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construction of gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_construction_of_gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Attribution of intrinsic qualities to women and men</div> <p><b>Gender essentialism</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical">metaphysical</a> theory which attributes distinct, intrinsic qualities to women and men.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based in <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a>, it holds that there are certain universal, innate, biologically (or psychologically) based features of <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> that are at the root of many of the group differences observed in the behavior of men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-Hepburn-2008_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hepburn-2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Western civilization, it is suggested in writings going back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, the earlier Greek model was expressed in theological discussions as the doctrine that there are two distinct sexes, male and female, created by God, and that individuals are immutably one or the other.<sup id="cite_ref-Thatcher-2011_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thatcher-2011-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view remained largely unchanged until the middle of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This changed the locus of the origin of the essential differences from religion to biology, in <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Bem" title="Sandra Bem">Sandra Bem</a>'s words, "from God's grand creation [to] its scientific equivalent: evolution's grand creation," but the belief in an immutable origin had not changed.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p><p>Alternatives to gender essentialism were proposed in the mid-20th century. During <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second-wave feminism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> and other feminists in the 1960s and 70s theorized that gender differences were <a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">socially constructed</a>. In other words, people gradually conform to gender differences through their experience of the social world. More recently, <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a> theorized that gender is constructed <a href="/wiki/Gender_performativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender performativity">performatively</a>. While rejected by many feminist theorists,<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stone-2004_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> gender essentialism sheds light on social constructs surrounding gender that are found in society as well as societal views on sex and sexuality. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Claims">Claims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Claims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Normal_gender">Normal gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Normal gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The gender essentialist theory of normal gender is rooted in the idea that <a href="/wiki/Gender_binary" title="Gender binary">there are only two genders</a> – male and female. This claim is analyzed by feminist theorist <a href="/wiki/Monique_Wittig" title="Monique Wittig">Monique Wittig</a> in her article, <i>One Is Not Born A Woman.</i> In her piece, Wittig's main claim counters the theory of gender essentialism, claiming that there is not a "natural" group of women and this idea is founded in patriarchal oppression, sexism, and homophobia.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Masculinity">Masculinity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Masculinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The gender essentialist claim of masculinity theorizes that men are dominant, and women are submissive.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Feminist theorist <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Bem" title="Sandra Bem">Sandra Bem</a> analyzes the claim and its roots in her 1993 book, <i>The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality.</i> Bem also breaks down how gender differences are perceived in society and how patriarchal views and claims of biology work together to “reproduce male power.”<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1–3">: 1–3 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_religion">In religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></div> <p>The male–female dichotomy has been an important factor in most religions. In the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a> the difference between man and woman is established at the origin of time, with the bible saying of <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a> "...in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them",<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> indicating that the difference is instituted by God.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some discuss if this verse is an expression of gender essentialism or a reference to humanity as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_biology">Religion and biology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Religion and biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Gender essentialism has been heavily influenced by both religion and by science, with religion being the prominent reasoning behind gender essentialism until the mid-1800s. The reasoning ultimately changed from religion to science, but still supported the same essentialist thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16–17">: 16–17 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Latter-day_Saints">Latter-day Saints</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Latter-day Saints"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The official view of <a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a> (LDS Church) is an essentialist belief in gender. The 1995 LDS Church statement <a href="/wiki/The_Family:_A_Proclamation_to_the_World" title="The Family: A Proclamation to the World">The Family: A Proclamation to the World</a> declares gender to be an "essential characteristic" and an "eternal identity". Mormons generally believe in an eternal life and that it would be impossible for one's eternal gender to be different from one's physical, birth sex. Church regulations permit, but do not mandate, <a href="/wiki/Ex-communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-communication">ex-communication</a> for those who choose <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reassignment_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reassignment surgery">sexual reassignment surgery</a>, and deny them membership in the <a href="/wiki/Priesthood_(Latter_Day_Saints)" title="Priesthood (Latter Day Saints)">priesthood</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Copeland-2015_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copeland-2015-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_biology">In biology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In biology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The gender essentialist claim of biology theorizes that gender differences are rooted in nature and biology. Historical views based in gender essentialism claim that there are biological causes for the differences between men and women, such as women giving birth and men going out and hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This claim is analyzed in detail by <a href="/wiki/Emily_Martin_(anthropologist)" title="Emily Martin (anthropologist)">Emily Martin</a> in her article <i>Medical Metaphors of Women’s Bodies: Menstruation and Menopause</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1988_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1988-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In her article, Martin examines some of the historical views that used biology to explain the differences between women and men. One popular view in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> was that men were superior to women because they could sweat out their toxins while women had to menstruate to get rid of their toxins.