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<span>Toggle Problems with the Standard Model subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Problems_with_the_Standard_Model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phenomena_not_explained" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phenomena_not_explained"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Phenomena not explained</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phenomena_not_explained-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Experimental_results_not_explained" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_results_not_explained"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Experimental results not explained</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Experimental_results_not_explained-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_predictions_not_observed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_predictions_not_observed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Theoretical predictions not observed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_predictions_not_observed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unexplained_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unexplained_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Unexplained relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unexplained_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Theoretical problems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_experimental_results" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_experimental_results"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Additional experimental results</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_experimental_results-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grand_unified_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grand_unified_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grand unified theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grand_unified_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supersymmetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supersymmetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Supersymmetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supersymmetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neutrinos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neutrinos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Neutrinos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neutrinos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preon_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preon_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Preon models</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preon_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_everything" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_everything"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Theories of everything</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Theories_of_everything-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Theories of everything subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_everything-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Supersymmetry_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supersymmetry_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Supersymmetry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supersymmetry_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loop_quantum_gravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loop_quantum_gravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Loop quantum gravity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loop_quantum_gravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-String_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#String_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>String theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-String_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External resources</span> </div> </a> <ul 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data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Фізіка за межамі Стандартнай мадэлі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фізіка за межамі Стандартнай мадэлі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_m%C3%A9s_enll%C3%A0_del_model_est%C3%A0ndard" title="Física més enllà del model estàndard – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Física més enllà del model estàndard" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_m%C3%A1s_all%C3%A1_del_Modelo_Est%C3%A1ndar" title="Física más allá del Modelo Estándar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Física más allá del Modelo Estándar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="فیزیک فراتر از مدل استاندارد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیزیک فراتر از مدل استاندارد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physique_au-del%C3%A0_du_mod%C3%A8le_standard" title="Physique au-delà du modèle standard – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Physique au-delà du modèle standard" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%91%9C%EC%A4%80_%EB%AA%A8%ED%98%95_%EC%9D%B4%ED%9B%84%EC%9D%98_%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="표준 모형 이후의 물리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="표준 모형 이후의 물리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="मानक मॉडल से परे भौतिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानक मॉडल से परे भौतिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika_di_luar_Model_Standar" title="Fisika di luar Model Standar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fisika di luar Model Standar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B%E3%82%92%E8%B6%85%E3%81%88%E3%82%8B%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86" title="標準模型を超える物理 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="標準模型を超える物理" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka_poza_modelem_standardowym" title="Fizyka poza modelem standardowym – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fizyka poza modelem standardowym" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_al%C3%A9m_do_modelo_padr%C3%A3o" title="Física além do modelo padrão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Física além do modelo padrão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Физика за пределами Стандартной модели – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Физика за пределами Стандартной модели" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standart_Model_%C3%B6tesi_fizik" title="Standart Model ötesi fizik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Standart Model ötesi fizik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Фізика за межами Стандартної моделі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фізика за межами Стандартної моделі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E8%B6%8A%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B%E7%9A%84%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="超越标准模型的物理学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="超越标准模型的物理学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beyond the Standard Model</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/220px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/330px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/440px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1018" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Simulated <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> <a href="/wiki/Compact_Muon_Solenoid" title="Compact Muon Solenoid">CMS</a> particle detector data depicting a <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> produced by colliding protons decaying into hadron jets and electrons</div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Evidence</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">Hierarchy problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintessence_(physics)" title="Quintessence (physics)">Quintessence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phantom_energy" title="Phantom energy">Phantom energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant_problem" title="Cosmological constant problem">Cosmological constant problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">Strong CP problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brans%E2%80%93Dicke_theory" title="Brans–Dicke theory">Brans–Dicke theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis" title="Cosmic censorship hypothesis">Cosmic censorship hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_force" title="Fifth force">Fifth force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-theory" title="F-theory">F-theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_field_theory" title="Unified field theory">Unified field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand Unified Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technicolor_(physics)" title="Technicolor (physics)">Technicolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory" title="Kaluza–Klein theory">Kaluza–Klein theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6D_(2,0)_superconformal_field_theory" title="6D (2,0) superconformal field theory">6D (2,0) superconformal field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noncommutative_quantum_field_theory" title="Noncommutative quantum field theory">Noncommutative quantum field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brane_cosmology" title="Brane cosmology">Brane cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">Superstring theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_universe_hypothesis" title="Mathematical universe hypothesis">Mathematical universe hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_matter" title="Mirror matter">Mirror matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randall%E2%80%93Sundrum_model" title="Randall–Sundrum model">Randall–Sundrum model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N_%3D_4_supersymmetric_Yang%E2%80%93Mills_theory" title="N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory">N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twistor_string_theory" title="Twistor string theory">Twistor string theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_fluid" title="Dark fluid">Dark fluid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubly_special_relativity" title="Doubly special relativity">Doubly special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Sitter_invariant_special_relativity" title="De Sitter invariant special relativity">de Sitter invariant special relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_fermion_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Causal fermion system">Causal fermion systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics" title="Black hole thermodynamics">Black hole thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unparticle_physics" title="Unparticle physics">Unparticle physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviscalar" title="Graviscalar">Graviscalar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massive_gravity" title="Massive gravity">Massive gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_gravitation_theory" title="Gauge gravitation theory">Gauge gravitation theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory_gravity" title="Gauge theory gravity">Gauge theory gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPT_symmetry" title="CPT symmetry">CPT symmetry</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">Supersymmetry</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">MSSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-to-Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">NMSSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstring_theory" title="Superstring theory">Superstring theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">Supergravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry_breaking" title="Supersymmetry breaking">Supersymmetry breaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extra_dimensions" title="Extra dimensions">Extra dimensions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_extra_dimensions" title="Large extra dimensions">Large extra dimensions</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/False_vacuum" title="False vacuum">False vacuum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_foam" title="Spin foam">Spin foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_foam" title="Quantum foam">Quantum foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_geometry" title="Quantum geometry">Quantum geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">Loop quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cosmology" title="Quantum cosmology">Quantum cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_cosmology" title="Loop quantum cosmology">Loop quantum cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_dynamical_triangulation" title="Causal dynamical triangulation">Causal dynamical triangulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_fermion_systems" title="Causal fermion systems">Causal fermion systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_sets" title="Causal sets">Causal sets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canonical_quantum_gravity" title="Canonical quantum gravity">Canonical quantum gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiclassical_gravity" title="Semiclassical gravity">Semiclassical gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluid_vacuum_theory" title="Superfluid vacuum theory">Superfluid vacuum theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Experiments</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accelerator_Neutrino_Neutron_Interaction_Experiment" title="Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment">ANNIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratori_Nazionali_del_Gran_Sasso" title="Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso">Gran Sasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/India-based_Neutrino_Observatory" title="India-based Neutrino Observatory">INO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">SNO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tevatron" title="Tevatron">Tevatron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOvA" title="NOvA">NOvA</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Template:Beyond the Standard Model"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Template talk:Beyond the Standard Model"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Beyond_the_Standard_Model" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Beyond the Standard Model"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Physics beyond the Standard Model</b> (<b>BSM</b>) refers to the theoretical developments needed to explain the deficiencies of the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a>, such as the inability to explain the fundamental parameters of the standard model, the <a href="/wiki/Strong_CP_problem" title="Strong CP problem">strong CP problem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrino oscillations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">matter–antimatter asymmetry</a>, and the nature of <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">dark energy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sym-v2-feb-05_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sym-v2-feb-05-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another problem lies within the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">mathematical framework</a> of the Standard Model itself: the Standard Model is inconsistent with that of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>, and one or both theories break down under certain conditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">spacetime singularities</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a> <a href="/wiki/Event_horizon" title="Event horizon">event horizons</a>. </p><p>Theories that lie beyond the Standard Model include various extensions of the standard model through <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a> (MSSM) and <a href="/wiki/Next-to-Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a> (NMSSM), and entirely novel explanations, such as <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">string theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Extra_dimensions" title="Extra dimensions">extra dimensions</a>. As these theories tend to reproduce the entirety of current phenomena, the question of which theory is the right one, or at least the "best step" towards a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Everything" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Everything">Theory of Everything</a>, can only be settled via experiments, and is one of the most active areas of research in both <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">theoretical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">experimental physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20230911_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230911-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Problems_with_the_Standard_Model">Problems with the Standard Model<span class="anchor" id="SM_problems_anchor"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Problems with the Standard Model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite being the most successful theory of particle physics to date, the Standard Model is not perfect.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large share of the published output of theoretical physicists consists of proposals for various forms of "Beyond the Standard Model" new physics proposals that would modify the Standard Model in ways subtle enough to be consistent with existing data, yet address its imperfections materially enough to predict non-Standard Model outcomes of new experiments that can be proposed. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles_%2B_Gravity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles_%2B_Gravity.svg/400px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles_%2B_Gravity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles_%2B_Gravity.svg/600px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles_%2B_Gravity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles_%2B_Gravity.svg/800px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles_%2B_Gravity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption>The Standard Model of elementary particles + hypothetical Graviton</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phenomena_not_explained">Phenomena not explained</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phenomena not explained"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Standard Model is inherently an incomplete theory. There are fundamental physical phenomena in nature that the Standard Model does not adequately explain: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a></i>. The standard model does not explain gravity. The approach of simply adding a <a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">graviton</a> to the Standard Model does not recreate what is observed experimentally without other modifications, as yet undiscovered, to the Standard Model. Moreover, the Standard Model is widely considered to be incompatible with the most successful theory of gravity to date, <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sushkov-Kim-etal-2011_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sushkov-Kim-etal-2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sushkov_Kim_etal_2011_quote_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sushkov_Kim_etal_2011_quote-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donoghue-2012_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donoghue-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Donoghue_2012_quote_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donoghue_2012_quote-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></i>. Assuming that <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lambda_CDM" class="mw-redirect" title="Lambda CDM">Lambda CDM</a> are true, cosmological observations tell us the standard model explains about 5% of the mass-energy present in the universe. About 26% should be dark matter (the remaining 69% being dark energy) which would behave just like other matter, but which only interacts weakly (if at all) with the Standard Model fields. Yet, the Standard Model does not supply any fundamental particles that are good dark matter candidates.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dark_energy" title="Dark energy">Dark energy</a></i>. As mentioned, the remaining 69% of the universe's energy should consist of the so-called dark energy, a constant energy density for the vacuum. Attempts to explain dark energy in terms of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_energy" title="Vacuum energy">vacuum energy</a> of the standard model lead to a mismatch of 120 orders of magnitude.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillations" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino oscillations">Neutrino oscillations</a></i>. According to the Standard Model, <a href="/wiki/Neutrinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrinos">neutrinos</a> do not oscillate. However, experiments and astronomical observations have shown that <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">neutrino oscillation</a> does occur. These are typically explained by postulating that neutrinos have mass. Neutrinos do not have mass in the Standard Model, and mass terms for the neutrinos can be added to the Standard Model by hand, but these lead to new theoretical problems. For example, the mass terms need to be extraordinarily small and it is not clear if the neutrino masses would arise in the same way that the masses of other fundamental particles do in the Standard Model. There are also other extensions of the Standard Model for neutrino oscillations which do not assume massive neutrinos, such as <a href="/wiki/Lorentz-violating_neutrino_oscillations" title="Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations">Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Baryon_asymmetry" title="Baryon asymmetry">Matter–antimatter asymmetry</a></i>. The universe is made out of mostly matter. However, the standard model predicts that matter and antimatter should have been created in (almost) equal amounts if the initial conditions of the universe did not involve disproportionate matter relative to antimatter. Yet, there is no mechanism in the Standard Model to sufficiently explain this asymmetry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Experimental_results_not_explained">Experimental results not explained</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Experimental results not explained"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No experimental result is accepted as definitively contradicting the Standard Model at the 5 <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">σ</a></span> level,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> widely considered to be the threshold of a discovery in particle physics. Because every experiment contains some degree of statistical and systemic uncertainty, and the theoretical predictions themselves are also almost never calculated exactly and are subject to uncertainties in measurements of the fundamental constants of the Standard Model (some of which are tiny and others of which are substantial), it is to be expected that some of the hundreds of experimental tests of the Standard Model will deviate from it to some extent, even if there were no new physics to be discovered. </p><p>At any given moment there are several experimental results standing that significantly differ from a Standard Model-based prediction. In the past, many of these discrepancies have been found to be statistical flukes or experimental errors that vanish as more data has been collected, or when the same experiments were conducted more carefully. On the other hand, any physics beyond the Standard Model would necessarily first appear in experiments as a statistically significant difference between an experiment and the theoretical prediction. The task is to determine which is the case. </p><p>In each case, physicists seek to determine if a result is merely a statistical fluke or experimental error on the one hand, or a sign of new physics on the other. More statistically significant results cannot be mere statistical flukes but can still result from experimental error or inaccurate estimates of experimental precision. Frequently, experiments are tailored to be more sensitive to experimental results that would distinguish the Standard Model from theoretical alternatives. </p><p>Some of the most notable examples include the following: </p> <ul><li><i>B meson decay etc.</i> – results from a <a href="/wiki/BaBar_experiment" title="BaBar experiment">BaBar experiment</a> may suggest a surplus over Standard Model predictions of a type of particle decay <span class="nowrap"><span class="texhtml">( <span style="text-decoration:overline;">B</span>  →  D<sup>(*)</sup>  τ<sup>−</sup>  <span style="text-decoration:overline;">ν</span><sub>τ</sub> )</span></span>. In this, an electron and positron collide, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a> and an antimatter <span style="text-decoration:overline;">B</span> meson, which then decays into a <a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Tau_lepton" class="mw-redirect" title="Tau lepton">tau lepton</a> as well as a <a href="/wiki/Tau_antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Tau antineutrino">tau antineutrino</a>. While the level of certainty of the excess (3.4 <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">σ</span> in statistical jargon) is not enough to declare a break from the Standard Model, the results are a potential sign of something amiss and are likely to affect existing theories, including those attempting to deduce the properties of Higgs bosons.<sup id="cite_ref-BaBar_Data_Suggests_Possible_Flaws_in_the_Standard_Model_June_18_19,_2012_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BaBar_Data_Suggests_Possible_Flaws_in_the_Standard_Model_June_18_19,_2012-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2015, <a href="/wiki/LHCb" class="mw-redirect" title="LHCb">LHCb</a> reported observing a 2.1 <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">σ</span> excess in the same ratio of branching fractions.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Belle_experiment" title="Belle experiment">Belle experiment</a> also reported an excess.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017 a <a href="/wiki/Meta_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta analysis">meta analysis</a> of all available data reported a cumulative 5 <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">σ</span> deviation from SM.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Free_neutron_decay#Neutron_lifetime_puzzle" title="Free neutron decay">Neutron lifetime puzzle</a></i> - Free neutrons are not stable but decay after some time. Currently there are two methods used to measure this lifetime ("bottle" versus "beam"<sup id="cite_ref-Wolchover-2018-02-13-Quanta_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolchover-2018-02-13-Quanta-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wolchover-2018-02-13-summary_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolchover-2018-02-13-summary-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) that give different values not within each other's error margin. Currently the lifetime from the bottle method is at <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau _{n}=877.75s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>877.75</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau _{n}=877.75s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9ec09fe80e232289d6c271b03dde0de40d608bf7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:12.883ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau _{n}=877.75s}"></span><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gonzalez-2021_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gonzalez-2021-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with a difference of 10 seconds below the beam method value of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \tau _{n}=887.7s}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>τ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>n</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>887.7</mn> <mi>s</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \tau _{n}=887.7s}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/8a2da3f84f121edaca354a5ca6ce0d2024ab49f3" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:11.72ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \tau _{n}=887.7s}"></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-WilsonAl2021_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilsonAl2021-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_predictions_not_observed">Theoretical predictions not observed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Theoretical predictions not observed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Observation at <a href="/wiki/Particle_collider" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle collider">particle colliders</a> of all of the fundamental particles predicted by the Standard Model has been confirmed. The <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a> is predicted by the Standard Model's explanation of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a>, which describes how the weak SU(2) gauge symmetry is broken and how fundamental particles obtain mass; it was the last particle predicted by the Standard Model to be observed. On July 4, 2012, <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a> scientists using the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> announced the discovery of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson, with a mass of about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002126000000000000♠"></span>126 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass" title="Electronvolt">GeV/<i>c</i><sup>2</sup></a></span>. A Higgs boson was confirmed to exist on March 14, 2013, although efforts to confirm that it has all of the properties predicted by the Standard Model are ongoing.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A few <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a> (i.e. composite particles made of <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a>) whose existence is predicted by the Standard Model, which can be produced only at very high energies in very low frequencies have not yet been definitively observed, and "<a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">glueballs</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (i.e. composite particles made of <a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">gluons</a>) have also not yet been definitively observed. Some very low frequency particle decays predicted by the Standard Model have also not yet been definitively observed because insufficient data is available to make a statistically significant observation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unexplained_relations">Unexplained relations <span class="anchor" id="Unexplained_relations"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Unexplained relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Koide_formula" title="Koide formula">Koide formula</a> – an unexplained <a href="/wiki/Empirical_relationship" title="Empirical relationship">empirical equation</a> remarked upon by <a href="/wiki/Yoshio_Koide" title="Yoshio Koide">Yoshio Koide</a> in 1981, and later by others.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cao_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cao-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It relates the masses of the three charged <a href="/wiki/Leptons" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptons">leptons</a>: <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q={\frac {m_{e}+m_{\mu }+m_{\tau }}{{\big (}{\sqrt {m_{e}}}+{\sqrt {m_{\mu }}}+{\sqrt {m_{\tau }}}{\big )}^{2}}}=0.666661(7)\approx {\frac {2}{3}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>Q</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">(</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>μ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>τ</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>0.666661</mn> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>7</mn> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>≈</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>2</mn> <mn>3</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q={\frac {m_{e}+m_{\mu }+m_{\tau }}{{\big (}{\sqrt {m_{e}}}+{\sqrt {m_{\mu }}}+{\sqrt {m_{\tau }}}{\big )}^{2}}}=0.666661(7)\approx {\frac {2}{3}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7ae6018669b8c3dafeb33f1e3a5638323f167e0d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.671ex; width:49.822ex; height:7.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q={\frac {m_{e}+m_{\mu }+m_{\tau }}{{\big (}{\sqrt {m_{e}}}+{\sqrt {m_{\mu }}}+{\sqrt {m_{\tau }}}{\big )}^{2}}}=0.666661(7)\approx {\frac {2}{3}}}"></span>. The Standard Model does not predict lepton masses (they are free parameters of the theory). However, the value of the Koide formula being equal to 2/3 within experimental errors of the measured lepton masses suggests the existence of a theory which is able to predict lepton masses.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cabibbo%E2%80%93Kobayashi%E2%80%93Maskawa_matrix" title="Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix">CKM matrix</a>, if interpreted as a rotation matrix in a 3-dimensional vector space, "rotates" a vector composed of square roots of down-type quark masses <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {m_{d}}},{\sqrt {m_{s}}},{\sqrt {m_{b}}}{\big )}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>d</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>s</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>b</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {m_{d}}},{\sqrt {m_{s}}},{\sqrt {m_{b}}}{\big )}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/0996e3fc7acd23be39162d15305d9aa19dc821ba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:18.999ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {m_{d}}},{\sqrt {m_{s}}},{\sqrt {m_{b}}}{\big )}}"></span> into a vector of square roots of up-type quark masses <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {m_{u}}},{\sqrt {m_{c}}},{\sqrt {m_{t}}}{\big )}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>u</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <msqrt> <msub> <mi>m</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </msqrt> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo maxsize="1.2em" minsize="1.2em">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {m_{u}}},{\sqrt {m_{c}}},{\sqrt {m_{t}}}{\big )}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9f4c4329ec2f47cf791ebb47844de203ed8017e4" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.171ex; width:18.909ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ({\sqrt {m_{u}}},{\sqrt {m_{c}}},{\sqrt {m_{t}}}{\big )}}"></span>, up to vector lengths, a result due to Kohzo Nishida.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The sum of squares of the Yukawa couplings of all Standard Model fermions is approximately 0.984, which is very close to 1. To put it another way, the sum of squares of fermion masses is very close to half of squared Higgs vacuum expectation value. This sum is dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top quark</a>.</li> <li>The sum of squares of boson masses (that is, W, Z, and Higgs bosons) is also very close to half of squared Higgs vacuum expectation value, the ratio is approximately 1.004.</li> <li>Consequently, the sum of squared masses of all Standard Model particles is very close to the squared Higgs vacuum expectation value, the ratio is approximately 0.994.</li></ul> <p>It is unclear if these empirical relationships represent any underlying physics; according to Koide, the rule he discovered "may be an accidental coincidence".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_problems">Theoretical problems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theoretical problems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some features of the standard model are added in an <i><a href="/wiki/Ad_hoc" title="Ad hoc">ad hoc</a></i> way. These are not problems per se (i.e. the theory works fine with the <i>ad hoc</i> insertions), but they imply a lack of understanding. These contrived features have motivated theorists to look for more fundamental theories with fewer parameters. Some of the contrivances are: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">Hierarchy problem</a></i> – the standard model introduces particle masses through a process known as <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">spontaneous symmetry breaking</a> caused by the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs field</a>. Within the standard model, the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs particle</a> gets some very large quantum corrections due to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">virtual particles</a> (mostly virtual <a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">top quarks</a>). These corrections are much larger than the actual mass of the Higgs. This means that the <a href="/wiki/Bare_mass" title="Bare mass">bare mass</a> parameter of the Higgs in the standard model must be <a href="/wiki/Fine-tuning_(physics)" title="Fine-tuning (physics)">fine tuned</a> in such a way that almost completely cancels the quantum corrections.<sup id="cite_ref-Hierarchy_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hierarchy-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This level of fine-tuning is deemed <a href="/wiki/Naturalness_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalness (physics)">unnatural</a> by many theorists.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2018)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i>Number of parameters</i> – the standard model depends on 19 parameter numbers. Their values are known from experiment, but the origin of the values is unknown. Some theorists<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (September 2018)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> have tried to find relations between different parameters, for example, <a href="#Unexplained_relations">between the masses of particles</a> in different <a href="/wiki/Generation_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Generation (physics)">generations</a> or calculating particle masses, such as in <a href="/wiki/Physics_applications_of_asymptotically_safe_gravity#The_mass_of_the_Higgs_boson" title="Physics applications of asymptotically safe gravity">asymptotic safety</a> scenarios.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quantum_triviality" title="Quantum triviality">Quantum triviality</a></i> – suggests that it may not be possible to create a consistent quantum field theory involving elementary scalar Higgs particles. This is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Landau_pole" title="Landau pole">Landau pole</a> problem.<sup id="cite_ref-TrivPurs_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TrivPurs-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strong_CP_problem" title="Strong CP problem">Strong CP problem</a></i> – it can be argued theoretically that the standard model should contain a term in the <a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">strong interaction</a> that breaks <a href="/wiki/CP_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="CP symmetry">CP symmetry</a>, causing slightly different interaction rates for matter vs. <a href="/wiki/Antimatter" title="Antimatter">antimatter</a>. Experimentally, however, no such violation has been found, implying that the coefficient of this term – if any – would be suspiciously close to zero.<sup id="cite_ref-Strong_CP_problem_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strong_CP_problem-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_experimental_results">Additional experimental results</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Additional experimental results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Research from experimental data on the <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">cosmological constant</a>, <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a> <a href="/wiki/Noise" title="Noise">noise</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsar timing">pulsar timing</a>, suggests it's very unlikely that there are any new particles with masses much higher than those which can be found in the standard model or the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cosmological-bounds_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cosmological-bounds-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ligo-noise_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ligo-noise-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pulsar-timing_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pulsar-timing-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this research has also indicated that <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Perturbative" class="mw-redirect" title="Perturbative">perturbative</a> <a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">quantum field theory</a> will become strongly coupled before 1 PeV, leading to other new physics in the TeVs.<sup id="cite_ref-cosmological-bounds_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cosmological-bounds-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grand_unified_theories">Grand unified theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Grand unified theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand Unified Theory</a></div> <p>The standard model has three <a href="/wiki/Gauge_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Gauge symmetry">gauge symmetries</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Color_charge" title="Color charge">colour</a> <a href="/wiki/SU(3)" class="mw-redirect" title="SU(3)">SU(3)</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">weak isospin</a> <a href="/wiki/SU(2)" class="mw-redirect" title="SU(2)">SU(2)</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Weak_hypercharge" title="Weak hypercharge">weak hypercharge</a> <a href="/wiki/U(1)" class="mw-redirect" title="U(1)">U(1)</a> symmetry, corresponding to the three fundamental forces. Due to <a href="/wiki/Renormalization" title="Renormalization">renormalization</a> the coupling constants of each of these symmetries vary with the energy at which they are measured. Around <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7006160217648700000♠"></span>10<sup>16</sup> GeV</span> these couplings become approximately equal. This has led to speculation that above this energy the three gauge symmetries of the standard model are unified in one single gauge symmetry with a <a href="/wiki/Simple_group" title="Simple group">simple</a> gauge group, and just one coupling constant. Below this energy the symmetry is <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">spontaneously broken</a> to the standard model symmetries.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Popular choices for the unifying group are the special unitary group in five dimensions <a href="/wiki/SU(5)" class="mw-redirect" title="SU(5)">SU(5)</a> and the special orthogonal group in ten dimensions <a href="/wiki/SO(10)" title="SO(10)">SO(10)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchmller_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchmller-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theories that unify the standard model symmetries in this way are called <a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Unified Theories">Grand Unified Theories</a> (or GUTs), and the energy scale at which the unified symmetry is broken is called the GUT scale. Generically, grand unified theories predict the creation of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">magnetic monopoles</a> in the early universe,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and instability of the <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neither of these have been observed, and this absence of observation puts limits on the possible GUTs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supersymmetry">Supersymmetry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">Supersymmetry</a></div> <p>Supersymmetry extends the Standard Model by adding another class of symmetries to the <a href="/wiki/Lagrangian_(field_theory)" title="Lagrangian (field theory)">Lagrangian</a>. These symmetries exchange <a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">fermionic</a> particles with <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">bosonic</a> ones. Such a symmetry predicts the existence of <i>supersymmetric particles</i>, abbreviated as <i><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">sparticles</a></i>, which include the <a href="/wiki/Slepton" class="mw-redirect" title="Slepton">sleptons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squark" class="mw-redirect" title="Squark">squarks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">neutralinos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">charginos</a>. Each particle in the Standard Model would have a superpartner whose <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> differs by 1/2 from the ordinary particle. Due to the <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry_breaking" title="Supersymmetry breaking">breaking of supersymmetry</a>, the sparticles are much heavier than their ordinary counterparts; they are so heavy that existing <a href="/wiki/Particle_collider" class="mw-redirect" title="Particle collider">particle colliders</a> may not be powerful enough to produce them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neutrinos">Neutrinos</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Neutrinos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the standard model, neutrinos cannot <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillations" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino oscillations">spontaneously change flavor</a>. Measurements however indicated that neutrinos do spontaneously change flavor, in what is called <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillations" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrino oscillations">neutrino oscillations</a>. </p><p>Neutrino oscillations are usually explained using massive neutrinos. In the standard model, <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a> have exactly zero mass, as the standard model only contains <a href="/wiki/Chirality_(physics)" title="Chirality (physics)">left-handed</a> neutrinos. With no suitable right-handed partner, it is impossible to add a renormalizable mass term to the standard model.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These measurements only give the mass differences between the different flavours. The best constraint on the absolute mass of the neutrinos comes from precision measurements of <a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">tritium</a> decay, providing an upper limit 2 eV, which makes them at least five orders of magnitude lighter than the other particles in the standard model.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This necessitates an extension of the standard model, which not only needs to explain how neutrinos get their mass, but also why the mass is so small.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One approach to add masses to the neutrinos, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Seesaw_mechanism" title="Seesaw mechanism">seesaw mechanism</a>, is to add right-handed neutrinos and have these couple to left-handed neutrinos with a <a href="/wiki/Dirac_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirac mass">Dirac mass</a> term. The right-handed neutrinos have to be <a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">sterile</a>, meaning that they do not participate in any of the standard model interactions. Because they have no charges, the right-handed neutrinos can act as their own anti-particles, and have a <a href="/wiki/Majorana_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Majorana mass">Majorana mass</a> term. Like the other Dirac masses in the standard model, the neutrino Dirac mass is expected to be generated through the Higgs mechanism, and is therefore unpredictable. The standard model fermion masses differ by many orders of magnitude; the Dirac neutrino mass has at least the same uncertainty. On the other hand, the Majorana mass for the right-handed neutrinos does not arise from the Higgs mechanism, and is therefore expected to be tied to some energy scale of new physics beyond the standard model, for example the Planck scale.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, any process involving right-handed neutrinos will be suppressed at low energies. The correction due to these suppressed processes effectively gives the left-handed neutrinos a mass that is inversely proportional to the right-handed Majorana mass, a mechanism known as the see-saw.<sup id="cite_ref-TASI_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TASI-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of heavy right-handed neutrinos thereby explains both the small mass of the left-handed neutrinos and the absence of the right-handed neutrinos in observations. However, due to the uncertainty in the Dirac neutrino masses, the right-handed neutrino masses can lie anywhere. For example, they could be as light as keV and be <a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">dark matter</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they can have a mass in the <a href="/wiki/LHC" class="mw-redirect" title="LHC">LHC</a> energy range<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lead to observable <a href="/wiki/Lepton_number" title="Lepton number">lepton number</a> violation,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or they can be near the GUT scale, linking the right-handed neutrinos to the possibility of a grand unified theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Gell-Mann1979_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gell-Mann1979-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mass terms mix neutrinos of different generations. This mixing is parameterized by the <a href="/wiki/PMNS_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="PMNS matrix">PMNS matrix</a>, which is the neutrino analogue of the <a href="/wiki/CKM_matrix" class="mw-redirect" title="CKM matrix">CKM quark mixing matrix</a>. Unlike the quark mixing, which is almost minimal, the mixing of the neutrinos appears to be almost maximal. This has led to various speculations of symmetries between the various generations that could explain the mixing patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mixing matrix could also contain several complex phases that break CP invariance, although there has been no experimental probe of these. These phases could potentially create a surplus of leptons over anti-leptons in the early universe, a process known as <a href="/wiki/Leptogenesis_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Leptogenesis (physics)">leptogenesis</a>. This asymmetry could then at a later stage be converted in an excess of baryons over anti-baryons, and explain the matter-antimatter asymmetry in the universe.<sup id="cite_ref-Buchmller_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buchmller-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The light neutrinos are disfavored as an explanation for the observation of dark matter, based on considerations of large-scale structure formation in the early universe. Simulations of <a href="/wiki/Structure_formation" title="Structure formation">structure formation</a> show that they are too hot – that is, their kinetic energy is large compared to their mass – while formation of structures similar to the galaxies in our universe requires <a href="/wiki/Cold_dark_matter" title="Cold dark matter">cold dark matter</a>. The simulations show that neutrinos can at best explain a few percent of the missing mass in dark matter. However, the heavy, sterile, right-handed neutrinos <i>are</i> a possible candidate for a dark matter <a href="/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particle" title="Weakly interacting massive particle">WIMP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are however other explanations for neutrino oscillations which do not necessarily require neutrinos to have masses, such as <a href="/wiki/Lorentz-violating_neutrino_oscillations" title="Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations">Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preon_models">Preon models</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Preon models"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several <a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">preon</a> models have been proposed to address the unsolved problem concerning the fact that there are three generations of quarks and leptons. Preon models generally postulate some additional new particles which are further postulated to be able to combine to form the quarks and leptons of the standard model. One of the earliest preon models was the <a href="/wiki/Rishon_model" title="Rishon model">Rishon model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To date, no preon model is widely accepted or fully verified. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_everything">Theories of everything</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Theories of everything"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a></div> <p>Theoretical physics continues to strive toward a theory of everything, a theory that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena, and predicts the outcome of any experiment that could be carried out in principle. </p><p>In practical terms the immediate goal in this regard is to develop a theory which would unify the Standard Model with <a href="/wiki/General_Relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="General Relativity">General Relativity</a> in a theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a>. Additional features, such as overcoming conceptual flaws in either theory or accurate prediction of particle masses, would be desired. The challenges in putting together such a theory are not just conceptual - they include the experimental aspects of the very high energies needed to probe exotic realms. </p><p>Several notable attempts in this direction are <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">loop quantum gravity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supersymmetry_2">Supersymmetry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Supersymmetry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">supersymmetry</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loop_quantum_gravity">Loop quantum gravity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Loop quantum gravity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">loop quantum gravity</a></div> <p>Theories of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">quantum gravity</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Loop_quantum_gravity" title="Loop quantum gravity">loop quantum gravity</a> and others are thought by some to be promising candidates to the mathematical unification of quantum field theory and general relativity, requiring less drastic changes to existing theories.<sup id="cite_ref-Smolin2001_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smolin2001-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However recent work places stringent limits on the putative effects of quantum gravity on the speed of light, and disfavours some current models of quantum gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="String_theory">String theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: String theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></div> <p>Extensions, revisions, replacements, and reorganizations of the Standard Model exist in attempt to correct for these and other issues. <a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a> is one such reinvention, and many theoretical physicists think that such theories are the next theoretical step toward a true <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Everything" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Everything">Theory of Everything</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smolin2001_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smolin2001-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the numerous variants of string theory, <a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a>, whose mathematical existence was first proposed at a String Conference in 1995 by Edward Witten, is believed by many to be a proper <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Everything" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Everything">"ToE"</a> candidate, notably by physicists <a href="/wiki/Brian_Greene" title="Brian Greene">Brian Greene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a>. Though a full mathematical description is not yet known, solutions to the theory exist for specific cases.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recent works have also proposed alternate string models, some of which lack the various harder-to-test features of <a href="/wiki/M-theory" title="M-theory">M-theory</a> (e.g. the existence of <a href="/wiki/Calabi%E2%80%93Yau_manifold" title="Calabi–Yau manifold">Calabi–Yau manifolds</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Extra_dimensions" title="Extra dimensions">extra dimensions</a>, etc.) including works by well-published physicists such as <a href="/wiki/Lisa_Randall" title="Lisa Randall">Lisa Randall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimatter_tests_of_Lorentz_violation" title="Antimatter tests of Lorentz violation">Antimatter tests of Lorentz violation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics#Beyond_black_holes" title="Black hole thermodynamics">Beyond black holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dimensionless_physical_constant#Constants_in_the_standard_model_and_in_cosmology" title="Dimensionless physical constant">Fundamental physical constants in the standard model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsless_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Higgsless model">Higgsless model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_principle" title="Holographic principle">Holographic principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Higgs" title="Little Higgs">Little Higgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorentz-violating_neutrino_oscillations" title="Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations">Lorentz-violating neutrino oscillations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_minimal_standard_model" title="Neutrino minimal standard model">Neutrino Minimal Standard Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peccei%E2%80%93Quinn_theory" title="Peccei–Quinn theory">Peccei–Quinn theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard-Model_Extension" title="Standard-Model Extension">Standard-Model Extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">Supergravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seesaw_mechanism" title="Seesaw mechanism">Seesaw mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">Supersymmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superfluid_vacuum_theory" title="Superfluid vacuum theory">Superfluid vacuum theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technicolor_(physics)" title="Technicolor (physics)">Technicolor (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unsolved_problems_in_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Unsolved problems in physics">Unsolved problems in physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unparticle_physics" title="Unparticle physics">Unparticle physics</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Donoghue_2012_quote-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Donoghue_2012_quote_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Donoghue_2012_quote_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> "One can find thousands of statements in the literature to the effect that <i>general relativity and quantum mechanics are incompatible</i>. These are completely outdated and no longer relevant. <dl><dd></dd></dl> <a href="/wiki/Effective_field_theory" title="Effective field theory">Effective field theory</a> shows that general relativity and quantum mechanics work together perfectly normally over a range of scales and curvatures, including those relevant for the world that we see around us. However, effective field theories are only valid over some range of scales. General relativity certainly does have problematic issues at extreme scales. There are important problems which the effective field theory does not solve because they are beyond its range of validity. However, this means that the issue of quantum gravity is not what we thought it to be: Rather than a fundamental incompatibility of quantum mechanics and gravity, we are in the more familiar situation of needing a more complete theory beyond the range of their combined applicability. <dl><dd></dd></dl> The usual marriage of general relativity and quantum mechanics is fine at ordinary energies, but we now seek to uncover the modifications that must be present in more extreme conditions. This is the modern view of the problem of quantum gravity, and it represents progress over the outdated view <span class="nowrap">of the past." — Donoghue (2012)<sup id="cite_ref-Donoghue-2012_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donoghue-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> <dl><dd>See also contrary contemporary quote<sup id="cite_ref-Sushkov_Kim_etal_2011_quote_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sushkov_Kim_etal_2011_quote-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from Sushkov, Kim, <i>et al</i>. (2011).<sup id="cite_ref-Sushkov-Kim-etal-2011_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sushkov-Kim-etal-2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Sushkov_Kim_etal_2011_quote-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sushkov_Kim_etal_2011_quote_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sushkov_Kim_etal_2011_quote_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> "It is remarkable that two of the greatest successes of 20th century physics, general relativity and the standard model, appear to be fundamentally <span class="nowrap">incompatible." — Sushkov, Kim, <i>et al</i>. (2011)<sup id="cite_ref-Sushkov-Kim-etal-2011_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sushkov-Kim-etal-2011-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> <dl><dd>But see contrary quote<sup id="cite_ref-Donoghue_2012_quote_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donoghue_2012_quote-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from Donoghue (2012).<sup id="cite_ref-Donoghue-2012_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Donoghue-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Wolchover-2018-02-13-summary-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wolchover-2018-02-13-summary_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> "When physicists strip neutrons from atomic nuclei, put them in a bottle, then count how many remain there after some time, they infer that neutrons radioactively decay in 14<sup>m</sup>39<sup>s</sup>, on average. But when other physicists generate beams of neutrons and tally the emerging protons—the particles that free neutrons decay into—they peg the average neutron lifetime at around 14<sup>m</sup>48<sup>s</sup>. The discrepancy between the 'bottle' and 'beam' measurements has persisted [ever] since both methods of gauging the neutron's longevity began yielding results in the 1990s. At first, all the measurements were so imprecise that nobody worried. Gradually, though, both methods have improved, and still they disagree."<sup id="cite_ref-Wolchover-2018-02-13-Quanta_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolchover-2018-02-13-Quanta-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-sym-v2-feb-05-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sym-v2-feb-05_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWomersley2005" class="citation web cs1">Womersley, J. 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"An Alternative to Compactification". <i><a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters" title="Physical Review Letters">Physical Review Letters</a></i>. <b>83</b> (23): 4690–4693. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/9906064">hep-th/9906064</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PhRvL..83.4690R">1999PhRvL..83.4690R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.83.4690">10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.4690</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18530420">18530420</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+Letters&rft.atitle=An+Alternative+to+Compactification&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=4690-4693&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-th%2F9906064&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18530420%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.83.4690&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999PhRvL..83.4690R&rft.aulast=Randall&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Sundrum%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics+beyond+the+Standard+Model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLisa_Randall2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Randall" title="Lisa Randall">Lisa Randall</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Warped_Passages:_Unraveling_the_Mysteries_of_the_Universe%27s_Hidden_Dimensions" class="mw-redirect" title="Warped Passages: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Universe's Hidden Dimensions"><i>Warped Passages: Unraveling the Mysteries of the Universe's Hidden Dimensions</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-053108-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-053108-9"><bdi>978-0-06-053108-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warped+Passages%3A+Unraveling+the+Mysteries+of+the+Universe%27s+Hidden+Dimensions&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-06-053108-9&rft.au=Lisa+Randall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysics+beyond+the+Standard+Model" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_resources">External resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory.html">Standard Model Theory @ SLAC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000542E5-F21A-1422-AE7883414B7F0000&chanID=sa006&colID=12"><i>Scientific American</i> Apr 2006</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v448/n7151/full/nature06079.html">LHC. <i>Nature</i> July 2007</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080618212609/http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/708827/description#description">Les Houches Conference, Summer 2005</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Standard_Model" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Standard_model_of_physics" title="Template:Standard model of physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Standard_model_of_physics" title="Template talk:Standard model of physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Standard_model_of_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Standard model of physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Standard_Model" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">Gauge boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_field_theory" title="Quantum field theory">Quantum field theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauge_theory" title="Gauge theory">Gauge theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">Strong interaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_charge" title="Color charge">Color charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">Quantum chromodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">Quark model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_interaction" title="Electroweak interaction">Electroweak interaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">Weak interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction" title="Fermi's interaction">Fermi's interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_hypercharge" title="Weak hypercharge">Weak hypercharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_isospin" title="Weak isospin">Weak isospin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/150px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/225px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/300px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1390" data-file-height="1330" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Constituents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cabibbo%E2%80%93Kobayashi%E2%80%93Maskawa_matrix" title="Cabibbo–Kobayashi–Maskawa matrix">CKM matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_symmetry_breaking" title="Spontaneous symmetry breaking">Spontaneous symmetry breaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_mechanism" title="Higgs mechanism">Higgs mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Beyond the<br />Standard Model</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Evidence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_problem" title="Hierarchy problem">Hierarchy problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_matter" title="Dark matter">Dark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant" title="Cosmological constant">Cosmological constant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmological_constant_problem" title="Cosmological constant problem">problem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CP_violation" title="CP violation">Strong CP problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">Neutrino oscillation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technicolor_(physics)" title="Technicolor (physics)">Technicolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaluza%E2%80%93Klein_theory" title="Kaluza–Klein theory">Kaluza–Klein theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Unified_Theory" title="Grand Unified Theory">Grand Unified Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Supersymmetry" title="Supersymmetry">Supersymmetry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">MSSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Next-to-Minimal_Supersymmetric_Standard_Model" title="Next-to-Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model">NMSSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_supersymmetry" title="Split supersymmetry">Split supersymmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergravity" title="Supergravity">Supergravity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_gravity" title="Quantum gravity">Quantum gravity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/String_theory" title="String theory">String theory</a></li> <li><a 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<li><a href="/wiki/India-based_Neutrino_Observatory" title="India-based Neutrino Observatory">INO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">SNO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-Kamiokande" title="Super-Kamiokande">Super-K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tevatron" title="Tevatron">Tevatron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 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