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id="toc-Internal_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greenberg_1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenberg_1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Greenberg 1963</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenberg_1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bender_1989,_1991" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bender_1989,_1991"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Bender 1989, 1991</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bender_1989,_1991-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ehret_1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ehret_1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Ehret 1989</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ehret_1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bender_2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bender_2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Bender 2000</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bender_2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ehret_2001" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ehret_2001"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Ehret 2001</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ehret_2001-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blench_2006" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blench_2006"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Blench 2006</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blench_2006-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blench_2010" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blench_2010"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Blench 2010</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blench_2010-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blench_2015" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blench_2015"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Blench 2015</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blench_2015-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Starostin_(2016)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Starostin_(2016)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Starostin (2016)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Starostin_(2016)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dimmendaal_2016,_2019" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dimmendaal_2016,_2019"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Dimmendaal 2016, 2019</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dimmendaal_2016,_2019-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blench_2023" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blench_2023"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Blench 2023</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blench_2023-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Glottolog_4.0_(2019)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Glottolog_4.0_(2019)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.12</span> <span><i>Glottolog</i> 4.0 (2019)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Glottolog_4.0_(2019)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bender's_reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bender's_reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Bender's reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bender's_reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ehret's_reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ehret's_reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Ehret's reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ehret's_reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Comparative vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Population_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Population_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Population history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Population_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External_relationships" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_relationships"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>External relationships</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_relationships-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nilo-Saharan languages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 73 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-73" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">73 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Sahariese_tale" title="Nilo-Sahariese tale – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Nilo-Sahariese tale" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%93%E1%8B%AD%E1%88%8E_%E1%88%B3%E1%88%85%E1%88%AB%E1%8B%8A_%E1%89%8B%E1%8A%95%E1%89%8B%E1%8B%8E%E1%89%BD" title="ናይሎ ሳህራዊ ቋንቋዎች – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ናይሎ ሳህራዊ ቋንቋዎች" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغات نيلية صحراوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات نيلية صحراوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_nilo-sa%E1%B8%A5arianes" title="Llingües nilo-saḥarianes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües nilo-saḥarianes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%84%E2%80%8C%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="نیل‌صحرا دیللری – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="نیل‌صحرا دیللری" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_nilez-saharek" title="Yezhoù nilez-saharek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù nilez-saharek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleng%C3%BCes_niloticosaharianes" title="Llengües niloticosaharianes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llengües niloticosaharianes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilosaharsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Nilosaharské jazyky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nilosaharské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ieithoedd_Nilo-Saharaidd" title="Ieithoedd Nilo-Saharaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ieithoedd Nilo-Saharaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilosahariske_sprog" title="Nilosahariske sprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Nilosahariske sprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilosaharanische_Sprachen" title="Nilosaharanische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nilosaharanische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niiluse-Sahara_keeled" title="Niiluse-Sahara keeled – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Niiluse-Sahara keeled" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_nilo-saharianas" title="Lenguas nilo-saharianas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas nilo-saharianas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-sahara_lingvaro" title="Nilo-sahara lingvaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nilo-sahara lingvaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-saharar_hizkuntzak" title="Nilo-saharar hizkuntzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nilo-saharar hizkuntzak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های نیلوصحرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های نیلوصحرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_bhasa" title="Nilo-Saharan bhasa – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Nilo-Saharan bhasa" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_nilo-sahariennes" title="Langues nilo-sahariennes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues nilo-sahariennes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharaanske_talen" title="Nilo-Saharaanske talen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Nilo-Saharaanske talen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_nilo-saharianas" title="Linguas nilo-saharianas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Linguas nilo-saharianas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%98%EC%9D%BC%EC%82%AC%ED%95%98%EB%9D%BC%EC%96%B4%EC%A1%B1" title="나일사하라어족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="나일사하라어족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B9" title="नीलो-साहरन भाषा समूह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नीलो-साहरन भाषा समूह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilosaharske_r%C4%9B%C4%8De" title="Nilosaharske rěče – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Nilosaharske rěče" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilsko-saharski_jezici" title="Nilsko-saharski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nilsko-saharski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%E1%BB%A5s%E1%BB%A5_Na%E1%BB%8Bl_na_Sahara" title="Asụsụ Naịl na Sahara – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Asụsụ Naịl na Sahara" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumpun_bahasa_Nilo-Sahara" title="Rumpun bahasa Nilo-Sahara – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rumpun bahasa Nilo-Sahara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingues_nilo-saharan" title="Lingues nilo-saharan – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Lingues nilo-saharan" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%ADl%C3%B3saharam%C3%A1l" title="Nílósaharamál – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nílósaharamál" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_nilo-sahariane" title="Lingue nilo-sahariane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue nilo-sahariane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8B-%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ನೈಲೋ-ಸಹಾರನ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನೈಲೋ-ಸಹಾರನ್ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D-%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ნილო-საჰარული ენები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ნილო-საჰარული ენები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugha_za_Kinilo-Sahara" title="Lugha za Kinilo-Sahara – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Lugha za Kinilo-Sahara" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB-%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Нил-сахара тилдери – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Нил-сахара тилдери" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguae_Nilosaharanae" title="Linguae Nilosaharanae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Linguae Nilosaharanae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%ABlas%E2%80%94Sah%C4%81ras_valodas" title="Nīlas—Sahāras valodas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Nīlas—Sahāras valodas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Sacharos_kalbos" title="Nilo-Sacharos kalbos – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nilo-Sacharos kalbos" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_nilo-sahariann-e" title="Lengue nilo-sahariann-e – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengue nilo-sahariann-e" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharaanse_spraoke" title="Nilo-Saharaanse spraoke – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Nilo-Saharaanse spraoke" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_nilo-saharan" title="Linguas nilo-saharan – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Linguas nilo-saharan" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%ADlus-szaharai_nyelvcsal%C3%A1d" title="Nílus-szaharai nyelvcsalád – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nílus-szaharai nyelvcsalád" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Нилосахарски јазици – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нилосахарски јазици" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianakaviam-piteny_nil%C3%B4-sahariana" title="Fianakaviam-piteny nilô-sahariana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fianakaviam-piteny nilô-sahariana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa-bahasa_Nilo-Sahara" title="Bahasa-bahasa Nilo-Sahara – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa-bahasa Nilo-Sahara" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharaanse_talen" title="Nilo-Saharaanse talen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nilo-Saharaanse talen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8A%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B5%E3%83%8F%E3%83%A9%E8%AA%9E%E6%97%8F" title="ナイル・サハラ語族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ナイル・サハラ語族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharaansk_spriaken" title="Nilo-Saharaansk spriaken – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Nilo-Saharaansk spriaken" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilosahariske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Nilosahariske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nilosahariske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilosahariske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Nilosahariske språk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Nilosahariske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengas_nilosaharianas" title="Lengas nilosaharianas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Lengas nilosaharianas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil-sahroi_kabir_tillari" title="Nil-sahroi kabir tillari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Nil-sahroi kabir tillari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B-%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%82" title="ਨੀਲੋ-ਸਹਾਰਨ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨੀਲੋ-ਸਹਾਰਨ ਭਾਸ਼ਾਵਾਂ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenghe_nilo-saharian-e" title="Lenghe nilo-saharian-e – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenghe nilo-saharian-e" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharanische_Spraken" title="Nilo-Saharanische Spraken – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Nilo-Saharanische Spraken" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_nilo-saharyjskie" title="Języki nilo-saharyjskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki nilo-saharyjskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_nilo-saarianas" title="Línguas nilo-saarianas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas nilo-saarianas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilusaharu_rimaykuna" title="Nilusaharu rimaykuna – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Nilusaharu rimaykuna" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE-%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Нило-сахарские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нило-сахарские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%B3%E1%B1%BC%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A6%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B1_%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9A" title="ᱱᱤᱞᱳᱼᱥᱟᱦᱟᱨᱟᱱ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱱᱤᱞᱳᱼᱥᱟᱦᱟᱨᱟᱱ ᱯᱟᱹᱨᱥᱤᱠᱚ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharan_languages" title="Nilo-Saharan languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nilo-Saharan languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Нилско-сахарски језици – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нилско-сахарски језици" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilosaharalaiset_kielet" title="Nilosaharalaiset kielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Nilosaharalaiset kielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-sahariska_spr%C3%A5k" title="Nilo-sahariska språk – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nilo-sahariska språk" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8B-%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D" title="நிலோ-சகாரா மொழிகள் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நிலோ-சகாரா மொழிகள்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C-%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2" title="ตระกูลภาษาไนล์-สะฮารา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตระกูลภาษาไนล์-สะฮารา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thook_Kiir-Pi%C9%9Bnyli%C9%9B%C9%9Bt" title="Thook Kiir-Piɛnyliɛɛt – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Thook Kiir-Piɛnyliɛɛt" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil-Sahra_dilleri" title="Nil-Sahra dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nil-Sahra dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE-%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Ніло-сахарські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ніло-сахарські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%94%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="نیل۔صحرائی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نیل۔صحرائی زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_h%E1%BB%87_Nin-Sahara" title="Ngữ hệ Nin-Sahara – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ hệ Nin-Sahara" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E7%BD%97-%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%AD%E7%B3%BB" title="尼罗-撒哈拉语系 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="尼罗-撒哈拉语系" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B0%BC%E7%BE%85-%E6%92%92%E5%93%88%E6%8B%89%E8%AA%9E%E7%B3%BB" title="尼羅-撒哈拉語系 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="尼羅-撒哈拉語系" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilo-Saharaonse_taelen" title="Nilo-Saharaonse taelen – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Nilo-Saharaonse taelen" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" 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class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: gold;">Nilo-Saharan</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: gold;">(disputed)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographic<br />distribution</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>, north-central Africa and <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data">ca. 70 million for all branches listed below.<sup id="cite_ref-eth_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Linguistic classification</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Proposed language family</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Proto-language</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Proto-Nilo-Saharan_reconstructions" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Proto-Nilo-Saharan reconstructions">Proto-Nilo-Saharan</a></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subdivisions</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%CA%BCaga_languages" title="Bʼaga languages">Bʼaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimi-D" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimi-D">Mimi-D</a>?</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: gold;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a> / <a href="/wiki/ISO_639-5" title="ISO 639-5">5</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><samp><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ssa" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ssa">ssa</a></code></samp></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>None</i></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nilo-Saharan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Nilo-Saharan.png/300px-Nilo-Saharan.