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1988_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1988-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1975, American biologist, <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">Edward O. Wilson</a>, claimed that “both human and social behavior and human organization” are encoded in human genes.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> He later added to this claim, using the example of reproduction and how one male can fertilize many females but a female can be fertilized by only one male.”<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biologism">Biologism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Biologism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biologism</a> is a particular form of essentialism that defines women's and men's essence in terms of biological capacities.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of essentialism is based on a form of <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>, meaning that social and cultural factors are the effects of biological causes.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biological reductivism "claim[s] that anatomical and physiological differences—especially reproductive differences—characteristic of human males and females determine both the meaning of masculinity and femininity and the appropriately different positions of men and women in society".<sup id="cite_ref-:43_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biologism uses the functions of reproduction, nurturance, neurology, neurophysiology, and endocrinology to limit women's social and psychological possibilities according to biologically established limits.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It asserts the science of biology to constitute an unalterable definition of identity, which inevitably "amounts to a permanent form of social containment for women".<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Naturalism is also a part of the system of essentialism where a fixed nature is postulated for women through the means of theological or ontological rather than biological grounds. An example of this would be the claim that women's nature is a God-given attribute, or the ontological invariants in <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Sartrean existentialism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Freudian psychoanalysis</a> that distinguish the sexes in the "claim that the human subject is somehow free or that the subjects social position is a function of his or her genital morphology".<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These systems are used to homogenize women into one singular category and to strengthen a binary between men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Superior_gender">Superior gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Superior gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout history women have been viewed as the submissive and inferior gender. In ancient Greece, this view was supported by the belief that women had to rid their bodies of toxins by <a href="/wiki/Menstruating" class="mw-redirect" title="Menstruating">menstruating</a> while men could <a href="/wiki/Sweat" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweat">sweat</a> their toxins out.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1988_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1988-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 239">: 239 </span></sup> By the 1800s, this view remained the same, but the reasoning had changed. In 1879, the French doctor, <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Gustave Le Bon</a>, explained this inferiority of women as their brains being closer to the size of gorillas than most male brains. Le Bon also stated that women were fickle, inconsistent, lacked thought and logic, and were not able to reason.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_development">Child development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Child development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Children have been observed making gender categorizations and displaying essentialist beliefs about gender preferences and indications.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proponents of gender essentialism propose that children from the age of 4 to 10 show the tendency to endorse the role of nature in determining gender-stereotyped properties, an "early bias to view gender categories as predictive of essential, underlying similarities", which gradually declines as they pass elementary school years.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Feminist_critique">Feminist critique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Feminist critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">gender studies</a>, gender essentialism is the attribution of a fixed essence to women.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women's essence is assumed to be universal and is generally identified with those characteristics viewed as being specifically feminine.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ideas of femininity are usually related to biology and often concern psychological characteristics such as nurturance, empathy, support, non-competitiveness, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_14-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Elyce Rae Helford, a gender researcher, notes that <a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Laura Mulvey</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Male_gaze" title="Male gaze">male gaze</a> has been criticised for essentialism.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Monique_Wittig" title="Monique Wittig">Monique Wittig</a> published <i>One Is Not Born A Woman,</i> an article that discusses how gender essentialist views regarding men, women, and gender roles work to re-establish patriarchal roles and ideas in society. She also talks about how these views contribute to women's oppression, focusing on “lesbianism” and how it goes against the “rules” that society has set in place. Wittig's piece attempts to show how the gender essentialist claim of normal gender is rooted in homophobia and how these roots continue to allow women to be oppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1988, Emily Martin published <i>Medical Metaphors of Women’s Bodies: Menstruation and Menopause.</i> This piece analyzed the history of gender essentialist claims and how biology has been used to explain differences between genders. This claim of biology, according to Martin, dates back to ancient Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1988_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1988-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 239">: 239 </span></sup> Martin explains that, throughout history, views regarding women varied with menstruation originally being viewed as something important but still something that made women lesser, but later changing to be viewed as a disorder that negatively impacted women's lives.