllium-9, the only stable beryllium isotope, is an example of this type of nuclide. </p><p>In contrast, even though the radioactive isotopes <a href="/wiki/Beryllium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Beryllium-7">beryllium-7</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beryllium-10" title="Beryllium-10">beryllium-10</a> fall into this series of three light elements (lithium, beryllium, boron) formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a>, both of these nuclides have half lives too short (53 days and ca. 1.4 million years, resp.) for them to have been formed before the formation of the Solar System, and thus they cannot be primordial nuclides. Since the cosmic ray spallation route is the only possible source of beryllium-7 and beryllium-10 occurrence naturally in the environment, they are therefore cosmogenic. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cosmogenic_nuclides">Cosmogenic nuclides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmogenic_nuclide&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Cosmogenic nuclides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Here is a list of radioisotopes formed by the action of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a>; the list also contains the production mode of the isotope.<sup id="cite_ref-SCOPE50_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCOPE50-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most cosmogenic nuclides are formed in the atmosphere, but some are formed in situ in soil and rock exposed to cosmic rays, notably calcium-41 in the table below. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Isotopes formed by the action of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic rays">cosmic rays</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Isotope</th> <th>Mode of formation</th> <th>half life </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium"><sup>3</sup>H (tritium)</a> </th> <td><sup>14</sup>N(n,<sup>12</sup>C)T </td> <td>12.3 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_beryllium" title="Isotopes of beryllium"><sup>7</sup>Be</a> </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">Spallation</a> (N and O) </td> <td>53.2 d </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Beryllium-10" title="Beryllium-10"><sup>10</sup>Be</a> </th> <td>Spallation (N and O) </td> <td>1,387,000 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Carbon-11" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon-11"><sup>11</sup>C</a> </th> <td>Spallation (N and O) </td> <td>20.3 min </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14"><sup>14</sup>C</a> </th> <td><sup>14</sup>N(n,p)<sup>14</sup>C </td> <td>5,730 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fluorine-18" title="Fluorine-18"><sup>18</sup>F</a> </th> <td><sup>18</sup>O(p,n)<sup>18</sup>F and Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>110 min </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Sodium-22" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium-22"><sup>22</sup>Na</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>2.6 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_sodium" title="Isotopes of sodium"><sup>24</sup>Na</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>15 h </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_magnesium" title="Isotopes of magnesium"><sup>28</sup>Mg</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>20.9 h </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Aluminium-26" title="Aluminium-26"><sup>26</sup>Al</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>717,000 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_silicon" title="Isotopes of silicon"><sup>31</sup>Si</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>157 min </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_silicon" title="Isotopes of silicon"><sup>32</sup>Si</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>153 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_phosphorus" title="Isotopes of phosphorus"><sup>32</sup>P</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>14.3 d </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_phosphorus" title="Isotopes of phosphorus"><sup>33</sup>P</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>25.3 d </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_chlorine" title="Isotopes of chlorine"><sup>34m</sup>Cl</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>34 min </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_sulfur" title="Isotopes of sulfur"><sup>35</sup>S</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>87.5 d </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Chlorine-36" title="Chlorine-36"><sup>36</sup>Cl</a> </th> <td><sup>35</sup>Cl (n,γ)<sup>36</sup>Cl </td> <td>301,000 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_argon" title="Isotopes of argon"><sup>37</sup>Ar</a> </th> <td><sup>37</sup>Cl (p,n)<sup>37</sup>Ar </td> <td>35 d </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_chlorine" title="Isotopes of chlorine"><sup>38</sup>Cl</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Ar) </td> <td>37 min </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_argon" title="Isotopes of argon"><sup>39</sup>Ar</a> </th> <td><sup>40</sup>Ar (n,2n)<sup>39</sup>Ar </td> <td>269 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_chlorine" title="Isotopes of chlorine"><sup>39</sup>Cl</a> </th> <td><sup>40</sup>Ar (n,np)<sup>39</sup>Cl & spallation (Ar) </td> <td>56 min </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_argon" title="Isotopes of argon"><sup>41</sup>Ar</a> </th> <td><sup>40</sup>Ar (n,γ)<sup>41</sup>Ar </td> <td>110 min </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_calcium" title="Isotopes of calcium"><sup>41</sup>Ca</a> </th> <td><sup>40</sup>Ca (n,γ)<sup>41</sup>Ca </td> <td>102,000 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_krypton" title="Isotopes of krypton"><sup>81</sup>Kr</a> </th> <td><sup>80</sup>Kr (n,γ) <sup>81</sup>Kr </td> <td>229,000 y </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_iodine" title="Isotopes of iodine"><sup>129</sup>I</a> </th> <td>Spallation (Xe) </td> <td>15,700,000 y </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applications_in_geology_listed_by_isotope">Applications in geology listed by isotope</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmogenic_nuclide&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Applications in geology listed by isotope"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Commonly measured long lived cosmogenic isotopes </caption> <tbody><tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">mass</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> (years)</th> <th>typical application </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">beryllium</a></td> <td>10</td> <td>1,387,000</td> <td>exposure dating of rocks, soils, ice cores </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a></td> <td>26</td> <td>720,000</td> <td>exposure dating of rocks, sediment </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a></td> <td>36</td> <td>308,000</td> <td>exposure dating of rocks, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> tracer </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a></td> <td>41</td> <td>103,000</td> <td>exposure dating of <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rock" title="Carbonate rock">carbonate rocks</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a></td> <td>129</td> <td>15,700,000</td> <td>groundwater tracer </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> </td> <td>14 </td> <td>5730 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a></td> <td>35</td> <td>0.24</td> <td>water residence times </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a></td> <td>22</td> <td>2.6</td> <td>water residence times </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a></td> <td>3</td> <td>12.32</td> <td>water residence times </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a></td> <td>39</td> <td>269</td> <td>groundwater tracer </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">krypton</a></td> <td>81</td> <td>229,000</td> <td>groundwater tracer </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_geochronology">Use in geochronology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmogenic_nuclide&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Use in geochronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As seen in the table above, there are a wide variety of useful cosmogenic nuclides which can be measured in soil, rocks, groundwater, and the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These nuclides all share the common feature of being absent in the host material at the time of formation. These nuclides are chemically distinct and fall into two categories. The nuclides of interest are either <a href="/wiki/Noble_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble gases">noble gases</a> which due to their inert behavior are inherently not trapped in a crystallized mineral or has a short enough half-life such that it has decayed since <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a>, but a long enough half-life such that it has built up measurable concentrations. The former includes measuring abundances of <sup>81</sup>Kr and <sup>39</sup>Ar whereas the latter includes measuring abundances of <sup>10</sup>Be, <sup>14</sup>C, and <sup>26</sup>Al. </p><p>Three types of cosmic-ray reactions can occur once a cosmic ray strikes matter which in turn produce the measured cosmogenic nuclides.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">cosmic ray spallation</a>, which is the most common reaction on the near-surface (typically 0 to 60 cm below) the Earth and can create secondary particles which can cause additional reaction upon interaction with another nuclei called a <a href="/wiki/Collision_cascade" title="Collision cascade">collision cascade</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_capture" title="Muon capture">muon capture</a>, which pervades at depths a few meters below the subsurface because muons are inherently less reactive; in some cases, high-energy muons can reach greater depths<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a>, which due to the neutron's low energy are captured into a nucleus, most commonly by water,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (January 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but this process is highly dependent on snow, soil moisture and trace element concentrations.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corrections_for_cosmic-ray_fluxes">Corrections for cosmic-ray fluxes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmogenic_nuclide&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Corrections for cosmic-ray fluxes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the Earth bulges at the equator and mountains and deep oceanic trenches allow for deviations of several kilometers relative to a uniformly smooth spheroid, cosmic rays bombard the Earth's surface unevenly based on the latitude and altitude. Thus, many geographic and geologic considerations must be understood in order for cosmic-ray flux to be accurately determined. <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">Atmospheric pressure</a>, for example, which varies with altitude, can change the production rate of nuclides within minerals by a factor of 30 between sea level and the top of a 5 km high mountain. Even variations in the slope of the ground can affect how far high-energy muons can penetrate the subsurface.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Geomagnetic field strength which varies over time affects the production rate of cosmogenic nuclides though some models assume variations of the field strength are averaged out over geologic time and are not always considered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmogenic_nuclide&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Environmental radioactivity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmogenic_nuclide&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-GE1315-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GE1315_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GE1315_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Greenwood" title="Norman Greenwood">Greenwood, Norman N.</a>; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). <i>Chemistry of the Elements</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Butterworth-Heinemann" title="Butterworth-Heinemann">Butterworth-Heinemann</a>. p. 13–15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8"><bdi>978-0-08-037941-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+of+the+Elements&rft.pages=13-15&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-08-037941-8&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=Norman+N.&rft.au=Earnshaw%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmogenic+nuclide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/beryllium">"Beryllium | Properties, Uses, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. 2023-09-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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The mysterious cosmic origins of heavy elements"</a>. <i>New Scientist</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=How+is+gold+made%3F+The+mysterious+cosmic+origins+of+heavy+elements&rft.date=2021-07-24&rft.au=Sapphire+Lally&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fmg25133440-800-how-is-gold-made-the-mysterious-cosmic-origins-of-heavy-elements%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmogenic+nuclide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCOPE50-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SCOPE50_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope50">SCOPE 50 - Radioecology after Chernobyl</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140513065145/http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope50/">Archived</a> 2014-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Committee_on_Problems_of_the_Environment" title="Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment">Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment</a> (SCOPE), 1993. See table 1.9 in Section 1.4.5.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaeferCodileanWillenbringLu2022" class="citation journal cs1">Schaefer, Joerg M.; Codilean, Alexandru T.; Willenbring, Jane K.; Lu, Zheng-Tian; Keisling, Benjamin; Fülöp, Réka-H.; Val, Pedro (2022-03-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43586-022-00096-9">"Cosmogenic nuclide techniques"</a>. <i>Nature Reviews Methods Primers</i>. <b>2</b> (1): 1–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs43586-022-00096-9">10.1038/s43586-022-00096-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2662-8449">2662-8449</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:247396585">247396585</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Reviews+Methods+Primers&rft.atitle=Cosmogenic+nuclide+techniques&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=2022-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A247396585%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2662-8449&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs43586-022-00096-9&rft.aulast=Schaefer&rft.aufirst=Joerg+M.&rft.au=Codilean%2C+Alexandru+T.&rft.au=Willenbring%2C+Jane+K.&rft.au=Lu%2C+Zheng-Tian&rft.au=Keisling%2C+Benjamin&rft.au=F%C3%BCl%C3%B6p%2C+R%C3%A9ka-H.&rft.au=Val%2C+Pedro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs43586-022-00096-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACosmogenic+nuclide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLalPeters1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lal, D.; Peters, B. 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