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Nilo-Saharan.png 1.5x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="438" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Distribution of Nilo-Saharan languages (in yellow)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Nilo-Saharan languages</b> are a proposed family of around 210 <a href="/wiki/African_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="African languages">African languages</a><sup id="cite_ref-eth_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> spoken by somewhere around 70 million speakers,<sup id="cite_ref-eth_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eth-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mainly in the upper parts of the <a href="/wiki/Chari_River" title="Chari River">Chari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> rivers, including historic <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, north of where the two tributaries of the Nile meet. The languages extend through 17 nations in the northern half of Africa: from <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> to <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a> in the west; from <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> in the centre; and from <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> to <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a> in the east. </p><p>As indicated by its hyphenated name, Nilo-Saharan is a family of the African interior, including the greater Nile Basin and the Central <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> Desert. Eight of its proposed constituent divisions (excluding <a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuliak" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuliak">Kuliak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Songhai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Songhai languages">Songhay</a>) are found in the modern countries of <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>, through which the Nile River flows. </p><p>In his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i> (1963), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a> named the group and argued it was a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic (linguistics)">genetic</a> family. It contained all the languages that were not included in the <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Khoisan_languages" title="Khoisan languages">Khoisan</a> families. Although some linguists have referred to the phylum as "Greenberg's <a href="/wiki/Wastebasket_taxon" title="Wastebasket taxon">wastebasket</a>", into which he placed all the otherwise unaffiliated non-<a href="/wiki/Click_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Click languages">click languages</a> of Africa,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> other specialists in the field have accepted it as a working hypothesis since Greenberg's classification.<sup id="cite_ref-BlenchSouag_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlenchSouag-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Linguists accept that it is a challenging proposal to demonstrate but contend that it looks more promising the more work is done.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Blench_&_Ahland_(2010)_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench_&_Ahland_(2010)-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of the constituent groups of Nilo-Saharan are estimated to predate the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution#Agriculture_in_Africa" title="Neolithic Revolution">African neolithic</a>. For example, the unity of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Sudanic">Eastern Sudanic</a> is estimated to date to at least the 5th millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nilo-Saharan genetic unity would thus be much older still and date to the late <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a>. The earliest written language associated with the Nilo-Saharan family is <a href="/wiki/Old_Nubian" title="Old Nubian">Old Nubian</a>, one of the oldest written African languages, attested in writing from the 8th to the 15th century AD. </p><p>This larger classification system is not accepted by all linguists, however. <i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i> (2013), for example, a publication of the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Max Planck Institute">Max Planck Institute</a> in Germany, does not recognise the unity of the Nilo-Saharan family or even of the Eastern Sudanic branch; <a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Georgiy Starostin</a> (2016) likewise does not accept a relationship between the branches of Nilo-Saharan, though he leaves open the possibility that some of them may prove to be related to each other once the necessary <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructive</a> work is done. According to Güldemann (2018), "the current state of research is not sufficient to prove the Nilo-Saharan hypothesis."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The constituent families of Nilo-Saharan are quite diverse. One characteristic feature is a tripartite <a href="/wiki/Singulative_number" title="Singulative number">singulative–collective–plurative number system</a>, which Blench (2010) believes is a result of a <a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">noun-classifier</a> system in the <a href="/wiki/Protolanguage" class="mw-redirect" title="Protolanguage">protolanguage</a>. The distribution of the families may reflect ancient watercourses in a green Sahara during the <a href="/wiki/African_humid_period" title="African humid period">African humid period</a> before the <a href="/wiki/4.2-kiloyear_event" title="4.2-kiloyear event">4.2-kiloyear event</a>, when the desert was more habitable than it is today.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_languages">Major languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Major languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within the Nilo-Saharan languages are a number of languages with at least a million speakers (most data from SIL's <i>Ethnologue</i> 16 (2009)). In descending order: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luo_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo dialect">Luo</a> (<i>Dholuo</i>, 4.4 million). <i>Dholuo</i> language of the <a href="/wiki/Luo_people_of_Kenya_and_Tanzania" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo people of Kenya and Tanzania">Luo people of Kenya and Tanzania</a>, Kenya's third largest ethnicity after the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Kikuyu_people" title="Kikuyu people">Agĩkũyũ</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luhya_people" title="Luhya people">Luhya</a>). (The term <a href="/wiki/Luo_languages" title="Luo languages">"Luo"</a> is also used for a wider group of languages which includes <i>Dholuo</i>.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanuri_language" title="Kanuri language">Kanuri</a> (4.0 million, all dialects; 4.7 million if <a href="/wiki/Kanembu_language" title="Kanembu language">Kanembu</a> is included). The major ethnicity around <a href="/wiki/Lake_Chad" title="Lake Chad">Lake Chad</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarma_language" title="Zarma language">Zarma</a> (6 million). Spread along the Niger River in <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a> and into <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, in the southern region of the historic <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teso_language" title="Teso language">Teso</a> (1.9 million). Related to <a href="/wiki/Karamojong_language" title="Karamojong language">Karamojong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkana_people" title="Turkana people">Turkana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toposa_people" title="Toposa people">Toposa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nyangatom_language" title="Nyangatom language">Nyangatom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a> (1.7 million, all dialects). The language of <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, extending today from southern <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> into northern <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>. Many Nubians have also migrated northwards to <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> since the building of the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_language" title="Lugbara language">Lugbara</a> (1.7 million, 2.2 if <a href="/wiki/Aringa_language" title="Aringa language">Aringa</a> (Low Lugbara) is included). The major Central Sudanic language; <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandi%E2%80%93Markweta_languages" title="Nandi–Markweta languages">Nandi–Markweta languages</a> (<i>Kalenjin</i>, 1.6 million). Kenyan <a href="/wiki/Great_Rift_Valley,_Kenya" title="Great Rift Valley, Kenya">Rift Valley, Kapchorua Uganda</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lango_language_(Uganda)" title="Lango language (Uganda)">Lango</a> (1.5 million). A Luo language, one of the major languages of <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_language" title="Dinka language">Dinka</a> (1.4 million). The major ethnicity of <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acholi_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Acholi language">Acholi</a> (1.2 million). Another Luo language of <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuer_language" title="Nuer language">Nuer</a> (1.1 million in 2011, significantly more today). The language of the <a href="/wiki/Nuer_people" title="Nuer people">Nuer</a>, another numerous people from <a href="/wiki/South_Sudan" title="South Sudan">South Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_language" title="Maasai language">Maasai</a> (1.0 million). Spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Maasai_people" title="Maasai people">Maasai people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngambay_language" title="Ngambay language">Ngambay</a> (1.0 million with Laka). Central Sudanic, the principal language of southern <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a>.</li></ul> <p>Some other important Nilo-Saharan languages under 1 million speakers: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fur_language" title="Fur language">Fur</a> (500,000 in 1983, significantly more today). The eponymous language of <a href="/wiki/Darfur" title="Darfur">Darfur</a> Province in western <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tebu_languages" title="Tebu languages">Tubu</a> (350,000 to 400,000) One of the northernmost Nilo-Saharan languages, extending from <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chad" title="Chad">Chad</a> into <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>. Most Tubu speakers live in Northern Chad close to the <a href="/wiki/Tibesti_Mountains" title="Tibesti Mountains">Tibesti Mountains</a>. Tubu has two main varieties: the <a href="/wiki/Daza_language" title="Daza language">Daza language</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Teda_language" title="Teda language">Teda language</a>.</li></ul> <p>The total for all speakers of Nilo-Saharan languages according to <i>Ethnologue</i> 16 is 38–39 million people. However, the data spans a range from ca. 1980 to 2005, with a weighted median at ca. 1990. Given population growth rates, the figure in 2010 might be half again higher, or about 60 million. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_proposal">History of the proposal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of the proposal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Saharan family (which includes <a href="/wiki/Kanuri_language" title="Kanuri language">Kanuri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kanembu_language" title="Kanembu language">Kanembu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tebu_languages" title="Tebu languages">Tebu languages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_language" title="Zaghawa language">Zaghawa</a>) was recognized by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Barth" title="Heinrich Barth">Heinrich Barth</a> in 1853, the Nilotic languages by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Richard_Lepsius" title="Karl Richard Lepsius">Karl Richard Lepsius</a> in 1880, the various constituent branches of Central Sudanic (but not the connection between them) by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_M%C3%BCller_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Müller (linguist)">Friedrich Müller</a> in 1889, and the Maban family by <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Gaudefroy-Demombynes" title="Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes">Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes</a> in 1907. The first inklings of a wider family came in 1912, when <a href="/wiki/Diedrich_Westermann" class="mw-redirect" title="Diedrich Westermann">Diedrich Westermann</a> included three of the (still independent) Central Sudanic families within Nilotic in a proposal he called <i>Niloto-Sudanic</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this expanded Nilotic was in turn linked to Nubian, Kunama, and possibly Berta, essentially Greenberg's Macro-Sudanic (<b>Chari–Nile</b>) proposal of 1954. </p><p>In 1920 G. W. Murray fleshed out the Eastern Sudanic languages when he grouped Nilotic, Nubian, <a href="/wiki/Nara_language" title="Nara language">Nera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaam_language" title="Gaam language">Gaam</a>, and Kunama. <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Conti_Rossini" title="Carlo Conti Rossini">Carlo Conti Rossini</a> made similar proposals in 1926, and in 1935 Westermann added <a href="/wiki/Murle_language" title="Murle language">Murle</a>. In 1940 A. N. Tucker published evidence linking five of the six branches of Central Sudanic alongside his more explicit proposal for East Sudanic. In 1950 Greenberg retained Eastern Sudanic and Central Sudanic as separate families, but accepted Westermann's conclusions of four decades earlier in 1954 when he linked them together as <i>Macro-Sudanic</i> (later <i>Chari–Nile</i>, from the <a href="/wiki/Chari_River" title="Chari River">Chari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> Watersheds). </p><p>Greenberg's later contribution came in 1963, when he tied Chari–Nile to Songhai, Saharan, Maban, Fur, and Koman-Gumuz and coined the current name <i>Nilo-Saharan</i> for the resulting family. <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Bender (linguist)">Lionel Bender</a> noted that Chari–Nile was an artifact of the order of European contact with members of the family and did not reflect an exclusive relationship between these languages, and the group has been abandoned, with its constituents becoming primary branches of Nilo-Saharan—or, equivalently, Chari–Nile and Nilo-Saharan have merged, with the name <i>Nilo-Saharan</i> retained. When it was realized that the <a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu languages</a> were not Niger–Congo, they were commonly assumed to therefore be Nilo-Saharan, but this remains somewhat controversial. </p><p>Progress has been made since Greenberg established the plausibility of the family. <a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> remain poorly attested and are difficult to work with, while arguments continue over the inclusion of Songhai. Blench (2010) believes that the distribution of Nilo-Saharan reflects the waterways of the <a href="/wiki/Wet_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet Sahara">wet Sahara</a> 12,000 years ago, and that the protolanguage had <a href="/wiki/Noun_classifier" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun classifier">noun classifiers</a>, which today are reflected in a diverse range of prefixes, suffixes, and number marking. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_relationships">Internal relationships</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Internal relationships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dimmendaal (2008) notes that Greenberg (1963) based his conclusion on strong evidence and that the proposal as a whole has become more convincing in the decades since. Mikkola (1999) reviewed Greenberg's evidence and found it convincing. <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> notes morphological similarities in all putative branches, which leads him to believe that the family is likely to be valid. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> are poorly known and have been difficult to evaluate until recently.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (September 2019)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> Songhay is markedly divergent, in part due to massive influence from the <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BlenchSouag_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlenchSouag-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also problematic are the <a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak languages</a>, which are spoken by hunter-gatherers and appear to retain a non-Nilo-Saharan core; Blench believes they might have been similar to <a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dahalo_language" title="Dahalo language">Dahalo</a> and shifted incompletely to Nilo-Saharan. </p><p>Anbessa Tefera and Peter Unseth consider the poorly attested <a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo language</a> to be Nilo-Saharan, though unclassified within the family due to lack of data; Dimmendaal and Blench, based on a more complete description, consider it to be a language isolate on current evidence. Proposals have sometimes been made to add <a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a> (usually included in <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>), largely due to its many noteworthy similarities with Songhay rather than with Nilo-Saharan as a whole, however this relationship is more likely due to a close relationship between Songhay and Mande many thousands of years ago in the early days of Nilo-Saharan, so the relationship is probably more one of ancient contact than a genetic link.<sup id="cite_ref-BlenchSouag_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BlenchSouag-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extinct <a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic language</a> of ancient <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a> has been accepted by linguists such as Rille, Dimmendaal, and Blench as Nilo-Saharan, though others argue for an <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a> affiliation. It is poorly attested. </p><p>There is little doubt that the constituent families of Nilo-Saharan—of which only <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> show much internal diversity—are valid groups. However, there have been several conflicting classifications in grouping them together. Each of the proposed higher-order groups has been rejected by other researchers: Greenberg's Chari–Nile by Bender and Blench, and Bender's Core Nilo-Saharan by Dimmendaal and Blench. What remains are eight (Dimmendaal) to twelve (Bender) constituent families of no consensus arrangement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenberg_1963">Greenberg 1963</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Greenberg 1963"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenguas_nilo-saharianas.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Lenguas_nilo-saharianas.PNG/440px-Lenguas_nilo-saharianas.PNG" decoding="async" width="440" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Lenguas_nilo-saharianas.PNG/660px-Lenguas_nilo-saharianas.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Lenguas_nilo-saharianas.PNG 2x" data-file-width="879" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>The branches of the Nilo-Saharan languages.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Joseph Greenberg</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Languages_of_Africa" title="The Languages of Africa">The Languages of Africa</a></i>, set up the family with the following branches. The Chari–Nile core are the connections that had been suggested by previous researchers. </p> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> Nilo‑Saharan  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> (including Gumuz) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"> Chari–Nile </span></div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic</a>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> was not recognized as distinct from neighbouring Koman; it was separated out (forming "Komuz") by Bender (1989). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bender_1989,_1991"><span id="Bender_1989.2C_1991"></span>Bender 1989, 1991</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bender 1989, 1991"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender" title="Lionel Bender">Lionel Bender</a> came up with a classification which expanded upon and revised that of Greenberg. He considered Fur and Maban to constitute a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fur%E2%80%93Maban_languages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fur–Maban languages (page does not exist)">Fur–Maban</a> branch, added <a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a> to Nilo-Saharan, removed Kuliak from Eastern Sudanic, removed Gumuz from Koman (but left it as a sister node), and chose to posit <a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> as an independent branch of the family. By 1991 he had added more detail to the tree, dividing Chari–Nile into nested clades, including a Core group in which <a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a> was considered divergent, and coordinating Fur–Maban as a sister clade to Chari–Nile.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Niger-Saharan_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niger-Saharan-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span class="nowrap">Nilo-Saharan</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama–Ilit</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span class="nowrap">Fur–Maban</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span class="nowrap">Chari–Nile</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> <a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a>  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Central_Sudanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Central Sudanic languages">Moru–Mangbetu</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bongo%E2%80%93Bagirmi_languages" title="Bongo–Bagirmi languages">Sara–Bongo</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> Core  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">East Sudanic</a>  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Surmic_languages" title="Surmic languages">Surmic</a>–<a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nara_language" title="Nara language">Nara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taman_languages" title="Taman languages">Taman</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> <a href="/wiki/Komuz_languages" title="Komuz languages">Komuz</a>  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> (including Shabo) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadugli–Krongo</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Bender revised his model of Nilo-Saharan again in 1996, at which point he split Koman and Gumuz into completely separate branches of Core Nilo-Saharan.<sup id="cite_ref-Bender_(1996)_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bender_(1996)-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ehret_1989">Ehret 1989</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ehret 1989"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ehret" title="Christopher Ehret">Christopher Ehret</a> came up with a novel classification of Nilo-Saharan as a preliminary part of his then-ongoing research into the macrofamily. His evidence for the classification was not fully published until much later (see <a href="#Ehret_2001">Ehret 2001</a> below), and so it did not attain the same level of acclaim as competing proposals, namely those of Bender and Blench.<sup id="cite_ref-Niger-Saharan_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Niger-Saharan-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bender_2000">Bender 2000</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bender 2000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 2000 Bender had entirely abandoned the Chari–Nile and Komuz branches. He also added Kunama back to the "Satellite–Core" group and simplified the subdivisions therein. He retracted the inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a>, stating that it could not yet be adequately classified but might prove to be Nilo-Saharan once sufficient research has been done. This tentative and somewhat conservative classification held as a sort of standard for the next decade.<sup id="cite_ref-Bender_(2000)_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bender_(2000)-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span class="nowrap">Nilo-Saharan</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> Satellite–Core  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> Core  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ehret_2001">Ehret 2001</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ehret 2001"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ehret's updated classification was published in his book <i>A Historical–Comparative Reconstruction of Nilo-Saharan</i> (2001).<sup id="cite_ref-Ehret_2001_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehret_2001-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This model is notable in that it consists of two primary branches: Gumuz–Koman, and a <i>Sudanic</i> group containing the rest of the families (see <i><a href="/wiki/Sudanic_languages#Nilo-Saharan" title="Sudanic languages">Sudanic languages § Nilo-Saharan</a></i> for more detail). Also, unusually, Songhay is well-nested within a core group and coordinate with Maban in a "Western Sahelian" clade, and Kadu is not included in Nilo-Saharan. Note that "Koman" in this classification is equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Komuz_languages" title="Komuz languages">Komuz</a>, i.e. a family with Gumuz and Koman as primary branches, and Ehret renames the traditional Koman group as "Western Koman". </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span class="nowrap">Nilo-Saharan</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> <a href="/wiki/Komuz_languages" title="Komuz languages">Koman</a>  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Western Koman</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> <a href="/wiki/Sudanic_languages#Nilo-Saharan" title="Sudanic languages">Sudanic</a>  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> Northern Sudanic  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"> <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Saharo-Sahelian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Saharo-Sahelian languages">Saharo-Sahelian</a></span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> Sahelian  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><div style="display:inline" class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap">Trans-Sahel</span> </div> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> Western Sahelian  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sahelian</a> (Eastern Sudanic) (including <a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blench_2006">Blench 2006</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Blench 2006"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages#Niger–Congo_and_Nilo-Saharan" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo languages § Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan</a></div> <p><b>Niger-Saharan</b>, a language macrofamily linking the Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan phyla, was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Blench</a> (2006).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not accepted by other linguists. Blench's (2006) internal classification of the Niger-Saharan macrophylum is as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>Proto-Niger-Saharan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berta_language" title="Berta language">Berta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunama_language" title="Kunama language">Kunama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Komuz_languages" title="Komuz languages">Komuz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a></li> <li>Kado-Sudanic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kado</a> (Kadugli-Krongo)</li> <li>Niger-Sudanic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Sudanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="East Sudanic languages">East Sudanic</a></li> <li>Niger-Central Sudanic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger-Congo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Niger-Congo languages">Niger-Congo</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <p>According to Blench (2006), typological features common to both Niger-Congo and Nilo-Saharan include: </p> <ul><li>Phonology: ATR vowel harmony and the labial-velars /kp/ and /gb/</li> <li>Noun-class affixes: e.g., <i>ma</i>- affix for mass nouns in Nilo-Saharan</li> <li>Verbal extensions and plural verbs</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blench_2010">Blench 2010</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Blench 2010"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With a better understanding of Nilo-Saharan classifiers, and the affixes or number marking they have developed into in various branches, Blench believes that all of the families postulated as Nilo-Saharan belong together. He proposes the following tentative internal classification, with Songhai closest to Saharan, a relationship that had not previously been suggested: </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>? <a href="/wiki/Mimi_of_Decorse" title="Mimi of Decorse">Mimi of Decorse</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blench_2015">Blench 2015</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Blench 2015"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 2015,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and again in 2017,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blench had refined the subclassification of this model, linking Maban with Fur, Kadu with Eastern Sudanic, and Kuliak with the node that contained them, and added a tentative, extinct branch he names "Plateau" as to explain a possible Nilo-Saharan substrate in the Malian <a href="/wiki/Dogon_languages" title="Dogon languages">Dogon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a> languages, for the following structure: </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Plateau † </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> Central African  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Blench (2021) concludes that Maban may be close to Eastern Sudanic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Starostin_(2016)"><span id="Starostin_.282016.29"></span>Starostin (2016)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Starostin (2016)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NiloSaharanStarostin.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/NiloSaharanStarostin.png/440px-NiloSaharanStarostin.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/NiloSaharanStarostin.png/660px-NiloSaharanStarostin.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/NiloSaharanStarostin.png 2x" data-file-width="879" data-file-height="714" /></a><figcaption>Starostin's "Macro-Sudanic" in purple, surrounding language families shown as well.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Georgiy_Starostin" title="Georgiy Starostin">Georgiy Starostin</a> (2016),<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using <a href="/wiki/Lexicostatistics" title="Lexicostatistics">lexicostatistics</a> based on Swadesh lists, is more inclusive than <i>Glottolog</i>, and in addition finds probable and possible links between the families that will require reconstruction of the proto-languages for confirmation. Starostin also does not consider Greenberg's Nilo-Saharan to be a valid, coherent clade. </p><p>In addition to the families listed in <i>Glottolog</i> (previous section), Starostin considers the following to be established: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Northern Eastern Sudanic languages">Northern "K" Eastern Sudanic</a> or "NNT" (Nubian, Nara, and Tama; see below for Nyima)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Southern Eastern Sudanic languages">Southern "N" Eastern Sudanic</a> (Surmic, Temein, Jebel, Daju, Nilotic), though their exact relationships to each other remain obscure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Birri_language" title="Birri language">Birri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kresh_languages" title="Kresh languages">Kresh–Aja</a>, which may prove to be closest to each other)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> (including Gule)</li></ul> <p>A relationship of <a href="/wiki/Nyima_languages" title="Nyima languages">Nyima</a> with Nubian, Nara, and Tama (NNT) is considered "highly likely" and close enough that proper comparative work should be able to demonstrate the connection if it's valid, though it would fall outside NNT proper (see <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic languages</a>). </p><p>Other units that are "highly likely" to eventually prove to be valid families are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Sudanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="East Sudanic languages">East Sudanic</a> as a whole</li> <li>Central Sudanic – Kadu (Central Sudanic + <a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadugli–Krongo</a>)</li> <li>Maba–Kunama (<a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> + <a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komuz_languages" title="Komuz languages">Komuz</a> (Koman + Gumuz)</li></ul> <p>In summary, at this level of certainty, "Nilo-Saharan" constitutes ten distinct and separate language families: Eastern Sudanic, Central Sudanic – Kadu, Maba–Kunama, Komuz, Saharan, Songhai, Kuliak, Fur, Berta, and Shabo. </p><p>Possible further "deep" connections, which cannot be evaluated until the proper comparative work on the constituent branches has been completed, are: </p> <ul><li>Eastern Sudanic + Fur + Berta</li> <li>Central Sudanic – Kadu + Maba–Kunama</li></ul> <p>There are faint suggestions that Eastern and Central Sudanic may be related (essentially the old Chari–Nile clade), though that possibility is "unexplorable under current conditions" and could be complicated if Niger–Congo were added to the comparison. Starostin finds no evidence that the Komuz, Kuliak, Saharan, Songhai, or Shabo languages are related to any of the other Nilo-Saharan languages. <a href="/wiki/Mimi-D" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimi-D">Mimi-D</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meroitic_language" title="Meroitic language">Meroitic</a> were not considered, though Starostin had previously proposed that Mimi-D was also an isolate despite its slight similarity to Central Sudanic. </p><p>In a follow-up study published in 2017, Starostin reiterated his previous points as well as explicitly accepting a genetic relationship between Macro-East Sudanic and Macro-Central Sudanic. Starostin names this proposal "Macro-Sudanic". The classification is as follows.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li>Macro-Sudanic <ul><li>Macro-Sudanic macrofamily <ul><li>Macro-Central Sudanic family <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> family <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi">Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi</a> (West-Central Sudanic branch)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kresh_languages" title="Kresh languages">Kresh</a>-<a href="/wiki/Aja_language_(Nilo-Saharan)" title="Aja language (Nilo-Saharan)">Aja</a>-<a href="/wiki/Birri_language" title="Birri language">Birri</a></li> <li>East-Central Sudanic branch <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mangbutu-Efe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangbutu-Efe">Mangbutu-Efe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangbetu-Asoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangbetu-Asoa">Mangbetu-Asoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lendu-Ngiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Lendu-Ngiti">Lendu-Ngiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moru-Madi" class="mw-redirect" title="Moru-Madi">Moru-Madi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krongo-Kadugli" class="mw-redirect" title="Krongo-Kadugli">Krongo-Kadugli</a> (Kadu) group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maba</a> group</li></ul></li> <li>Macro-Eastern Sudanic family <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Sudanic">Eastern Sudanic</a> family <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Sudanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Sudanic languages">Northeast Sudanic</a> family <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taman_languages" title="Taman languages">Tama</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nara_language" title="Nara language">Nara language</a></li> <li>Nyimang-Afitti Group</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Sudanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Southeast Sudanic languages">Southeast Sudanic</a> family <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surmic_languages" title="Surmic languages">Surmic languages</a> (Southern Surmic + Northern Surmic / <a href="/wiki/Majang_language" title="Majang language">Majang</a> branches)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic languages</a> (Western, Eastern, Southern branches)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jebel_languages" title="Eastern Jebel languages">Jebel</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temein_languages" title="Temein languages">Temein</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daju_languages" title="Daju languages">Daju</a> group</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berta_language" title="Berta language">Berta</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur-Amdang</a> group</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama-Ilit</a> group</li></ul></li> <li>Koman-Gumuz ("<a href="/wiki/Komuz_languages" title="Komuz languages">Komuz</a>") family <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> family <ul><li>"Narrow Koman" group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a> (Anej) language</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz languages</a> (group)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> family <ul><li>Western Saharan group (Kanuri-Kanembu + Teda-Dazaga)</li> <li>Eastern Saharan group (Zaghawa + Berti)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo language</a> (Mikeyir)</li></ul></li></ul> </div> <p>Starostin (2017) finds significant lexical similarities between Kadu and Central Sudanic, while some lexical similarities also shared by Central Sudanic with Fur-Amdang, Berta, and Eastern Sudanic to a lesser extent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dimmendaal_2016,_2019"><span id="Dimmendaal_2016.2C_2019"></span>Dimmendaal 2016, 2019</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Dimmendaal 2016, 2019"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gerrit_J._Dimmendaal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerrit J. Dimmendaal">Gerrit J. Dimmendaal</a><sup id="cite_ref-Dimmendaal2016_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dimmendaal2016-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> suggests the following subclassification of Nilo-Saharan: </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> Nilo‑Saharan  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">Northeastern </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Dimmendaal et al. consider the evidence for the inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> too weak to draw any conclusions at present, whereas there is some evidence that <a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> belong together and may be Nilo-Saharan.