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-1988_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-1988-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 241">: 241 </span></sup> Martin's piece provides insight on how society places great importance on the different biological processes between genders. </p><p>The 1993 publication of <i>The Lenses of Gender</i> by Sandra Bem addresses how gender differences are perceived by society. She also talks about how essentialist gender roles reproduce male power.<sup id="cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 2">: 2 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transfeminist_critique">Transfeminist critique</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Transfeminist critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Essentialism of gender in feminist theory presents a problem regarding <a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">transfeminism</a>. Gayle Salamon writes that trans studies are to be "the breaking apart of this category, particularly if that breaking requires a new articulation of the relation between sex and gender, male and female".<sup id="cite_ref-:63_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:63-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Transubjectivity challenges the binary of gender essentialism as it disrupts the "fixed taxonomies of gender" and this creates a resistance in women's studies, which as a discipline has historically depended upon the fixedness of gender.<sup id="cite_ref-:63_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:63-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sandy_Stone_(artist)" title="Sandy Stone (artist)">Sandy Stone</a> offered a critique to essentialist discourses of gender in "<a href="/wiki/The_Empire_Strikes_Back:_A_Posttranssexual_Manifesto" title="The Empire Strikes Back: A Posttranssexual Manifesto">The Empire Strikes Back: A Posttranssexual Manifesto</a>" (1987), a foundational essay in <a href="/wiki/Transgender_studies" title="Transgender studies">transgender studies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, other theorists like <a href="/wiki/Jack_Halberstam" title="Jack Halberstam">Jack Halberstam</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jay_Prosser&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jay Prosser (page does not exist)">Jay Prosser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Serano" title="Julia Serano">Julia Serano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_B._Preciado" title="Paul B. Preciado">Paul B. Preciado</a> and <a href="/wiki/Susan_Stryker" title="Susan Stryker">Susan Stryker</a> have written on the topic. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feminist_support_of_essentialism">Feminist support of essentialism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Feminist support of essentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some feminists have assumed gender essentialism, or argued for it explicitly.<sup id="cite_ref-Stone-2004_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stone-2004-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural feminism</a>, for example, is a strain of radical feminism that appeals to gender essentialism to exalt what it considers to be intrinsically female.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In her book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Case_Against_the_Sexual_Revolution" title="The Case Against the Sexual Revolution">The Case Against the Sexual Revolution</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Louise_Perry" title="Louise Perry">Louise Perry</a> points out that men and women show significant group differences in measured <a href="/wiki/Sociosexuality" title="Sociosexuality">sociosexuality</a>, and argues that, from the perspective of evolutionary biology, such differences are to be expected, given the distinct reproductive strategies available to each sex.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Perry concludes that denial of gender essentialism, at least in this case, harms the interests of women by favoring a culture of sexual interaction better suited to the sexual preferences of high-status men. Perry's book lays out other arguments in this theme, which have also been explored and developed by other feminists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intersectional_critique">Intersectional critique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Intersectional critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Gender_essentialism" title="Talk:Gender essentialism">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22intersectionality%22+gender+essentialism">"intersectionality" gender essentialism</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22intersectionality%22+gender+essentialism+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22intersectionality%22+gender+essentialism&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22intersectionality%22+gender+essentialism+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22intersectionality%22+gender+essentialism">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22intersectionality%22+gender+essentialism&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2017</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Analyzing gender has long been a central concern of feminist theory, which has sought to explore how gender constructs meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While developing theories of gender, feminist discourse has often ignored other aspects of women's identities—such as race, class, and sexual orientation—thereby marginalizing the voices and experiences of women of color, non-Western women, working-class women, queer women, and <a href="/wiki/Trans_woman" title="Trans woman">trans women</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Essentialism challenges feminist theory by questioning how gender can be both an identity and a marker of difference, posing problems for the idea of subjectivity in feminist theories.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black and lesbian feminists, in particular, have argued that feminist theory has often relied on gender essentialism, employing the category of "women's experience" to represent all women.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By doing so, feminist theory makes universalizing and normalizing claims that reflect the realities of white, Western, heterosexual, <a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">cisgender</a>, and middle- or upper-class women, while implying these experiences are universal to all women.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1993, Patrice DiQuinzio wrote that critics of exclusion argue that this issue stems from feminist theory's focus on theorizing women's experiences solely through the lens of gender.<sup id="cite_ref-:43_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:43-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Addressing this, some propose adopting an <a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">intersectional</a> framework, which considers the interconnected experiences of race, class, gender, and sexuality.