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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thailand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thailand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Thailand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thailand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongolia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongolia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Mongolia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongolia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Siberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Siberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 East Siberia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Siberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Arab world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Europe </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Europe-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Europe subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Early history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shapes_of_pieces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shapes_of_pieces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Shapes of pieces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shapes_of_pieces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Names_of_pieces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Names_of_pieces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Names of pieces </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Names_of_pieces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_changes_to_the_rules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_changes_to_the_rules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Early changes to the rules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_changes_to_the_rules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Introduction_of_new_rules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introduction_of_new_rules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Introduction of new rules </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introduction_of_new_rules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_competitive_chess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_competitive_chess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Modern competitive chess </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_competitive_chess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birth_of_a_sport_(1850–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_of_a_sport_(1850–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Birth of a sport (1850–1945) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_of_a_sport_(1850–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-war_era_(1945_and_later)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war_era_(1945_and_later)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Post-war era (1945 and later) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war_era_(1945_and_later)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kasparov-Karpov_rivalry_and_chess_computers_(1975-2013)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kasparov-Karpov_rivalry_and_chess_computers_(1975-2013)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Kasparov-Karpov rivalry and chess computers (1975-2013) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kasparov-Karpov_rivalry_and_chess_computers_(1975-2013)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carlsen_and_the_online_chess_boom_(2013-Present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carlsen_and_the_online_chess_boom_(2013-Present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Carlsen and the online chess boom (2013-Present) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carlsen_and_the_online_chess_boom_(2013-Present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule_changes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule_changes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Rule changes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rule_changes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of chess</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" > 34 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AC" title="تاريخ الشطرنج – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الشطرنج" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_dels_escacs" title="Història dels escacs – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història dels escacs" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_%C5%A1achov%C3%A9_hry" title="Dějiny šachové hry – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny šachové hry" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Schachspiels" title="Geschichte des Schachspiels – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte des Schachspiels" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Ιστορία του σκακιού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία του σκακιού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_ajedrez" title="Historia del ajedrez – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del ajedrez" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B4%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AC" title="پیشینه شطرنج – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیشینه شطرنج" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_jeu_d%27%C3%A9checs" title="Histoire du jeu d'échecs – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du jeu d'échecs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="शतरंज का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शतरंज का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podrijetlo_%C5%A1aha" title="Podrijetlo šaha – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Podrijetlo šaha" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_shakoludo" title="Historio di shakoludo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di shakoludo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_permainan_catur" title="Sejarah permainan catur – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah permainan catur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_chacos" title="Historia del chacos – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del chacos" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_degli_scacchi" title="Storia degli scacchi – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia degli scacchi" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%A7_%D7%94%D7%A9%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%98" title="התפתחות משחק השחמט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התפתחות משחק השחמט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D2%9B%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D1%82%D3%99%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B3%D1%96" title="Казақстан мемлекеттік тәуелсіздігі – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Казақстан мемлекеттік тәуелсіздігі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_sakk_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nete" title="A sakk története – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A sakk története" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9A%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ചെസ്സിന്റെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ചെസ്സിന്റെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%82%A7%E3%82%B9%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="チェスの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チェスの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sjakkens_historie" title="Sjakkens historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sjakkens historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_xadrez" title="História do xadrez – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do xadrez" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaxmat_tariyx%C4%B1" title="Shaxmat tariyxı – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Shaxmat tariyxı" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_%C8%99ahului" title="Istoria șahului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria șahului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82" title="История шахмат – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История шахмат" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%A9%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="චෙස් ක්‍රීඩාවෙහි ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="චෙස් ක්‍රීඩාවෙහි ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_chess" title="History of chess – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of chess" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_%C5%A1aha" title="Zgodovina šaha – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina šaha" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%95%D8%AA%DA%95%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AC" title="مێژووی شەتڕەنج – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی شەتڕەنج" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_%C5%A1aha" title="Historija šaha – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija šaha" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schackets_historia" title="Schackets historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Schackets historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the book by H. J. R. Murray, see <a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Chess" title="A History of Chess">A History of Chess</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2021)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NMSLewisChessmen29.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/NMSLewisChessmen29.jpg/300px-NMSLewisChessmen29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/NMSLewisChessmen29.jpg/450px-NMSLewisChessmen29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/NMSLewisChessmen29.jpg/600px-NMSLewisChessmen29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1538" /></a><figcaption>The 12th-century <a href="/wiki/Lewis_chessmen" title="Lewis chessmen">Lewis chessmen</a> in the collection of the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Scotland" title="National Museum of Scotland">National Museum of Scotland</a></figcaption></figure> The history of chess can be traced back nearly 1,500 years to its earliest known predecessor, called <a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">chaturanga</a>, in <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a>; its prehistory is the subject of speculation. From India it spread to <a href="/wiki/Sassanian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanian Empire">Persia</a>, where it was modified in terms of shapes and rules and developed into <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">Shatranj</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Arab invasion and conquest of Persia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> was taken up by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> and subsequently spread to Europe via <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Al_Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Andalus">Al Andalus</a>) and Italy (<a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Emirate of Sicily</a>). The game evolved roughly into its current form by about 1500 CE. "<a href="/wiki/Romantic_chess" title="Romantic chess">Romantic chess</a>" was the predominant playing style from the late 18th century to the 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_2007-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">Chess</a> games of this period emphasized quick, tactical maneuvers rather than long-term strategic planning.<a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_2007-1">[1]</a> The Romantic era of play was followed by the Scientific, <a href="/wiki/Hypermodernism_(chess)" title="Hypermodernism (chess)">Hypermodern</a>, and New Dynamism eras.<a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_2007-1">[1]</a> In the second half of the 19th century, modern <a href="/wiki/Chess_tournament" title="Chess tournament">chess tournament</a> play began, and the first official <a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Championship" title="World Chess Championship">World Chess Championship</a> was held in 1886. The 20th century saw great leaps forward in <a href="/wiki/Chess_theory" title="Chess theory">chess theory</a> and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/FIDE" title="FIDE">World Chess Federation</a>. In 1997, an <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> supercomputer beat <a href="/wiki/Garry_Kasparov" title="Garry Kasparov">Garry Kasparov</a>, the then world chess champion, in the famous <a href="/wiki/Deep_Blue_versus_Garry_Kasparov" title="Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov">Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov</a> match, ushering the game into an <a href="/wiki/Computer_chess" title="Computer chess">era of computer domination</a>. Since then, computer analysis – which originated in the 1970s with the first <a href="/wiki/Chess_engine" title="Chess engine">programmed chess games</a> on the market – has contributed to much of the development in chess theory and has become an important part of preparation in professional human chess. Later developments in the 21st century made the use of computer analysis far surpassing the ability of any human player accessible to the public. <a href="/wiki/Online_chess" title="Online chess">Online chess</a>, which first appeared in the mid-1990s, also became popular in the 21st century. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg/220px-A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="349" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg/330px-A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/A_treatise_on_chess_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption>An illustration from a Persian manuscript "A treatise on chess". The Ambassadors from India present the Chatrang to Khosrow I Anushirwan, "Immortal Soul", King of Persia</figcaption></figure> Precursors to <a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">chess</a> originated in <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> There, its early form in the 7th century CE was known as <a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">chaturaṅga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: चतुरङ्ग), which translates to "four divisions (of the military)": <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, <a href="/wiki/War_elephant" title="War elephant">elephantry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariotry</a>. These forms are represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern <a href="/wiki/Pawn_(chess)" title="Pawn (chess)">pawn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knight_(chess)" title="Knight (chess)">knight</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bishop_(chess)" title="Bishop (chess)">bishop</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rook_(chess)" title="Rook (chess)">rook</a>, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Chess was introduced to <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Persia</a> from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.<a href="#cite_note-Meri-4">[4]</a> Around 600 CE in <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Persia</a>, the name for the game became chatrang (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: چترنگ), which subsequently evolved to <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">shatranj</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: شطرنج; <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: شترنج) after the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">conquest of Persia</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a>, due to the lack of native "ch" and "ng" sounds in the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_David_2006-5">[5]</a> The rules were developed further during this time; players started calling "Shāh!" (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> for "King!") when attacking the opponent's king, and "Shāh Māt!" (Persian for "the king is helpless" – see <a href="/wiki/Checkmate" title="Checkmate">checkmate</a>) when the king was attacked and could not escape from attack. These exclamations persisted in chess as it traveled to other lands. The game was taken up by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> after the early <a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims">Arab Muslims</a> conquered the Sassanid Empire, with the pieces largely keeping their Persian names. The <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> rendered the Persian term "shatranj" as shaṭerej, which gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> acedrex, axedrez and ajedrez; in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> it became xadrez, and in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> zatrikion (ζατρίκιον), but in the rest of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ("king"). Thus, the game came to be called lūdus scacc(h)ōrum or scacc(h)ī in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, scacchi in <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, escacs in <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>, échecs in <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> (<a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> eschecs), schaken in <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, Schach in <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, szachy in <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>, šahs in <a href="/wiki/Latvian_language" title="Latvian language">Latvian</a>, skak in <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>, sjakk in <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, schack in <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>, šakki in <a href="/wiki/Finnish_language" title="Finnish language">Finnish</a>, šah in <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic languages</a>, sakk in <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> and şah in <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>; there are two theories about why this change happened: <div class="tright" style="clear: none; width: 260px; text-align:center"> <div style="border:1px solid #b0b0b0; background:#f9f9f9; padding-top:6px"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="border: 1px solid #b0b0b0; background-color: #ffce9e; margin:auto"> <tbody><tr> <td style="background-color:white;"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/18px-Solid_white.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/27px-Solid_white.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/36px-Solid_white.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> </td> <td style="background-color:white;">a </td> <td style="background-color:white;">b </td> <td style="background-color:white;">c </td> <td style="background-color:white;">d </td> <td style="background-color:white;">e </td> <td style="background-color:white;">f </td> <td style="background-color:white;">g </td> <td style="background-color:white;">h </td> <td style="background-color:white;"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/18px-Solid_white.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/27px-Solid_white.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/36px-Solid_white.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">8 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_rdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="a8"><img alt="a8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chess_rdl45.svg/25px-Chess_rdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chess_rdl45.svg/38px-Chess_rdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chess_rdl45.svg/50px-Chess_rdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_ndl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="b8"><img alt="b8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chess_ndl45.svg/25px-Chess_ndl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chess_ndl45.svg/38px-Chess_ndl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chess_ndl45.svg/50px-Chess_ndl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_bdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="c8"><img alt="c8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chess_bdl45.svg/25px-Chess_bdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chess_bdl45.svg/38px-Chess_bdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chess_bdl45.svg/50px-Chess_bdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_kdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="d8"><img alt="d8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Chess_kdl45.svg/25px-Chess_kdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Chess_kdl45.svg/38px-Chess_kdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Chess_kdl45.svg/50px-Chess_kdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_qdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="e8"><img alt="e8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chess_qdl45.svg/25px-Chess_qdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chess_qdl45.svg/38px-Chess_qdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chess_qdl45.svg/50px-Chess_qdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_bdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="f8"><img alt="f8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chess_bdl45.svg/25px-Chess_bdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chess_bdl45.svg/38px-Chess_bdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chess_bdl45.svg/50px-Chess_bdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_ndl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="g8"><img alt="g8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chess_ndl45.svg/25px-Chess_ndl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chess_ndl45.svg/38px-Chess_ndl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Chess_ndl45.svg/50px-Chess_ndl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_rdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="h8"><img alt="h8" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chess_rdl45.svg/25px-Chess_rdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chess_rdl45.svg/38px-Chess_rdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Chess_rdl45.svg/50px-Chess_rdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">8 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">7 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="a7"><img alt="a7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="b7"><img alt="b7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="c7"><img alt="c7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="d7"><img alt="d7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="e7"><img alt="e7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="f7"><img alt="f7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="g7"><img alt="g7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pdl45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="h7"><img alt="h7" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/25px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/38px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Chess_pdl45.svg/50px-Chess_pdl45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">7 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">6 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="a6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="b6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="c6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="d6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="e6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="f6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="g6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="h6" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">6 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">5 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="a5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="b5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="c5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="d5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="e5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="f5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="g5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="h5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">4 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="a4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="b4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="c4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="d4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="e4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="f4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="g4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="h4" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">4 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">3 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="a3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="b3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="c3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="d3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="e3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="f3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="g3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><img alt="h3" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/25px-Chess_l45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/38px-Chess_l45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Chess_l45.svg/50px-Chess_l45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">3 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">2 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="a2"><img alt="a2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="b2"><img alt="b2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="c2"><img alt="c2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="d2"><img alt="d2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="e2"><img alt="e2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="f2"><img alt="f2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="g2"><img alt="g2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_pll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="h2"><img alt="h2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/25px-Chess_pll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/38px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Chess_pll45.svg/50px-Chess_pll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">2 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;">1 </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_rll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="a1"><img alt="a1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Chess_rll45.svg/25px-Chess_rll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Chess_rll45.svg/38px-Chess_rll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Chess_rll45.svg/50px-Chess_rll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_nll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="b1"><img alt="b1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chess_nll45.svg/25px-Chess_nll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chess_nll45.svg/38px-Chess_nll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chess_nll45.svg/50px-Chess_nll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_bll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="c1"><img alt="c1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chess_bll45.svg/25px-Chess_bll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chess_bll45.svg/38px-Chess_bll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chess_bll45.svg/50px-Chess_bll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_qll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="d1"><img alt="d1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chess_qll45.svg/25px-Chess_qll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chess_qll45.svg/38px-Chess_qll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Chess_qll45.svg/50px-Chess_qll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_kll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="e1"><img alt="e1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Chess_kll45.svg/25px-Chess_kll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Chess_kll45.svg/38px-Chess_kll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Chess_kll45.svg/50px-Chess_kll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_bll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="f1"><img alt="f1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chess_bll45.svg/25px-Chess_bll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chess_bll45.svg/38px-Chess_bll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Chess_bll45.svg/50px-Chess_bll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_nll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="g1"><img alt="g1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chess_nll45.svg/25px-Chess_nll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chess_nll45.svg/38px-Chess_nll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chess_nll45.svg/50px-Chess_nll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="border-top: 1px solid #707070; border-left: 1px solid #707070"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_rll45.