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The large Northeastern division is based on several typological markers: </p> <ul><li>tolerance of complex <a href="/wiki/Syllable_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable structure">syllable structure</a></li> <li>higher amount of both inflectional and derivational morphology, including the presence of <a href="/wiki/Case_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Case (linguistics)">cases</a></li> <li>verb-final (SOV or OSV) word order</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">coverb</a> + <a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">light verb</a> constructions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converb" title="Converb">converbs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blench_2023">Blench 2023</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Blench 2023"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By 2023,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blench had slightly revised the model for a deep primary split between Koman–Gumuz and the rest. Kunama and Berta are "provisionally" placed as the next to branch off, because they only partially share the features that unite the rest of the family. However, it is not clear if this is because they actually diverged early, or if they might have lost those features at a later date. For example, Berta shares plausible lexical cognates with the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jebel_languages" title="Eastern Jebel languages">Eastern Jebel languages</a> (East Sudanic) and its system of grammatical number "closely resembles" those of the <a href="/wiki/East_Sudanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="East Sudanic languages">East Sudanic languages</a>; Kunama could be divergent "due to long-term interaction with <a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic languages</a>." Saharan–Songhay (especially Songhay) have seen substantial erosion of key characteristics, but this appears to be a secondary development and not evidence of early branching. "Core" Nilo-Saharan ("Central African" in Blench 2015) thus appears to be a typological rather than genetic grouping, though Maban is treated as a divergent branch of Eastern Sudanic; Kadu also seems to be quite close. The resulting structure is as follows: </p> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Fur</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>? <a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>Beyond the work of Colleen Ahland, Blench notes that the inclusion of Koman is buttressed by the work of Manuel Otero.<sup id="cite_ref-Otero_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otero-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The argument for Songhay is mostly lexical, especially the pronouns. Blench gives Greenberg credit for both East and Central Sudanic. Saharan and Songhay have some "striking" similarities in their lexicon, which Blench argues is genetic, though the absence of reliable proto-Sarahan and proto-Songhay reconstructions makes evaluation difficult. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Glottolog_4.0_(2019)"><span id="Glottolog_4.0_.282019.29"></span><i>Glottolog</i> 4.0 (2019)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Glottolog 4.0 (2019)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In summarizing the literature to date, Hammarström et al. in <i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i> do not accept that the following families are demonstrably related with current research: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berta_language" title="Berta language">Berta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a> (excluding <a href="/wiki/Kresh-Aja_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kresh-Aja languages">Kresh–Aja</a>; <a href="/wiki/Birri_language" title="Birri language">Birri</a> is also questionable as Central Sudanic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daju_languages" title="Daju languages">Daju</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jebel_languages" title="Eastern Jebel languages">Eastern Jebel</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Furan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumuz languages">Gumuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadugli-Krongo_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadugli-Krongo languages">Kadugli–Krongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> (excluding <a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kresh-Aja_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kresh-Aja languages">Kresh–Aja</a> (putatively <i>Central Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunama_language" title="Kunama language">Kunama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a> (including Mimi-N)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimi-Gaudefroy_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimi-Gaudefroy language">Mimi-Gaudefroy</a> (Mimi-D)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nara_language" title="Nara language">Nara</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyima_languages" title="Nyima languages">Nyimang</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Songhai languages">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surmic_languages" title="Surmic languages">Surmic</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taman_languages" title="Taman languages">Tama</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temein_languages" title="Temein languages">Temein</a> (putatively <i>East Sudanic</i>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_relations">External relations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proposals for the external relationships of Nilo-Saharan typically center on <a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a>: Gregersen (1972) grouped the two together as <i><a href="/wiki/Kongo%E2%80%93Saharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongo–Saharan">Kongo–Saharan</a></i>. However, Blench (2011) proposed that the similarities between Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan (specifically Atlantic–Congo and Central Sudanic) are due to contact, with the noun-class system of Niger–Congo developed from, or elaborated on the model of, the noun classifiers of Central Sudanic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nilo-Saharan languages present great differences, being a highly diversified group. It has proven difficult to reconstruct many aspects of Proto-Nilo-Saharan. Two very different reconstructions of the proto-language have been proposed by <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Bender (linguist)">Lionel Bender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ehret" title="Christopher Ehret">Christopher Ehret</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bender's_reconstruction"><span id="Bender.27s_reconstruction"></span>Bender's reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bender's reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The consonant system reconstructed by Bender for Proto-Nilo-Saharan is: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">plosive</a> </th> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*t,<span class="wrap"> </span>*t₂</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k,<span class="wrap"> </span>*kʰ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*b</span> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*d,<span class="wrap"> </span>*d₂</span> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ɟ</span> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*g</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*f</span> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*s</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquid</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*r,<span class="wrap"> </span>*l</span> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*r₂</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*m</span> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*n</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ŋ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowel</a> </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*w</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*j</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/*d₂,<span class="wrap"> </span>*t₂/</span> correspond to coronal plosives, the phonetic details are difficult to specify, but clearly, they remain distinct from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/*d,<span class="wrap"> </span>*t/</span> and supported by many phonetic correspondences (another author, C. Ehret, reconstructs for the coronal area the sound <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d̪],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ḍ]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t̪],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ṭ]</span> which perhaps are closer to the phonetic detail of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/*d₂,<span class="wrap"> </span>*t₂/</span>, see infra) </p><p>Bender gave a list of about 350 <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognates</a> and discussed in depth the grouping and the phonological system proposed by Ch. Ehret. Blench (2000) compares both systems (Bender's and Ehret's) and prefers the former because it is more secure and is based in more reliable data.<sup id="cite_ref-Blench_2000_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blench_2000-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Bender points out that there is a set of phonemes including <a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosives</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/*ɓ,<span class="wrap"> </span>*ɗ,<span class="wrap"> </span>*ʄ,<span class="wrap"> </span>*ɠ/</span>, <a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejectives</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/*pʼ,<span class="wrap"> </span>*tʼ,<span class="wrap"> </span>(*sʼ),<span class="wrap"> </span>*cʼ,<span class="wrap"> </span>*kʼ/</span> and prenasal constants <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/*ᵐb,<span class="wrap"> </span>*ⁿd,<span class="wrap"> </span>(*ⁿt),<span class="wrap"> </span>*ⁿɟ,<span class="wrap"> </span>*ᵑg/</span>, but it seems that they can be reconstructed only for core groups (E, I, J, L) and the collateral group (C, D, F, G, H), but not for Proto-Nilo-Saharan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ehret's_reconstruction"><span id="Ehret.27s_reconstruction"></span>Ehret's reconstruction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ehret's reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ehret" title="Christopher Ehret">Christopher Ehret</a> used a less clear methodology and proposed a maximalist phonemic system: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveol.</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Retroflex_consonant" title="Retroflex consonant">Retrof.</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">plosive</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Implosive_consonant" title="Implosive consonant">implosive</a></small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ɓ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ɗ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ɗ̣</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ɠ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><small>voiced</small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*b</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*d̪</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*d</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ḍ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*g</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><small>voiceless</small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*p</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*t̪</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*t</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ṭ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*k</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirate</a></small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*pʰ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*t̪ʰ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*tʰ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ṭʰ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*kʰ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Ejective_consonant" title="Ejective consonant">ejective</a></small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*pʼ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*t̪ʼ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*tʼ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ṭʼ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*kʼ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricative</a> </th> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*θ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*s,<span class="wrap"> </span>*z</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ṣ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">nasal</a> </th> <th><small>simple</small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*m</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*n</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ɲ</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ŋ</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><small>prenasal</small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ⁿb</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ⁿð</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ⁿd</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ⁿḍ</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ⁿg</span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">liquid</a> </th> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*l̪</span> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*r,<span class="wrap"> </span>*l</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">approximant</a> </th> <th><small>plain</small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*w</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*j</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><small>complex</small> </th> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ʼw</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*ʼj</span> </td> <td> </td> <td style="font-size:larger;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">*h</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Ehret's maximalist system has been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender" title="Lionel Bender">Bender</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Blench</a>. These authors state that the correspondences used by Ehret are not very clear and because of this many of the sounds in the table may only be allophonic variations.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dimmendaal (2016)<sup id="cite_ref-Dimmendaal2016_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dimmendaal2016-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> cites the following morphological elements as stable across Nilo-Saharan: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causative" title="Causative">Causative</a> prefix: *ɪ- or *i-</li> <li>Deverbal noun (abstract / <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participial</a> / <a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">agent</a>) prefix: *a-</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Number</a> suffixes: *-i, *-in, *-k</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a> marker: *rʊ</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal pronouns</a>: first person singular *qa, second person singular *yi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logophoric_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Logophoric pronoun">Logophoric pronoun</a>: *(y)ɛ</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deictic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deictic">Deictic</a> markers: singular *n, plural *k</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">Postpositions</a>: <a href="/wiki/Possession_(linguistics)" title="Possession (linguistics)">possessive</a> *ne, <a href="/wiki/Locative" class="mw-redirect" title="Locative">locative</a> *ta</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">Preposition</a>: *kɪ</li> <li>Negative verb: *kʊ</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparative_vocabulary">Comparative vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Comparative vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sample basic vocabulary in different Nilo-Saharan branches: </p><p><i>Note</i>: In table cells with slashes, the singular form is given before the slash, while the plural form follows the slash. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language</th> <th>eye</th> <th>ear</th> <th>nose</th> <th>tooth</th> <th>tongue</th> <th>mouth</th> <th>blood</th> <th>bone</th> <th>tree</th> <th>water</th> <th>eat</th> <th>name </th></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*(k)ɔŋ, pl. *(k)ɔɲ</td> <td>*yit̪</td> <td>*(q)ume</td> <td>*kɛ-la(-c)</td> <td>*ŋa-lyɛp</td> <td>*(k)ʊt̪ʊk</td> <td></td> <td>*käw</td> <td>*kɛ-ɛt, *kɪ-yat</td> <td>*pi(-ʀ)</td> <td>*ɲam</td> <td>*ka-ʀin </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jebel_languages" title="Eastern Jebel languages">Jebel</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>**ed ~ *er</td> <td>**si(di ~ gi)</td> <td></td> <td>**ɲi-di</td> <td>**kala-d</td> <td>**udu</td> <td>**k-afa-d</td> <td>**(g-)am-</td> <td>**kaca</td> <td>**cii ~ *kii</td> <td>**ɲam</td> <td>(siigə, saag) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Temein_language" title="Temein language">Temein</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>nɪ́ŋɪ̀nàʈ / kɛ̀ɛ́n</td> <td>wénàʈ / kwèén</td> <td>kɪ́mɪ́nʈɪ̀n / kɪkɪ́mɪ́nʈɪ́nɪ̀</td> <td>awɪ̀s / kɛ́ɛ̀ʔ</td> <td>mɛ́nɖɪnyàʈ</td> <td>íʈùk / k(w)úʈɪ̀n</td> <td>mónɪ̀ʈ</td> <td>àmɪ̀s / kɔ́maʔ</td> <td>mɛ́rɛŋɪ̀s / mɛ́rɛŋ</td> <td>múŋ</td> <td>láma</td> <td>kàlɪ́n, kàlɪ́ŋ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Daju_languages" title="Daju languages">Daju</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*aŋune / *aŋwe ~ *aŋun</td> <td>*wunute / *wunuge</td> <td>*mu-ne</td> <td>*ɲiɣte / *ɲiɣke</td> <td>*ɲabire / *ɲabirta</td> <td>*ikke / *ikku</td> <td>*tamuke</td> <td>*ŋai / *ŋayu</td> <td>*ewete / *ewe</td> <td>*ma-</td> <td>*si-</td> <td>*ange / *angu </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kadugli_language" title="Kadugli language">Kadugli</a> (Talla dialect)<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>ayyɛ / iyyɛ</td> <td>naasɔ / isinɛ́</td> <td>ámb-/nigáŋg-árɔk</td> <td>t̪- / iŋŋini</td> <td>áŋdáɗuk / ni-</td> <td>niinɔ / niginíínɔ</td> <td>ariid̪ʊ</td> <td>t̪iŋguba / kuba</td> <td>ffa / nááfa</td> <td>ɓiid̪i</td> <td>oori</td> <td>ɛɛrɛ / nigirɛɛnɛ </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Northern_Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Northern Eastern Sudanic languages">Northern Eastern Sudanic</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rilly2010_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rilly2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*maɲ</td> <td>*ɲog-ul</td> <td>*em-u</td> <td>*ŋes-il</td> <td>*ŋal</td> <td>*ag-il ~ *ag-ul</td> <td>*ug-er</td> <td>*kɛs-ɛr</td> <td>*koɲ-er-</td> <td>*mban</td> <td>*kal- / *kamb-</td> <td>*(ŋ)ɛr-i </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nara_language" title="Nara language">Nara</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rilly2010_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rilly2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>no, nòò / no-ta, nóó-ta</td> <td>tús / túsá</td> <td>demmo, dəmmo, dàm̀mò, dòmmò</td> <td>nɪ̀hɪ̀ / nɪ̀hɪ̀t-tá; nèʃɪ̀ / nèʃá</td> <td>hàggà, àggà, ààdà, hàdà</td> <td>aùlò / aùl-lá; àgúrá / àgúr-tà</td> <td>kitto, kɪ̀tò</td> <td>ketti, kəti, kátɪ́ / ketta, kátá</td> <td>tüm, tûm; kè́l</td> <td>emba, mbàà</td> <td>kal, kál, kár</td> <td>ade, ààdà </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rilly2010_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rilly2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*maaɲ, sg. *miɲ-di</td> <td>*ugul(-e), sg. *ugul-di</td> <td>?