<sup id="cite_ref-:53_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:53-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-structuralist_critique">Post-structuralist critique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Post-structuralist critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Gender_essentialism" title="Talk:Gender essentialism">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Gender+essentialism%22">"Gender essentialism"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Gender+essentialism%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Gender+essentialism%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Gender+essentialism%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Gender+essentialism%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Gender+essentialism%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2017</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a>, as articulated by Judith Butler, refers to "a field of critical practices that cannot be totalized and that, therefore, interrogate the formative and exclusionary power of sexual difference."<sup id="cite_ref-:33_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This framework enables a critique of gender essentialism by fostering analyses, critiques, and political interventions, expanding the political imagination for feminism beyond traditional constraints.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural feminism</a> does not represent a fixed position but rather provides tools and concepts that can be "reused and rethought, exposed as strategic instruments and effects, and subjected to critical reinscription and redeployment."<sup id="cite_ref-:33_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Critics such as <a href="/wiki/Susan_Bordo" title="Susan Bordo">Susan Bordo</a> suggest that Butler is reducing gender to language and abstraction.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_construction_of_gender">Social construction of gender</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Social construction of gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_gender" title="Social construction of gender">Social construction of gender</a></div> <p>The main alternative to gender essentialism is the theory of the social construction of gender. In contrast to gender essentialism, social constructionism views gender as created and influenced by society and culture, both of which differ according to time and place. Theories of the social construction of gender grew out of theories in <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second-wave feminism</a> in the latter half of the 20th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Judith Butler</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Gender_performativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender performativity">gender performativity</a> can be seen as a means to show "the ways in which reified and naturalized conceptions of gender might be understood as constituted and, hence, capable of being constituted differently".<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Butler uses the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenological</a> theory of acts espoused by <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a>, which seeks to explain the mundane way in which "social agents constitute social reality through language, gesture, and all manner of symbolic social sign", to create her conception of gender performativity.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She begins by quoting <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir's</a> claim that "[o]ne is not born, but rather becomes, a woman."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This statement distinguishes sex from gender suggesting that gender is an aspect of identity that is gradually acquired.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This distinction between sex, as the anatomical aspects of the female body, and gender, as the cultural meaning that forms the body and the various modes of bodily articulation, means that it is "no longer possible to attribute the values or social functions of women to biological necessity".<sup id="cite_ref-:23_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Butler interprets this claim as an appropriation of the doctrine of constituting acts from the tradition of phenomenology.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Butler concludes that "gender is in no way a stable identity or locus of agency from which various acts proceed; rather, it is an identity tenuously constituted in time—an identity instituted through the stylization of the body and, hence, must be understood as the mundane way in which bodily gestures, movements and enactments of various kinds constitute the illusion of an abiding gendered self".<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Candace West and Sarah Fenstermaker also conceptualize gender "as a routine, methodical, and ongoing accomplishment, which involves a complex of perceptual, interactional and micropolitical activities that cast particular pursuits as expressions of manly and womanly 'natures'" in their 1995 text <i>Doing Difference</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:53_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:53-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This does not mean that the material nature of the human body is denied, instead, it is re-comprehended as separate from the process by which "the body comes to bear cultural meanings".<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the essence of gender is not natural because gender itself is not a natural fact<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:23_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the outcome of the sedimentation of specific corporeal acts that have been inscribed through repetition and rearticulation over time onto the body.<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "If the reality of gender is constituted by the performance itself, then there is no recourse to an essential and unrealized 'sex' or 'gender' which gender performances ostensibly express".<sup id="cite_ref-:13_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:13-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empathizing%E2%80%93systemizing_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Empathizing–systemizing theory">Empathizing–systemizing theory</a> – Theory on the psychological basis of autism<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a> – View that entities have identifying attributes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_post-structuralist_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="French post-structuralist feminism">French post-structuralist feminism</a> – Approach to feminism influenced by post-structuralist thought<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendered_sexuality" title="Gendered sexuality">Gendered sexuality</a> – human sexuality studied through the lens of gender<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience of sex differences</a> – Characteristics of the brain that differentiate the male brain and the female brain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a> – Ability of the brain to continuously change</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_NeuroGenderings_Network" title="The NeuroGenderings Network">The NeuroGenderings Network</a> – International group of researchers in neuroscience and gender studies</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHeymanGiles2006" class="citation journal cs1">Heyman, G. 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(2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3082140">"Gender and Psychological Essentialism"</a>. <i>Enfance; Psychologie, Pedagogie, Neuropsychiatrie, Sociologie</i>. <b>58</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">293–</span>310. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3917%2Fenf.583.0293">10.3917/enf.583.0293</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3082140">3082140</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21528097">21528097</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Enfance%3B+Psychologie%2C+Pedagogie%2C+Neuropsychiatrie%2C+Sociologie&rft.atitle=Gender+and+Psychological+Essentialism&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E293-%3C%2Fspan%3E310&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3082140%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21528097&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3917%2Fenf.583.0293&rft.aulast=Heyman&rft.aufirst=G.+D.&rft.au=Giles%2C+J.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3082140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Declaration". 2010. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.871.3140">10.1.1.871.3140</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Declaration&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.871.3140%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hepburn-2008-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hepburn-2008_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHepburn2003" class="citation book cs1">Hepburn, Alexa (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rfIFQIa9rFMC&pg=PA107">"Feminist critics: hetrosexism and lesbian and gay psychology"</a>. <i>An introduction to critical social psychology</i>. London Thousand Oaks, California: Sage. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761962106" title="Special:BookSources/9780761962106"><bdi>9780761962106</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Feminist+critics%3A+hetrosexism+and+lesbian+and+gay+psychology&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+critical+social+psychology&rft.place=London+Thousand+Oaks%2C+California&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780761962106&rft.aulast=Hepburn&rft.aufirst=Alexa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrfIFQIa9rFMC%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bem-1993-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bem-1993_4-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBem1993" class="citation book cs1">Bem, Sandra (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lensesofgender00sand/page/1"><i>The lenses of gender: transforming the debate on sexual inequality</i></a>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300061635" title="Special:BookSources/9780300061635"><bdi>9780300061635</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+lenses+of+gender%3A+transforming+the+debate+on+sexual+inequality&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=9780300061635&rft.aulast=Bem&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flensesofgender00sand%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thatcher-2011-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thatcher-2011_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThatcher2011" class="citation book cs1">Thatcher, Adrian (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hcNyAOxMLFsC&pg=PA19">"Gender: language, power, and history"</a>. <i>God, sex, and gender: an introduction</i>. 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Available from <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.kyoolee.net/one_is_not_born_a_woman_-_wittig.pdf">http://www.kyoolee.net/one_is_not_born_a_woman_-_wittig.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/archive/bible/genesis/documents/bible_genesis_en.html"><i>The Book of Genesis</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Genesis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Farchive%2Fbible%2Fgenesis%2Fdocuments%2Fbible_genesis_en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_W._Pierce_Cynthia_Long_Westfall2021" class="citation book cs1">Ronald W. 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(1 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F23289252-3334127">"Introduction"</a>. <i>TSQ: Transgender Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>3</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">5–</span>14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F23289252-3334127">10.1215/23289252-3334127</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TSQ%3A+Transgender+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.date=2016-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F23289252-3334127&rft.aulast=Stryker&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=Bettcher%2C+Talia+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1215%252F23289252-3334127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEchols1983" class="citation journal cs1">Echols, Alice (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/466453">"Cultural Feminism: Feminist Capitalism and the Anti-Pornography Movement"</a>. <i>Social Text</i> (7): <span class="nowrap">34–</span>53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F466453">10.2307/466453</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0164-2472">0164-2472</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/466453">466453</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Text&rft.atitle=Cultural+Feminism%3A+Feminist+Capitalism+and+the+Anti-Pornography+Movement&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E34-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.date=1983&rft.issn=0164-2472&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F466453%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F466453&rft.aulast=Echols&rft.aufirst=Alice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F466453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumenthal1997" class="citation book cs1">Blumenthal, Dannielle (1997). <i>Women and soap opera: a cultural feminist perspective</i>. 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Cambridge Medford (Mass.): Polity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-4999-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5095-4999-3"><bdi>978-1-5095-4999-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+case+against+the+sexual+revolution%3A+a+new+guide+to+sex+in+the+21st+century&rft.place=Cambridge+Medford+%28Mass.%29&rft.pub=Polity+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-5095-4999-3&rft.aulast=Perry&rft.aufirst=Louise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:53-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:53_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:53_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestFenstermaker1995" class="citation journal cs1">West, Candace; Fenstermaker, Sarah (February 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csun.edu/~snk1966/Doing%20Difference.pdf">"Doing difference"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Gender_%26_Society" title="Gender & Society">Gender & Society</a></i>. <b>9</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE</a>: <span class="nowrap">8–</span>37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089124395009001002">10.1177/089124395009001002</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/189596">189596</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220476362">220476362</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gender+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Doing+difference&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E8-%3C%2Fspan%3E37&rft.date=1995-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220476362%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F189596%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F089124395009001002&rft.aulast=West&rft.aufirst=Candace&rft.au=Fenstermaker%2C+Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csun.edu%2F~snk1966%2FDoing%2520Difference.