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="h1"><img alt="h1" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Chess_rll45.svg/25px-Chess_rll45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Chess_rll45.svg/38px-Chess_rll45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Chess_rll45.svg/50px-Chess_rll45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;text-align:center;border-left: 1px solid #707070">1 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/18px-Solid_white.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/27px-Solid_white.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/36px-Solid_white.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">a </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">b </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">c </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">d </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">e </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">f </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">g </td> <td style="background-color:white;border-top: 1px solid #707070;">h </td> <td style="background-color:white;"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/18px-Solid_white.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/27px-Solid_white.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Solid_white.svg/36px-Solid_white.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="thumbcaption" style="margin-left:4px;margin-right:4px;"><a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">Chaturanga</a> starting position.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The kings do not face each other; the white king starts on e1 and the black king on d8.</div> </div> </div> <ol><li>From the exclamation "check" or "checkmate" as it was pronounced in various languages.</li> <li>From the first chessmen known of in Western Europe (except <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> and Greece) being ornamental chess kings brought in as curios by Muslim traders.</li></ol> The <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> call the game shatar, and in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> it is called senterej, both evidently derived from shatranj.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div role="note" class="side-box metadata side-box-right algebraic-notation"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This example uses <a href="/wiki/Algebraic_notation_(chess)" title="Algebraic notation (chess)">algebraic notation</a>.</div></div> </div> Chess spread directly from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> to Russia, where chess became known as шахматы (shakhmaty, literally "checkmates", a <a href="/wiki/Plurale_tantum" title="Plurale tantum">plurale tantum</a>). The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9th century. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe.<a href="#cite_note-tacspx-7">[7]</a> Introduced into the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> in the 10th century, it was described in a famous 13th-century Spanish manuscript covering shatranj, <a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a> named the <a href="/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos" title="Libro de los juegos">Libro de los juegos</a>, which is the earliest <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on European <a href="/wiki/Tables_games" class="mw-redirect" title="Tables games">tables games</a>. Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> pilgrims, <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> traders and others carried it to the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a> where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Chaturanga reached <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> through Persia, the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</a> and the expanding <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Arabian empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ChessEurope-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslims" title="Muslims">Muslims</a> carried chess to <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> by the 10th century.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The game was developed extensively in Europe. By the late 15th century, it had survived a series of prohibitions and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a> sanctions to almost take the shape of the modern game.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">Modern history</a> saw reliable reference works,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02a-14">[14]</a> competitive chess tournaments,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02b-15">[15]</a> and many new <a href="/wiki/Chess_variant" title="Chess variant">variants</a>. These factors added to the game's popularity,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02b-15">[15]</a> further bolstered by reliable timing mechanisms (first introduced in 1861), effective rules,<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02b-15">[15]</a> and charismatic players.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="India">India</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radha-Krishna_chess.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Radha-Krishna_chess.jpg/220px-Radha-Krishna_chess.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Radha-Krishna_chess.jpg/330px-Radha-Krishna_chess.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Radha-Krishna_chess.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="254" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radha" title="Radha">Radha</a> playing <a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">chaturanga</a> on an 8×8 Ashtāpada</figcaption></figure> The earliest precursor of modern chess is a game called <a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">chaturanga</a>, which flourished in India by the 6th century, and is the earliest known game to have two essential features found in all later chess variations—different pieces having different powers (which was not the case with <a href="/wiki/Checkers" title="Checkers">checkers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Go_(board_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Go (board game)">Go</a>), and victory depending on the fate of one piece, the king of modern chess.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> A common theory is that India's development of the board, and chess, was likely due to India's mathematical enlightenment involving the creation of the <a href="/wiki/0" title="0">number zero</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_David_2006-5">[5]</a> Other game pieces (speculatively called "chess pieces") uncovered in <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> findings are considered as coming from other, distantly related board games, which may have had boards of 100 squares or more.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02-18">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] Chess was designed for an <a href="/wiki/Ashtapada" title="Ashtapada">ashtāpada</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> for "having eight feet", i.e. an 8×8 squared board), which may have been used earlier for a <a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a>-type race game (perhaps related to a dice-driven race game still played in south India where the track starts at the middle of a side and spirals into the center).<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Ashtāpada, the uncheckered 8×8 board served as the main board for playing <a href="/wiki/Chaturanga" title="Chaturanga">chaturanga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins2-20">[20]</a> Other Indian boards included the 10×10 Dasapada and the 9×9 Saturankam.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins2-20">[20]</a> Traditional Indian chessboards often have X markings on some or all of squares a1 a4 a5 a8 d1 d4 d5 d8 e1 e4 e5 e8 h1 h4 h5 h8: these may have been "safe squares" where capturing was not allowed in a dice-driven backgammon-type race game played on the <a href="/wiki/Ashtapada" title="Ashtapada">ashtāpada</a> before chess was invented.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_1913,_p._42-21">[21]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cox-Forbes_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Cox-Forbes theory">Cox-Forbes theory</a>, proposed in the late 18th century by <a href="/wiki/Hiram_Cox" title="Hiram Cox">Hiram Cox</a>, and later developed by <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Forbes_(linguist)" title="Duncan Forbes (linguist)">Duncan Forbes</a>, asserted that the four-handed game <a href="/wiki/Chaturaji" title="Chaturaji">chaturaji</a> was the original form of chaturanga.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The theory is no longer considered tenable.<a href="#cite_note-Whyld-23">[23]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>, the word chaturaṅga literally means "having four limbs (or parts)" and in <a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">epic poetry</a> often means "army" (the four parts are elephants, chariots, horsemen, foot soldiers).<a href="#cite_note-Meri-4">[4]</a> The name came from a battle formation mentioned in the Indian epic <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Murray_1913,_p._42-21">[21]</a> The game chaturanga was a battle-simulation game<a href="#cite_note-Meri-4">[4]</a> which rendered Indian military strategy of the time.<a href="#cite_note-Kulke-24">[24]</a> Some people formerly played chess using a <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">die</a> to decide which piece to move. There was an unproven theory that chess started as this dice-chess and that the gambling and dice aspects of the game were removed because of <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> religious objections.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkins1-25">[25]</a> Scholars in areas to which the game subsequently spread, for example the Arab <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_%27Al%C4%AB_al-Mas%27%C5%ABd%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī">Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī</a>, detailed the Indian use of chess as a tool for <a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">military strategy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a> and even its vague association with <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-26">[26]</a> Mas'ūdī notes that <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> in India was chiefly used for the production of chess and <a href="/wiki/Backgammon" title="Backgammon">backgammon</a> pieces, and asserts that the game was introduced to Persia from India, along with the book <a href="/wiki/Kalila_wa_dimna" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalila wa dimna">Kelileh va Demneh</a>, during the reign of emperor <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Nushirwan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-26">[26]</a> In some variants, a win was by checkmate, or by <a href="/wiki/Stalemate" title="Stalemate">stalemate</a>, or by "bare king" (taking all of an opponent's pieces except the king). In some parts of India the pieces in the places of the rook, knight and bishop were renamed by words meaning (in this order) Boat, Horse, and Elephant, or Elephant, Horse, and Camel, but keeping the same moves.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In early chess the moves of the pieces were: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Original name</th> <th>Modern name</th> <th>Version</th> <th>Original move </th></tr> <tr> <td>king</td> <td>king</td> <td>all</td> <td>as now </td></tr> <tr> <td>adviser</td> <td>queen</td> <td>all</td> <td>one square diagonally, only </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">elephant</td> <td rowspan="3">bishop</td> <td>Persia and west</td> <td>two squares diagonally (no more or less), but could jump over a piece between </td></tr> <tr> <td>an old Indian version</td> <td>two squares sideways or front-and-back (no more or less), but could jump over a piece between </td></tr> <tr> <td>southeast and east Asia</td> <td>one square diagonally, or one square forwards, like four legs and trunk of elephant </td></tr> <tr> <td>horse</td> <td>knight</td> <td>all</td> <td>as now </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a></td> <td>rook</td> <td>all</td> <td>as now </td></tr> <tr> <td>foot-soldier</td> <td>pawn</td> <td>all</td> <td>one square forwards (not two squares from initial position), capturing one square diagonally forward; promoted to queen only </td></tr></tbody></table> Two Arab travelers each recorded a severe Indian chess rule against <a href="/wiki/Stalemate" title="Stalemate">stalemate</a>:<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <ul><li>A stalemated player thereby at once wins.</li> <li>A stalemated king can take one of the enemy pieces that would check the king if the king moves.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iran_(Persia)">Iran (Persia)</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 777px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iranian shatranj set, glazed fritware, 12th century, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art[29]"><img alt="Iranian shatranj set, glazed fritware, 12th century, New York Metropolitan Museum of Art[29]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg/213px-Chess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg" decoding="async" width="213" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg/319px-Chess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Chess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg/426px-Chess_Set_MET_DP170393.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3905" data-file-height="2972" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a> <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">shatranj</a> set, glazed <a href="/wiki/Fritware" title="Fritware">fritware</a>, 12th century, <a href="/wiki/New_York_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Metropolitan Museum of Art">New York Metropolitan Museum of Art</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Persianmss14thCambassadorfromIndiabroughtchesstoPersianCourt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Persian manuscript from the 14th century describing how an ambassador from India brought chess to the Persian court"><img alt="Persian manuscript from the 14th century describing how an ambassador from India brought chess to the Persian court" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Persianmss14thCambassadorfromIndiabroughtchesstoPersianCourt.jpg/216px-Persianmss14thCambassadorfromIndiabroughtchesstoPersianCourt.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Persianmss14thCambassadorfromIndiabroughtchesstoPersianCourt.jpg/324px-Persianmss14thCambassadorfromIndiabroughtchesstoPersianCourt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Persianmss14thCambassadorfromIndiabroughtchesstoPersianCourt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="419" data-file-height="214" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> manuscript from the 14th century describing how an ambassador from India brought chess to the Persian court</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Shams_ud-Din_Tabriz_1502-1504_BNF_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Shams-i Tabrīzī as portrayed in a 1500 painting in a page of a copy of Rumi's poem dedicated to Shams"><img alt="Shams-i Tabrīzī as portrayed in a 1500 painting in a page of a copy of Rumi's poem dedicated to Shams" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Shams_ud-Din_Tabriz_1502-1504_BNF_Paris.jpg/113px-Shams_ud-Din_Tabriz_1502-1504_BNF_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Shams_ud-Din_Tabriz_1502-1504_BNF_Paris.jpg/169px-Shams_ud-Din_Tabriz_1502-1504_BNF_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Shams_ud-Din_Tabriz_1502-1504_BNF_Paris.jpg/226px-Shams_ud-Din_Tabriz_1502-1504_BNF_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="418" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Shams_Tabrizi" title="Shams Tabrizi">Shams-i Tabrīzī</a> as portrayed in a 1500 painting in a page of a copy of <a href="/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi">Rumi</a>'s poem dedicated to Shams</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Chess_Game.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chess game between Tha'ālibī and Bākhazarī, 1896 painting by Ludwig Deutsch"><img alt="Chess game between Tha'ālibī and Bākhazarī, 1896 painting by Ludwig Deutsch" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Chess_Game.jpg/121px-The_Chess_Game.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Chess_Game.jpg/181px-The_Chess_Game.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/The_Chess_Game.jpg/242px-The_Chess_Game.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1494" data-file-height="2000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chess game between <a href="/wiki/Tha%27%C4%81lib%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Tha'ālibī">Tha'ālibī</a> and Bākhazarī, 1896 painting by <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Deutsch" title="Ludwig Deutsch">Ludwig Deutsch</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Golestan_Palace_Album_No._108-7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iranian courtiers of the Qajar dynasty playing chess in Mazandaran."><img alt="Iranian courtiers of the Qajar dynasty playing chess in Mazandaran." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Golestan_Palace_Album_No._108-7.jpg/214px-Golestan_Palace_Album_No._108-7.jpg" decoding="async" width="214" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Golestan_Palace_Album_No._108-7.jpg/322px-Golestan_Palace_Album_No._108-7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Golestan_Palace_Album_No._108-7.jpg/429px-Golestan_Palace_Album_No._108-7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5055" data-file-height="3821" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Iranian courtiers of the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a> playing chess in <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran_province" title="Mazandaran province">Mazandaran</a>.</div> </li> </ul> The <a href="/wiki/Karnamak-i_Artaxshir-i_Papakan" class="mw-redirect" title="Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan">Karnamak-i Ardeshir-i Papakan</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Pahlavi</a> epical treatise about the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid</a> <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a>, mentions the game of <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">chatrang</a> as one of the accomplishments of the legendary hero, <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a>, founder of the Empire.<a href="#cite_note-Bell1-30">[30]</a> The oldest recorded game in chess history is a 10th-century game played between a historian from <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and a pupil.<a href="#cite_note-ChessEurope-11">[11]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] A manuscript explaining the rules of the game, called "Matikan-i-chatrang" (the book of chess) in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> or Pahlavi, still exists.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In the 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a> describes a <a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">Raja</a> visiting from India who re-enacts the past battles on the chessboard.<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-26">[26]</a> A translation in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, based on the manuscripts in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, is given below:<a href="#cite_note-Bell1-30">[30]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> One day an ambassador from the king of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Hind</a> arrived at the Persian court of <a href="/wiki/Khusrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khusrau I">Chosroes</a>, and after an oriental exchange of courtesies, the ambassador produced rich presents from his sovereign and amongst them was an elaborate board with curiously carved pieces of ebony and ivory. He then issued a challenge: "Oh great king, fetch your wise men and let them solve the mysteries of this game. If they succeed my master the king of Hind will pay tribute as an overlord, but if they fail it will be proof that the Persians are of lower intellect and we shall demand tribute from Iran." The courtiers were shown the board, and after a day and a night in deep thought one of them, <a href="/wiki/Bozorgmehr" title="Bozorgmehr">Bozorgmehr</a>, solved the mystery and was richly rewarded by his delighted sovereign.<a href="#cite_note-32">[a]</a> </div></blockquote> The Shahnameh goes on to offer an apocryphal account of the origins of the game of chess in the story of Talhand and Gav, two half-brothers who vie for the throne of Hind (India). They meet in battle and Talhand dies on his elephant without a wound. Believing that Gav had killed Talhand, their mother is distraught. Gav tells his mother that Talhand did not die by the hands of him or his men, but she does not understand how this could be. So the sages of the court invent the game of chess, detailing the pieces and how they move, to show the mother of the princes how the battle unfolded and how Talhand died of fatigue when surrounded by his enemies.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> The poem uses the Persian term "Shāh māt" (check mate) to describe the fate of Talhand.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> The philosopher and theologian <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">Al-Ghazali</a> mentions chess in <a href="/wiki/Kimiya-yi_sa%27%C4%81dat" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimiya-yi sa'ādat">The Alchemy of Happiness</a> (c. 1100). He uses it as a specific example of a habit that may cloud a person's <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">good disposition</a>:<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Indeed, a person who has become habituated to gaming with pigeons, playing chess, or gambling, so that it becomes second-nature to him, will give all the comforts of the world and all that he has for those (pursuits) and cannot keep away from them.</blockquote> The appearance of the <a href="/wiki/Chess_pieces" class="mw-redirect" title="Chess pieces">chess pieces</a> had altered greatly since the times of chaturanga, with ornate pieces and chess pieces depicting animals giving way to abstract shapes. This is because of a Muslim ban on the game's lifelike pieces, as they were said to have been too like idols.