</td> <td>*ŋil, sg. *ŋíl-di</td> <td>*ŋal, sg. ŋal-di</td> <td>*agil</td> <td>*ùg-er</td> <td>*kiser, sg. *kisir-ti</td> <td>*koor, sg. *koor-ti</td> <td>*es-ti</td> <td>*kal-</td> <td>*er-i </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Taman_languages" title="Taman languages">Taman</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rilly2010_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rilly2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*me-ti, pl. *mVŋ</td> <td>*(ŋ)usu-ti (sg)</td> <td>*eme, sg. emi-ti (sg.)</td> <td>*ŋesi-t(i), pl. *ŋes-oŋ</td> <td>*laat</td> <td>*auli</td> <td>*agi</td> <td>*kei-ti, pl. *kei-ŋ</td> <td>*gaan; *kiɲe(-ti) (?)</td> <td>*kal /*kaal</td> <td>*ŋan-</td> <td>*(ŋ)aat, pl. *(ŋ)ari-g </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Nyimang_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyimang languages">Nyima</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rilly2010_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rilly2010-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*a̍ŋV</td> <td>*ɲɔgɔr-</td> <td>*(o)mud̪- (?)</td> <td>*ŋil-</td> <td>?</td> <td>*ŋàl-</td> <td>*wule</td> <td>*amV</td> <td>*t̪uma</td> <td>*bɔ́ŋ</td> <td>*t̪a̍l- / *ta̍m-</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Surmic_languages" title="Surmic languages">SW Surmic</a><sup id="cite_ref-Yigezu2001_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yigezu2001-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*kɛɓɛrɛ (pl.)</td> <td>*it̪t̪at</td> <td>*ʊŋɛtʃ (?)</td> <td>*ɲiggɪtta</td> <td>*ʌgʌʌt</td> <td>*(k)-ʊt̪t̪ʊk</td> <td>*ɓɪj-</td> <td>*ɛmmɛ</td> <td>*kɛɛt̪</td> <td>*maam</td> <td>*ɗak-</td> <td>*ðara </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Surmic_languages" title="Surmic languages">SE Surmic</a><sup id="cite_ref-Yigezu2001_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yigezu2001-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*kabari</td> <td>*ɲabi (?)</td> <td>*giroŋ</td> <td>*ɲigidda (?)</td> <td>*kat</td> <td>*tuk-</td> <td>*ɲaɓa</td> <td>*giga (?)</td> <td>*kɛdo (?)</td> <td>*ma</td> <td></td> <td>*sara </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*ekw, pl. *ekw=ẹk</td> <td>*beos, pl. *beosẹk</td> <td>*nyab, pl. *nyabẹk</td> <td></td> <td>*ɛd-eɓ</td> <td>*ak, pl. *akẹk</td> <td>*seh</td> <td>*ɔk</td> <td>*ad, pl. *ad=is</td> <td>*kywɛh</td> <td></td> <td>*yed, pl. *yedẹk </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>sɛ</td> <td>k’iti</td> <td>sonɑ</td> <td>k’ɑu</td> <td>hɑndɑ</td> <td>kɑusɛ</td> <td>dɑmo</td> <td>emɑhɑ; egege</td> <td>k’ɔnɑ</td> <td>wɔː</td> <td></td> <td>woŋgɑse </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ongota_language" title="Ongota language">Ongota</a><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>ˈʔaːfa</td> <td>ˈwoːwa</td> <td>ˈsiːna (loan?)</td> <td>ʔitiˈma</td> <td>ʔɑdabo (loan?)</td> <td>ˈʔiːfa</td> <td></td> <td>ˈmitʃa (loan?)</td> <td>ˈhɑntʃa</td> <td>ˈtʃaːhawa</td> <td>ʔeˈdʒak</td> <td>ˈmiʃa </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Bongo-Bagirmi_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Bongo-Bagirmi languages">Sara-Bongo-Bagirmi</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*kamɔ; *kamu; *kama</td> <td>*imbi; *EmbE; *mbili; *mbElE; *imbil-; *EmbEl-</td> <td>*Samɔ; *Samu; *Somu; *kanu; *kunu; *kVnV</td> <td>*kanga; *nganga</td> <td>*unɖɛ(C-)</td> <td>*tara</td> <td>*manga; *masu; *mVsV; *nɖuma</td> <td>*Kinga; *Kunga; *Kingo</td> <td>*kaga</td> <td>*mEnE; *mAnɛ; *mani</td> <td>*OɲO; *ɔɲɔ; *VɲV</td> <td>*iɭi; *ʈV </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Mangbetu_languages" title="Mangbetu languages">Mangbetu</a><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*mʷɔ̀</td> <td>*bɪ́</td> <td>*amɔ̀</td> <td>*kɪ́</td> <td>*kàɖrà</td> <td>*tí(kpɔ̀)</td> <td>*álí</td> <td>*kpɔ̀</td> <td>*kɪ́rɪ́ɛ̀</td> <td>*gʷò</td> <td>*láɲɔ̀</td> <td>*kɛ̀lʊ̀ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mangbutu_language" title="Mangbutu language">Mangbutu</a><sup id="cite_ref-Bokula_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bokula-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>owékékí</td> <td>ubí</td> <td>tongi</td> <td>usɛ́</td> <td>kedrú</td> <td>utí</td> <td>koto</td> <td>ikpi</td> <td>okpá</td> <td>uwɛ</td> <td>ano</td> <td>aɓé </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lendu_language" title="Lendu language">Bale</a><sup id="cite_ref-Bokula_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bokula-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>ɲɔ̌</td> <td>bí</td> <td>ndǔ̱tú̱</td> <td>kú</td> <td>da</td> <td>tso</td> <td>zú</td> <td>kpa</td> <td>tsú</td> <td>cû</td> <td>wyɔ</td> <td>ngbá / nzú </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ndrulo_language" title="Ndrulo language">Ndru</a><sup id="cite_ref-Bokula_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bokula-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>nikpɔ́</td> <td>ɓi(na)</td> <td>ondǐ̹tsǔ̹</td> <td>ku</td> <td>da</td> <td>tsu</td> <td>âzû</td> <td>kpá</td> <td>ítsú</td> <td>ǐɗá</td> <td>ɲú</td> <td>óvôná </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ma%27di_language" title="Ma'di language">Ma'di</a> (Uganda)<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>mī</td> <td>bí</td> <td>ɔ̀mvɔ̄</td> <td>sí</td> <td>lɛ̀ɖá</td> <td>ti</td> <td>àrɪ́</td> <td>hʷa</td> <td>kʷɛ</td> <td>èyí</td> <td>ɲā</td> <td>rú </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Birri_language" title="Birri language">Birri</a><sup id="cite_ref-Santandrea1966_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santandrea1966-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>mɛ́; mʊ́</td> <td>nvö; nvu</td> <td>ímɔ̀; ámɔ̀</td> <td>sì</td> <td>ìnɖrɔ́; ìnɖrá</td> <td>tyi(di)</td> <td>ɔ́tɔ́</td> <td>kpɔ</td> <td>kpi; kpɪ</td> <td>wu</td> <td>ɔnyo</td> <td>iri </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kresh_language" title="Kresh language">Kresh</a><sup id="cite_ref-Santandrea1976_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santandrea1976-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>mumu</td> <td>mbímbi</td> <td>uŋú</td> <td>ʃɛ́ʃɛ̀</td> <td>ndjindja</td> <td>–</td> <td>srama</td> <td>kpɔkpɔ́</td> <td>kpikpi</td> <td>ùyù</td> <td>ɔ́ʃɔ́</td> <td>díri </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dongo_language_(Nilo-Saharan)" title="Dongo language (Nilo-Saharan)">Dongo</a><sup id="cite_ref-Santandrea1976_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santandrea1976-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>mómu</td> <td>mbimbi</td> <td>ʔɔŋu</td> <td>cẹ̀cẹ̀</td> <td>ndjándja</td> <td>–</td> <td>ọọs</td> <td>kpọkpŏ</td> <td>kpikpi</td> <td>ùyù</td> <td>l-ọc(ic)</td> <td>díri </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aja_language_(Nilo-Saharan)" title="Aja language (Nilo-Saharan)">Aja</a><sup id="cite_ref-Santandrea1976_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Santandrea1976-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>iɲi</td> <td>mimbi</td> <td>múmú</td> <td>uku</td> <td>ndindyi</td> <td>–</td> <td>usa</td> <td>gbäbí</td> <td>cící</td> <td>ɓaɓa</td> <td>aɲ</td> <td>kiri </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kunama_language" title="Kunama language">Kunama</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>wà</td> <td>ùkùˈnà</td> <td>bòbòˈnà</td> <td>mà</td> <td>ŋèeˈlà</td> <td>ùˈdà</td> <td>kòkòˈbà</td> <td>sàŋˈgà</td> <td>èˈlà</td> <td>bìˈà</td> <td>ˈìŋ(à)</td> <td>ˈkíidà </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Berta_language" title="Berta language">Berta</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>aře</td> <td>iile</td> <td>amúŋ</td> <td>ndu-fuudí</td> <td>hala</td> <td>n'du</td> <td>k’aβa</td> <td>k’aara</td> <td>s’ís’ía</td> <td>fɪ'ri</td> <td>θɪ́ŋa</td> <td>huu (= foot) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gumuz_language" title="Gumuz language">Gumuz</a>, Northern<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>kʼwácá</td> <td>tsʼéa</td> <td>ííta</td> <td>kʼósa</td> <td>kʼótʼá</td> <td>sa</td> <td>maχá</td> <td>ʒákwá</td> <td>ɟá</td> <td>aja</td> <td>sá</td> <td>tsʼéa </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a><sup id="cite_ref-Otero_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Otero-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*D̪E</td> <td>*cʼɛ</td> <td>*ʃʊnʃ</td> <td>*ʃE</td> <td>*lEtʼ̪a</td> <td>*tʼ̪wa</td> <td>*sʼámá; *bàs</td> <td>*ʃUImakʼ</td> <td>*cwálá</td> <td>*jiɗE</td> <td>*ʃa; *kʼama</td> <td>*D̪uga </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>yan</td> <td>ĭgŭn</td> <td>fufŭn</td> <td></td> <td>ŏdāīān</td> <td></td> <td>wāīdjo</td> <td></td> <td>wŏt</td> <td>āī</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>yan</td> <td>igă̄n</td> <td>fufan</td> <td></td> <td>adad ayan</td> <td>ĭten</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>ai</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amdang_language" title="Amdang language">Amdang</a> (Kouchane)<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>ni</td> <td>dili, kiliŋgɛ</td> <td>gʊrnɑ</td> <td>kɑlkɑ</td> <td>dɔlː</td> <td>sɪˈmi</td> <td>tʃoː</td> <td>dʊrtu</td> <td>sɔŋ</td> <td>sunu</td> <td>zɑm</td> <td>tʃuluk </td></tr> <tr> <td>Proto-<a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maba</a><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>*kàSì-k</td> <td></td> <td>*dúrmì</td> <td>*sati-k; *sàdí-k / *sadi-ɲi</td> <td>*delemi-k</td> <td></td> <td>*fàrí-ŋ</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>*ta-k / *ta-si</td> <td>*-aɲɔ-</td> <td>*mílí-ik </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Maba_language" title="Maba language">Maba</a><sup id="cite_ref-Edgar1991_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edgar1991-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>kàʃì-k/-ñi</td> <td>koi-k</td> <td>boiñ</td> <td>sati-k</td> <td>delmi-k</td> <td>kan-a/-tu</td> <td>àríi</td> <td>kàñjí-k</td> <td>soŋgo-k</td> <td>inji</td> <td>añ</td> <td>mílí-i/-síi </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mimi_of_Decorse" title="Mimi of Decorse">Mimi of Decorse</a><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>dyo</td> <td>feɾ</td> <td>fir</td> <td>ɲain</td> <td></td> <td>ɲyo</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>su</td> <td>engi</td> <td>ɲyam</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kanuri_language" title="Kanuri language">Kanuri</a><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>shîm</td> <td>sə́mò</td> <td>kə́nzà</td> <td>tímì; shélì</td> <td>tə́làm</td> <td>cî</td> <td>bû</td> <td>shíllà</td> <td>kə̀ská</td> <td>njî</td> <td>bù</td> <td>cû </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_language" title="Zaghawa language">Zaghawa</a><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>í</td> <td>kέbέ</td> <td>síná</td> <td>màrgiː</td> <td>tàmsiː</td> <td>áá</td> <td>ógú</td> <td>úrú</td> <td>bɛ̀gìdiː</td> <td>bí</td> <td>sε:gì</td> <td>tír </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dendi_language" title="Dendi language">Dendi</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>mò</td> <td>háŋŋá</td> <td>nínè</td> <td>hínydyè</td> <td>dɛ́llɛ̀</td> <td>méè</td> <td>kpííʀì</td> <td>bíʀí</td> <td>túúʀì</td> <td>hàʀí</td> <td>ŋwáà</td> <td>máà </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tadaksahak" title="Tadaksahak">Tadaksahak</a><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>mó</td> <td>haŋgá</td> <td>t-í-nʒar</td> <td>ée-ʃan</td> <td>íilǝs</td> <td>míya</td> <td>kud-én</td> <td>biidí</td> <td>tugúdu</td> <td>aryén</td> <td>ŋá</td> <td>mân </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Population_history">Population history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Population history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> and East Africa, Nilo-Saharan speakers are associated with the ruling class of powerful empires and sultanates that have dominated the region such as the <a href="/wiki/Gao_Empire" title="Gao Empire">Gao Empire</a>, being the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest contiguous</a> <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a> that dominated the Sahel, West Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and Central Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem–Bornu Empire</a> in Central Africa, the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Damagaram" title="Sultanate of Damagaram">Sultanate of Damagaram</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wadai_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Wadai Empire">Wadai Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bagirmi" title="Sultanate of Bagirmi">Sultanate of Bagirmi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Darfur" title="Sultanate of Darfur">Sultanate of Darfur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sennar" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Sennar">Sultanate of Sennar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zabarma_Emirate" title="Zabarma Emirate">Zabarma Emirate</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Shilluk_Kingdom" title="Shilluk Kingdom">Shilluk Kingdom</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pastoralists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoralists">pastoralist</a> <a href="/wiki/Tutsi" title="Tutsi">Tutsi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rutara_people" title="Rutara people">Rutara people</a> of the great lakes are also of <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic</a> ancestry and have led the powerful <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwanda" title="Kingdom of Rwanda">kingdom of Rwanda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Burundi" title="Kingdom of Burundi">Kingdom of Burundi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bunyoro" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Bunyoro">Kingdom of Bunyoro</a>, the Kitara Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Toro" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Toro">Kingdom of Toro</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Buganda" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Buganda">Kingdom of Buganda</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Karagwe" title="Kingdom of Karagwe">Kingdom of Karagwe</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rwenzururu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rwenzururu">Kingdom of Rwenzururu</a>. Whilst these are established on the Bantu peoples from which they adopted the language, they have preserved the bovine pastoralism of the Nilotic peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Sudan" title="Languages of Sudan">Languages of Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Nilo-Saharan_word_lists" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Nilo-Saharan word lists">Nilo-Saharan word lists</a> (Wiktionary)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-eth-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eth_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/39/">"Nilo-Saharan; Ethnologue"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230309092536/https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroup/39/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nilo-Saharan%3B+Ethnologue&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ethnologue.com%2Fsubgroup%2F39%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellMixco2007" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lyle; Mixco, Mauricio J. (2007). <i>A Glossary of Historical Linguistics</i>. University of Utah Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-892-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87480-892-6"><bdi>978-0-87480-892-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Glossary+of+Historical+Linguistics&rft.pub=University+of+Utah+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-87480-892-6&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rft.au=Mixco%2C+Mauricio+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthews2007" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, P. H. (2007). <i>Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920272-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920272-0"><bdi>978-0-19-920272-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Concise+Dictionary+of+Linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-920272-0&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=P.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span>,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BlenchSouag-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BlenchSouag_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlenchSouag_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BlenchSouag_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger & Lameen Souag. m.s. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Saharan%20Songhay%20branch.pdf">Saharan and Songhay form a branch of Nilo-Saharan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160327212516/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Saharan%20Songhay%20branch.pdf">Archived</a> 2016-03-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaal1992" class="citation book cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00newy">"Nilo-Saharan Languages"</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00newy/page/100"><i>International Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i></a>. Vol. 3. Oxford. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00newy/page/100">100–104</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-505196-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-505196-3"><bdi>0-19-505196-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nilo-Saharan+Languages&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+Linguistics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=100-104&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-505196-3&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finternationalenc00newy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBender2000" class="citation book cs1">Bender, M. Lionel (2000). "Nilo-Saharan". <i>African Languages, An Introduction</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-66178-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-66178-1"><bdi>0-521-66178-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nilo-Saharan&rft.btitle=African+Languages%2C+An+Introduction&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=43-73&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-66178-1&rft.aulast=Bender&rft.aufirst=M.+Lionel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blench_&_Ahland_(2010)-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blench_&_Ahland_(2010)_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlenchAhland2010" class="citation conference cs1">Blench, Roger; Ahland, Colleen (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120316221945/http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=433&quality=hd"><i>The Classification of Gumuz and Koman Languages</i></a>. <i>Language Isolates in Africa</i> workshop, Lyons, December 4. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/player/player.php?id=72&id_sequence=433&quality=hd">the original</a> on March 16, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 5,</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+Classification+of+Gumuz+and+Koman+Languages&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Ahland%2C+Colleen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2F25images.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr%2Fplayer%2Fplayer.php%3Fid%3D72%26id_sequence%3D433%26quality%3Dhd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1984" class="citation book cs1">Clark, John Desmond (1984). <i>From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa</i>. University of California Press. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-04574-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-04574-2"><bdi>0-520-04574-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Hunters+to+Farmers%3A+The+Causes+and+Consequences+of+Food+Production+in+Africa&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-520-04574-2&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=John+Desmond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGüldemann2018" class="citation book cs1">Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.). <i>The Languages and Linguistics of Africa</i>. The World of Linguistics series. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 299–308. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110421668-002">10.1515/9783110421668-002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042606-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-042606-9"><bdi>978-3-11-042606-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133888593">133888593</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Historical+linguistics+and+genealogical+language+classification+in+Africa&rft.btitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Africa&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=The+World+of+Linguistics+series&rft.pages=299-308&rft.pub=De+Gruyter+Mouton&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A133888593%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110421668-002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-042606-9&rft.aulast=G%C3%BCldemann&rft.aufirst=Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrakeBlenchArmitageBristow2011" class="citation journal cs1">Drake, N. A.; Blench, R. M.; Armitage, S. J.; Bristow, C. S.; White, K. H. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3021035">"Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>. <b>108</b> (2): 458–62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011PNAS..108..458D">2011PNAS..108..458D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1012231108">10.1073/pnas.1012231108</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3021035">3021035</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21187416">21187416</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Ancient+watercourses+and+biogeography+of+the+Sahara+explain+the+peopling+of+the+desert&rft.volume=108&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=458-62&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3021035%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21187416&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.1012231108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011PNAS..108..458D&rft.aulast=Drake&rft.aufirst=N.+A.&rft.au=Blench%2C+R.+M.&rft.au=Armitage%2C+S.+J.&rft.au=Bristow%2C+C.+S.&rft.au=White%2C+K.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3021035&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2009" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, M. 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Lionel</a> (1991) "Subclassification of Nilo-Saharan". In Bender, M. Lionel, ed. (1991) <i>Proceedings of the Fourth Nilo-Saharan Conference</i>, Bayreuth, Aug. 30–Sep. 2, 1989. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag. NISA 7, 1–36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Niger-Saharan-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Niger-Saharan_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Niger-Saharan_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoger_Blench2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Roger Blench</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf"><i>The Niger-Saharan Macrophylum</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cambridge: Mallam Dendo. p. 5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210124101347/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2021-01-24<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Niger-Saharan+Macrophylum&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Mallam+Dendo&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Roger+Blench&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frogerblench.info%2FLanguage%2FNilo-Saharan%2FGeneral%2FNiger-Saharan%2520book.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bender_(1996)-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bender_(1996)_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBender1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Bender (linguist)">Bender, Lionel</a> (1996). <i>The Nilo-Saharan languages: a comparative essay</i>. Munich: Lincom Europa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nilo-Saharan+languages%3A+a+comparative+essay&rft.place=Munich&rft.pub=Lincom+Europa&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Bender&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bender_(2000)-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bender_(2000)_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBender2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Bender_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lionel Bender (linguist)">Bender, Lionel</a> (2000). "Nilo-Saharan". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.). <i>African Languages: An Introduction</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-66178-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-66178-1"><bdi>0-521-66178-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nilo-Saharan&rft.btitle=African+Languages%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-521-66178-1&rft.aulast=Bender&rft.aufirst=Lionel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehret_2001-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehret_2001_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehret (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger. 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf"><i>The Niger-Saharan Macrophylum</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131126121641/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/Niger-Saharan%20book.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-11-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger. 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/15754234/Was_there_a_now-vanished_branch_of_Nilo-Saharan_on_the_Dogon_Plateau_Evidence_from_substrate_vocabulary_in_Bangime_and_Dogon">Was there a now-vanished branch of Nilo-Saharan on the Dogon Plateau? Evidence from substrate vocabulary in Bangime and Dogon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190703200527/https://www.academia.edu/15754234/Was_there_a_now-vanished_branch_of_Nilo-Saharan_on_the_Dogon_Plateau_Evidence_from_substrate_vocabulary_in_Bangime_and_Dogon">Archived</a> 2019-07-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Available in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Isolates/MT%20XX%20Blench%20off%20print.pdf">http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Isolates/MT%20XX%20Blench%20off%20print.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200703170928/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Isolates/MT%20XX%20Blench%20off%20print.pdf">Archived</a> 2020-07-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench" class="citation web cs1">Blench, Roger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28768228">"Africa over the last 12,000 years"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220409051204/https://www.academia.edu/28768228">Archived</a> from the original on 2022-04-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Africa+over+the+last+12%2C000+years&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28768228&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Starostin (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/21582071"><i>The Nilo-Saharan hypothesis tested through lexicostatistics: current state of affairs</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230405211555/https://www.academia.edu/21582071">Archived</a> 2023-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Starostin, Georgiy C. 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/40139133/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC_III_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_Languages_of_Africa_A_New_Lexicostatistical_Classification_Vol_III_Nilo_Saharan_Languages_">Языки Африки. Опыт построения лексикостатистической классификации. Т. 3. Нило-сахарские языки</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210806153431/https://www.academia.edu/40139133/%D0%AF%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%90%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC_III_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8_Languages_of_Africa_A_New_Lexicostatistical_Classification_Vol_III_Nilo_Saharan_Languages_">Archived</a> 2021-08-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> / Languages of Africa: an attempt at a lexicostatistical classification. Volume 3: Nilo-Saharan languages. Moscow: Издательский Дом ЯСК / LRC Press. 840 p. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-9909114-9-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-9909114-9-9">978-5-9909114-9-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dimmendaal2016-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dimmendaal2016_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dimmendaal2016_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaal2016" class="citation journal cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28046112">"On stable and unstable features in Nilo-Saharan"</a>. <i>The University of Nairobi Journal of Language and Linguistics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230620122059/https://www.academia.edu/28046112">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-06-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-11-16</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+University+of+Nairobi+Journal+of+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.atitle=On+stable+and+unstable+features+in+Nilo-Saharan&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28046112&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gerrit Dimmendaal, Colleen Ahland, Angelika Jakobi & Constance Kutsch-Lojenga (2019) "Linguistic features and typologies in languages commonly referred to as 'Nilo-Saharan'", in Wolff, Ekkehard (ed.) <i>Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics</i>, p.326-381.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaal2011" class="citation book cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2011). <i>Historical Linguistics and the Comparative Study of African Languages</i>. John Benjamins. p. 313. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8722-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-8722-9"><bdi>978-90-272-8722-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Linguistics+and+the+Comparative+Study+of+African+Languages&rft.pages=313&rft.pub=John+Benjamins&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-272-8722-9&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger. 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/104666399/In_defence_of_Nilo_Saharan_Saharan">In defence of Nilo-Saharan</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Otero-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Otero_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Otero_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Otero, Manuel Alejandro. 2019. <i>A Historical Reconstruction of the Koman Language Family</i>. 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SIL International.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wedekind, Klaus. 2001. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sil.org/silesr/2002/SILESR2002-066.pdf">Sociolinguistic Survey Report of the Languages of the Gawwada, Tsamay, and Diraasha Areas with Excursions to Birayle (Ongota) and Arbore (Irbore): Part 2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120728092241/http://www.sil.org/silesr/2002/SILESR2002-066.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-07-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2002-066: 6–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boyeldieu, Pascal, Pierre Nougayrol, and Pierre Palayer. 2006. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/SBB/afficheSeries.html">Lexique comparatif historique des langues Sara-Bongo-Baguirmiennes</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210124093625/http://sumale.vjf.cnrs.fr/SBB/afficheSeries.html">Archived</a> 2021-01-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Online version.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Demolin, Didier. 1992. <i>Le Mangbetu: etude phonétique et phonologique</i>, 2 vols. Brussels: Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres, Université libre de Bruxelles dissertation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bokula-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bokula_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bokula_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bokula_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bokula, Moiso & Agozia-Kario Irumu. 1994. Bibliographie et matériaux lexicaux des langues Moru-Mangbetu (Soudan-Central, Zaïre). <i>Annales Aequatoria</i> 10: 203‒245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boone, Douglas; Richard L. Watson (editors). 1996. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/42/91/56/42915629557882956271906201383741312783/silesr1999_001.pdf">Moru-Ma'di survey report</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220305112023/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/42/91/56/42915629557882956271906201383741312783/silesr1999_001.pdf">Archived</a> 2022-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Nairobi, Kenya: Summer Institute of Linguistics.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Santandrea1966-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Santandrea1966_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Santandrea, Stefano. 1966. The Birri language: Brief elementary notes. <i>Afrika und Übersee</i> 49: 81‒234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Santandrea1976-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Santandrea1976_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Santandrea1976_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Santandrea1976_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Santandrea, Stefano. 1976. <i>The Kresh group, Aja and Baka languages (Sudan): A linguistic contribution</i>. Napoli: Istituto Universitario Orientale.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bender, Lionel. 2001. English-Kunama lexicon. <i>Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere</i> 65: 201–253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bender, M. Lionel. 1989. Berta Lexicon. In Bender, M. Lionel (ed.), <i>Topics in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics</i>, 271–304. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ahland, Colleen and Eliza Kelly. 2014. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/16371000/Daats%CA%BCi_in-Gumuz_Comparative_Word_list">Daatsʼíin-Gumuz Comparative Word list</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190329012835/https://www.academia.edu/16371000/Daats%CA%BCi_in-Gumuz_Comparative_Word_list">Archived</a> 2019-03-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Evans-Pritchard, Edward E. 1932. Ethnological Observations in Dar Fung. <i>Sudan Notes and Records</i> 15: 1–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seligmann, Brenda Z. 1911–1912. Note on Two Languages in the Sennar Province of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. <i>Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen</i> 2: 297–308.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolf, Katharina. 2010. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/9036">Une enquête sociolinguistique parmi les Amdang (Mimi) du Tchad: Rapport Technique</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200720055853/https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/9036">Archived</a> 2020-07-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2010-028</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blench, Roger. 2021. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44876227/The_Maban_languages_and_their_place_within_Nilo_Saharan">The Maban languages and their place within Nilo-Saharan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210115023408/https://www.academia.edu/44876227/The_Maban_languages_and_their_place_within_Nilo_Saharan">Archived</a> 2021-01-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edgar1991-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Edgar1991_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edgar, John T. 1991. <i>Maba-group Lexicon</i>. (Sprache und Oralität in Afrika: Frankfurter Studien zur Afrikanistik, 13.) Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Maurice. 1907. Document sur les Langues de l'Oubangui-Chari. In <i>Actes du XVIe Congrès International des Orientalistes, Alger, 1905</i>, Part II, 172–330. Paris: Ernest Leroux.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Doris Löhr, H. Ekkehard Wolff (with Ari Awagana). 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/5">Kanuri vocabulary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200804135648/https://wold.clld.org/vocabulary/5">Archived</a> 2020-08-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In: Haspelmath, Martin & Tadmor, Uri (eds.) <i>World Loanword Database</i>. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 1591 entries.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blažek, Václav. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.muni.cz/en/research/publications/763232">On application of Glottochronology for Saharan Languages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200328105036/https://www.muni.cz/en/research/publications/763232">Archived</a> 2020-03-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In <i>Viva Africa</i> 2007. Proceedings of the IInd International Conference on African Studies (April 2007). Plzeň: Dryáda, 2007. p. 19-38, 19 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-80-87025-17-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-80-87025-17-8">978-80-87025-17-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tourneux, Henry. 1992. Inventaire phonologiques et formation du pluriel en zaghawa (Tchad). <i>Afrika und Übersee</i> 75, 267–277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zima, Petr. 1994. <i>Lexique dendi (songhay): <a href="/wiki/Djougou" title="Djougou">Djougou</a>, Bénin: avec un index français-dendi</i>. (Westafrikanische Studien 4). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christiansen-Bolli, Regula. 2010. <i>A Grammar of Tadaksahak: a Northern Songhay Language of Mali</i>. Leiden.