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:33-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:33_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:33_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:33_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButlerWallach_Scott1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler, Judith</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joan_Wallach_Scott" title="Joan Wallach Scott">Wallach Scott, Joan</a> (1992). <i>Feminists theorize the political</i>. New York Oxfordshire, England: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780203723999" title="Special:BookSources/9780203723999"><bdi>9780203723999</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Feminists+theorize+the+political&rft.place=New+York+Oxfordshire%2C+England&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780203723999&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft.au=Wallach+Scott%2C+Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hekman, Susan (1998). "Material Bodies." <i>Body and Flesh: a Philosophical Reader</i> ed. by Donn Welton. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 61–70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler, Judith</a> (December 1988). "Performative acts and gender constitution: an essay in phenomenology and feminist theory". <i><a href="/wiki/Theatre_Journal" title="Theatre Journal">Theatre Journal</a></i>. <b>40</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">519–</span>531. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3207893">10.2307/3207893</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3207893">3207893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theatre+Journal&rft.atitle=Performative+acts+and+gender+constitution%3A+an+essay+in+phenomenology+and+feminist+theory&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E519-%3C%2Fspan%3E531&rft.date=1988-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3207893&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3207893%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://seas3.elte.hu/coursematerial/TimarAndrea/17a.Butler,performative%5B1%5D.pdf">Pdf.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Beauvoir2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir, Simone</a> (2015) [1949]. <i>The second sex</i>. London: Vintage Classic. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781784870386" title="Special:BookSources/9781784870386"><bdi>9781784870386</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+second+sex&rft.place=London&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Vintage+Classic&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781784870386&rft.aulast=de+Beauvoir&rft.aufirst=Simone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler1986" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler, Judith</a> (1986). "Sex and gender in Simone de Beauvoir's <i>Second Sex</i>". <i>Yale French Studies</i> (72). <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>: <span class="nowrap">35–</span>49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2930225">10.2307/2930225</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2930225">2930225</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+French+Studies&rft.atitle=Sex+and+gender+in+Simone+de+Beauvoir%27s+Second+Sex&rft.issue=72&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E35-%3C%2Fspan%3E49&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2930225&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2930225%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRipponJordan-YoungFineKaiser2014" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gina_Rippon" title="Gina Rippon">Rippon, Gina</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Jordan-Young" title="Rebecca Jordan-Young">Jordan-Young, Rebecca</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cordelia_Fine" title="Cordelia Fine">Fine, Cordelia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Anelis_Kaiser" title="Anelis Kaiser">Kaiser, Anelis</a> (28 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4147717">"Recommendations for sex/gender neuroimaging research: key principles and implications for research design, analysis and interpretation"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Human Neuroscience</i>. <b>8</b>. <a href="/wiki/Frontiers_Media" title="Frontiers Media">Frontiers</a>: 650. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnhum.2014.00650">10.3389/fnhum.2014.00650</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4147717">4147717</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25221493">25221493</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Human+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Recommendations+for+sex%2Fgender+neuroimaging+research%3A+key+principles+and+implications+for+research+design%2C+analysis+and+interpretation&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=650&rft.date=2014-08-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4147717%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25221493&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffnhum.2014.00650&rft.aulast=Rippon&rft.aufirst=Gina&rft.au=Jordan-Young%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Fine%2C+Cordelia&rft.au=Kaiser%2C+Anelis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4147717&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitt2011" class="citation book cs1">Witt, Charlotte (2011). <i>The metaphysics of gender</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199740406" title="Special:BookSources/9780199740406"><bdi>9780199740406</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+metaphysics+of+gender&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780199740406&rft.aulast=Witt&rft.aufirst=Charlotte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGender+essentialism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&oldid=1273123925">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gender_essentialism&oldid=1273123925</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Feminist_terminology" title="Category:Feminist terminology">Feminist terminology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Feminist_theory" title="Category:Feminist theory">Feminist theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_constructionism" title="Category:Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Essentialism" title="Category:Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_February_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from February 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from February 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_August_2021" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2021">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_October_2017" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from October 2017">Articles needing additional references from October 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_December_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from December 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_short_descriptions_of_redirect_targets_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets via Module:Annotated link</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_displaying_wikidata_descriptions_as_a_fallback_via_Module:Annotated_link" title="Category:Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback via Module:Annotated link</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 31 January 2025, at 21:22<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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