<a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_David_2006-5">[5]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a> sets of later centuries followed a pattern which assigned names and abstract shapes to the chess pieces, as <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> forbids depiction of animals and human beings in art.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEales1985-36">[35]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] These pieces were usually made of simple clay and carved stone. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div> As a strategy board game played in China, chess is believed to have been derived from the Indian chaturanga.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a> Chaturanga was transformed into the game <a href="/wiki/Xiangqi" title="Xiangqi">xiangqi</a> where the pieces are placed on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.<a href="#cite_note-Bell_1979,_V.I_p.66-38">[37]</a> The object of the Chinese variation is similar to chaturanga, i.e. to render helpless the opponent's king, known as "general" on one side and "governor" on the other.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a> Chinese chess also borrows elements from the game of <a href="/wiki/Go_(board_game)" class="mw-redirect" title="Go (board game)">Go</a>, which was played in China since at least the 6th century BC. Owing to the influence of Go, Chinese chess is played on the intersections of the lines on the board, rather than in the squares. The game of Xiangqi is also unique in that the middle rank represents a river, and is not divided into squares.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> Chinese chess pieces are usually flat and resemble those used in <a href="/wiki/Checkers" title="Checkers">checkers</a>, with pieces differentiated by writing their names on the flat surface.<a href="#cite_note-Bell_1979,_V.I_p.66-38">[37]</a> An alternative origin theory contends that chess arose from <a href="/wiki/Xiangqi" title="Xiangqi">xiangqi</a> or a predecessor thereof, existing in China since the 3rd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-li-41">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_H._Li" title="David H. Li">David H. Li</a>, a translator of ancient Chinese texts, hypothesizes that general <a href="/wiki/Han_Xin" title="Han Xin">Han Xin</a> drew on the earlier game of <a href="/wiki/Liubo" title="Liubo">Liubo</a> to develop an early form of Chinese chess in the winter of 204–203 BC.<a href="#cite_note-li-41">[40]</a> The German chess historian Peter Banaschak, however, points out that Li's main hypothesis "is based on virtually nothing." He notes that the "Xuanguai lu", authored by the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> minister <a href="/wiki/Niu_Sengru" title="Niu Sengru">Niu Sengru</a> (779–847), remains the first real source on the Chinese chess variant xiangqi.<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_shogi" title="History of shogi">History of shogi</a></div> A prominent variant of chess in East Asia is the game of <a href="/wiki/Shogi" title="Shogi">shogi</a>, transmitted from India to China and Korea before finally reaching Japan.<a href="#cite_note-43">[42]</a> The three distinguishing features of shogi are: <ol><li>The captured pieces may be reused by the captor and played as a part of the captor's forces.</li> <li>Pawns capture as they move, one square straight ahead.<a href="#cite_note-44">[43]</a></li> <li>The board is 9×9, with a second gold general on the other side of the king.</li></ol> Drops were not originally part of shogi. In the 13th century, shogi underwent an expansion, creating the game of <a href="/wiki/Dai_shogi" title="Dai shogi">dai shogi</a>, played on a 15×15 board with many new pieces, including the independently invented rook, bishop and queen of modern Western chess, the drunk elephant that promotes to a second king, and also the even more powerful lion, which among other idiosyncrasies has the power to move or capture twice per turn. Around the 14th or 15th centuries, the popularity of dai shogi then waned in favour of the smaller <a href="/wiki/Chu_shogi" title="Chu shogi">chu shogi</a>, played on a smaller 12×12 board which removed the weakest pieces from dai shogi, similarly to the development of <a href="/wiki/Courier_chess" title="Courier chess">Courier chess</a> in the West. In the meantime, the original 9×9 shogi, now termed <a href="/wiki/Sho_shogi" title="Sho shogi">sho shogi</a>, continued to be played, but was regarded as less prestigious than chu shogi and dai shogi. Chu shogi was very popular in Japan, and the rook, bishop, and drunk elephant from it were added to sho shogi, where the first two remain today. In the 15th and 16th centuries, yet more <a href="/wiki/Shogi_variant" title="Shogi variant">shogi variants</a> were described, on large boards and with many more pieces. The 1694 book <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgi_Zushiki" title="Shōgi Zushiki">Shōgi Zushiki</a> details <a href="/wiki/Tenjiku_shogi" title="Tenjiku shogi">tenjiku shogi</a> (16×16), <a href="/wiki/Dai_dai_shogi" title="Dai dai shogi">dai dai shogi</a> (17×17), <a href="/wiki/Maka_dai_dai_shogi" title="Maka dai dai shogi">maka dai dai shogi</a> (19×19), and <a href="/wiki/Tai_shogi" title="Tai shogi">tai shogi</a> (25×25); it also mentions <a href="/wiki/Wa_shogi" title="Wa shogi">wa shogi</a> (11×11), <a href="/wiki/Ko_shogi" title="Ko shogi">ko shogi</a> (19×19), and <a href="/wiki/Taikyoku_shogi" title="Taikyoku shogi">taikyoku shogi</a> (36×36). It is not thought that these games were played very much. Chu shogi declined in popularity after the addition of drops to sho shogi and the removal of the drunk elephant in the 16th century, becoming moribund around the late 20th century. These changes to sho shogi created what is essentially the modern game of shogi. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thailand">Thailand</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Makruk" title="Makruk">Makruk</a></div> The Thai variant of chess, <a href="/wiki/Makruk" title="Makruk">makruk</a> is a close living relative to chaturanga, retaining the vizier, non-checkered board, limited promotion, offset kings, and elephant-like bishop move.<a href="#cite_note-45">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongolia">Mongolia</h3></div> Chess is recorded from <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongolian</a>-inhabited areas, where the pieces are now called: <ul><li>King: Noyon – Ноён – <a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">lord</a></li> <li>Queen: Bers / Nohoi – Бэрс / Нохой – dog (to guard the livestock)</li> <li>Bishop: Temē – Тэмээ – <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a></li> <li>Knight: Morĭ – Морь – <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horse</a></li> <li>Rook: Tereg – Тэрэг – <a href="/wiki/Cart" title="Cart">cart</a></li> <li>Pawn: Hū – Хүү – boy (the piece often showed a <a href="/wiki/Puppy" title="Puppy">puppy</a>)</li></ul> Names recorded from the 1880s by Russian sources, quoted in Murray,<a href="#cite_note-soyot-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-soyot1-47">[46]</a> among the <a href="/wiki/Soyot" title="Soyot">Soyot</a> people (who at the time spoke the <a href="/wiki/Soyot-Tsaatan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Soyot-Tsaatan language">Soyot</a> <a href="/wiki/Turkic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkic language">Turkic language</a>) include: merzé (dog), täbä (camel), ot (horse), ōl (child) and Mongolian names for the other pieces. This game is called <a href="/wiki/Shatar" title="Shatar">shatar</a>; a large 10×10 variant called <a href="/wiki/Hiashatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiashatar">hiashatar</a> was also played. The change with the queen is likely due to the Arabic word <a href="/wiki/Fers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fers">firzān</a> or Persian word farzīn (= "<a href="/wiki/Vizier" title="Vizier">vizier</a>") being confused with Turkic or Mongolian native words (merzé = "mastiff", bar or bars = "tiger", arslan = "lion").<a href="#cite_note-soyot-46">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-soyot1-47">[46]</a> Western chess is now the prevalent form of the game in Mongolia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Siberia">East Siberia</h3></div> Chess was also recorded from the <a href="/wiki/Yakuts" title="Yakuts">Yakuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evenks" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Tunguses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yukaghir" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukaghir">Yukaghirs</a>; but only as a children's game among the <a href="/wiki/Chukchi_people" title="Chukchi people">Chukchi</a>. Chessmen have been collected from the <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlingit people">Yakutat</a> people in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, having no resemblance to European chessmen, and thus likely part of a chess tradition coming from <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arab_world">Arab world</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">Shatranj</a></div> Chess passed from Persia to the Arab world, where its name changed to Arabic <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">shatranj</a>. From there it passed to Western Europe, probably via Spain. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moors_from_Andalusia_playing_chess.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Moors_from_Andalusia_playing_chess.jpg/220px-Moors_from_Andalusia_playing_chess.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Moors_from_Andalusia_playing_chess.jpg/330px-Moors_from_Andalusia_playing_chess.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Moors_from_Andalusia_playing_chess.jpg/440px-Moors_from_Andalusia_playing_chess.jpg 2x" data-file-width="518" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a> from Andalusia playing chess, Book of Games by <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile" title="Alfonso X of Castile">King Alfonso X</a>, 1283</figcaption></figure> Over the centuries, features of European chess (e.g. the modern moves of queen and bishop, and castling) found their way via trade into Islamic areas. Murray's sources found the old moves of queen and bishop still current in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[48]</a> The game became so popular it was used in writing at that time, played by nobility and regular people. The poet al-Katib once said, "The skilled player places his pieces in such a way as to discover consequences that the ignorant man never sees... thus, he serves the Sultan's interests, by showing how to foresee disaster."<a href="#cite_note-Shenk,_David_2006-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Russia">Russia</h2></div> Chess has 1000 years of history in Russia. Chess was probably brought to <a href="/wiki/Rus%27_(region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rus' (region)">Old Russia</a> in the 9th century via the <a href="/wiki/Volga_trade_route" title="Volga trade route">Volga-Caspian</a> trade route. From the 10th century cultural connections with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> also influenced the history of chess in Russia. The vocabulary in Russian chess has various foreign-language elements and testifies to different influences in the evolution of chess in Russia. Chess is mentioned in folk poems as a popular game and is documented in the Old Russian <a href="/wiki/Bylina" title="Bylina">byliny</a>. Numerous archeological finds of the chess game have already been found in the regions of Old Russia. From 1262 on chess was called in Russia shakhmaty. Various foreign travellers commented that in the 16th century, chess was popular among all classes in Russia. <a href="/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible" title="Ivan the Terrible">Ivan IV the Terrible</a>, who ruled Russia from 1530 to 1584, is said to have died while playing chess.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a> In 1791 the popular chess book Morals of Chess by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> was translated into Russian and published in the country. Chess enjoys a very high status in Russia and was gradually introduced as a school subject in all primary schools since 2017.<a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Confusing plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-confusing" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This paragraph may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness">confusing or unclear</a> to readers. Please help <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarify the paragraph</a>. There might be a discussion about this on <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_chess" title="Talk:History of chess">the talk page</a>. (May 2013) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Shatranj" title="Shatranj">Shatranj</a> made its way via the expanding <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian">Arabian</a> empire to <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ChessEurope-11">[11]</a> It also spread to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine empire">Byzantine empire</a>, where it was called zatrikion. Chess appeared in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern Europe</a> during the end of the first millennium, often introduced to new lands by conquering armies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Conquest of England">Norman Conquest of England</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> Previously little known, chess became popular in Northern Europe when figure pieces were introduced.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> played an enlarged variation of the game which is commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Tamerlane_chess" title="Tamerlane chess">Tamerlane chess</a>. This complex game involved each pawn having a particular purpose, as well as additional pieces.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-54">[53]</a> The sides are conventionally called White and Black. But, in earlier European chess writings, the sides were often called Red and Black because those were the commonly available colours of ink when handwriting drawing a chess game layout. In such layouts, each piece was represented by its name, often abbreviated (e.g. "ch'r" for French "chevalier" = "<a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a>"). The social value attached to the game – seen as a prestigious pastime associated with nobility and high culture – is clear from the expensive and exquisitely made chessboards of the medieval era.<a href="#cite_note-Vale1a-55">[54]</a> The popularity of chess in the Western courtly society peaked between the 12th and the 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Gamer1-56">[55]</a> The game found mention in the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> language literature throughout Europe, and many works were written on or about chess between the 12th and the 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Gamer1-56">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/H._J._R._Murray" title="H. J. R. Murray">H. J. R. Murray</a> divides the works into three distinct parts: the <a href="/wiki/Didactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Didactic">didactic</a> works e.g. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Neckham" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander of Neckham">Alexander of Neckham</a>'s De scaccis (c. 1180); works of morality like Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum (Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess), written by <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_de_Cessolis" title="Jacobus de Cessolis">Jacobus de Cessolis</a>; and the works related to various chess problems, written largely after 1205.<a href="#cite_note-Gamer1-56">[55]</a> Chess terms, like check, were used by authors as a metaphor for various situations.<a href="#cite_note-Vale2b-57">[56]</a> Chess was soon incorporated into the knightly style of life in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Vale1b-58">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Alfonsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Alfonsi">Peter Alfonsi</a>, in his work Disciplina Clericalis, listed chess among the seven skills that a good <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a> must acquire.<a href="#cite_note-Vale1b-58">[57]</a> Chess also became a subject of art during this period, with caskets and pendants decorated in various chess forms.<a href="#cite_note-59">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Margaret_of_Anjou" title="Margaret of Anjou">Queen Margaret of England</a> had green and red <a href="/wiki/Chess_piece" title="Chess piece">chess sets</a> made of jasper and crystal.<a href="#cite_note-Vale2b-57">[56]</a> Kings <a href="/wiki/Henry_I_of_England" title="Henry I of England">Henry I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard I">Richard I</a> of England were chess patrons.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02-18">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] King <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso X">Alfonso X</a> of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> and Tsar <a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV of Russia">Ivan IV of Russia</a> gained a similar status.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02-18">[18]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter_Damian" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Peter Damian">Saint Peter Damian</a> denounced the bishop of Florence in 1061 for playing chess even when aware of its evil effects on the society.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> The bishop of Florence defended himself by declaring that chess involved skill and was therefore "unlike other games," and similar arguments followed in the coming centuries.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> Two incidents in 13th-century <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, in which men of <a href="/wiki/Essex" title="Essex">Essex</a> resorted to violence resulting in death as an outcome of playing chess, caused further sensation and alarm.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> The growing popularity of the game – now associated with revelry and violence – alarmed the Church.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> The practice of playing chess for money became so widespread during the 13th century that <a href="/wiki/Louis_IX_of_France" title="Louis IX of France">Louis IX of France</a> issued an ordinance against gambling in 1254.<a href="#cite_note-Vale1a-55">[54]</a> This ordinance turned out to be unenforceable and was largely neglected by the common public, and even the courtly society, which continued to enjoy the now-prohibited chess tournaments uninterrupted.<a href="#cite_note-Vale1a-55">[54]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 777px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Knights Templar playing chess, Libro de los juegos, 1283"><img alt="Knights Templar playing chess, Libro de los juegos, 1283" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg/216px-KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg/324px-KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg/432px-KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="932" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> playing chess, <a href="/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos" title="Libro de los juegos">Libro de los juegos</a>, 1283</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Moorish_women_playing_chess,_European_woman_playing_lute.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Moorish women playing chess, European woman playing lute. From Alfonso X's Libro del axedrez dados et tablas ("Book of chess, dices and tables"), c. 1283."><img alt="Moorish women playing chess, European woman playing lute. From Alfonso X's Libro del axedrez dados et tablas ("Book of chess, dices and tables"), c. 1283." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Moorish_women_playing_chess%2C_European_woman_playing_lute.jpg/216px-Moorish_women_playing_chess%2C_European_woman_playing_lute.jpg" decoding="async" width="216" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Moorish_women_playing_chess%2C_European_woman_playing_lute.jpg/324px-Moorish_women_playing_chess%2C_European_woman_playing_lute.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Moorish_women_playing_chess%2C_European_woman_playing_lute.jpg/432px-Moorish_women_playing_chess%2C_European_woman_playing_lute.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1678" data-file-height="1124" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Moorish" class="mw-redirect" title="Moorish">Moorish</a> women playing chess, European woman playing <a href="/wiki/Lute" title="Lute">lute</a>. From <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso X">Alfonso X</a>'s Libro del axedrez dados et tablas ("Book of chess, dices and tables"), c. 1283.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Otto IV of Brandenburg playing chess with a woman, 1305 to 1340"><img alt="Otto IV of Brandenburg playing chess with a woman, 1305 to 1340" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg/107px-Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg" decoding="async" width="107" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg/161px-Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg/215px-Meister_der_Manessischen_Liederhandschrift_004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="1443" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Otto_IV_of_Brandenburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto IV of Brandenburg">Otto IV of Brandenburg</a> playing chess with a woman, 1305 to 1340</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 251px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 246px; height: 192px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess_playing_Louvre_OA117.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A couple playing chess, ivory mirror case c. 1300"><img alt="A couple playing chess, ivory mirror case c. 1300" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Chess_playing_Louvre_OA117.jpg/162px-Chess_playing_Louvre_OA117.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Chess_playing_Louvre_OA117.jpg/243px-Chess_playing_Louvre_OA117.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Chess_playing_Louvre_OA117.jpg/324px-Chess_playing_Louvre_OA117.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1888" data-file-height="1888" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A couple playing chess, ivory mirror case c. 1300</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shapes_of_pieces">Shapes of pieces</h3></div> The pieces, which had been nonrepresentational in Islamic countries (see <a href="/wiki/Shatranj#Piece_values" title="Shatranj">piece values in shatranj</a>), changed shape in Christian cultures. Carved images of men and animals reappeared. The shape of the rook, originally a rectangular block with a V-shaped cut in the top, changed; the two top parts separated by the split tended to get long and hang over, and in some old pictures look like horses' heads. The split top of the piece now called the bishop was interpreted as a bishop's mitre or a fool's cap. By the mid-12th century, the pieces of the chess set were depicted as kings, queens, bishops, knights and <a href="/wiki/Man-at-arms" title="Man-at-arms">men at arms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vale2a-60">[59]</a> Chessmen made of ivory began to appear in <a href="/wiki/North-West_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="North-West Europe">North-West Europe</a>, and ornate pieces of traditional knight warriors were used as early as the mid 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a> The initially nondescript pawn had now found association with the pedes, pedinus, or the <a href="/wiki/Footman" title="Footman">footman</a>, which symbolized both infantry and loyal domestic service.<a href="#cite_note-Vale2a-60">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Names_of_pieces">Names of pieces</h3></div> The following table provides a glimpse of the changes in names and character of chess pieces as they crossed from India through Persia to Europe:<a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> <table class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <caption>A comparison of the terms for chessmen in Sanskrit, Bengali, Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Latin, English, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, Catalan and Romanian </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Sanskrit</th> <th>Bengali</th> <th>Persian</th> <th>Arabic</th> <th>Turkish</th> <th>Latin</th> <th>English</th> <th>Spanish</th> <th>Portuguese</th> <th>Italian</th> <th>French</th> <th>Catalan </th> <th>Romanian </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">Raja</a> (King)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raja" title="Raja">Raja</a> (King)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Malik" title="Malik">Malik</a></td> <td>Şah</td> <td>Rex</td> <td>King</td> <td>Rey</td> <td>Rei</td> <td>Re</td> <td>Roi</td> <td>Rei </td> <td>Rege </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mantri" title="Mantri">Mantri</a> (Minister)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mantri" title="Mantri">Mantri</a> (Minister)</td> <td>Vazīr (<a href="/wiki/Vizir" class="mw-redirect" title="Vizir">Vizir</a>)</td> <td>Wazīr/Firz</td> <td>Vezir</td> <td>Regina</td> <td>Queen</td> <td>Reina/Dama</td> <td>Rainha/Dama</td> <td>Regina</td> <td>Dame</td> <td>Dama/Reina </td> <td>Regină </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gaja" title="Gaja">Gajah</a> (war elephant)</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hati_(chess_piece)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hati (chess piece) (page does not exist)">Hati</a></td> <td>Pil</td> <td>Al-Fīl</td> <td>Fil</td> <td>Episcopus/<a href="/wiki/Comes" title="Comes">Comes</a>/Calvus</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishop</a>/<a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">Count</a>/<a href="/wiki/Councillor" title="Councillor">Councillor</a></td> <td>Alfil/Obispo</td> <td>Bispo</td> <td>Alfiere</td> <td>Fou</td> <td>Alfil </td> <td>Nebun </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ashva" title="Ashva">Ashva</a> (horse)</td> <td>Ghora (horse)</td> <td>Asp</td> <td>Fars/Hisan</td> <td>At</td> <td>Miles/<a href="/wiki/Eques_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eques (ancient Rome)">Eques</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></td> <td>Caballo</td> <td>Cavalo</td> <td>Cavallo</td> <td>Cavalier</td> <td>Cavall </td> <td>Cal </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ratha" title="Ratha">Ratha</a> (chariot)</td> <td>Nowka</td> <td>Rokh</td> <td>Qal`a/Rukhkh</td> <td>Kale</td> <td>Rochus/Marchio</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rook_(chess)" title="Rook (chess)">Rook</a>/<a href="/wiki/Margrave" title="Margrave">Margrave</a>/Castle</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Torre_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Torre (disambiguation)">Torre</a>/Roque</td> <td>Torre</td> <td>Torre/Rocco</td> <td>Tour</td> <td>Torre </td> <td>Turn/Tură </td></tr> <tr> <td>Padati (footman/footsoldier)</td> <td>Shoinnya</td> <td>Piadeh</td> <td>Baidaq/Jondi</td> <td>Piyon</td> <td>Pedes/Pedinus</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pawn_(chess)" title="Pawn (chess)">Pawn</a></td> <td>Peón</td> <td>Peão</td> <td>Pedone/Pedina</td> <td>Pion</td> <td>Peó </td> <td>Pion </td></tr></tbody></table> The game, as played during the early Middle Ages, was slow, with many games lasting days.