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephens2013" class="citation book cs1">Stephens, Rhiannon (2 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ntJup_O_mDwC&q=A+History+of+African+Motherhood:+The+Case+of+Uganda,+700-1900"><i>A History of African Motherhood: The Case of Uganda, 700–1900</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107030800" title="Special:BookSources/9781107030800"><bdi>9781107030800</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230102153451/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntJup_O_mDwC&q=A+History+of+African+Motherhood:+The+Case+of+Uganda,+700-1900">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+African+Motherhood%3A+The+Case+of+Uganda%2C+700%E2%80%931900&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013-09-02&rft.isbn=9781107030800&rft.aulast=Stephens&rft.aufirst=Rhiannon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DntJup_O_mDwC%26q%3DA%2BHistory%2Bof%2BAfrican%2BMotherhood%3A%2BThe%2BCase%2Bof%2BUganda%2C%2B700-1900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElfasiHrbek1988" class="citation book cs1">Elfasi, M.; Hrbek, Ivan (January 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&q=Africa+from+the+Seventh+to+the+Eleventh+Century"><i>Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century</i></a>. UNESCO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789231017094" title="Special:BookSources/9789231017094"><bdi>9789231017094</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230102153451/https://books.google.com/books?id=tw0Q0tg0QLoC&q=Africa+from+the+Seventh+to+the+Eleventh+Century">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa+from+the+Seventh+to+the+Eleventh+Century&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988-01&rft.isbn=9789231017094&rft.aulast=Elfasi&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Hrbek%2C+Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtw0Q0tg0QLoC%26q%3DAfrica%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BSeventh%2Bto%2Bthe%2BEleventh%2BCentury&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrigley2002" class="citation book cs1">Wrigley, Christopher (16 May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nWKAFW9oVJcC&q=Kingship+and+State:+The+Buganda+Dynasty"><i>Kingship and State: The Buganda Dynasty</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521894357" title="Special:BookSources/9780521894357"><bdi>9780521894357</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230102153450/https://books.google.com/books?id=nWKAFW9oVJcC&q=Kingship+and+State:+The+Buganda+Dynasty">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kingship+and+State%3A+The+Buganda+Dynasty&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002-05-16&rft.isbn=9780521894357&rft.aulast=Wrigley&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnWKAFW9oVJcC%26q%3DKingship%2Band%2BState%3A%2BThe%2BBuganda%2BDynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoenbrun1993" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Schoenbrun, David L. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01118142">"Cattle herds and banana gardens: The historical geography of the western Great Lakes region, ca AD 800?1500"</a>. <i>The African Archaeological Review</i>. 11–11: 39–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01118142">10.1007/BF01118142</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161913402">161913402</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230102153452/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01118142">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+African+Archaeological+Review&rft.atitle=Cattle+herds+and+banana+gardens%3A+The+historical+geography+of+the+western+Great+Lakes+region%2C+ca+AD+800%3F1500&rft.volume=11-11&rft.pages=39-72&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01118142&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161913402%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Schoenbrun&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2FBF01118142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Blench, Roger</a> (2006). <i>Archaeology, language, and the African past</i>. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0465-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0465-4"><bdi>0-7591-0465-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62281704">62281704</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology%2C+language%2C+and+the+African+past&rft.place=Lanham%2C+MD&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62281704&rft.isbn=0-7591-0465-4&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDimmendaal2008" class="citation journal cs1">Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2008-09-01). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent". <i>Language and Linguistics Compass</i>. <b>2</b> (5): 840–858. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-818x.2008.00085.x">10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00085.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1749-818X">1749-818X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language+and+Linguistics+Compass&rft.atitle=Language+Ecology+and+Linguistic+Diversity+on+the+African+Continent&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=840-858&rft.date=2008-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-818x.2008.00085.x&rft.issn=1749-818X&rft.aulast=Dimmendaal&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhret2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Ehret" title="Christopher Ehret">Ehret, Christopher</a> (2001). <i>A historical-comparative reconstruction of Nilo-Saharan</i>. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika. SUGIA Supplements. Vol. 12. Köln: R. Köppe Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89645-098-0" title="Special:BookSources/3-89645-098-0"><bdi>3-89645-098-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/48027016">48027016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+historical-comparative+reconstruction+of+Nilo-Saharan&rft.place=K%C3%B6ln&rft.series=Sprache+und+Geschichte+in+Afrika.+SUGIA+Supplements&rft.pub=R.+K%C3%B6ppe+Verlag&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F48027016&rft.isbn=3-89645-098-0&rft.aulast=Ehret&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenberg1970" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Greenberg" title="Joseph Greenberg">Greenberg, Joseph</a> (1970). "The languages of Africa". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>29</b> (1). Bloomington: Indiana University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87750-115-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-87750-115-7"><bdi>0-87750-115-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/795772769">795772769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=The+languages+of+Africa&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F795772769&rft.isbn=0-87750-115-7&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMikkola1999" class="citation journal cs1">Mikkola, Pertti (1999). "Nilo-Saharan revisited: some observations concerning the best etymologies". <i>Nordic Journal of African Studies</i>. <b>8</b> (2): 108–138.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nordic+Journal+of+African+Studies&rft.atitle=Nilo-Saharan+revisited%3A+some+observations+concerning+the+best+etymologies&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=108-138&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Mikkola&rft.aufirst=Pertti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="External_relationships">External relationships</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External relationships"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlench2011" class="citation conference cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Blench" title="Roger Blench">Blench, Roger</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518213056/http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/blench-call-leiden-2011.pdf"><i>Can Sino-Tibetan and Austroasiatic help us understand the evolution of Niger-Congo noun classes?</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. CALL 41. Leiden. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/blench-call-leiden-2011.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2013-05-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Can+Sino-Tibetan+and+Austroasiatic+help+us+understand+the+evolution+of+Niger-Congo+noun+classes%3F&rft.place=Leiden&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Blench&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedia.leidenuniv.nl%2Flegacy%2Fblench-call-leiden-2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregersen1972" class="citation journal cs1">Gregersen, Edgar (1972). "Kongo-Saharan". <i>Journal of African Languages</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 69–89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+Languages&rft.atitle=Kongo-Saharan&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=69-89&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Gregersen&rft.aufirst=Edgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANilo-Saharan+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nilo-Saharan_languages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/NS%20page.htm">Roger Blench: Nilo-Saharan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131122032513/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/NS%20page.htm">Archived</a> 2013-11-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/NS%20language%20list.pdf">Nilo-Saharan list</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200625153552/http://rogerblench.info/Language/Nilo-Saharan/General/NS%20language%20list.pdf/">Archived</a> 2020-06-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Blench 2012)</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/maps/maps15.php?lan=en">Map of Nilo-Saharan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130224061753/http://starling.rinet.ru/maps/maps15.php?lan=en">Archived</a> 2013-02-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://human-language.teachable.com/p/nilo-saharan">Popular Overview of Nilo-Saharan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220903201935/https://human-language.teachable.com/p/nilo-saharan">Archived</a> 2022-09-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nilo-Saharan_branches" title="Template:Nilo-Saharan branches"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nilo-Saharan_branches" title="Template talk:Nilo-Saharan branches"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nilo-Saharan_branches" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nilo-Saharan branches"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nilo-Saharan_branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nilo-Saharan</a> branches</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a><br />border region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Berta_languages" title="Berta languages">Berta</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%CA%BCaga_languages" title="Bʼaga languages">Bʼaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koman_languages" title="Koman languages">Koman</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gule_language" title="Gule language">Gule</a></i> ?</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuliak_languages" title="Kuliak languages">Kuliak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunama_languages" title="Kunama languages">Kunama</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ongota_language" title="Ongota language">Ongota</a></i> ?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a></i> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fur_languages" title="Fur languages">Furan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maban_languages" title="Maban languages">Maban</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Saharan_languages" title="Saharan languages">Saharan</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages" title="Central Sudanic languages">Central Sudanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Birri_language" title="Birri language">Birri</a></i> ?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Bongo%E2%80%93Bagirmi_languages" title="Bongo–Bagirmi languages">Bongo–Bagirmi</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kresh_languages" title="Kresh languages">Kresh</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenduic_languages" title="Lenduic languages">Lendu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangbetu_languages" title="Mangbetu languages">Mangbetu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangbutu%E2%80%93Lese_languages" title="Mangbutu–Lese languages">Mangbutu–Lese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moru%E2%80%93Madi_languages" title="Moru–Madi languages">Moru–Madi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sinyar_language" title="Sinyar language">Sinyar</a></i> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Sudanic_languages" title="Eastern Sudanic languages">Eastern Sudanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daju_languages" title="Daju languages">Daju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Jebel_languages" title="Eastern Jebel languages">Eastern Jebel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nara_language" title="Nara language">Nara</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nilotic_languages" title="Nilotic languages">Nilotic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Surmic_languages" title="Surmic languages">Surmic</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Astaboran_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Astaboran languages">Astaboran</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyimang_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyimang languages">Nyimang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taman_languages" title="Taman languages">Tama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temein_languages" title="Temein languages">Temein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Primary_language_families" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Language_families" title="Template:Language families"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Language_families" title="Template talk:Language families"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Language_families" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Language families"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Primary_language_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_language_families" title="List of language families">Primary language families</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoe%E2%80%93Kwadi_languages" title="Khoe–Kwadi languages">Khoe–Kwadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kx%CA%BCa_languages" title="Kxʼa languages">Kx'a</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></b></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nilo-Saharan</a></b>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuu_languages" title="Tuu languages">Tuu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mande_languages" title="Mande languages">Mande</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhay_languages" title="Songhay languages">Songhay</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijaw_languages" title="Ijaw languages">Ijaw</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubangian_languages" title="Ubangian languages">Ubangian</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadu_languages" title="Kadu languages">Kadu</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangime_language" title="Bangime language">Bangime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadza_language" title="Hadza language">Hadza</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jalaa_language" title="Jalaa language">Jalaa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandawe_language" title="Sandawe language">Sandawe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laal_language" title="Laal language">Laal</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabo_language" title="Shabo language">Shabo</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eurasia<br />(<a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Asia" title="Languages of Asia">Asia</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shompen_language" title="Shompen language">Shompen</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Papuan_languages" title="Papuan languages">New Guinea</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Oceania" title="Languages of Oceania">the Pacific</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arai%E2%80%93Samaia_languages" title="Arai–Samaia languages">Arai–Samaia</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binanderean%E2%80%93Goilalan_languages" title="Binanderean–Goilalan languages">Binanderean–Goilalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_languages_(New_Guinea)" title="Border languages (New Guinea)">Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulaka_River_languages" title="Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Solomon_languages" title="Central Solomon languages">Central Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimbu%E2%80%93Wahgi_languages" title="Chimbu–Wahgi languages">Chimbu–Wahgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demta%E2%80%93Sentani_languages" title="Demta–Sentani languages">Demta–Sentani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doso%E2%80%93Turumsa_languages" title="Doso–Turumsa languages">Doso–Turumsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Geelvink_Bay_languages" title="East Geelvink Bay languages">East Geelvink Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_New_Britain_languages" title="East New Britain languages">East New Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Strickland_languages" title="East Strickland languages">East Strickland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleman_languages" title="Eleman languages">Eleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engan_languages" title="Engan languages">Engan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fas_languages" title="Fas languages">Fas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foja_Range_languages" title="Foja Range languages">Foja Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaure%E2%80%93Kosare_languages" title="Kaure–Kosare languages">Kaure–Kosare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwaian_languages" title="Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutubuan_languages" title="Kutubuan languages">Kutubuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakes_Plain_languages" title="Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Mamberamo_languages" title="Lower Mamberamo languages">Lower Mamberamo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sepik_languages" title="Lower Sepik languages">Lower Sepik</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Madang_languages" title="Madang languages">Madang</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mairasi_languages" title="Mairasi languages">Mairasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Bougainville_languages" title="North Bougainville languages">North Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauwasi_languages" title="Pauwasi languages">Pauwasi</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ramu_languages" title="Ramu languages">Ramu</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senagi_languages" title="Senagi languages">Senagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senu_River_languages" title="Senu River languages">Senu River</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sepik_languages" title="Sepik languages">Sepik</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skou_languages" title="Skou languages">Skou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Bougainville_languages" title="South Bougainville languages">South Bougainville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teberan_languages" title="Teberan languages">Teberan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Torricelli_languages" title="Torricelli languages">Torricelli</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Fly_languages" title="Trans-Fly languages">Trans-Fly</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Trans%E2%80%93New_Guinea_languages" title="Trans–New Guinea languages">Trans–New Guinea</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turama%E2%80%93Kikorian_languages" title="Turama–Kikorian languages">Turama–Kikorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Yuat_languages" title="Upper Yuat languages">Upper Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Papuan_languages" title="West Papuan languages">West Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yam_languages" title="Yam languages">Yam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yawa_languages" title="Yawa languages">Yawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuat_languages" title="Yuat languages">Yuat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Papuan_languages" title="Northwest Papuan languages">Northwest Papuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_Gulf_languages" title="Papuan Gulf languages">Papuan Gulf</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abinomn_language" title="Abinomn language">Abinomn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abun_language" title="Abun language">Abun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C3%AAm_language" title="Anêm language">Anêm</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ata_language" title="Ata language">Ata</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kol_language_(Papua_New_Guinea)" title="Kol language (Papua New Guinea)">Kol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuot_language" title="Kuot language">Kuot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maybrat_language" title="Maybrat language">Maybrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpur_language" title="Mpur language">Mpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawaia_language" title="Pawaia language">Pawaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porome_language" title="Porome language">Porome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulka_language" title="Sulka language">Sulka</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayap_language" title="Tayap language">Taiap</a>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tambora_language" title="Tambora language">Tambora</a>?