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class="minerva__tab selected"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Victorian_era" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.subject">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab "> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Victorian_era" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Victorian+era" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1034237262">.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}}</style>In the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">history of the United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, the Victorian era was the reign of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a>, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. Slightly different definitions are sometimes used. The era followed the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a> and preceded the <a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a>, and its later half overlaps with the first part of the <a href="/wiki/Belle_%C3%89poque" title="Belle Époque">Belle Époque</a> era of continental Europe. <div class="stack mw-stack stack-right"><div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="text-align:center;background-color:#ededed;">Victorian era</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; font-weight: bold;">1837–1901</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg/220px-Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg/330px-Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg/440px-Queen_Victoria_-_Winterhalter_1859.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1463" data-file-height="2250"></a><div class="infobox-caption">Painting of <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> by <a href="/wiki/Franz_Xaver_Winterhalter" title="Franz Xaver Winterhalter">Franz Xaver Winterhalter</a> (1859)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Monarch(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Victoria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Leader(s)</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Lamb,_2nd_Viscount_Melbourne" title="William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne">The Viscount Melbourne</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Peel" title="Robert Peel">Sir Robert Peel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord John Russell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Smith-Stanley,_14th_Earl_of_Derby" title="Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby">The Earl of Derby</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/George_Hamilton-Gordon,_4th_Earl_of_Aberdeen" title="George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen">The Earl of Aberdeen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_John_Temple,_3rd_Viscount_Palmerston" title="Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston">The Viscount Palmerston</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli" title="Benjamin Disraeli">Benjamin Disraeli</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gascoyne-Cecil,_3rd_Marquess_of_Salisbury" title="Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury">The Marquess of Salisbury</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Primrose,_5th_Earl_of_Rosebery" title="Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery">The Earl of Rosebery</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below">Chronology <table style="background:var(--background-color-neutral, #eaecf0); color: inherit; border-top: 1px solid #aaa;" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td width="50%" style="text-align:left;"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/10px-Arrleft.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/15px-Arrleft.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Arrleft.svg/20px-Arrleft.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133"> <a href="/wiki/Georgian_era" title="Georgian era">Georgian era</a></td> <td width="50%" style="text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian era</a> <img alt="class-skin-invert-image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/10px-Arrright.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/15px-Arrright.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arrright.svg/20px-Arrright.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="110" data-file-height="133"></td> </tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"> </div></div> Various liberalising political reforms took place in the UK, including expanding the electoral franchise. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> caused mass death in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> early in the period. The British Empire had relatively peaceful relations with the other <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>. It participated in various military conflicts mainly against minor powers. The British Empire expanded during this period and was the predominant power in the world. Victorian society valued a high standard of personal conduct across all sections of society. The <a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">emphasis on morality</a> gave impetus to social reform but also placed restrictions on certain groups' liberty. Prosperity rose during the period, but debilitating <a href="/wiki/Undernutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="Undernutrition">undernutrition</a> persisted. Literacy and childhood education became near universal in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> for the first time. Whilst some attempts were made to improve living conditions, <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slum</a> housing and disease remained a severe problem. The period saw significant scientific and technological development. Britain was advanced in industry and engineering in particular, but somewhat undeveloped in art and education. Great Britain's population increased rapidly, while Ireland's fell sharply. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Terminology_and_periodisation">1 Terminology and periodisation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Politics,_diplomacy_and_war">2 Politics, diplomacy and war</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Society_and_culture">3 Society and culture</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Family_life">3.1 Family life</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Religion_and_social_issues">3.2 Religion and social issues</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Popular_culture">3.3 Popular culture</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="#Economy,_industry,_and_trade">4 Economy, industry, and trade</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Child_labour">4.1 Child labour</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Housing_and_public_health">5 Housing and public health</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Knowledge">6 Knowledge</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Science">6.1 Science</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Industry">6.2 Industry</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="#Moral_standards">7 Moral standards</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Sexual_behavior">7.1 Sexual behavior</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#See_also">8 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Notes">9 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#References">10 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Further_reading">11 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#External_links">12 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Terminology_and_periodisation">Terminology and periodisation</h2></div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Periodisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodisation">Periodisation</a></div> In the strictest sense, the Victorian era covers the duration of Victoria's reign as <a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a>, from her accession on 20 June 1837—after the death of her uncle, <a href="/wiki/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="William IV of the United Kingdom">William IV</a>—until her death on 22 January 1901, after which she was succeeded by her eldest son, <a href="/wiki/Edward_VII" title="Edward VII">Edward VII</a>. Her reign lasted 63 years and seven months, a longer period than any of her predecessors. The term 'Victorian' was in contemporaneous usage to describe the era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlunkett20122-1">[1]</a> The era can also be understood in a more extensive sense—the 'long Victorian era'—as a period that possessed sensibilities and characteristics distinct from the periods adjacent to it,<a href="#cite_note-2">[note 1]</a> in which case it is sometimes dated to begin before Victoria's accession—typically from the passage of or agitation for (during the 1830s) the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act 1832</a>, which introduced a wide-ranging change to the <a href="/wiki/Voting_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting system">electoral system</a> of <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[note 2]</a> Definitions that purport a distinct sensibility or politics to the era have also created scepticism about the worth of the label 'Victorian', though there have also been defences of it.<a href="#cite_note-hewitt20062-4">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Sadleir" title="Michael Sadleir">Michael Sadleir</a> was insistent that "in truth, the Victorian period is three periods, and not one".<a href="#cite_note-5">[3]</a> He distinguished early Victorianism—the socially and politically unsettled period from 1837 to 1850<a href="#cite_note-6">[4]</a>—and late Victorianism (from 1880 onwards), with its new waves of <a href="/wiki/Aestheticism" title="Aestheticism">aestheticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[5]</a> from the Victorian heyday: mid-Victorianism, 1851 to 1879. He saw the latter period as characterised by a distinctive mixture of prosperity, domestic <a href="/wiki/Prude" title="Prude">prudery</a>, and complacency<a href="#cite_note-8">[6]</a>—what <a href="/wiki/G._M._Trevelyan" title="G. M. Trevelyan">G. M. Trevelyan</a> called the 'mid-Victorian decades of quiet politics and roaring prosperity'.<a href="#cite_note-9">[7]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Politics,_diplomacy_and_war">Politics, diplomacy and war</h2></div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Political_and_diplomatic_history_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era">Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg/220px-Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="420"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 119px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg/220px-Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="119" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg/330px-Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg/440px-Cardiganshire_Election_ballot_paper_1880.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Information circulated by the campaign of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Pugh_Pugh" title="Lewis Pugh Pugh">Lewis Pugh Pugh</a>, a candidate at the <a href="/wiki/1880_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1880 United Kingdom general election">1880 general election</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cardiganshire_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiganshire (UK Parliament constituency)">Cardiganshire</a> (now known as Ceredigion), explaining to supporters how to vote.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1832" title="Reform Act 1832">Reform Act</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[note 3]</a> which made various changes to the electoral system including expanding the franchise, had been passed in 1832.<a href="#cite_note-greenhavenpress2-11">[8]</a> The franchise was expanded again by the <a href="/wiki/Reform_Act_1867" title="Reform Act 1867">Second Reform Act</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[note 4]</a> in 1867.<a href="#cite_note-13">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_Act_1884" title="Representation of the People Act 1884">Third Reform Act</a> in 1884 introduced a general principle of one vote per household. All these acts and others simplified the electoral system and reduced corruption. Historian Bruce L Kinzer describes these reforms as putting the United Kingdom on the path towards becoming a democracy. The traditional aristocratic ruling class attempted to maintain as much influence as possible while gradually allowing the middle- and working-classes a role in politics. However, all women and a large minority of men remained outside the system into the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-14">[10]</a> <dl><dd></dd></dl> Cities were given greater political autonomy and the <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Trade unions in the United Kingdom">labour movement</a> was legalised.<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-20072-15">[11]</a> From 1845 to 1852, the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Potato Famine</a> caused mass starvation, disease and death in Ireland, sparking large-scale emigration.<a href="#cite_note-kinealyxv2-16">[12]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Corn_Laws" title="Corn Laws">Corn Laws</a> were repealed in response to this.<a href="#cite_note-17">[13]</a> Across the British Empire, reform included rapid expansion, the complete abolition of slavery in the African possessions and the end of <a href="/wiki/Convicts_in_Australia" title="Convicts in Australia">transportation of convicts to Australia</a>. Restrictions on colonial trade were loosened and responsible (i.e. semi-autonomous) government was introduced in some territories.<a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19">[15]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg/220px-D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="1407"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg/220px-D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg/330px-D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg/440px-D%C3%A9fense_de_Rorke%27s_Drift.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Depiction of the defence of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rorke%27s_Drift" title="Battle of Rorke's Drift">Rorke's Drift</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Zulu_War" title="Anglo-Zulu War">Anglo-Zulu War</a> of 1879 by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Neuville" title="Alphonse de Neuville">Alphonse de Neuville</a> (1880)</figcaption></figure> Throughout most of the 19th century Britain was the most powerful country in the world.<a href="#cite_note-20">[16]</a> The period from <a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1815 to 1914</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Britannica" title="Pax Britannica">Pax Britannica</a>, was a time of relatively peaceful relations between the world's <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great powers</a>. This is particularly true of Britain's interactions with the others.<a href="#cite_note-21">[17]</a> The only war in which the British Empire fought against another major power was the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, from 1853 to 1856.<a href="#cite_note-taylor60-612-22">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18">[14]</a> There were various revolts and violent conflicts within the British Empire,<a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19">[15]</a> and Britain participated in wars against minor powers.<a href="#cite_note-swisher248-502-23">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19">[15]</a> It also took part in the diplomatic struggles of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Game" title="Great Game">Great Game</a><a href="#cite_note-swisher248-502-23">[19]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rose-194022-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benians-19592-19">[15]</a> In 1840, Queen Victoria married her German cousin <a href="/wiki/Albert,_Prince_Consort" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert, Prince Consort">Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha</a>. The couple had nine children, who themselves married into various royal families, and the queen thus became known as the 'grandmother of Europe'.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Teach2-24">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-20072-15">[11]</a> In 1861, Albert died.<a href="#cite_note-swisher248-502-23">[19]</a> Victoria went into mourning and withdrew from public life for ten years.<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-20072-15">[11]</a> In 1871, with <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">republican</a> sentiments growing in Britain, she began to return to public life. In her later years, her popularity soared as she became a symbol of the British Empire. Queen Victoria died on 22 January 1901.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_Teach2-24">[20]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Society and culture of the Victorian era">Society and culture of the Victorian era</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_life">Family life</h3></div> The Victorian era saw a rapidly growing <a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">middle class</a> who became an important cultural influence, to a significant extent replacing the <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> as British society's dominant class.<a href="#cite_note-houghton12-25">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_%C3%89lie_Hal%C3%A9vy2-26">[22]</a> A distinctive middle-class lifestyle developed that influenced what society valued as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-houghton12-25">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wohl-19782-27">[23]</a> Increased importance was placed on the value of the family, and the idea that marriage should be based on romantic love gained popularity.<a href="#cite_note-K2-28">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Boston-20192-29">[25]</a> A clear separation was established between the home and the workplace, which had often not been the case before.<a href="#cite_note-Wohl-19782-27">[23]</a> The home was seen as a private environment,<a href="#cite_note-Wohl-19782-27">[23]</a> where housewives provided their husbands with a respite from the troubles of the outside world.<a href="#cite_note-K2-28">[24]</a> Within this ideal, women were expected to focus on domestic matters and to rely on men as breadwinners.<a href="#cite_note-30">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2-31">[27]</a> Women had limited legal rights in most areas of life, and a <a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Feminism in the United Kingdom">feminist</a> movement developed.<a href="#cite_note-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2-31">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[28]</a> Parental authority was seen as important, but children were given <a href="/wiki/Prevention_of_Cruelty_to,_and_Protection_of,_Children_Act_1889" title="Prevention of Cruelty to, and Protection of, Children Act 1889">legal protections against abuse and neglect</a> for the first time towards the end of the period.<a href="#cite_note-Bilston-20192-33">[29]</a> Access to education increased rapidly during the 19th century. State-funded schools were established in England and Wales for the first time. Education became compulsory for pre-teenaged children in England, Scotland and Wales. Literacy rates increased rapidly, and had become nearly universal by the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-20072-34">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[31]</a> Private education for wealthier children, boys and more gradually girls, became more formalised over the course of the century.<a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-20072-34">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion_and_social_issues">Religion and social issues</h3></div> The growing middle class and strong <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelical movement</a> placed great emphasis on a respectable and moral code of behaviour. This included features such as charity, personal responsibility, controlled habits,<a href="#cite_note-36">[note 5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Child_discipline" title="Child discipline">child discipline</a> and self-criticism.<a href="#cite_note-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_%C3%89lie_Hal%C3%A9vy2-26">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[32]</a> As well as personal improvement, importance was given to social reform.<a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a> was another philosophy that saw itself as based on science rather than on morality, but also emphasised social progress.<a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[35]</a> An alliance formed between these two ideological strands.<a href="#cite_note-41">[36]</a> The reformers emphasised causes such as improving the conditions of women and children, giving police reform priority over harsh punishment to prevent crime, religious equality, and political reform in order to establish a democracy.<a href="#cite_note-42">[37]</a> The political legacy of the reform movement was to link the <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformists</a> (part of the evangelical movement) in England and Wales with the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[38]</a> This continued until the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[39]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterians</a> played a similar role as a religious voice for reform in Scotland.<a href="#cite_note-45">[40]</a> Religion was politically controversial during this era, with Nonconformists pushing for the <a href="/wiki/Disestablishmentarianism" title="Disestablishmentarianism">disestablishment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Owen_Chadwick2-46">[41]</a> Nonconformists comprised about half of church attendees in England in 1851,<a href="#cite_note-47">[note 6]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[42]</a> and gradually the legal discrimination that had been established against them outside of Scotland was removed.<a href="#cite_note-49">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[46]</a> Legal restrictions on <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholics</a> were also largely <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Relief_Act_1829" title="Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829">removed</a>. The number of Catholics grew in Great Britain due to <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales#Converts" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">conversions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales#Nineteenth_century_and_Irish_immigration" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">immigration from Ireland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Owen_Chadwick2-46">[41]</a> Secularism and doubts about the accuracy of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> grew among people with higher levels of education.<a href="#cite_note-53">[47]</a> Northern English and Scottish academics tended to be more religiously conservative, whilst agnosticism and even atheism (though its promotion was illegal)<a href="#cite_note-54">[48]</a> gained appeal among academics in the south.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-200732-55">[49]</a> Historians refer to a 'Victorian Crisis of Faith', a period when religious views had to readjust to accommodate new scientific knowledge and criticism of the Bible.<a href="#cite_note-56">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_culture">Popular culture</h3></div> A variety of reading materials grew in popularity during the period, including novels,<a href="#cite_note-British_Library2-57">[51]</a> women's magazines,<a href="#cite_note-BritLib-20202-58">[52]</a> children's literature,<a href="#cite_note-59">[53]</a> and newspapers.<a href="#cite_note-60">[54]</a> Much literature, including <a href="/wiki/Chapbook" title="Chapbook">chapbooks</a>, was distributed on the street.<a href="#cite_note-61">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[56]</a> Music was also very popular, with genres such as <a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broadside_ballad" title="Broadside ballad">broadsides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music_hall" title="Music hall">music halls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brass_band" title="Brass band">brass bands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatre_music" title="Theatre music">theater music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Choir" title="Choir">choral music</a> having mass appeal. What is now called <a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">classical music</a> was somewhat undeveloped compared to parts of Europe but did have significant support.<a href="#cite_note-63">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a> became an increasingly accessible and popular part of everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-64">[58]</a> Many sports were introduced or popularised during the Victorian era.<a href="#cite_note-65">[59]</a> They became important to male identity.<a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a> Examples included <a href="/wiki/Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a>,<a href="#cite_note-67">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">football</a>,<a href="#cite_note-68">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rugby_football" title="Rugby football">rugby</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[63]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tennis" title="Tennis">tennis</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[64]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cycling" title="Cycling">cycling</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[65]</a> The idea of women participating in sport did not fit well with the Victorian view of femininity, but their involvement did increase as the period progressed.<a href="#cite_note-72">[66]</a> For the middle classes, many leisure activities such as <a href="/wiki/Tables_game" title="Tables game">table games</a> could be done in the home while <a href="/wiki/Domestic_tourism" title="Domestic tourism">domestic holidays</a> to rural locations such as the <a href="/wiki/Lake_District" title="Lake District">Lake District</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Scottish Highlands</a> were increasingly practical.<a href="#cite_note-73">[67]</a> The working classes had their own culture separate from that of their richer counterparts, various cheaper forms of entertainment and recreational activities provided by <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a>. Trips to resorts such as <a href="/wiki/Blackpool" title="Blackpool">Blackpool</a> were increasingly popular towards the end of period.<a href="#cite_note-74">[68]</a> Initially the industrial revolution increased working hours, but over the course of the 19th century a variety of political and economic changes caused them to fall back down to and in some cases below pre-industrial levels, creating more time for leisure.<a href="#cite_note-75">[69]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 159.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 157.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Recreation of a Victorian parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire"><noscript><img alt="Recreation of a Victorian parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg/236px-NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3147" data-file-height="2400"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 158px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg/236px-NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg" data-alt="Recreation of a Victorian parlour at Nidderdale Museum, Yorkshire" data-width="158" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg/354px-NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg/472px-NiddMuseum1_Victorian_Parlour.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Recreation of a Victorian <a href="/wiki/Parlour" title="Parlour">parlour</a> at <a href="/wiki/Nidderdale_Museum" title="Nidderdale Museum">Nidderdale Museum</a>, Yorkshire</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 167.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 165.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870)"><noscript><img alt="Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg/248px-Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg" decoding="async" width="166" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3860" data-file-height="2804"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 166px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg/248px-Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg" data-alt="Cheap meals for poor children in East London (1870)" data-width="166" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg/372px-Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg/496px-Halfpenny_dinners_for_poor_children_in_East_London._Wellcome_L0001135.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cheap meals for poor children in <a href="/wiki/East_London" title="East London">East London</a> (1870)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 153.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 151.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leisure Hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy"><noscript><img alt="Leisure Hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg/227px-The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="120" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="950"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 152px;height: 120px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg/227px-The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg" data-alt="Leisure Hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by George Hardy" data-width="152" data-height="120" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg/341px-The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg/455px-The_Leisure_Hour._1855._George-Hardy.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Leisure Hours (1855), depiction of a man resting by <a href="/wiki/George_Hardy_(artist)" title="George Hardy (artist)">George Hardy</a></div> </li> </ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Economy,_industry,_and_trade">Economy, industry, and trade</h2></div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economy,_industry,_and_trade_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era">Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era</a>; <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg/220px-Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2944" data-file-height="2076"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 155px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg/220px-Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="155" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg/330px-Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg/440px-Royal_Small_Arms_Factory_in_Enfield_-_ILN_1861.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Illustrations of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Small_Arms_Factory" title="Royal Small Arms Factory">Royal Small Arms Factory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enfield,_London" title="Enfield, London">Enfield</a> in <a href="/wiki/The_Illustrated_London_News" title="The Illustrated London News">The Illustrated London News</a> (1861)</figcaption></figure> Before the Industrial Revolution, daily life had changed little for hundreds of years. The 19th century saw rapid technological development with a wide range of new inventions. This led Great Britain to become the foremost industrial and trading nation of the time.<a href="#cite_note-Atterbury-2011-76">[70]</a> Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era (1850–1870) as Britain's 'Golden Years',<a href="#cite_note-77">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hobsbawn-1995-78">[72]</a> with <a href="/wiki/National_income" class="mw-redirect" title="National income">national income</a> per person increasing by half. This prosperity was driven by increased industrialisation, especially in textiles and machinery, along with exports to the empire and elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-F-79">[73]</a> The positive economic conditions, as well as a fashion among employers for providing welfare services to their workers, led to relative social stability.<a href="#cite_note-F-79">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Porter-80">[74]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chartism" title="Chartism">Chartist</a> movement for working-class men to be given the right to vote, which had been prominent in the early Victorian period, dissipated.<a href="#cite_note-F-79">[73]</a> Government involvement in the economy was limited.<a href="#cite_note-Porter-80">[74]</a> Only in the <a href="/wiki/Postwar_Britain_(1945%E2%80%931979)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postwar Britain (1945–1979)">post-World War II period</a>, around a century later, did the country experience substantial economic growth again.<a href="#cite_note-Hobsbawn-1995-78">[72]</a> But whilst industry was well developed, education and the arts were mediocre.<a href="#cite_note-Porter-80">[74]</a> Wage rates continued to improve in the later 19th century: real wages (after taking inflation into account) were 65 per cent higher in 1901 compared to 1871. Much of the money was saved, as the number of depositors in savings banks rose from 430,000 in 1831 to 5.2 million in 1887, and their deposits from £14 million to over £90 million.<a href="#cite_note-J-81">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Child_labour">Child labour</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coaltub.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Coaltub.png/220px-Coaltub.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="171"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 133px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Coaltub.png/220px-Coaltub.png" data-width="220" data-height="133" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Coaltub.png 1.5x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>This illustration of a child drawer (a type of <a href="/wiki/Hurrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrier">hurrier</a>) pulling a coal tub was originally published in the Children's Employment Commission (Mines) 1842 report.</figcaption></figure> Children had always played a role in economic life but <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">exploitation of their labour</a> became especially intense during the Victorian era. Children were put to work in a wide range of occupations, but particularly associated with this period are factories. Employing children had advantages, as they were cheap, had limited ability to resist harsh working conditions, and could enter spaces too small for adults. Some accounts exist of happy upbringings involving child labour, but conditions were generally poor. Pay was low, punishments severe, work was dangerous and disrupted children's development (often leaving them too tired to play even in their free time). Early labour could do lifelong harm; even in the 1960s and '70s, the elderly people of industrial towns were noted for their often unusually short stature, deformed physiques, and diseases associated with unhealthy working conditions.<a href="#cite_note-:2-82">[76]</a> Reformers wanted the children in school; in 1840 only about 20 per cent of the children in London had any schooling.<a href="#cite_note-cody-83">[77]</a> By the 1850s, around half of the children in England and Wales were in school (not including <a href="/wiki/Sunday_school" title="Sunday school">Sunday school</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-2007-84">[78]</a> From the 1833 Factory Act onwards, attempts were made to get child labourers into part time education, though this was often difficult to achieve.<a href="#cite_note-May-1994-85">[79]</a> Only in the 1870s and 1880s did children begin to be compelled into school.<a href="#cite_note-Lloyd-2007-84">[78]</a> Work continued to inhibit children's schooling into the early 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-:2-82">[76]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Housing_and_public_health">Housing and public health</h2></div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Economy,_industry,_and_trade_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era">Economy, industry, and trade of the Victorian era</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mathematics,_science,_technology_and_engineering_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era">Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Demographics of the Victorian era">Demographics of the Victorian era</a></div> 19th-century Britain saw a huge population increase accompanied by rapid urbanisation stimulated by the Industrial Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-J2-86">[80]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/1901_United_Kingdom_census" title="1901 United Kingdom census">1901 census</a>, more than three out of every four people were classified as living in an urban area, compared to one in five a century earlier.<a href="#cite_note-:32-87">[81]</a> Historian Richard A. Soloway wrote that "Great Britain had become the most urbanized country in the West."<a href="#cite_note-:02-88">[82]</a> The rapid growth in the urban population included the new industrial and manufacturing cities, as well as service centres such as <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a> and London.<a href="#cite_note-:32-87">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[83]</a> Private renting from housing landlords was the dominant tenure. P. Kemp says this was usually of advantage to tenants.<a href="#cite_note-90">[84]</a> Overcrowding was a major problem with seven or eight people frequently sleeping in a single room. Until at least the 1880s, sanitation was inadequate in areas such as water supply and disposal of sewage. This all had a negative effect on health, especially that of the impoverished young. For instance, of the babies born in <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a> in 1851, only 45 per cent survived to age 20.<a href="#cite_note-:3-91">[85]</a> It had been hoped that there would be a rapid improvement following the Public Baths and Wash-houses Act 1846. This was the first legislation to empower local authorities in England and Wales to fund the building of <a href="/wiki/Baths_and_wash_houses_in_Britain" title="Baths and wash houses in Britain">public baths and wash houses</a> but, since the act was only permissive rather than mandatory, improvement was slow.<a href="#cite_note-92">[86]</a> Conditions were particularly bad in London, where the population rose sharply and poorly maintained, overcrowded dwellings became slum housing. <a href="/wiki/Kellow_Chesney" title="Kellow Chesney">Kellow Chesney</a> wrote of the situation:<a href="#cite_note-dan2-93">[87]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Hideous slums, some of them acres wide, some no more than crannies of obscure misery, make up a substantial part of the metropolis... In big, once handsome houses, thirty or more people of all ages may inhabit a single room</blockquote> Hunger and poor diet was a common aspect of life across the UK in the Victorian period, especially in the 1840s, but the mass starvation seen in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> in Ireland was unique.<a href="#cite_note-94">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-91">[85]</a> Levels of poverty fell significantly during the 19th century from as much as two thirds of the population in 1800 to less than a third by 1901. However, 1890s studies suggested that almost 10% of the urban population lived in a state of desperation lacking the food necessary to maintain basic physical functions. Attitudes towards the poor were often unsympathetic and they were frequently blamed for their situation. In that spirit, the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Amendment_Act_1834" title="Poor Law Amendment Act 1834">Poor Law Amendment Act 1834</a> had been deliberately designed to punish them and would remain the basis for welfare provision into the 20th century. While many people were prone to vices, not least alcoholism, historian Bernard A. Cook argues that the main reason for 19th century poverty was that typical wages for much of the population were simply too low. Barely enough to provide a subsistence living in good times, let alone save up for bad.<a href="#cite_note-:3-91">[85]</a> Improvements were made over time to housing along with the management of sewage and water eventually giving the UK the most advanced system of public health protection anywhere in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson-201152-95">[89]</a> The quality and safety of household lighting improved over the period with <a href="/wiki/Oil_lamp" title="Oil lamp">oil lamps</a> becoming the norm in the early 1860s, <a href="/wiki/Gas_lighting" title="Gas lighting">gas lighting</a> in the 1890s and <a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">electric lights</a> beginning to appear in the homes of the richest by the end of the period.<a href="#cite_note-96">[90]</a> Medicine advanced rapidly during the 19th century and <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory</a> was developed for the first time. Doctors became more specialised and the number of hospitals grew.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson-201152-95">[89]</a> The overall number of deaths fell by about 20%. The life expectancy of women increased from around 42 to 55 and 40 to 56 for men.<a href="#cite_note-97">[note 7]</a><a href="#cite_note-:02-88">[82]</a> In spite of this, the <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> fell only marginally, from 20.8 per thousand in 1850 to 18.2 by the end of the century. