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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>As an adaptive mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_an_adaptive_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_power_of_reciprocity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_power_of_reciprocity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>The power of reciprocity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_power_of_reciprocity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The power of reciprocity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_power_of_reciprocity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positive_and_negative_reciprocity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive_and_negative_reciprocity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Positive and negative reciprocity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive_and_negative_reciprocity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reciprocity_in_the_workplace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reciprocity_in_the_workplace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reciprocity in the workplace</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reciprocity_in_the_workplace-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reciprocity in the workplace subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reciprocity_in_the_workplace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Negative_reciprocity_in_the_workplace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_reciprocity_in_the_workplace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Negative reciprocity in the workplace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Negative_reciprocity_in_the_workplace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reciprocity_and_trust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reciprocity_and_trust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Reciprocity and trust</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reciprocity_and_trust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-serving_reciprocity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-serving_reciprocity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Self-serving reciprocity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-serving_reciprocity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reciprocity_in_non-human_primates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reciprocity_in_non-human_primates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Reciprocity in non-human primates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reciprocity_in_non-human_primates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reciprocal_concessions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reciprocal_concessions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Reciprocal concessions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reciprocal_concessions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reciprocal concessions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reciprocal_concessions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_door-in-the-face_technique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_door-in-the-face_technique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>The door-in-the-face technique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_door-in-the-face_technique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AB%D9%84_(%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B3_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A)" title="معاملة بالمثل (علم النفس الاجتماعي) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معاملة بالمثل (علم النفس الاجتماعي)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocitet_(sociologi)" title="Reciprocitet (sociologi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Reciprocitet (sociologi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reziprozit%C3%A4t_(Soziologie)" title="Reziprozität (Soziologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Reziprozität (Soziologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_(%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C)" title="بده‌بستان (روان‌شناسی اجتماعی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بده‌بستان (روان‌شناسی اجتماعی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9ciprocit%C3%A9_sociale" title="Réciprocité sociale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Réciprocité sociale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagnkv%C3%A6mni" title="Gagnkvæmni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gagnkvæmni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tik_di_r%C3%A9siprosit%C3%A9" title="Étik di résiprosité – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Étik di résiprosité" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resiprositet_(sosiologi)" title="Resiprositet (sosiologi) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Resiprositet (sosiologi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regu%C5%82a_wzajemno%C5%9Bci" title="Reguła wzajemności – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Reguła wzajemności" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocidade" title="Reciprocidade – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reciprocidade" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%B2_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%85" title="Взаимность в социальных предпочтениях – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Взаимность в социальных предпочтениях" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medsebojna_delitev" title="Medsebojna delitev – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Medsebojna delitev" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vastavuoroisuus" title="Vastavuoroisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vastavuoroisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocitetsprincipen" title="Reciprocitetsprincipen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Reciprocitetsprincipen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kar%C5%9F%C4%B1l%C4%B1kl%C4%B1l%C4%B1k_(sosyal_psikoloji)" title="Karşılıklılık (sosyal psikoloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Karşılıklılık (sosyal psikoloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E6%83%A0%E6%80%A7" title="互惠性 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="互惠性" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Social construct</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Essay-like plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-essay-like" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>is written like a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_publisher_of_original_thought" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay</a></b> that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in an <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Writing_better_articles#Information_style_and_tone" title="Wikipedia:Writing better articles">encyclopedic style</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, <b>reciprocity</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norm</a> of responding to a positive action with another positive action, rewarding kind actions. As a <a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social construct</a>, reciprocity means that in response to friendly actions, people are frequently much nicer and much more cooperative than predicted by the self-interest model; conversely, in response to hostile actions they are frequently much more nasty and even brutal.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been called <b>reciprocity bias</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reciprocity is a crucial aspect of how people interact and live in society but researchers who study these interactions often undermine its importance. </p><p>Reciprocity makes it possible to build sustainable and continuing relationships with reciprocal exchanges. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Francis Fukuyama</a> states: </p><p>“If the institutions of democracy and capitalism are to work properly, they must coexist within certain premodern cultural habits that ensure their proper functioning”.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He goes on to say: </p><p>“Law, contract, and economic rationality and prosperity…. must as well be leavened with reciprocity, moral obligation, duty toward community, and trust…. The latter are not anachronisms in a modern society but rather the <a href="/wiki/Sine_qua_non" title="Sine qua non">sine qua non</a> of the latter’s success” </p><p>According to the sociologist <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Gouldner" title="Alvin Gouldner">Alvin Gouldner</a>, this norm is nearly universal, and only a few members of society—the very young, the sick, or the old—are exempt from it.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The R-Model was developed as a theory about sustainable healthy relationships with reciprocal elements at its core. The theory explains the need for reciprocity is necessary for the relationship to be sustainable and health. Without reciprocity, the relationship is considered less sustainable and less healthy. The author of the R-Model explains the need for balance in a relationship, and with balance there can be even growth in the relationship.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The R-Model is a <b>Biopsychosocial model,</b> a class of trans-disciplinary models which look at the interconnection between <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social" title="Social">socio</a>-<a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environmental</a> factors. It was first developed to understand the nature of relationship in the environment and discipline of group therapy. The initial model was influenced by works from <a href="/wiki/Eric_Berne" title="Eric Berne">Eric Berne</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Bowlby" title="John Bowlby">John Bowlby</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Kohlrieser" title="George Kohlrieser">George Kohlrieser</a>. </p><p>Reciprocal actions differ from altruistic actions in that reciprocal actions only follow from others' initial actions, while <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> is the unconditional act of social gift-giving without any hope or expectation of future positive responses.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some distinguish between ideal altruism (giving with no expectation of future reward) and <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">reciprocal altruism</a> (giving with limited expectation or the potential for expectation of future reward). For more information on this idea, see <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Altruism_(ethics)" title="Altruism (ethics)">altruism (ethics)</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reciprocity dates as far back as the time of <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> (c. 1792–1750 BC). <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Hammurabi" title="Code of Hammurabi">Hammurabi's code</a>, a collection of 282 laws and standards, lists crimes and their various punishments as well as guidelines for citizens' conduct.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The code demanded the individual act in terms of the public interest. The "<a href="/wiki/Eye_for_an_eye" title="Eye for an eye">eye for an eye</a>" principles in which the laws were written mirror the idea of direct reciprocity. For example, if a person caused the death of another person, the killer would be put to death. </p><p>Reciprocity was also a cornerstone of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>. In Homeric Greece, citizens relied on reciprocity as a form of transaction as there was no formal system of government or trade.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i>, he illustrates several instances of reciprocal transactions in the form of gift giving. For example, in Book VI of the Iliad, <a href="/wiki/Glaucus" title="Glaucus">Glaucus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diomedes" title="Diomedes">Diomedes</a> exchange armor when they discover that their grandfathers were friends.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there were times when direct reciprocity was not possible, specifically in times of great need when a citizen had nothing to give for repayment. Thus, deferred reciprocity was also prevalent in Greek culture at this time. Deferred reciprocity refers to giving a person gifts or favors with the understanding that they will repay this favor at another time when the initial giver is in great need. This form of reciprocity was used extensively by travelers, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Odysseus often had to rely on the kindness of human strangers and other mythological creatures to secure resources along his journey. </p><p>In the classical Greek <i><a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a></i>, large-scale projects such as construction of temples, building of warships and financing of choruses were carried out as gifts from individual donors. In Rome, wealthy elite were linked with their dependents in a cycle of reciprocal gift giving.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As these examples suggest, reciprocity enjoyed a cultural prestige among ancient aristocracies for whom it was advantageous.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_an_adaptive_mechanism">As an adaptive mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: As an adaptive mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Richard Leakey and <a href="/wiki/Roger_Lewin" title="Roger Lewin">Roger Lewin</a> attribute the very nature of humans to reciprocity. They claim humans survived because our ancestors learned to share goods and services "in an honored network of obligation".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the idea that humans are indebted to repay gifts and favors is a unique aspect of human culture. <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropologists</a> support this idea in what they call the "web of indebtedness" where reciprocity is viewed as an adaptive mechanism to enhance survival.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within this approach, reciprocity creates an interdependent environment where labor is divided so that humans may be more efficient. For example, if one member of the group cares for the children while another member hunts for food for the group, each member has provided a service and received one in return. Each member can devote more time and attention to his or her allotted task and the whole group benefits. This meant that individuals could give away resources without actually giving them away. Through the rule of reciprocity, sophisticated systems of aid and trade were possible, bringing immense benefits to the societies that utilized them.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the benefits of reciprocity at the societal level, it is not surprising that the norm has persisted and dictates our present cognition and behavior. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_power_of_reciprocity">The power of reciprocity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The power of reciprocity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reciprocity is not only a strong determining factor of human behavior; it is a powerful method for gaining one's compliance with a request. The rule of reciprocity has the power to trigger feelings of indebtedness even when faced with an uninvited favor<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and irrespective of liking the person who executed the favor.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1971, Dennis Regan tested the strength of these two aspects of reciprocity in a study where participants believed they were in an art appreciation experiment with a partner, Joe, who was really Regan's assistant. During the experiment, Joe would disappear and bring back a soft drink for the participant. After this phase of the experiment was over, Joe would ask the participant to buy <a href="/wiki/Raffle" title="Raffle">raffle tickets</a> from him. The more the participants liked Joe, the more likely they were to buy raffle tickets from him. However, when Joe had given them a soda and thus indebted them to reciprocate, it made no difference whether the participants liked Joe or not, the rule of reciprocity overpowered liking.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, individuals who we might not even like have the power to greatly increase our chances of doing them a favor simply by providing us with a small gift or favor prior to their request. Furthermore, we are obliged to receive these gifts and favors which reduces our ability to choose to whom we wish to be indebted.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1976, Phillip Kunz demonstrated the automatic nature of reciprocity in an experiment using Christmas cards. In this experiment, Kunz sent out holiday cards with pictures of his family and a brief note to a group of complete strangers. While he expected some reaction, holiday cards came pouring back to him from people who had never met nor heard of him and who expressed no desire to get to know him any better.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The majority of these individuals who responded never inquired into Kunz's identity, they were merely responding to his initial gesture with a reciprocal action. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a> is another area where the power of reciprocity is evident. While politicians often claim autonomy from the feelings of obligation associated with gifts and favors that influence everyone else, they are also susceptible. In the 2002 election, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">U.S. Congress</a> Representatives who received the most money from <a href="/wiki/Special_interest_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Special interest groups">special interest groups</a> were over seven times more likely to vote in favor of the group that had contributed the most money to their campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Fehr" title="Ernst Fehr">Fehr</a> & <a href="/wiki/Simon_G%C3%A4chter" title="Simon Gächter">Gächter</a> (2000) showed that, when acting within reciprocal frameworks, individuals are more likely to deviate from purely self-interested behavior than when acting in other social contexts. <a href="/wiki/Magnanimity" title="Magnanimity">Magnanimity</a> is often repaid with disproportionate amounts of <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">cooperation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Betrayal" title="Betrayal">treachery</a> with disproportionate amounts of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">hostility</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vengeance_(concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vengeance (concept)">vengeance</a>, which can significantly surpass amounts determined or predicted by conventional economic models of <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational self-interest</a>. Moreover, reciprocal tendencies are frequently observed in situations wherein <a href="/wiki/Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">transaction costs</a> associated with specific reciprocal actions are high and present or future material rewards are not expected. Whether self-interested or reciprocal action dominates the aggregate outcome is particularly dependent on context; in <a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a> or market-like scenarios characterized by <a href="/wiki/Competition" title="Competition">competitiveness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Incomplete_contracts" title="Incomplete contracts">incomplete contracts</a>, reciprocity tends to win out over self-interest.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Positive_and_negative_reciprocity">Positive and negative reciprocity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Positive and negative reciprocity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Positive reciprocity occurs when an action committed by one individual that has a positive effect on someone else is returned with an action that has an approximately equal positive effect.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Caliendo_394–409_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caliendo_394–409-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if someone takes care of another person's dog, the person who received this favor should then return this action with another favor such as with a small gift. However, the reciprocated action should be approximately equal to the first action in terms of positive value, otherwise this can result in an uncomfortable social situation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If someone takes care of another person's dog and that person returns the favor by buying that individual a car, the reciprocated gift is inappropriate because it does not equal the initial gesture. Individuals expect actions to be reciprocated by actions that are approximately equal in value.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One example of positive reciprocity is that waitresses who smile broadly or given small gifts receive more <a href="/wiki/Gratuity" title="Gratuity">tips</a> than waitresses who present a minimal smile.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, free samples are not merely opportunities to taste a product but rather invitations to engage in the rule of reciprocity. Many people find it difficult to accept the free sample and walk away. Instead, they buy some of the product even when they did not find it that enjoyable.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Negative reciprocity occurs when an action that has a negative effect on someone is returned with an action that has an approximately equal negative effect.<sup id="cite_ref-Caliendo_394–409_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caliendo_394–409-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, if an individual commits a violent act against a person, it is expected that person would return with a similar act of violence. If, however, the reaction to the initial negative action is not approximately equal in negative value, this violates the norm of reciprocity and what is prescribed as allowable.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Retaliatory aspects i.e. the aspects of trying to get back and cause harm, are known as negative reciprocity. This definition of negative reciprocity is distinct from the way negative reciprocity is defined in other domains. In cultural anthropology, negative reciprocity refers to an attempt to get something for nothing.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often referred to as "bartering" or "haggling" (see <a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">reciprocity (cultural anthropology)</a> for more information). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reciprocity_in_the_workplace">Reciprocity in the workplace</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reciprocity in the workplace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social reciprocity holds significant importance in the workplace as it contributes to the foundation for effective collaboration, teamwork, and a positive work environment. The principle of reciprocity fosters a sense of trust<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and interdependence among employees, which enhances overall workplace dynamics. When employees reciprocate positive actions, such as providing support, sharing information, or acknowledging achievements, it contributes to a culture of mutual respect and cooperation. Moreover, practicing social reciprocity in the workplace can strengthen <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpersonal relationships">interpersonal relationships</a>, recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">social norm</a> within employees of the same status.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, failed reciprocity at work has the potential to lead to negative emotions and heightened stress.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By experiencing a continued lack of reciprocity, the perception of positive work culture erodes and work becomes a negative life event. Failed reciprocity, or lack thereof, in the workplace has the potential to diminish trust, weaken social support, and increase stress-related diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-:04_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:04-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In attempting to improve the quality of a work environment, it is crucial to acknowledge the efforts of reciprocity within the employees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Negative_reciprocity_in_the_workplace">Negative reciprocity in the workplace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Negative reciprocity in the workplace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> According to reciprocity, harmful behavior also tends to be reciprocated with harmful behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A meta-analysis analyzed negative workplace behaviors, which range from bullying and harassment to counterproductive work behavior, by separating them into different categories according to severity (describing the amount of harm: minor, moderate, severe), activity (describing the harm that comes from the withdrawal of positive behaviors: passive, balanced, active), and target (whether the behavior was reciprocated or displaced to another person).<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The analysis found that negative behaviors tend to be reciprocated with the same kind of behavior and the strongest relationship was found in reciprocity using a matched level of severity and activity; however, negative workplace behaviors that escalate in severity or activity also showed a strong and positive relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, when the frequency of negative workplace behaviors increases this is reciprocated by the other person also increasing the frequency of their negative behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The weakest effect was found to be de-escalation in activity or severity, which means that most people tended to respond with the same or a greater amount of reciprocity in negative workplace behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the category of severity, de-escalation only took place when Party A was engaging in severe behaviors like violence or harassment, in Party B engages in moderately severe behavior, which could be a result of not wanting to cross the line of ethical norms and legal repercussions as a consequence of the behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the articles analyzed did not include the target of the negative behaviors; this is why their information on this category was limited.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, they found that for two cases of de-escalation, the reciprocated negative behavior was directed at the instigator instead of being displaced.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was also one case of escalation in which the reciprocated behavior was targeting the instigator.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A news article summarizing research studies suggests that negative reciprocity might exist in order to restore or build a cooperative relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They stated that it is a strategy that has balance as a goal, especially because it involves a relatively proportional response to harm.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hermandad_-_friendship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Hermandad_-_friendship.jpg/279px-Hermandad_-_friendship.jpg" decoding="async" width="279" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Hermandad_-_friendship.jpg/419px-Hermandad_-_friendship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Hermandad_-_friendship.jpg/558px-Hermandad_-_friendship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1230" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>A white man and a black man shaking hands.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reciprocity_and_trust">Reciprocity and trust</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Reciprocity and trust"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Trust in reciprocity takes into consideration three different factors: the individual’s risk preferences (whether or not the person has a tendency to accept risks in trust decisions), their social preferences (whether the individual shows prosocial tendencies or betrayal aversion), and lastly, their beliefs about the other’s trustworthiness (includes social priors like implicit racial attitudes and the reputation of the other individual based on previous experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A coordinated meta-analysis of 30 <a href="/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Functional magnetic resonance imaging">fMRI</a> studies has concluded that trust in reciprocity might cause an adversive feeling at the beginning of a series of interactions with a stranger because of the uncertainty of the decision outcome, which means that individuals are not sure if the other person will reciprocate their actions.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as interpersonal trust grows people are more confident and willing to cooperate with their partners.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interpersonal trust builds up through a learning mechanism that takes information from previous interactions in which the other individual cooperated or did not cooperate.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This learning mechanism helps the individual label the other person as trustworthy or untrustworthy.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This meta-analysis also found that reciprocity, trust, and feedback learning show activity in different areas of the brain, which suggests that all of them are part of different cognitive processes.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theme of reciprocity and trust is also discussed in science magazines like in the <i>Greater Good Magazine</i> where the writers mention that people are more likely to be cooperative with others who act cooperatively towards them or have a reputation of being cooperative.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-serving_reciprocity">Self-serving reciprocity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Self-serving reciprocity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reciprocity has been previously documented as automatic because it requires less cognitive control than other <a href="/wiki/Self-serving_bias" title="Self-serving bias">self-serving</a> behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The researchers of a series of experiments around this topic wanted to investigate whether this automatic reciprocity existed as a motivation to be fair and reciprocal or whether it is a result of wanting to look like a fair person.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To test this they used a two-player activity called the trust game or the investment game.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Participants were given a determined amount of chips/money, the sender is supposed to decide the amount of money/chips (all, some, none) they want to transfer to the trustee or whether they want to keep the money/chips for themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The experimenter triples, in this case, doubles, the amount transferred from the sender and gives it to the trustee, then the trustee decides whether or not to transfer (all, some, none) back.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This series of experiments added a condition where the trustees are informed that their chips are worth twice as much as the sender’s chips, which gives them the option to appear fair and another option to be genuinely fair.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also divided the groups manipulating the participant’s cognitive control.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers replicated the finding showing that people tend to turn to reciprocal behavior when there is a lack of cognitive control due to ego depletion.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also showed that when participants had limited cognitive control, they used the extra information to positively reciprocate to a lesser extent than people without the cognitive control manipulation; however, even with reduced cognitive control, they chose to benefit from the exchange if the outward perception of their behavior would look fair and reciprocal, showing that their main goal was to appear fair, it was not to behave in a fair manner.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_32-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A news article summarized a research study that supports these findings in which researchers found that people tend to take more time to make a generous choice than to make a selfish one.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reciprocity_in_non-human_primates">Reciprocity in non-human primates</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reciprocity in non-human primates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The topic of reciprocity in non-human <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a> has been a field with a lot of research contradictions and opposite findings; however, in a recent meta-analysis, the researchers concluded that primates have the cognitive and social prerequisites needed to use reciprocity.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They evaluated previous findings and found that there are more positive than negative findings.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They added that reciprocity could have been misrepresented in some research studies because it also includes helps between relatives and trading.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers also identified that many of the negative findings come from articles where researchers did not measure the primate’s understanding of the task or studies where the primates did not show an understanding of the activity.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authors also state that previous researchers saw the studies that did not show reciprocity as a failure to prove reciprocity instead of looking at the situations where reciprocity was involved versus the situations where it was not used.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different species also take different time periods to reciprocate an action, it might be short or long-term.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some specific behaviors also seem less likely to be reciprocated.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, it is less likely for a non-human primate to reciprocate food donations.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, the researchers concluded that non-human primate reciprocity is more common than it seems to be and that negative findings should not be thrown out but used for a better comprehension of their use of reciprocity.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_34-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> News sources also support these findings suggesting that other primates use reciprocity in food sharing and other domains; and some of them, like chimpanzees, are more likely to do so if the other chimpanzee had also helped them in the past, which also supports the connection between trust and reciprocity in non-human primates.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reciprocal_concessions">Reciprocal concessions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Reciprocal concessions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are more subtle ways of initiating the reciprocity rule than merely doing something nice for someone so you may expect something in return. One form of this more subtle form of reciprocity is the idea of reciprocal concessions in which the requester lowers his/her initial request, making the respondent more likely to agree to a second request. Under the rule of reciprocity, we are obligated to concede to someone who has made a concession to us.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is, if an individual starts off by requesting something large and you refuse, you feel obligated to consent to their smaller request even though you might not be interested in either of the things they are offering. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cialdini" title="Robert Cialdini">Robert Cialdini</a> illustrates an example of this phenomenon by telling a story of a boy who asks him to buy five-dollar circus tickets and, when Cialdini refuses, asks him to buy some one dollar chocolate bars. Cialdini feels obligated to return the favor and consents to buying some of the chocolate bars.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rule of reciprocity operates in reciprocal concessions in two ways. First, an individual is pressured to reciprocate one concession for another by nature of the rule itself. Second, because the individual who initially concedes can expect to have the other person concede in return, this person is free to make the concession in the first place. If there were no social pressure to return the concession, an individual runs the risk of giving up something and getting nothing in return. Mutual concession is a procedure that can promote compromise in a group so that individuals can refocus their efforts toward achieving a common goal. Reciprocal concessions promote compromise in a group so that the initial and incompatible desires of individuals can be set aside for the benefit of social cooperation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_door-in-the-face_technique">The door-in-the-face technique</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The door-in-the-face technique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Door-in-the-face_technique" title="Door-in-the-face technique">door-in-the-face technique</a>, otherwise known as the rejection-then-retreat technique, involves making an outrageous request that someone will almost certainly turn down, and then make the smaller request that was the favor of interest all along. If done skillfully, the second request is seen as a concession so compliance with the second request is obtained.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, one must proceed with caution when using this technique. If the first request is so big that it is seen as unreasonable, the door in the face technique proves useless as the concession made after is not perceived as genuine.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The door in the face technique is not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Foot-in-the-door_technique" title="Foot-in-the-door technique">foot-in-the-door technique</a> where individuals getting a person to agree with a large request by first getting them to agree to a moderate request.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Franklin_effect" title="Ben Franklin effect">Ben Franklin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_exchange" title="Generalized exchange">Generalized exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homo_reciprocans" title="Homo reciprocans">Homo reciprocans</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Influence:_Science_and_Practice" title="Influence: Science and Practice">Influence: Science and Practice</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_of_reciprocity" title="Norm of reciprocity">Norm of reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner%27s_dilemma" title="Prisoner's dilemma">Prisoner's dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(cultural_anthropology)" title="Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)">Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(international_relations)" title="Reciprocity (international relations)">Reciprocity (international relations)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(social_and_political_philosophy)" title="Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)">Reciprocity (social and political philosophy)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reciprocity_(social_psychology)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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