</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiru_language" title="Wiru language">Wiru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macro-Gunwinyguan_languages" title="Macro-Gunwinyguan languages">Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunuban_languages" title="Bunuban languages">Bunuban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Darwin_Region_languages" title="Darwin Region languages">Darwin Region</a></i>?</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Daly_languages" title="Eastern Daly languages">Eastern Daly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Eastern Tasmanian languages">Eastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garawan_languages" title="Garawan languages">Garawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwaidjan_languages" title="Iwaidjan languages">Iwaidjan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrakan_languages" title="Jarrakan languages">Jarrakan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marrku%E2%80%93Wurrugu_languages" title="Marrku–Wurrugu languages">Marrku–Wurrugu</a></i>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirndi_languages" title="Mirndi languages">Mirndi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northern Tasmanian languages">Northern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Tasmanian_languages" title="Northeastern Tasmanian languages">Northeastern Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyulnyulan_languages" title="Nyulnyulan languages">Nyulnyulan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Pama%E2%80%93Nyungan_languages" title="Pama–Nyungan languages">Pama–Nyungan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Daly_languages" title="Southern Daly languages">Southern Daly</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangkic_languages" title="Tangkic languages">Tangkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wagaydyic_languages" title="Wagaydyic languages">Wagaydyic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Daly_languages" title="Western Daly languages">Western Daly</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Western_Tasmanian_languages" title="Western Tasmanian languages">Western Tasmanian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worrorran_languages" title="Worrorran languages">Worrorran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wardaman_language" title="Wardaman language">Yangmanic</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Wagiman_language" title="Wagiman language">Wagiman</a>)?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Giimbiyu_language" title="Giimbiyu language">Giimbiyu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malak-Malak_language" title="Malak-Malak language">Malak-Malak</a> (Northern Daly?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwi_language" title="Tiwi language">Tiwi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">North<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alsea_language" title="Alsea language">Alsea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddoan_languages" title="Caddoan languages">Caddoan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimakuan_languages" title="Chimakuan languages">Chimakuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chinookan_languages" title="Chinookan languages">Chinookan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chumashan_languages" title="Chumashan languages">Chumashan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Comecrudan_languages" title="Comecrudan languages">Comecrudan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Coosan_languages" title="Coosan languages">Coosan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_languages" title="Iroquoian languages">Iroquoian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalapuyan_languages" title="Kalapuyan languages">Kalapuyan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keres_language" title="Keres language">Keres</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maiduan_languages" title="Maiduan languages">Maiduan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muskogean_languages" title="Muskogean languages">Muskogean</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Na-Dene_languages" title="Na-Dene languages">Na-Dene</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palaihnihan_languages" title="Palaihnihan languages">Palaihnihan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plateau_Penutian_languages" title="Plateau Penutian languages">Plateau Penutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomoan_languages" title="Pomoan languages">Pomoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salishan_languages" title="Salishan languages">Salishan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shastan_languages" title="Shastan languages">Shastan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siouan_languages" title="Siouan languages">Siouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanoan_languages" title="Tanoan languages">Tanoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshianic_languages" title="Tsimshianic languages">Tsimshianic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utian_languages" title="Utian languages">Utian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wakashan_languages" title="Wakashan languages">Wakashan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wintuan_languages" title="Wintuan languages">Wintuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yuki%E2%80%93Wappo_languages" title="Yuki–Wappo languages">Yukian</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuman%E2%80%93Cochim%C3%AD_languages" title="Yuman–Cochimí languages">Yuman–Cochimí</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Chimariko_language" title="Chimariko language">Chimariko</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Esselen_language" title="Esselen language">Esselen</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_language" title="Haida language">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karuk_language" title="Karuk language">Karuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutenai_language" title="Kutenai language">Kutenai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seri_language" title="Seri language">Seri</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siuslaw_language" title="Siuslaw language">Siuslaw</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Takelma_language" title="Takelma language">Takelma</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timucua_language" title="Timucua language">Timucua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Waikuri_language" title="Waikuri language">Waikuri</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washo_language" title="Washo language">Washo</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yana_language" title="Yana language">Yana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokuts_language" title="Yokuts language">Yokuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_language" title="Zuni language">Zuni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">Mesoamerica</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jicaquean_languages" title="Jicaquean languages">Jicaquean</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lencan_languages" title="Lencan languages">Lencan</a></i></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misumalpan_languages" title="Misumalpan languages">Misumalpan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixe%E2%80%93Zoque_languages" title="Mixe–Zoque languages">Mixe–Zoque</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oto-Manguean_languages" title="Oto-Manguean languages">Oto-Manguean</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequistlatecan_languages" title="Tequistlatecan languages">Tequistlatecan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totonacan_languages" title="Totonacan languages">Totonacan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Uto-Aztecan_languages" title="Uto-Aztecan languages">Uto-Aztecan</a></b></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Xincan_languages" title="Xincan languages">Xincan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cuitlatec_language" title="Cuitlatec language">Cuitlatec</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huave_language" title="Huave language">Huave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_language" title="Purépecha language">Tarascan/Purépecha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">South<br />America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andoque%E2%80%93Urequena_languages" title="Andoque–Urequena languages">Andoque–Urequena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arawan_languages" title="Arawan languages">Arauan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araucanian_languages" title="Araucanian languages">Araucanian</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arawakan_languages" title="Arawakan languages">Arawakan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arutani%E2%80%93Sape_languages" title="Arutani–Sape languages">Arutani–Sape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aymaran_languages" title="Aymaran languages">Aymaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbacoan_languages" title="Barbacoan languages">Barbacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boran_languages" title="Boran languages">Boran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahuapanan_languages" title="Cahuapanan languages">Cahuapanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cariban_languages" title="Cariban languages">Cariban</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catacaoan_languages" title="Catacaoan languages">Catacaoan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chapacuran_languages" title="Chapacuran languages">Chapacuran</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Charruan_languages" title="Charruan languages">Charruan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chibchan_languages" title="Chibchan languages">Chibchan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choco_languages" title="Choco languages">Choco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonan_languages" title="Chonan languages">Chonan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicuruan_languages" title="Guaicuruan languages">Guaicuruan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guajiboan_languages" title="Guajiboan languages">Guajiboan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Har%C3%A1kmbut%E2%80%93Katukinan_languages" title="Harákmbut–Katukinan languages">Harákmbut–Katukinan</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jirajaran_languages" title="Jirajaran languages">Jirajaran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicham_languages" title="Chicham languages">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katembri%E2%80%93Taruma_languages" title="Katembri–Taruma languages">Katembri–Taruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascoian_languages" title="Mascoian languages">Mascoian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matacoan_languages" title="Matacoan languages">Matacoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadahup_languages" title="Nadahup languages">Nadahup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nambikwaran_languages" title="Nambikwaran languages">Nambikwaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otom%C3%A1koan_languages" title="Otomákoan languages">Otomákoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pano-Tacanan_languages" title="Pano-Tacanan languages">Pano-Tacanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peba%E2%80%93Yaguan_languages" title="Peba–Yaguan languages">Peba–Yaguan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechuan</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piaroa%E2%80%93Saliban_languages" title="Piaroa–Saliban languages">Piaroa–Saliban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticuna%E2%80%93Yuri_languages" title="Ticuna–Yuri languages">Ticuna–Yuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timotean_languages" title="Timotean languages">Timotean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiniguan_languages" title="Tiniguan languages">Tiniguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tucanoan_languages" title="Tucanoan languages">Tucanoan</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Tupian_languages" title="Tupian languages">Tupian</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru%E2%80%93Chipaya_languages" title="Uru–Chipaya languages">Uru–Chipaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witotoan_languages" title="Witotoan languages">Witotoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yanomaman_languages" title="Yanomaman languages">Yanomaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zamucoan_languages" title="Zamucoan languages">Zamucoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaparoan_languages" title="Zaparoan languages">Zaparoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bora%E2%80%93Witoto_languages" title="Bora–Witoto languages">Bora-Witoto</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimuan_languages" title="Chimuan languages">Chimuan</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esmeralda%E2%80%93Yaruroan_languages" title="Esmeralda–Yaruroan languages">Esmeralda–Yaruro</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hibito%E2%80%93Cholon_languages" title="Hibito–Cholon languages">Hibito–Cholón</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lule%E2%80%93Vilela_languages" title="Lule–Vilela languages">Lule–Vilela</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro-J%C3%AA_languages" title="Macro-Jê languages">Macro-Jê</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequiraca%E2%80%93Canichana_languages" title="Tequiraca–Canichana languages">Tequiraca–Canichana</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates <br />(extant in 2000)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aikan%C3%A3_language" title="Aikanã language">Aikanã</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alacalufan_languages" title="Alacalufan languages">Alacalufan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cams%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Camsá language">Camsá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candoshi-Shapra_language" title="Candoshi-Shapra language">Candoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimane_language" title="Chimane language">Chimane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiquitano_language" title="Chiquitano language">Chiquitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_language" title="Cofán language">Cofán</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulni%C3%B4_language" title="Fulniô language">Fulniô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guat%C3%B3_language" title="Guató language">Guató</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hod%C3%AF_language" title="Hodï language">Hodï/Joti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irantxe_language" title="Irantxe language">Irantxe</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itonama_language" title="Itonama language">Itonama</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kunza_language" title="Kunza language">Kunza</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leco_language" title="Leco language">Leco</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maku_language_of_Auari" title="Maku language of Auari">Maku</a> (Maku-Auari/Jukude)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movima_language" title="Movima language">Movima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mura_language" title="Mura language">Mura-Pirahã</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukak_language" title="Nukak language">Nukak</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1ez_language" title="Páez language">Páez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puinave_language" title="Puinave language">Puinave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waorani_language" title="Waorani language">Huaorani/Waorani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumai_language" title="Trumai language">Trumai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urarina_language" title="Urarina language">Urarina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warao_language" title="Warao language">Warao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahgan_language" title="Yahgan language">Yamana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuracar%C3%A9_language" title="Yuracaré language">Yuracaré</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign<br />languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_sign-language_family" title="Arab sign-language family">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BANZSL" title="BANZSL">BANZSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Sign_Language" title="Chinese Sign Language">Chinese</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/French_Sign_Language_family" title="French Sign Language family">Francosign</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">Germanosign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_Sign_Language" title="Indo-Pakistani Sign Language">Indo-Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language_family" title="Japanese Sign Language family">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Chiangmai%E2%80%93Bangkok_Sign_Language_family" title="Old Chiangmai–Bangkok Sign Language family">Original Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Sign_Language_family" title="Swedish Sign Language family">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanzanian_sign_languages" title="Tanzanian sign languages">Tanzanian</a>?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Isolates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>See <a href="/wiki/List_of_sign_languages" title="List of sign languages">list of sign languages</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">Language isolates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unclassified_language" title="Unclassified language">Unclassified languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.</li><li>Families in <i>italics</i> have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in <b>bold</b>.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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