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> Some variations in rules began to change the shape of the game by the year 1300. A notable, but initially unpopular, change was the ability of the pawn to move two places in the first move instead of one.<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> In Europe some of the pieces gradually received new names: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_(chess)" title="Queen (chess)">Fers</a>: "queen", because it starts beside the king.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aufin" class="mw-redirect" title="Aufin">Aufin</a>: "bishop", because its two points looked like a bishop's <a href="/wiki/Mitre" title="Mitre">mitre</a>. Its Latin name alfinus was reinterpreted many ways.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_changes_to_the_rules">Early changes to the rules</h3></div> <div class="thumb noviewer tright"><div class="center" style="line-height:130%;margin:0 auto;max-width:222px"> </div><div class="thumbinner" style="width:214px"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:88%;border:1px #c8ccd1 solid;padding:0;margin:auto"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="vertical-align:inherit;padding:0"></td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">a</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">b</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">c</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">d</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">e</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">f</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">g</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">h</td><td style="vertical-align:inherit;padding:0"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;width:18px;height:22px">8</td><td colspan="8" rowspan="8" style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit"><div class="chess-board notheme" style="position:relative"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chessboard480.svg/176px-Chessboard480.svg.png" decoding="async" width="176" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chessboard480.svg/264px-Chessboard480.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Chessboard480.svg/352px-Chessboard480.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="480" /><div style="position:absolute;z-index:3;top:0px;left:44px;width:22px;height:22px"><img alt="c8 black king" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Chess_kdt45.svg/22px-Chess_kdt45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Chess_kdt45.svg/33px-Chess_kdt45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Chess_kdt45.svg/44px-Chess_kdt45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></div><div style="position:absolute;z-index:3;top:22px;left:88px;width:22px;height:22px"><img alt="e7 white king" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Chess_klt45.svg/22px-Chess_klt45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Chess_klt45.svg/33px-Chess_klt45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Chess_klt45.svg/44px-Chess_klt45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></div><div style="position:absolute;z-index:3;top:44px;left:22px;width:22px;height:22px"><img alt="b6 black pawn" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chess_pdt45.svg/22px-Chess_pdt45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chess_pdt45.svg/33px-Chess_pdt45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Chess_pdt45.svg/44px-Chess_pdt45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></div><div style="position:absolute;z-index:3;top:66px;left:44px;width:22px;height:22px"><img alt="c5 black bishop" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Chess_bdt45.svg/22px-Chess_bdt45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Chess_bdt45.svg/33px-Chess_bdt45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Chess_bdt45.svg/44px-Chess_bdt45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></div><div style="position:absolute;z-index:3;top:154px;left:44px;width:22px;height:22px"><img alt="c1 white rook" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Chess_rlt45.svg/22px-Chess_rlt45.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Chess_rlt45.svg/33px-Chess_rlt45.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Chess_rlt45.svg/44px-Chess_rlt45.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="45" data-file-height="45" /></div></div></td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;width:18px;height:22px">8</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">7</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">7</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">6</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">6</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">5</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">5</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">4</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">4</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">3</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">3</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">2</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">2</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">1</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:22px">1</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:middle"><td style="vertical-align:inherit;padding:0"></td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">a</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">b</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">c</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">d</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">e</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">f</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">g</td><td style="padding:0;vertical-align:inherit;text-align:center;height:18px;width:22px">h</td><td style="vertical-align:inherit;padding:0"></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="thumbcaption"> Check by pinned piece</div></div></div> Attempts to make the start of the game run faster to get the opposing pieces in contact sooner included: <ul><li>Pawn moving two squares in its first move. This led to the <a href="/wiki/En_passant" title="En passant">en passant</a> rule: a pawn placed so that it could have captured the enemy pawn if it had moved one square forward was allowed to capture it on the passed square. In Italy, the contrary rule (passar battaglia = "to pass battle") applied: a pawn that moved two squares forward had passed the danger of attack on the intermediate square. It was sometimes not allowed to do this to cover check.<a href="#cite_note-murray-65">[64]</a></li> <li>King jumping once, to make it quicker to put the king safe in a corner. (This eventually led to <a href="/wiki/Castling" title="Castling">castling</a>.)</li> <li>Queen on its first move moving two squares straight or diagonally to a same-coloured square, with jump. (This rule sometimes also applied to a queen made by <a href="/wiki/Promotion_(chess)" title="Promotion (chess)">promoting</a> a pawn.)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Short_assize" title="Short assize">short assize</a>. ("assize" = "sitting") Here the pawns started on the third rank; the queens started on d3 and d6 along with the queens' pawns; the players arranged their other pieces as they wished behind their pawns at the start of the game. This idea did not endure.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a></li></ul> Other sporadic variations in the rules of chess included: <ul><li>Ignoring check from a piece which was covering check, as some said that in theory (in the diagram on the right), Bxe7 would allow Rxc8 in reply.<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduction_of_new_rules">Introduction of new rules</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chess_in_Spain" title="Chess in Spain">Chess in Spain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Chess_Players_by_Henry_Fox_Talbot_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/The_Chess_Players_by_Henry_Fox_Talbot_%282%29.jpg/200px-The_Chess_Players_by_Henry_Fox_Talbot_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/The_Chess_Players_by_Henry_Fox_Talbot_%282%29.jpg/300px-The_Chess_Players_by_Henry_Fox_Talbot_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/The_Chess_Players_by_Henry_Fox_Talbot_%282%29.jpg/400px-The_Chess_Players_by_Henry_Fox_Talbot_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The Chess Players by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot" title="Henry Fox Talbot">Henry Fox Talbot</a>, 1847</figcaption></figure> The queen and bishop remained relatively weak until between 1475 AD and 1500 AD, in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Kingdom of Valencia</a>), the queen's and bishop's modern moves started and spread, making chess close to its modern form.<a href="#cite_note-Riddler-13">[13]</a> The first document showing the Queen (or Dama) moving this way is the allegorical poem <a href="/wiki/Scachs_d%27amor" title="Scachs d'amor">Scachs d'amor</a>, written in <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Valencia" title="Valencia">Valencia</a> in 1475.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> This form of chess got such names as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess" (Italian alla rabiosa = "with the madwoman").<a href="#cite_note-Murray1913-70">[69]</a> This led to much more value being attached to the previously minor tactic of <a href="/wiki/Pawn_promotion" class="mw-redirect" title="Pawn promotion">pawn promotion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Murray1913-70">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Checkmate" title="Checkmate">Checkmate</a> became easier and games could now be won in fewer moves.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> These new rules quickly spread in Spain and throughout the rest of Western Europe,<a href="#cite_note-nauiua-73">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> with the exception of the rules about stalemate, which were finalized in the early 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> The modern move of the queen may have started as an extension of its older ability to once move two squares with jump, diagonally or straight. <a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Yalom" title="Marilyn Yalom">Marilyn Yalom</a> says that the new move of the queen started in Spain: see <a href="/wiki/Queen_(chess)#History" title="Queen (chess)">history of the queen</a>. In some areas (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>), the queen could also move like a knight. A poem <a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%AFssa" title="Caïssa">Caïssa</a> published in 1527 led to the chess rook being often renamed as "castle", and the modern shape of the rook chess piece; see <a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%AFssa#Vida's_poem" title="Caïssa">Vida's poem</a> for more information. An Italian player, <a href="/wiki/Gioacchino_Greco" class="mw-redirect" title="Gioacchino Greco">Gioacchino Greco</a>, regarded as one of the first true professionals of the game, authored an analysis of a number of composed games that illustrated two differing approaches to chess.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02a-14">[14]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] His work was influential in popularizing chess, and demonstrated many theories regarding game play and tactics.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02a-14">[14]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] The first full work dealing with the various winning combinations was written by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Andr%C3%A9_Danican_Philidor" title="François-André Danican Philidor">François-André Danican Philidor</a> of France, regarded as the best chess player in the world for nearly 50 years, and published in the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02a-14">[14]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] He wrote and published L'Analyse des échecs (The Analysis of Chess), an influential work which appeared in more than 100 editions.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02a-14">[14]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:EnxadrismoGravuras.003.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A woodcut drawn from Caxton's chess book printed in England in 1474"><img alt="A woodcut drawn from Caxton's chess book printed in England in 1474" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/EnxadrismoGravuras.003.jpg/120px-EnxadrismoGravuras.003.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/EnxadrismoGravuras.003.jpg/180px-EnxadrismoGravuras.003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/EnxadrismoGravuras.003.jpg/240px-EnxadrismoGravuras.003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="418" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">woodcut</a> drawn from <a href="/wiki/William_Caxton" title="William Caxton">Caxton</a>'s chess book printed in England in 1474</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucena1497.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A tactical puzzle from Lucena's 1497 book"><img alt="A tactical puzzle from Lucena's 1497 book" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Lucena1497.jpg/82px-Lucena1497.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Lucena1497.jpg/123px-Lucena1497.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Lucena1497.jpg/163px-Lucena1497.jpg 2x" data-file-width="773" data-file-height="1134" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A tactical puzzle from <a href="/wiki/Luis_Ramirez_Lucena" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Ramirez Lucena">Lucena's</a> 1497 book</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaming_table_with_chessboard.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A gaming table with chessboard (Germany, 1735)."><img alt="A gaming table with chessboard (Germany, 1735)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gaming_table_with_chessboard.jpg/120px-Gaming_table_with_chessboard.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gaming_table_with_chessboard.jpg/180px-Gaming_table_with_chessboard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gaming_table_with_chessboard.jpg/240px-Gaming_table_with_chessboard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="756" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Games_table_desk" title="Games table desk">gaming table</a> with chessboard (Germany, 1735).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chess,_walrus_ivory_(18th_c.,_Russia,_GIM).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Russian set made of walrus ivory, 1750s"><img alt="A Russian set made of walrus ivory, 1750s" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Chess%2C_walrus_ivory_%2818th_c.%2C_Russia%2C_GIM%29.jpg/120px-Chess%2C_walrus_ivory_%2818th_c.%2C_Russia%2C_GIM%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Chess%2C_walrus_ivory_%2818th_c.%2C_Russia%2C_GIM%29.jpg/180px-Chess%2C_walrus_ivory_%2818th_c.%2C_Russia%2C_GIM%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Chess%2C_walrus_ivory_%2818th_c.%2C_Russia%2C_GIM%29.jpg/240px-Chess%2C_walrus_ivory_%2818th_c.%2C_Russia%2C_GIM%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A Russian set made of <a href="/wiki/Walrus_ivory" title="Walrus ivory">walrus ivory</a>, 1750s</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Andr%C3%A9_Philidor.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of François-André Danican Philidor from L'analyse des échecs. London, second edition, 1777"><img alt="Portrait of François-André Danican Philidor from L'analyse des échecs. London, second edition, 1777" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Andr%C3%A9_Philidor.jpg/119px-Andr%C3%A9_Philidor.jpg" decoding="async" width="119" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Andr%C3%A9_Philidor.jpg/179px-Andr%C3%A9_Philidor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Andr%C3%A9_Philidor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="187" data-file-height="188" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Portrait of François-André Danican Philidor from L'analyse des échecs. London, second edition, 1777</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:JaquesCookStaunton.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Original Staunton chess pieces by Nathaniel Cooke from 1849"><img alt="Original Staunton chess pieces by Nathaniel Cooke from 1849" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/JaquesCookStaunton.jpg/120px-JaquesCookStaunton.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/JaquesCookStaunton.jpg/180px-JaquesCookStaunton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/JaquesCookStaunton.jpg/240px-JaquesCookStaunton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="335" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Original <a href="/wiki/Staunton_chess_set" title="Staunton chess set">Staunton chess pieces</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Cooke" title="Nathaniel Cooke">Nathaniel Cooke</a> from 1849</div> </li> </ul> Writings on the <a href="/wiki/Chess_theory" title="Chess theory">theory of how to play chess</a> began to appear in the 15th century. The oldest surviving printed chess book, Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess) by <a href="/wiki/Spanish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish people">Spanish</a> churchman <a href="/wiki/Luis_Ramirez_de_Lucena" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Ramirez de Lucena">Luis Ramirez de Lucena</a> was published in <a href="/wiki/Salamanca" title="Salamanca">Salamanca</a> in 1497.<a href="#cite_note-nauiua-73">[72]</a> Lucena and later masters like <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Damiano" title="Pedro Damiano">Pedro Damiano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Leonardo_Di_Bona" title="Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona">Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Cesare_Polerio" title="Giulio Cesare Polerio">Giulio Cesare Polerio</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gioachino_Greco" title="Gioachino Greco">Gioachino Greco</a> or Spanish bishop <a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Segura" title="Ruy López de Segura">Ruy López de Segura</a> developed elements of <a href="/wiki/Chess_opening" title="Chess opening">openings</a> and started to analyze simple <a href="/wiki/Chess_endgame" title="Chess endgame">endgames</a>. In the 18th century the center of European chess life moved from the Southern European countries to France. The two most important French masters were <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Andr%C3%A9_Danican_Philidor" title="François-André Danican Philidor">François-André Danican Philidor</a>, a musician by profession, who discovered the importance of pawns for chess strategy, and later <a href="/wiki/Louis-Charles_Mah%C3%A9_de_La_Bourdonnais" title="Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais">Louis-Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais</a> who won a famous series of matches with the <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Irish</a> master <a href="/wiki/Alexander_McDonnell_(chess_player)" title="Alexander McDonnell (chess player)">Alexander McDonnell</a> in 1834.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> Centers of chess life in this period were <a href="/wiki/Coffee_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Coffee house">coffee houses</a> in big European cities like <a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_de_la_R%C3%A9gence" title="Café de la Régence">Café de la Régence</a> in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simpson%27s-in-the-Strand" title="Simpson's-in-the-Strand">Simpson's Divan</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many <a href="/wiki/Chess_club" title="Chess club">chess clubs</a>, chess books and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example the London Chess Club played against the <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> Chess Club in 1824.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chess_problems" class="mw-redirect" title="Chess problems">Chess problems</a> became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; <a href="/wiki/Bernhard_Horwitz" title="Bernhard Horwitz">Bernhard Horwitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josef_Kling" title="Josef Kling">Josef Kling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Loyd" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Loyd">Samuel Loyd</a> composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, <a href="/wiki/Tassilo_von_Heydebrand_und_der_Lasa" title="Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa">von der Lasa</a> published his and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Rudolf_von_Bilguer" title="Paul Rudolf von Bilguer">Bilguer's</a> <a href="/wiki/Handbuch_des_Schachspiels" title="Handbuch des Schachspiels">Handbuch des Schachspiels</a> (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_competitive_chess">Modern competitive chess</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luigi_Mussini-_Leonardo_da_Cutro_e_Ruy_Lopez_giocano_a_scacchi_alla_corte_di_Spagna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Luigi_Mussini-_Leonardo_da_Cutro_e_Ruy_Lopez_giocano_a_scacchi_alla_corte_di_Spagna.jpg/220px-Luigi_Mussini-_Leonardo_da_Cutro_e_Ruy_Lopez_giocano_a_scacchi_alla_corte_di_Spagna.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Luigi_Mussini-_Leonardo_da_Cutro_e_Ruy_Lopez_giocano_a_scacchi_alla_corte_di_Spagna.jpg/330px-Luigi_Mussini-_Leonardo_da_Cutro_e_Ruy_Lopez_giocano_a_scacchi_alla_corte_di_Spagna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Luigi_Mussini-_Leonardo_da_Cutro_e_Ruy_Lopez_giocano_a_scacchi_alla_corte_di_Spagna.jpg/440px-Luigi_Mussini-_Leonardo_da_Cutro_e_Ruy_Lopez_giocano_a_scacchi_alla_corte_di_Spagna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2706" data-file-height="1553" /></a><figcaption>Final match of the 1575 tournament in El Escorial. Painting by Luigi Mussini.</figcaption></figure> The first recorded <a href="/wiki/Chess_tournament" title="Chess tournament">chess tournament</a> took place in 1575 in <a href="/wiki/El_Escorial" title="El Escorial">El Escorial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a>. It was won by the Calabrese <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Leonardo_Di_Bona" title="Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona">Leonardo di Bona</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> Competitive chess became visible in 1834 with the <a href="/wiki/La_Bourdonnais_%E2%80%93_McDonnell_chess_matches" class="mw-redirect" title="La Bourdonnais – McDonnell chess matches">La Bourdonnais-McDonnell matches</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/1851_London_Chess_tournament" class="mw-redirect" title="1851 London Chess tournament">1851 London Chess tournament</a> raised concerns about the time taken by the players to deliberate their moves. On recording time it was found that players often took hours to analyze moves, and one player took as much as two hours and 20 minutes to think over a single move at the London tournament. The following years saw the development of speed chess, five-minute chess and the most popular variant, a version allowing a bank of time to each player in which to play a previously agreed number of moves, e.g. two hours for 30 moves. In the final variant, the player who made the predetermined number of moves in the agreed time received additional time budget for his next moves. Penalties for exceeding a time limit came in form of fines and forfeiture. Since fines were easy to bear for professional players, forfeiture became the only effective penalty; this added "lost on time" to the traditional means of losing such as <a href="/wiki/Checkmate" title="Checkmate">checkmate</a> and resigning.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02b-15">[15]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1991_CPA_6284.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1991_CPA_6284.jpg/220px-1991_CPA_6284.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1991_CPA_6284.jpg/330px-1991_CPA_6284.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/1991_CPA_6284.jpg/440px-1991_CPA_6284.jpg 2x" data-file-width="858" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamp" title="Postage stamp">Stamp</a> of the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> devoted to the accomplished <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonian</a> player and analyst <a href="/wiki/Paul_Keres" title="Paul Keres">Paul Keres</a>, 1991</figcaption></figure> In 1861 the first time limits, using sandglasses, were employed in a tournament match at <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>, England. The sandglasses were later replaced by pendulums. Modern clocks, consisting of two parallel timers with a small button for a player to press after completing a move, were later employed to aid the players. A tiny latch called a flag further helped settle arguments over players exceeding time limit at the turn of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02b-15">[15]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] A Russian composer, Vladimir Korolkov, authored a work entitled "Excelsior" in 1958 in which the White side wins only by making six consecutive captures by a pawn.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02c-81">[80]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] Position analysis became particularly popular in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02c-81">[80]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] Many leading players were also accomplished analysts, including <a href="/wiki/Max_Euwe" title="Max Euwe">Max Euwe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Botvinnik" title="Mikhail Botvinnik">Mikhail Botvinnik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Smyslov" title="Vasily Smyslov">Vasily Smyslov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Timman" title="Jan Timman">Jan Timman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02c-81">[80]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] Digital clocks appeared in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica02b-15">[15]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-tertiary source needed</a>] Another problem that arose in competitive chess was when adjourning a game for a meal break or overnight. The player who moved last before adjournment would be at a disadvantage, as the other player would have a long period to analyze before having to make a reply when the game was resumed. Preventing access to a chess set to work out moves during the adjournment would not stop him from analyzing the position in his head. Various strange ideas were attempted, but the eventual solution was the "<a href="/wiki/Sealed_move" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealed move">sealed move</a>". The final move before adjournment is not made on the board but instead is written on a piece of paper which the referee seals in an envelope and keeps safe. When the game is continued after adjournment, the referee makes the sealed move and the players resume. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Birth_of_a_sport_(1850–1945)">Birth of a sport (1850–1945)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:Immortal_game_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Immortal_game_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="244" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="244" data-file-height="248" /></a><figcaption>Animation of the <a href="/wiki/Immortal_Game" title="Immortal Game">Immortal Game</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Anderssen" title="Adolf Anderssen">Adolf Anderssen</a>, playing white, beat <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Kieseritzky" title="Lionel Kieseritzky">Lionel Kieseritzky</a> in June 1851</figcaption></figure> The first modern chess tournament was <a href="/wiki/London_1851_chess_tournament" title="London 1851 chess tournament">held in London in 1851</a> and won, surprisingly, by German <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Anderssen" title="Adolf Anderssen">Adolf Anderssen</a>, who was relatively unknown at the time. Anderssen was hailed as the leading chess master, and his brilliant, energetic attacking style became typical for the time, although it was retrospectively regarded as <a href="/wiki/Chess_strategy" title="Chess strategy">strategically</a> shallow.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> Sparkling games like Anderssen's <a href="/wiki/Immortal_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Immortal game">Immortal game</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evergreen_Game" title="Evergreen Game">Evergreen Game</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paul_Morphy" title="Paul Morphy">Morphy's</a> <a href="/wiki/Opera_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Opera game">Opera game</a> were regarded as the highest possible summit of the chess art.<a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilhelm_Steinitz2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Wilhelm_Steinitz2.jpg/220px-Wilhelm_Steinitz2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Wilhelm_Steinitz2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Steinitz" title="Wilhelm Steinitz">Wilhelm Steinitz</a>, the first official World Chess Champion</figcaption></figure> Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with two younger players. <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Morphy" title="Paul Morphy">Paul Morphy</a>, an extraordinary <a href="/wiki/Chess_prodigy" title="Chess prodigy">chess prodigy</a>, won against all important competitors, including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>-born <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Steinitz" title="Wilhelm Steinitz">Wilhelm Steinitz</a> later described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknesses in the opponent's position.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading Polish-German master <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Zukertort" title="Johannes Zukertort">Johannes Zukertort</a> in 1886 is regarded as the first official <a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Championship" title="World Chess Championship">World Chess Championship</a>. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger German mathematician <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Lasker" title="Emanuel Lasker">Emanuel Lasker</a>, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of all World Champions.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capablanca-Lasker_1925.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Capablanca-Lasker_1925.jpg/220px-Capablanca-Lasker_1925.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Capablanca-Lasker_1925.jpg/330px-Capablanca-Lasker_1925.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Capablanca-Lasker_1925.jpg 2x" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="211" /></a><figcaption>World Champions <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ra%C3%BAl_Capablanca" title="José Raúl Capablanca">José Raúl Capablanca</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Lasker" title="Emanuel Lasker">Emanuel Lasker</a> in 1925</figcaption></figure> It took a prodigy from <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ra%C3%BAl_Capablanca" title="José Raúl Capablanca">José Raúl Capablanca</a> (World champion 1921–27), who loved simple positions and endgames, to end the German-speaking dominance in chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years until 1924. His successor was Russian-French <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Alekhine" title="Alexander Alekhine">Alexander Alekhine</a>, a strong attacking player, who died as the World champion in 1946, having briefly lost the title to <a href="/wiki/Dutch_people" title="Dutch people">Dutch</a> player <a href="/wiki/Max_Euwe" title="Max Euwe">Max Euwe</a> in 1935, regaining it two years later.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called <a href="/wiki/Hypermodernism_(chess)" title="Hypermodernism (chess)">hypermodernists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Aron_Nimzowitsch" title="Aron Nimzowitsch">Aron Nimzowitsch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_R%C3%A9ti" title="Richard Réti">Richard Réti</a>. They advocated controlling the center of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns which become objects of attack.<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> Since the end of 19th century, the number of annually held master tournaments and matches quickly grew. Some sources state that in 1914 the title of <a href="/wiki/International_Grandmaster" class="mw-redirect" title="International Grandmaster">chess grandmaster</a> was first formally conferred by Tsar <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II of Russia</a> to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, <a href="/wiki/Siegbert_Tarrasch" title="Siegbert Tarrasch">Tarrasch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frank_Marshall_(chess_player)" title="Frank Marshall (chess player)">Marshall</a>, but this is a disputed claim.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> The tradition of awarding such titles was continued by the World Chess Federation (<a href="/wiki/FIDE" title="FIDE">FIDE</a>), founded in 1924 in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. In 1927, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_World_Chess_Championship" title="Women's World Chess Championship">Women's World Chess Championship</a> was established; the first to hold it was <a href="/wiki/Czech_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech people">Czech</a>-<a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a> master <a href="/wiki/Vera_Menchik" title="Vera Menchik">Vera Menchik</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> During World War II, many prominent chess players died or were killed, including: <a href="/wiki/Isaak_Appel" class="mw-redirect" title="Isaak Appel">Isaak Appel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoltan_Balla" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoltan Balla">Zoltan Balla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Belavenets" title="Sergey Belavenets">Sergey Belavenets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henryk_Friedman" title="Henryk Friedman">Henryk Friedman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Achilles_Frydman" title="Achilles Frydman">Achilles Frydman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eduard_Gerstenfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Eduard Gerstenfeld">Eduard Gerstenfeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Ilyin-Genevsky" title="Alexander Ilyin-Genevsky">Alexander Ilyin-Genevsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Kogan" title="Mikhail Kogan">Mikhail Kogan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jakub_Kolski" title="Jakub Kolski">Jakub Kolski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leon_Kremer" title="Leon Kremer">Leon Kremer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Kubbel" title="Arvid Kubbel">Arvid Kubbel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonid_Kubbel" title="Leonid Kubbel">Leonid Kubbel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salo_Landau" title="Salo Landau">Salo Landau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moishe_Lowtzky" title="Moishe Lowtzky">Moishe Lowtzky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vera_Menchik" title="Vera Menchik">Vera Menchik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vladimirs_Petrovs" title="Vladimirs Petrovs">Vladimir Petrov</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Przepiorka" class="mw-redirect" title="David Przepiorka">David Przepiorka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Rabinovich" title="Ilya Rabinovich">Ilya Rabinovich</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vsevolod_Rauzer" title="Vsevolod Rauzer">Vsevolod Rauzer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Riumin" title="Nikolai Riumin">Nikolai Riumin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endre_Steiner" title="Endre Steiner">Endre Steiner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Stolberg" title="Mark Stolberg">Mark Stolberg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abram_Szpiro" title="Abram Szpiro">Abram Szpiro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karel_Treybal" title="Karel Treybal">Karel Treybal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexey_Troitzky" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexey Troitzky">Alexey Troitzky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuil_Vainshtein" title="Samuil Vainshtein">Samuil Vainshtein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Wolf" title="Heinrich Wolf">Heinrich Wolf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lazar_Zalkind" title="Lazar Zalkind">Lazar Zalkind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_era_(1945_and_later)">Post-war era (1945 and later)</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-76052-0335,_Schacholympiade,_Tal_(UdSSR)_gegen_Fischer_(USA).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-76052-0335%2C_Schacholympiade%2C_Tal_%28UdSSR%29_gegen_Fischer_%28USA%29.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-76052-0335%2C_Schacholympiade%2C_Tal_%28UdSSR%29_gegen_Fischer_%28USA%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-76052-0335%2C_Schacholympiade%2C_Tal_%28UdSSR%29_gegen_Fischer_%28USA%29.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-76052-0335%2C_Schacholympiade%2C_Tal_%28UdSSR%29_gegen_Fischer_%28USA%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-76052-0335%2C_Schacholympiade%2C_Tal_%28UdSSR%29_gegen_Fischer_%28USA%29.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-76052-0335%2C_Schacholympiade%2C_Tal_%28UdSSR%29_gegen_Fischer_%28USA%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Fischer" title="Bobby Fischer">Bobby Fischer</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tal" title="Mikhail Tal">Mikhail Tal</a></figcaption></figure> After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought in a tournament of elite players ruled by FIDE, who have controlled the title since then, with a sole interruption. The winner of the 1948 tournament, Russian <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Botvinnik" title="Mikhail Botvinnik">Mikhail Botvinnik</a>, ushered in an era of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> dominance in the chess world. Until the end of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American <a href="/wiki/Bobby_Fischer" title="Bobby Fischer">Bobby Fischer</a> (champion 1972–75).<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> In the previous informal system, the World Champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match.<a href="#cite_note-Chess_History-94">[93]</a> FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into "<a href="/wiki/Interzonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Interzonal">Interzonal</a> tournaments", where they were joined by players who had qualified from "Zonal tournaments". The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, later a series of knock-out matches. The winner of the <a href="/wiki/Candidates" class="mw-redirect" title="Candidates">Candidates</a> would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system worked on a three-year cycle.<a href="#cite_note-Chess_History-94">[93]</a> Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Smyslov" title="Vasily Smyslov">Vasily Smyslov</a>, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvian</a> prodigy <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Tal" title="Mikhail Tal">Mikhail Tal</a>, an accomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961. Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenian</a> <a href="/wiki/Tigran_Petrosian" title="Tigran Petrosian">Tigran Petrosian</a>, a genius of defense and strong positional player, was able to hold the title for two cycles, 1963–69. His successor, <a href="/wiki/Boris_Spassky" title="Boris Spassky">Boris Spassky</a> from Russia (1969–72), was a player able to win in both positional and sharp tactical style.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ding_Liren_in_2023.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ding_Liren_in_2023.jpg/220px-Ding_Liren_in_2023.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ding_Liren_in_2023.jpg/330px-Ding_Liren_in_2023.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ding_Liren_in_2023.jpg/440px-Ding_Liren_in_2023.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Current World Champion <a href="/wiki/Ding_Liren" title="Ding Liren">Ding Liren</a></figcaption></figure> The next championship saw the first non-Soviet challenger since <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bobby_Fischer" title="Bobby Fischer">Bobby Fischer</a>, who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard-of margins and won the world championship match. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kasparov-Karpov_rivalry_and_chess_computers_(1975-2013)">Kasparov-Karpov rivalry and chess computers (1975-2013)</h2></div> In 1975, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet <a href="/wiki/Anatoly_Karpov" title="Anatoly Karpov">Anatoly Karpov</a> when FIDE refused to meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Karpov defended his title twice against <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Korchnoi" title="Viktor Korchnoi">Viktor Korchnoi</a> and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of another Russian player, <a href="/wiki/Garry_Kasparov" title="Garry Kasparov">Garry Kasparov</a>. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world title matches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> In 1987, the computer database program <a href="/wiki/ChessBase" title="ChessBase">ChessBase</a> was launched with the support of Garry Kasparov.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> Kasparov was an early adopter of computer chess databases, and soon computers played an integral role in the training and preparation of the world's top players. In 1993, Garry Kasparov and <a href="/wiki/Nigel_Short" title="Nigel Short">Nigel Short</a> cut ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competing <a href="/wiki/Professional_Chess_Association" title="Professional Chess Association">Professional Chess Association</a> (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Champions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games; the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Kramnik" title="Vladimir Kramnik">Vladimir Kramnik</a> of Russia. Earlier, in 1996, Kasparov played a pair of <a href="/wiki/Deep_Blue_versus_Garry_Kasparov" title="Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov">six-game exhibition matches</a> against <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> supercomputer <a href="/wiki/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)" title="Deep Blue (chess computer)">Deep Blue</a>. He won the first match 4-2 but lost the rematch 3½-2½.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> This defeat symbolically heralded the arrival of chess engines playing at grandmaster strength. In 1999, Kasparov as the reigning world champion played a <a href="/wiki/Kasparov_versus_the_World" title="Kasparov versus the World">game online against the world team</a> composed of more than 50,000 participants from more than 75 countries. The moves of the world team were decided by plurality vote, and after 62 moves played over four months Kasparov won the game.<a href="#cite_note-harding-100">[99]</a> In 2006, Kramnik lost a match against <a href="/wiki/Fritz_(chess)" title="Fritz (chess)">Deep Fritz</a>, effectively ending the era of human-computer chess competition. The <a href="/wiki/FIDE_World_Chess_Championship_2006" class="mw-redirect" title="FIDE World Chess Championship 2006">FIDE World Chess Championship 2006</a> reunified the titles, when Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion <a href="/wiki/Veselin_Topalov" title="Veselin Topalov">Veselin Topalov</a> and became the undisputed World Chess Champion.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> In September 2007, <a href="/wiki/Viswanathan_Anand" title="Viswanathan Anand">Viswanathan Anand</a> from India became the next champion by winning a championship tournament.<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> In October 2008, Anand retained his title, decisively winning the rematch against Kramnik.<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Carlsen_and_the_online_chess_boom_(2013-Present)">Carlsen and the online chess boom (2013-Present)</h2></div> Anand retained his title until 2013, when he lost it to <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Carlsen" title="Magnus Carlsen">Magnus Carlsen</a> from Norway. Carlsen defended his title four times, reaching an all-time record <a href="/wiki/Elo_rating_system" title="Elo rating system">FIDE rating</a> of 2882 in May of 2014. Carlsen was the first player to hold the World Classical, <a href="/wiki/World_Rapid_Chess_Championship" title="World Rapid Chess Championship">Rapid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/World_Blitz_Chess_Championship" title="World Blitz Chess Championship">Blitz</a> chess championship titles simultaneously. However, he declined to defend his title in 2023, and thus relinquished it to <a href="/wiki/Candidates_Tournament_2022" title="Candidates Tournament 2022">2022 Candidates Tournament</a> runner-up <a href="/wiki/Ding_Liren" title="Ding Liren">Ding Liren</a>, who won the title in <a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Championship_2023" title="World Chess Championship 2023">a match</a> against Candidates winner Ian Nepomniachtchi.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> Nevertheless, Carlsen remains a dominant player, retaining the world's highest rating and winning the FIDE World Cup in 2023. In recent years, <a href="/wiki/Online_chess" title="Online chess">online chess</a> through the use of <a href="/wiki/Internet_chess_server" title="Internet chess server">internet chess servers</a> have exploded in popularity. Internet chess servers have existed since 1992 with the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Subscription_business_model" title="Subscription business model">subscription service</a> Internet Chess Club,<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> but today the majority of top-level players have moved to <a href="/wiki/Freemium" title="Freemium">freemium</a> websites like <a href="/wiki/Chess.com" title="Chess.com">Chess.com</a> (founded in 2007) and, to a lesser extent, free website <a href="/wiki/Lichess" title="Lichess">Lichess</a> (launched in 2010). These websites feature quick pairing systems and site-specific ratings for bullet, blitz, rapid, and/or classical time controls. They also include additional features such as puzzles, engine analysis, databases, user-created libraries, community blogs and forums, news and articles, video lessons, and more. They also host tournaments where top grandmasters compete for prizes, creating an around-the-clock chess media ecosystem. In 2020, online chess experienced a spike in popularity due to interest in the Netflix miniseries <a href="/wiki/The_Queen%27s_Gambit_(miniseries)" title="The Queen's Gambit (miniseries)">The Queen's Gambit</a> released amidst the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">2020 Covid Pandemic</a>. In 2023, an even larger spike occurred, driven in large part by viral chess engine Mittens, a playable bot on chess.com.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> Chess has become an <a href="/wiki/Esports" title="Esports">esport</a>, with many top players such as Magnus Carlsen and American Grandmaster <a href="/wiki/Hikaru_Nakamura" title="Hikaru Nakamura">Hikaru Nakamura</a> streaming their games live.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> Other popular chess content creators include <a href="/wiki/International_Master" class="mw-redirect" title="International Master">International Master</a> <a href="/wiki/Levy_Rozman" title="Levy Rozman">Levy Rozman</a> (Gothamchess) and <a href="/wiki/Agadmator" title="Agadmator">Antonio Radić</a> (Agadmator).<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chess_engine" title="Chess engine">Chess engines</a> have also radically transformed, incorporating new technologies into their move search and evaluation functions. Previously, dominant computers such as <a href="/wiki/Rybka" title="Rybka">Rybka</a> (released in 2005), <a href="/wiki/Stockfish_(chess)" title="Stockfish (chess)">Stockfish</a> (2008), Houdini (2010), and <a href="/wiki/Komodo_(chess)" title="Komodo (chess)">Komodo</a> (2010) used a hand-crafted evaluation using variables such as space and piece mobility. In 2017, chess engine <a href="/wiki/AlphaZero" title="AlphaZero">AlphaZero</a> won a controversial match<a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> against Stockfish using a relatively novel <a href="/wiki/Neural_network_(machine_learning)" title="Neural network (machine learning)">neural network</a> system. Since then, all of the top engines, including Stockfish, Komodo Dragon, <a href="/wiki/Leela_Chess_Zero" title="Leela Chess Zero">Leela Chess Zero</a> (2018), and Torch (2023), have incorporated <a href="/wiki/Efficiently_updatable_neural_network" title="Efficiently updatable neural network">efficiently updatable neural networks</a> (NNUEs) into their evaluation functions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rule_changes">Rule changes</h2></div> <a href="/wiki/Stalemate" title="Stalemate">Stalemate</a> was originally considered an inferior form of victory; at various times it has been considered a win, a draw, or even a loss for the player delivering it. Since the 18th century, it has been considered a draw. The convention that White moves first was established in the 19th century; previously either White or Black could move first. <a href="/wiki/Castling" title="Castling">Castling</a> rules have varied, variations persisting in Italy until the late 19th century. Rules concerning <a href="/wiki/Draw_by_repetition" class="mw-redirect" title="Draw by repetition">draws by repetition</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fifty-move_rule" title="Fifty-move rule">fifty-move rule</a> have been refined and now require a formal claim. <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_check" title="Perpetual check">Perpetual check</a> is no longer included in the rules of chess. There have been no recent changes to the moves of the pieces, but the wording of some rules has been changed for the purposes of clarity. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Joke_chess_problem#Offbeat_interpretations_of_the_rules_of_chess" title="Joke chess problem">Offbeat interpretations of the rules of chess</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/London_1883_chess_tournament" title="London 1883 chess tournament">London 1883 chess tournament</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Chess_clocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Chess clocks">chess clocks</a>, creating a new rule for loss on time. In line with the rule against receiving outside assistance, if a player's <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a> or other electronic device generates sound, the player is immediately forfeited.<a href="#cite_note-FIDE-112">[111]</a> In amateur tournaments players are asked to hand their phones to the tournament director; in professional tournaments they may be required to go through a metal detector. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_chess#History_of_chess" title="Outline of chess">Outline of chess § History of chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_the_arts" title="Chess in the arts">Chess in the arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_chess" title="Computer chess">Computer chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chess_engines" title="History of chess engines">History of chess engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_historians" title="List of chess historians">List of chess historians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_variants" title="List of chess variants">List of chess variants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_games_that_Buddha_would_not_play" title="List of games that Buddha would not play">List of games that Buddha would not play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_chess" title="School of chess">School of chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chess" title="Timeline of chess">Timeline of chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheat_and_chessboard_problem" title="Wheat and chessboard problem">Wheat and chessboard problem</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_Bell" title="Robert Charles Bell">R. C. Bell</a>, commenting on the objective impossibility of divining the rules of the game by scrutinizing the equipment, suggested in Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations (Vol. I p. 57) that Bozorgmehr likely found the rules by bribing the Indian ambassador. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Shenk,_2007-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_2007_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_2007_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_2007_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDavid_Shenk2007" class="citation book cs1">David Shenk (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385510103">The Immortal Game: A History of Chess</a>. Knopf Doubleday. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385510103/page/99">99</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385510103" title="Special:BookSources/9780385510103"><bdi>9780385510103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immortal+Game%3A+A+History+of+Chess&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780385510103&rft.au=David+Shenk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780385510103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFMurray1913">Murray 1913</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9538/page/n21/mode/2up?view=theater">pp. 26-27</a>)(<a href="#CITEREFMurray1913">Murray 1913</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9538/page/n47/mode/2up?view=theater">pp. 51-52</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Murray, Davidson, Hooper & Whyld, and Golombek all give this correspondence, with the bishop corresponding to the elephant and the rook corresponding to a chariot. Bird (pp 4, 46) exchanges the bishop and rook. </li> <li id="cite_note-Meri-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meri_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meri_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meri_4-2">c</a> Meri 2005: 148 </li> <li id="cite_note-Shenk,_David_2006-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_David_2006_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_David_2006_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_David_2006_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shenk,_David_2006_5-3">d</a> Shenk, David. "The Immortal Game." Doubleday, 2006. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110514231111/http://history.chess.free.fr/origins-structure.htm">"The History Of Chess"</a>. ChessZone. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.chess.free.fr//origins-structure.htm">the original</a> on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+History+Of+Chess&rft.pub=ChessZone&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.chess.free.fr%2F%2Forigins-structure.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tacspx-7"><a href="#cite_ref-tacspx_7-0">^</a> Hooper and Whyld, 144-45 (first edition) </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Gollon, John. Chess Variations, Ancient, Regional, and Modern. Charles E. Tuttle Co.: Publishers, Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, Japan, 1968. Sec. One, Sec. Two </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFMurray1913">Murray 1913</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9538/page/n119/mode/2up?view=theater">pp. 119ff</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Remus, Horst, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silk-road.com/newsletter/volumeonenumberone/origin.html">"The Origin of Chess and the Silk Road"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110516182926/http://www.silk-road.com/newsletter/volumeonenumberone/origin.html">Archived</a> 2011-05-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Silk Road journal, The Silkroad Foundation, v.1(1), January 15, 2003. </li> <li id="cite_note-ChessEurope-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChessEurope_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChessEurope_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChessEurope_11-2">c</a> Chess: Introduction to Europe (Encyclopædia Britannica 2007) </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFMurray1913">Murray 1913</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9538/page/n407/mode/2up?view=theater">p. 402</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Riddler-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Riddler_13-8">i</a> Riddler 1998 </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica02a-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02a_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02a_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02a_14-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02a_14-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02a_14-4">e</a> Chess: Development of Theory (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica02b-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02b_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02b_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02b_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02b_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02b_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02b_15-5">f</a> Chess: The time element and competition (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Lasker, Edward. 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Hacker Art Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87817-211-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87817-211-4"><bdi>0-87817-211-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6%3A+Race-Games&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Board-Games+Other+than+Chess&rft.pub=Hacker+Art+Books&rft.date=1952&rft.isbn=0-87817-211-4&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=H.+J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFMurray1913">Murray 1913</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9538/page/476/mode/2up?view=theater">pp. 476-478</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> (<a href="#CITEREFMurray1913">Murray 1913</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9538/page/508/mode/2up?view=theater">p. 509</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1259987">"Francesco di Castellvi vs Narciso Vinyoles (1475) "Old in Chess""</a>. www.chessgames.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210128214712/https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1259987">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-28. Retrieved 2021-11-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.chessgames.com&rft.atitle=Francesco+di+Castellvi+vs+Narciso+Vinyoles+%281475%29+%22Old+in+Chess%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chessgames.com%2Fperl%2Fchessgame%3Fgid%3D1259987&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090926184645/http://www.chessvibes.com/columns/valencia-and-the-origin-of-modern-chess/">"Valencia and the origin of modern chess"</a>. Chess Vibes. 2009-09-13. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chessvibes.com/columns/valencia-and-the-origin-of-modern-chess/">the original</a> on 2009-09-26. Retrieved 2021-10-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chess+Vibes&rft.atitle=Valencia+and+the+origin+of+modern+chess&rft.date=2009-09-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chessvibes.com%2Fcolumns%2Fvalencia-and-the-origin-of-modern-chess%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murray1913-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Murray1913_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Murray1913_70-1">b</a> (<a href="#CITEREFMurray1913">Murray 1913</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.9538/page/n785/mode/2up?view=theater">p.777</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Lasker, Edward. The Adventure of Chess. Dover Publications, Inc., New York, New York, 1949, 1950, 1959. p. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Davidson (1981), p. 13–17 </li> <li id="cite_note-nauiua-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nauiua_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nauiua_73-1">b</a> Calvo, Ricardo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goddesschess.com/chessays/ricardovalencia.html">Valencia Spain: The Cradle of European Chess</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090108122325/http://www.goddesschess.com//chessays/ricardovalencia.html">Archived</a> 2009-01-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 10 December 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> An analysis from the feminist perspective: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeissberger,_Barbara_F.2004" class="citation book cs1">Weissberger, Barbara F. (2004). Isabel Rules: constructing queenship, wielding power. University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-4164-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8166-4164-1"><bdi>0-8166-4164-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/217447754">217447754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Isabel+Rules%3A+constructing+queenship%2C+wielding+power&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F217447754&rft.isbn=0-8166-4164-1&rft.au=Weissberger%2C+Barbara+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> P. 152ff </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Stalemate#History_of_the_stalemate_rule" title="Stalemate">History of the stalemate rule</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=31596">"Louis Charles Mahe De La Bourdonnai"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chessgames.com" title="Chessgames.com">Chessgames.com</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190918033557/http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=31596">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chessgames.com&rft.atitle=Louis+Charles+Mahe+De+La+Bourdonnai&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chessgames.com%2Fperl%2Fchessplayer%3Fpid%3D31596&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzner,_Paul1998" class="citation book cs1">Metzner, Paul (1998). Crescendo of the Virtuoso: Spectacle, Skill, and Self-Promotion in Paris during the Age of Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-20684-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-20684-3"><bdi>0-520-20684-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185289629">185289629</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crescendo+of+the+Virtuoso%3A+Spectacle%2C+Skill%2C+and+Self-Promotion+in+Paris+during+the+Age+of+Revolution&rft.pub=Berkeley%3A+University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185289629&rft.isbn=0-520-20684-3&rft.au=Metzner%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft438nb2b6/">Online version</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080512053011/http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft438nb2b6/">Archived</a> 2008-05-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_Edward_Bird" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Edward Bird">Bird, Henry Edward</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4902">Chess History and Reminiscences</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201109052923/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4902">Archived</a> 2020-11-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 10 December 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=80740">"London Chess Club"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chessgames.com" title="Chessgames.com">Chessgames.com</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191009050126/http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=80740">Archived</a> from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chessgames.com&rft.atitle=London+Chess+Club&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chessgames.com%2Fperl%2Fchessplayer%3Fpid%3D80740&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoltis2020" class="citation book cs1">Soltis, Andrew (2020). The Art of the Game of Chess. CUA Press. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813232812" title="Special:BookSources/9780813232812"><bdi>9780813232812</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+the+Game+of+Chess&rft.pages=9&rft.pub=CUA+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780813232812&rft.aulast=Soltis&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Britannica02c-81">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02c_81-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02c_81-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Britannica02c_81-2">c</a> Chess: Chess composition (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060101/http://worldchessnetwork.com/English/chessHistory/salute/matchesTournaments/london1851.php">World Title Matches and Tournaments - Chess history.</a> worldchessnetwork.com </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartston,_W.1985" class="citation book cs1">Hartston, W. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kingsofchesshi00hart/page/36">The Kings of Chess</a>. Pavilion Books Limited. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kingsofchesshi00hart/page/36">36</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-015358-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-015358-X"><bdi>0-06-015358-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kings+of+Chess&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Pavilion+Books+Limited&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-06-015358-X&rft.au=Hartston%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkingsofchesshi00hart%2Fpage%2F36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurgess,_Graham,_Nunn,_John_and_Emms,_John1998" class="citation book cs1">Burgess, Graham, Nunn, John and Emms, John (1998). The Mammoth Book of the World's Greatest Chess Games. Carroll & Graf Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7867-0587-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7867-0587-6"><bdi>0-7867-0587-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40209258">40209258</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mammoth+Book+of+the+World%27s+Greatest+Chess+Games&rft.pub=Carroll+%26+Graf+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40209258&rft.isbn=0-7867-0587-6&rft.au=Burgess%2C+Graham%2C+Nunn%2C+John+and+Emms%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>), p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShibut,_Macon2004" class="citation book cs1">Shibut, Macon (2004). Paul Morphy and the Evolution of Chess Theory. Courier Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-43574-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-43574-1"><bdi>0-486-43574-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55639730">55639730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paul+Morphy+and+the+Evolution+of+Chess+Theory&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55639730&rft.isbn=0-486-43574-1&rft.au=Shibut%2C+Macon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinitz,_WilliamLandsberger,_Kurt2002" class="citation book cs1">Steinitz, William; Landsberger, Kurt (2002). The Steinitz Papers: Letters and Documents of the First World Chess Champion. McFarland & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7864-1193-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7864-1193-7"><bdi>0-7864-1193-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48550929">48550929</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Steinitz+Papers%3A+Letters+and+Documents+of+the+First+World+Chess+Champion&rft.pub=McFarland+%26+Company&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48550929&rft.isbn=0-7864-1193-7&rft.au=Steinitz%2C+William&rft.au=Landsberger%2C+Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> Kasparov (1983a) </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Kasparov 1983b </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> Fine (1952) </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> This is stated for example in The Encyclopaedia of Chess (1970, p.223) by <a href="/wiki/Anne_Sunnucks" title="Anne Sunnucks">Anne Sunnucks</a>, but this is also disputed by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Winter_(chess_historian)" title="Edward Winter (chess historian)">Edward Winter (chess historian)</a> in his <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter38.html">Chess Notes 5144 and 5152</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160612035631/http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter38.html">Archived</a> 2016-06-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=13277">Menchik at ChessGames.com</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191012083406/http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=13277">Archived</a> 2019-10-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 11 December 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chess.com/amp/article/world-war-ii-and-chess">"World War II and Chess"</a>. chess.com. 2015-01-10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210204141934/https://www.chess.com/amp/article/world-war-ii-and-chess">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-02-04. Retrieved 2021-01-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=chess.com&rft.atitle=World+War+II+and+Chess&rft.date=2015-01-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chess.com%2Famp%2Farticle%2Fworld-war-ii-and-chess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Kasparov 2003b, 2004a, 2004b, 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-Chess_History-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chess_History_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chess_History_94-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070430000134/http://www.thechessplace.com/page/976499">"Chess History"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thechessplace.com/page/976499">the original</a> on 2007-04-30. Retrieved 2008-01-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chess+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thechessplace.com%2Fpage%2F976499&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Kasparov 2003b, 2004a </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Kasparov 2003a, 2006 </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeene,_Raymond1993" class="citation book cs1">Keene, Raymond (1993). Gary Kasparov's Best Games. B. T. 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Retrieved July 22, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fide.com%2F&rft.atitle=FIDE+LAWS+of+CHESS+-+Article+12%3A+The+conduct+of+the+players&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fide.com%2FFIDE%2Fhandbook%2FLawsOfChess.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> Encyclopædia Britannica <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Chess: Ancient precursors and related games.". 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Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chess%3A+The+time+element+and+competition&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Chess: Chess composition". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chess%3A+Chess+composition&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Chess (History): Standardization of rules". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chess+%28History%29%3A+Standardization+of+rules&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80432/chess">"Chess: Set design."</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071030060549/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80432/chess">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2007-10-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chess%3A+Set+design.&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-80432%2Fchess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80430/chess">"Chess: Introduction to Europe"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071030060539/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80430/chess">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-10-30. Retrieved 2007-10-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chess%3A+Introduction+to+Europe&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-80430%2Fchess&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024151">"Chinese chess"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071224153340/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9024151">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-12-24. Retrieved 2007-10-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chinese+chess&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9024151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Shogi". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shogi&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> WWW <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanaschak" class="citation web cs1">Banaschak, Peter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.banaschak.net/schach/ligenealogyofchess.htm">"A story well told is not necessarily true : a critical assessment of David H. Li's The Genealogy of Chess"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170619073907/http://www.banaschak.net/schach/ligenealogyofchess.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-19. Retrieved 2008-12-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+story+well+told+is+not+necessarily+true+%3A+a+critical+assessment+of+David+H.+Li%27s+The+Genealogy+of+Chess&rft.aulast=Banaschak&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.banaschak.net%2Fschach%2Fligenealogyofchess.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> Books <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Charles_Bell" title="Robert Charles Bell">Bell, Robert Charles</a> (1979). Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations. Courier Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-23855-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-23855-5"><bdi>0-486-23855-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Board+and+Table+Games+from+Many+Civilizations&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-486-23855-5&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Robert+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Bird_(chess_player)" title="Henry Bird (chess player)">Bird, Henry Edward</a> (1893). Chess History and Reminiscences. London. (Republished version by Forgotten Books). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-60620-897-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-60620-897-7">1-60620-897-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCazauxKnowlton2017" class="citation book cs1">Cazaux, Jean-Louis; Knowlton, Rick (2017). A World of Chess. Its Development and Variations through Centuries and Civilizations. McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-9427-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-9427-9"><bdi>978-0-7864-9427-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+of+Chess.+Its+Development+and+Variations+through+Centuries+and+Civilizations&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-9427-9&rft.aulast=Cazaux&rft.aufirst=Jean-Louis&rft.au=Knowlton%2C+Rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson1981" class="citation book cs1">Davidson, Henry A. (1981) [1949]. A Short History of Chess. McKay. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-14550-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-14550-8"><bdi>0-679-14550-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17340178">17340178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Chess&rft.pub=McKay&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17340178&rft.isbn=0-679-14550-8&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Henry+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEales1985" class="citation book cs1">Eales, Richard (1985). Chess, The History of a Game. Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816011957" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816011957"><bdi>978-0816011957</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chess%2C+The+History+of+a+Game&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0816011957&rft.aulast=Eales&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Forbes_(linguist)" title="Duncan Forbes (linguist)">Forbes, Duncan</a> (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oa4UAAAAYAAJ">The History of Chess: From the Time of the Early Invention of the Game in India Till the Period of Its Establishment in Western and Central Europe</a>. London: W. H. Allen & Co.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolombek1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Golombek" title="Harry Golombek">Golombek, Harry</a> (1977). Golombek's Encyclopedia of Chess. Crown Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-517-53146-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-517-53146-1"><bdi>0-517-53146-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Golombek%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Chess&rft.pub=Crown+Publishing&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-517-53146-1&rft.aulast=Golombek&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolombek1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Golombek" title="Harry Golombek">Golombek, Harry</a> (1976). A History of Chess. Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-8266-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-8266-5"><bdi>0-7100-8266-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chess&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-7100-8266-5&rft.aulast=Golombek&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarding2003" class="citation book cs1">Harding, Tim (2003). Better Chess for Average Players. Courier Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-29029-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-29029-8"><bdi>0-486-29029-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/33166445">33166445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Better+Chess+for+Average+Players&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F33166445&rft.isbn=0-486-29029-8&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooperWhyld,_Kenneth1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Vincent_Hooper" title="David Vincent Hooper">Hooper, David Vincent</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ken_Whyld" title="Ken Whyld">Whyld, Kenneth</a> (1992). <a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Chess" title="The Oxford Companion to Chess">The Oxford Companion to Chess</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866164-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866164-9"><bdi>0-19-866164-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Chess&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-866164-9&rft.aulast=Hooper&rft.aufirst=David+Vincent&rft.au=Whyld%2C+Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooper,_David_and_Whyld,_Kenneth1992" class="citation book cs1">Hooper, David and Whyld, Kenneth (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000hoop">The Oxford Companion to Chess, Second edition</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866164-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866164-9"><bdi>0-19-866164-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25508610">25508610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Chess%2C+Second+edition&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F25508610&rft.isbn=0-19-866164-9&rft.au=Hooper%2C+David+and+Whyld%2C+Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordcompaniont0000hoop&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) Reprint: (1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280049-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280049-3">0-19-280049-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasparov2003a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Garry_Kasparov" title="Garry Kasparov">Kasparov, Garry</a> (2003a). <a href="/wiki/My_Great_Predecessors" title="My Great Predecessors">My Great Predecessors</a>, part I. <a href="/wiki/Everyman_Chess" title="Everyman Chess">Everyman Chess</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85744-330-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85744-330-6"><bdi>1-85744-330-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223602528">223602528</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Great+Predecessors%2C+part+I&rft.pub=Everyman+Chess&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223602528&rft.isbn=1-85744-330-6&rft.aulast=Kasparov&rft.aufirst=Garry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasparov2003b" class="citation book cs1">Kasparov, Garry (2003b). My Great Predecessors, part II. Everyman Chess. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85744-342-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-85744-342-X"><bdi>1-85744-342-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/223906486">223906486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Great+Predecessors%2C+part+II&rft.pub=Everyman+Chess&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F223906486&rft.isbn=1-85744-342-X&rft.aulast=Kasparov&rft.aufirst=Garry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasparov2004a" class="citation book cs1">Kasparov, Garry (2004a). My Great Predecessors, part III. Everyman Chess. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85744-371-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85744-371-3"><bdi>1-85744-371-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52949851">52949851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Great+Predecessors%2C+part+III&rft.pub=Everyman+Chess&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52949851&rft.isbn=1-85744-371-3&rft.aulast=Kasparov&rft.aufirst=Garry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasparov2004b" class="citation book cs1">Kasparov, Garry (2004b). My Great Predecessors, part IV. Everyman Chess. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85744-395-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-85744-395-0"><bdi>1-85744-395-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52949851">52949851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Great+Predecessors%2C+part+IV&rft.pub=Everyman+Chess&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52949851&rft.isbn=1-85744-395-0&rft.aulast=Kasparov&rft.aufirst=Garry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasparov2006" class="citation book cs1">Kasparov, Garry (2006). My Great Predecessors, part V. Everyman Chess. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85744-404-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85744-404-3"><bdi>1-85744-404-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52949851">52949851</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Great+Predecessors%2C+part+V&rft.pub=Everyman+Chess&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52949851&rft.isbn=1-85744-404-3&rft.aulast=Kasparov&rft.aufirst=Garry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulkeDietmar_Rothermund2004" class="citation book cs1">Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-32920-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-32920-5"><bdi>0-415-32920-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+India&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-415-32920-5&rft.aulast=Kulke&rft.aufirst=Hermann&rft.au=Dietmar+Rothermund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Leibs, Andrew (2004). Sports and Games of the Renaissance. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-32772-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-32772-6">0-313-32772-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi,_David_H.1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_H._Li" title="David H. Li">Li, David H.</a> (1998). The Genealogy of Chess. Premier Pub. Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9637852-2-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-9637852-2-2"><bdi>0-9637852-2-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genealogy+of+Chess&rft.pub=Premier+Pub.+Co&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-9637852-2-2&rft.au=Li%2C+David+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeri2005" class="citation book cs1">Meri, Josef W. (2005). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-96690-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-96690-6"><bdi>0-415-96690-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Islamic+Civilization%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-415-96690-6&rft.aulast=Meri&rft.aufirst=Josef+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1913" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._J._R._Murray" title="H. J. R. Murray">Murray, H. J. R.</a> (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfChessHJRMurray/page/n33/mode/2up">A History of Chess</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-936317-01-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-936317-01-4"><bdi>978-0-936317-01-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Chess&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=978-0-936317-01-4&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=H.+J.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FAHistoryOfChessHJRMurray%2Fpage%2Fn33%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Musser Golladay, Sonja, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717133812/http://etd.library.arizona.edu/etd/GetFileServlet?file=file%3A%2F%2F%2Fdata1%2Fpdf%2Fetd%2Fazu_etd_2444_1_m.pdf&type=application%2Fpdf">"Los Libros de acedrex dados e tablas: Historical, Artistic and Metaphysical Dimensions of Alfonso X's Book of Games"</a> (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2007)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1962" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a> (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205033107/http://www.goddesschess.com///chessays/needham1.html">"Thoughts on The Origin of Chess"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goddesschess.com/chessays/needham1.html">the original</a> on 2008-12-05. Retrieved 2008-12-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thoughts+on+The+Origin+of+Chess&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.goddesschess.com%2Fchessays%2Fneedham1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamRonan,_Colin_A.1985" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph; <a href="/wiki/Colin_Ronan" title="Colin Ronan">Ronan, Colin A.</a> (June 1985). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31536-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31536-4"><bdi>978-0-521-31536-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985-06&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31536-4&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Ronan%2C+Colin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamRonan,_Colin_A.1986" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph; Ronan, Colin A. (July 1986). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-31560-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-31560-3"><bdi>0-521-31560-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shorter+Science+and+Civilisation+in+China%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986-07&rft.isbn=0-521-31560-3&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Ronan%2C+Colin+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Saidy, Anthony. The battle of chess ideas (Batsford, 1972); scholarly history; The March of Chess Ideas: How the Century's Greatest Players Have Waged the War Over Chess Strategy (1994)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShenk,_David2007" class="citation book cs1">Shenk, David (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385510103">The Immortal Game: A History of Chess</a>. Knopf Doubleday. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780385510103/page/99">99</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780385510103" title="Special:BookSources/9780385510103"><bdi>9780385510103</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immortal+Game%3A+A+History+of+Chess&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780385510103&rft.au=Shenk%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780385510103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVale2001" class="citation book cs1">Vale, M. G. A. (2001). The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North-West Europe, 1270-1380. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926993-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926993-9"><bdi>0-19-926993-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princely+Court%3A+Medieval+Courts+and+Culture+in+North-West+Europe%2C+1270-1380&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-926993-9&rft.aulast=Vale&rft.aufirst=M.+G.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkins2002" class="citation book cs1">Wilkins, Sally (2002). Sports and Games of Medieval Cultures. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31711-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31711-9"><bdi>0-313-31711-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sports+and+Games+of+Medieval+Cultures&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-313-31711-9&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=Sally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYalom2004" class="citation book cs1">Yalom, Marilyn (2004). Birth of the Chess Queen: a History (Illustrated ed.). HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-009064-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-009064-2"><bdi>0-06-009064-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birth+of+the+Chess+Queen%3A+a+History&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-06-009064-2&rft.aulast=Yalom&rft.aufirst=Marilyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirdausí1915" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Firdausí</a> (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/shahnama07firduoft#page/n7/mode/2up">The Sháhnámá of Firdausí</a>. Vol. VII. Trans. Warner, Arthur George & Warner, Edmond. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-24545-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-24545-1"><bdi>0-415-24545-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sh%C3%A1hn%C3%A1m%C3%A1+of+Firdaus%C3%AD&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Kegan+Paul%2C+Trench%2C+Tr%C3%BCbner+%26+Co.&rft.date=1915&rft.isbn=0-415-24545-1&rft.au=Firdaus%C3%AD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fshahnama07firduoft%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> Journals <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viswanathan_Anand" title="Viswanathan Anand">Anand, Viswanathan</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080620125545/http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815674,00.html">"The Indian Defense"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">TIME</a>, Thursday, Jun. 19, 2008. An article on the history of chess by the 2007-10 chess world champion.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGamer1954" class="citation journal cs1">Gamer, Helena M. (October 1954). "The Earliest Evidence of Chess in Western Literature: The Einsiedeln Verses". Speculum. 29 (4). Medieval Academy of America: 734–750. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2847098">10.2307/2847098</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2847098">2847098</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162079385">162079385</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=The+Earliest+Evidence+of+Chess+in+Western+Literature%3A+The+Einsiedeln+Verses&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=734-750&rft.date=1954-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162079385%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2847098%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2847098&rft.aulast=Gamer&rft.aufirst=Helena+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2009" class="citation journal cs1">Gordon, Stewart (July–August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090720035407/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200904/the.game.of.kings.htm">"The Game of Kings"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Aramco_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Saudi Aramco World">Saudi Aramco World</a>. 60 (4). Houston: Aramco Services Company: 18–23. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200904/the.game.of.kings.htm">the original</a> on 2009-07-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saudi+Aramco+World&rft.atitle=The+Game+of+Kings&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=18-23&rft.date=2009-07%2F2009-08&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Stewart&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saudiaramcoworld.com%2Fissue%2F200904%2Fthe.game.of.kings.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121003051322/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/pdf/2000/200904.pdf">PDF version</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiddlerDenison1998" class="citation journal cs1">Riddler, Ian; Denison, Simon (February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160915231531/http://archaeologyuk.org/ba/ba31/Ba31feat.html">"When there is no end to a good game"</a>. British Archaeology (31). United Kingdom: Council for British Archaeology. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1357-4442">1357-4442</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba31/ba31feat.html">the original</a> on 15 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Archaeology&rft.atitle=When+there+is+no+end+to+a+good+game&rft.issue=31&rft.date=1998-02&rft.issn=1357-4442&rft.aulast=Riddler&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft.au=Denison%2C+Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britarch.ac.uk%2Fba%2Fba31%2Fba31feat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkinson1943" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100924035457/http://goddesschess.com/chessays/chessmenandchess.html">"Chessmen and Chess"</a>. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. New Series 1 (9). The Metropolitan Museum of Art: 271–279. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3257111">10.2307/3257111</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3257111">3257111</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.goddesschess.com/chessays/chessmenandchess.html">the original</a> on 2010-09-24. Retrieved 2010-05-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Chessmen+and+Chess&rft.volume=New+Series+1&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=271-279&rft.date=1943-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3257111&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3257111%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Wilkinson&rft.aufirst=Charles+K&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.goddesschess.com%2Fchessays%2Fchessmenandchess.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+chess" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.chess.free.fr/">Origin and history of Chess, Xiangqi, Shogi and more</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081219155918/http://www.mynetcologne.de/~nc-jostenge/">Initiative group Koenigstein</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081205035903/http://www.goddesschess.com//chessays/chessaystoc.html">Goddess Chess Chessays</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mark-weeks.com/aboutcom/caa-hist.htm">Chess for all ages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://knol.google.com/k/braulio-v%C3%A1zquez-campos/alfonso-x-y-el-ajedrez/1nt2tw69bo2xt/13?hl=en#/">Alfonso X y el ajedrez - Alfonso X and Chess</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/bearing-witness/chess.asp">Chess in the Holocaust</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230812192446/https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/bearing-witness/chess.asp">Archived</a> 2023-08-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Yad_Vashem" title="Yad Vashem">Yad Vashem</a> website</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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chess">Outline</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_theory" title="Chess theory">Chess theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_title" title="Chess title">Chess titles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandmaster_(chess)" title="Grandmaster (chess)">Grandmaster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_chess" title="Computer chess">Computer chess</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_chess_terms" title="Glossary of computer chess terms">glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_chess_matches" title="Human–computer chess matches">matches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_engine" title="Chess engine">engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_software" title="List of chess software">software</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_chess" title="Correspondence chess">Correspondence chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIDE" title="FIDE">FIDE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chess" title="Glossary of chess">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_chess" title="Online chess">Online chess</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Premove" title="Premove">Premove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_chess_server" title="Internet chess server">Internet chess server</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Internet_chess_servers" title="List of Internet chess servers">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_rating_system" title="Chess rating system">Rating system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FIDE_world_rankings" class="mw-redirect" title="FIDE world rankings">world rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(chess)" title="Norm (chess)">norms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_variant" title="Chess variant">Variants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_variants" title="List of chess variants">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_world_records_in_chess" title="List of world records in chess">World records</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chess_equipment" title="Chess equipment">Equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_set" title="Chess set">Chess set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chessboard" title="Chessboard">chessboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik_chess_set" title="Dubrovnik chess set">Dubrovnik chess set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staunton_chess_set" title="Staunton chess set">Staunton chess set</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_piece" title="Chess piece">Chess pieces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_(chess)" title="King (chess)">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_(chess)" title="Queen (chess)">Queen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rook_(chess)" title="Rook (chess)">Rook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_(chess)" title="Bishop (chess)">Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knight_(chess)" title="Knight (chess)">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawn_(chess)" title="Pawn (chess)">Pawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairy_chess_piece" title="Fairy chess piece">Fairy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_clock" title="Chess clock">Chess clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_table" title="Chess table">Chess table</a></li> <li><dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chess#score_sheets" title="Glossary of chess">Score sheets</a></dfn></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chess" title="Timeline of chess">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Versus_de_scachis" title="Versus de scachis">Versus de scachis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen_manuscript" title="Göttingen manuscript">Göttingen manuscript</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne_chessmen" title="Charlemagne chessmen">Charlemagne chessmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_chessmen" title="Lewis chessmen">Lewis chessmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_chess" title="Romantic chess">Romantic chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypermodernism_(chess)" title="Hypermodernism (chess)">Hypermodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_chess_school" title="Soviet chess school">Soviet chess school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_top_chess_players_throughout_history" title="Comparison of top chess players throughout history">Top player comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_chess" title="Geography of chess">Geography of chess</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_Africa" title="Chess in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_South_Africa" title="Chess in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_China" title="Chess in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_Europe" title="Chess in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_Armenia" title="Chess in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_Spain" title="Chess in Spain">Spain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_India" title="Chess in India">India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_games" title="List of chess games">Notable games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_players" title="List of chess players">List of chess players</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_amateur_chess_players" title="List of amateur chess players">amateurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_chess_players" title="List of female chess players">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_grandmasters" title="List of chess grandmasters">grandmasters</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_chess" title="Women in chess">Women in chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chess_museums" title="Category:Chess museums">Chess museums</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Fischer_Center" title="Bobby Fischer Center">Bobby Fischer Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kyay_Association_Chess_Museum" title="Gökyay Association Chess Museum">Gökyay Association Chess Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Hall_of_Fame" title="World Chess Hall of Fame">World Chess Hall of Fame</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_chess" title="Rules of chess">Rules</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castling" title="Castling">Castling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_in_chess" title="Cheating in chess">Cheating in chess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Check_(chess)" title="Check (chess)">Check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkmate" title="Checkmate">Checkmate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draw_(chess)" title="Draw (chess)">Draw</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draw_by_agreement" title="Draw by agreement">by agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifty-move_rule" title="Fifty-move rule">Fifty-move rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_check" title="Perpetual check">Perpetual check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalemate" title="Stalemate">Stalemate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_repetition" title="Threefold repetition">Threefold repetition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/En_passant" title="En passant">En passant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promotion_(chess)" title="Promotion (chess)">Pawn promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_control" title="Time control">Time control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_chess" title="Fast chess">Fast chess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touch-move_rule" title="Touch-move rule">Touch-move rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_and_Black_in_chess" title="White and Black in chess">White and Black</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chess" title="Glossary of chess">Terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blunder_(chess)" title="Blunder (chess)">Blunder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_notation" title="Chess notation">Chess notation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algebraic_notation_(chess)" title="Algebraic notation (chess)">algebraic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_notation" title="Descriptive notation">descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_Game_Notation" title="Portable Game Notation">PGN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_annotation_symbols" title="Chess annotation symbols">annotation symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_symbols_in_Unicode" title="Chess symbols in Unicode">symbols in Unicode</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianchetto" title="Fianchetto">Fianchetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambit" title="Gambit">Gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_square" title="Key square">Key square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_walk" title="King walk">King walk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_file" title="Open file">Open file</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-open_file" title="Half-open file">Half-open file</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(chess)" title="Outpost (chess)">Outpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawn_(chess)" title="Pawn (chess)">Pawns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Backward_pawn" title="Backward pawn">backward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connected_pawns" title="Connected pawns">connected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubled_pawns" title="Doubled pawns">doubled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_pawn" title="Isolated pawn">isolated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passed_pawn" title="Passed pawn">passed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swindle_(chess)" title="Swindle (chess)">Swindle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempo_(chess)" title="Tempo (chess)">Tempo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transposition_(chess)" title="Transposition (chess)">Transposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_traps" title="List of chess traps">Trap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chess_tactic" title="Chess tactic">Tactics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castling#Artificial_castling" title="Castling">Artificial castling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battery_(chess)" title="Battery (chess)">Battery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alekhine%27s_gun" title="Alekhine's gun">Alekhine's gun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_(chess)" title="Block (chess)">Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkmate_pattern" title="Checkmate pattern">Checkmate patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_(chess)" title="Combination (chess)">Combination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decoy_(chess)" title="Decoy (chess)">Decoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflection_(chess)" title="Deflection (chess)">Deflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desperado_(chess)" title="Desperado (chess)">Desperado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovered_attack" title="Discovered attack">Discovered attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_check" title="Double check">Double check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fork_(chess)" title="Fork (chess)">Fork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interference_(chess)" title="Interference (chess)">Interference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overloading_(chess)" title="Overloading (chess)">Overloading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawn_storm" title="Pawn storm">Pawn storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pin_(chess)" title="Pin (chess)">Pin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_(chess)" title="Sacrifice (chess)">Sacrifice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_sacrifice" title="Queen sacrifice">Queen sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skewer_(chess)" title="Skewer (chess)">Skewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undermining_(chess)" title="Undermining (chess)">Undermining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill_(chess)" title="Windmill (chess)">Windmill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_(chess)" title="X-ray (chess)">X-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zwischenzug" title="Zwischenzug">Zwischenzug</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chess_strategy" title="Chess strategy">Strategy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compensation_(chess)" title="Compensation (chess)">Compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exchange_(chess)" title="Exchange (chess)">Exchange</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_exchange_(chess)" title="The exchange (chess)">the exchange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initiative_(chess)" title="Initiative (chess)">Initiative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-move_advantage_in_chess" title="First-move advantage in chess">first-move advantage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_middlegame" title="Chess middlegame">Middlegame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawn_structure" title="Pawn structure">Pawn structure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hedgehog_(chess)" title="Hedgehog (chess)">Hedgehog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolated_pawn" title="Isolated pawn">Isolated Queen's Pawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%B3czy_Bind" title="Maróczy Bind">Maróczy Bind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_attack" title="Minority attack">Minority attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_piece_relative_value" title="Chess piece relative value">Piece values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophylaxis_(chess)" title="Prophylaxis (chess)">Prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_chess" title="School of chess">School of chess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chess_opening" title="Chess opening">Openings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flank_opening" title="Flank opening">Flank opening</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Fianchetto_Opening" title="King's Fianchetto Opening">Benko Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird%27s_Opening" title="Bird's Opening">Bird's Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunst_Opening" title="Dunst Opening">Dunst Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Opening" title="English Opening">English Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grob%27s_Attack" title="Grob's Attack">Grob's Attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larsen%27s_Opening" class="mw-redirect" title="Larsen's Opening">Larsen's Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zukertort_Opening" title="Zukertort Opening">Zukertort Opening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Indian_Attack" title="King's Indian Attack">King's Indian Attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9ti_Opening" title="Réti Opening">Réti Opening</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Pawn_Game" title="King's Pawn Game">King's Pawn Game</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alekhine%27s_Defence" title="Alekhine's Defence">Alekhine's Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caro%E2%80%93Kann_Defence" title="Caro–Kann Defence">Caro–Kann Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Defence" title="French Defence">French Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Defense" title="Modern Defense">Modern Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimzowitsch_Defence" title="Nimzowitsch Defence">Nimzowitsch Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Game" title="Open Game">Open Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Knights_Game" title="Four Knights Game">Four Knights Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuoco_Piano" title="Giuoco Piano">Giuoco Piano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Game" title="Italian Game">Italian Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Gambit" title="King's Gambit">King's Gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrov%27s_Defence" title="Petrov's Defence">Petrov's Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philidor_Defence" title="Philidor Defence">Philidor Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponziani_Opening" title="Ponziani Opening">Ponziani Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_Lopez" title="Ruy Lopez">Ruy Lopez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-Italian_Opening" title="Semi-Italian Opening">Semi-Italian Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_Game" title="Scotch Game">Scotch Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Knights_Defense" title="Two Knights Defense">Two Knights Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Game" title="Vienna Game">Vienna Game</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen%27s_Defence" title="Owen's Defence">Owen's Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirc_Defence" title="Pirc Defence">Pirc Defence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pirc_Defence,_Austrian_Attack" title="Pirc Defence, Austrian Attack">Austrian Attack</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Defense" title="Scandinavian Defense">Scandinavian Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Defence" title="Sicilian Defence">Sicilian Defence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Defence,_Alapin_Variation" title="Sicilian Defence, Alapin Variation">Alapin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Defence,_Dragon_Variation" title="Sicilian Defence, Dragon Variation">Dragon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Defence,_Accelerated_Dragon" title="Sicilian Defence, Accelerated Dragon">Accelerated Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Defence,_Najdorf_Variation" title="Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation">Najdorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Defence,_Scheveningen_Variation" title="Sicilian Defence, Scheveningen Variation">Scheveningen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Pawn_Game" title="Queen's Pawn Game">Queen's Pawn Game</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_Gambit" title="Budapest Gambit">Budapest Gambit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colle_System" title="Colle System">Colle System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Defence" title="Dutch Defence">Dutch Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Defence" title="English Defence">English Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Defence" title="Indian Defence">Indian Defence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benoni_Defense" title="Benoni Defense">Benoni Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Benoni" title="Modern Benoni">Modern Benoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogo-Indian_Defence" title="Bogo-Indian Defence">Bogo-Indian Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Opening" title="Catalan Opening">Catalan Opening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%BCnfeld_Defence" title="Grünfeld Defence">Grünfeld Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_Indian_Defence" title="King's Indian Defence">King's Indian Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimzo-Indian_Defence" title="Nimzo-Indian Defence">Nimzo-Indian Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Indian_Defense" title="Old Indian Defense">Old Indian Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Indian_Defense" title="Queen's Indian Defense">Queen's Indian Defence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_System" title="London System">London System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richter%E2%80%93Veresov_Attack" title="Richter–Veresov Attack">Richter–Veresov Attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Gambit" title="Queen's Gambit">Queen's Gambit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Gambit_Accepted" title="Queen's Gambit Accepted">Accepted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen%27s_Gambit_Declined" title="Queen's Gambit Declined">Declined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slav_Defense" title="Slav Defense">Slav Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-Slav_Defense" title="Semi-Slav Defense">Semi-Slav Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chigorin_Defense" title="Chigorin Defense">Chigorin Defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torre_Attack" title="Torre Attack">Torre Attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trompowsky_Attack" title="Trompowsky Attack">Trompowsky Attack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_openings" title="List of chess openings">List of openings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_opening_theory_table" title="Chess opening theory table">theory table</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_gambits" title="List of chess gambits">List of chess gambits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_chess_opening" title="Irregular chess opening">Irregular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bongcloud_Attack" title="Bongcloud Attack">Bongcloud Attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fool%27s_mate" title="Fool's mate">Fool's mate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar%27s_mate" title="Scholar's mate">Scholar's mate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chess_endgame" title="Chess endgame">Endgames</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_and_knight_checkmate" title="Bishop and knight checkmate">Bishop and knight checkmate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_and_pawn_versus_king_endgame" title="King and pawn versus king endgame">King and pawn vs king</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposite-colored_bishops_endgame" title="Opposite-colored bishops endgame">Opposite-coloured bishops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnless_chess_endgame" title="Pawnless chess endgame">Pawnless endgame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_and_pawn_versus_queen_endgame" title="Queen and pawn versus queen endgame">Queen and pawn vs queen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_versus_pawn_endgame" title="Queen versus pawn endgame">Queen vs pawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_versus_rook_endgame" title="Queen versus rook endgame">Queen vs rook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rook_and_bishop_versus_rook_endgame" title="Rook and bishop versus rook endgame">Rook and bishop vs rook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rook_and_pawn_versus_rook_endgame" title="Rook and pawn versus rook endgame">Rook and pawn vs rook</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lucena_position" title="Lucena position">Lucena position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philidor_position" title="Philidor position">Philidor position</a></li></ul></li> <li>Strategy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_(chess)" title="Fortress (chess)">fortress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_(chess)" title="Opposition (chess)">opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarrasch_rule" title="Tarrasch rule">Tarrasch rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(chess)" title="Triangulation (chess)">triangulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zugzwang" title="Zugzwang">Zugzwang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endgame_study" title="Endgame study">Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endgame_tablebase" title="Endgame tablebase">Tablebase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_knights_endgame" title="Two knights endgame">Two knights endgame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrong_bishop" title="Wrong bishop">Wrong bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrong_rook_pawn" title="Wrong rook pawn">Wrong rook pawn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chess_tournament" title="Chess tournament">Tournaments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_strong_chess_tournaments" title="List of strong chess tournaments">List of strong chess tournaments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_Olympiad" title="Chess Olympiad">Chess Olympiad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Chess_Olympiad" title="Women's Chess Olympiad">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Championship" title="World Chess Championship">World Chess Championship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Chess_Championships" title="List of World Chess Championships">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candidates_Tournament" title="Candidates Tournament">Candidates Tournament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_World_Cup" title="Chess World Cup">Chess World Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIDE_Grand_Prix" title="FIDE Grand Prix">FIDE Grand Prix</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other world championships <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_World_Chess_Championship" title="Women's World Chess Championship">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Team_Chess_Championship" title="World Team Chess Championship">Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Rapid_Chess_Championship" title="World Rapid Chess Championship">Rapid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Blitz_Chess_Championship" title="World Blitz Chess Championship">Blitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Junior_Chess_Championship" title="World Junior Chess Championship">Junior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Chess_Championship" title="World Youth Chess Championship">Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Senior_Chess_Championship" title="World Senior Chess Championship">Senior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Amateur_Chess_Championship" title="World Amateur Chess Championship">Amateur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Championship_of_Chess_Composition" title="World Championship of Chess Composition">Chess composition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Chess_Solving_Championship" title="World Chess Solving Championship">Solving</a></li></ul></li> <li>Computer chess championships <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess.com_Computer_Chess_Championship" class="mw-redirect" title="Chess.com Computer Chess Championship">CCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Open_Computer_Chess_Championship" title="Dutch Open Computer Chess Championship">CSVN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Computer_Chess_Championship" title="North American Computer Chess Championship">North American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_Chess_Engine_Championship" title="Top Chess Engine Championship">TCEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Computer_Chess_Championship" title="World Computer Chess Championship">WCCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Computer_Speed_Chess_Championship" title="World Computer Speed Chess Championship">WCSCC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art and media</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ca%C3%AFssa" title="Caïssa">Caïssa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_aesthetics" title="Chess aesthetics">Chess aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_the_arts" title="Chess in the arts">Chess in the arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_in_early_literature" title="Chess in early literature">early literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Films_about_chess" title="Category:Films about chess">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Novels_about_chess" title="Category:Novels about chess">novels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chess_paintings" title="Category:Chess paintings">paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Poems_about_chess" title="Category:Poems about chess">poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_stories_about_chess" title="Category:Short stories about chess">short stories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_books" title="List of chess books">Chess books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chess_opening_book" title="Chess opening book">opening books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_endgame_literature" title="Chess endgame literature">endgame literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Chess" title="The Oxford Companion to Chess">Oxford Companion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_libraries" title="Chess libraries">Chess libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_columns_in_newspapers" title="Chess columns in newspapers">Chess newspaper columns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chess_periodicals" title="List of chess periodicals">Chess periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arbiter_(chess)" title="Arbiter (chess)">Arbiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_boxing" title="Chess boxing">Chess boxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_club" title="Chess club">Chess club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_composer" title="Chess composer">Chess composer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_engine" title="Chess engine">Chess engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AlphaZero" title="AlphaZero">AlphaZero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)" title="Deep Blue (chess computer)">Deep Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leela_Chess_Zero" title="Leela Chess Zero">Leela Chess Zero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stockfish_(chess)" title="Stockfish (chess)">Stockfish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_problem" title="Chess problem">Chess problem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chess_problems" title="Glossary of chess problems">glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joke_chess_problem" title="Joke chess problem">joke chess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chess_prodigy" title="Chess prodigy">Chess prodigy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elo_rating_system" title="Elo rating system">Elo rating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_exhibition" title="Simultaneous exhibition">Simultaneous exhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solving_chess" title="Solving chess">Solving chess</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Chess.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Chess.svg/28px-Chess.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Chess.svg/42px-Chess.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Chess.svg/56px-Chess.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Chess" title="Portal:Chess">Chess portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chess" title="Category:Chess">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chess&oldid=1252423746">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_chess&oldid=1252423746</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_chess" title="Category:History of chess">History of chess</a></li></ul></div><div 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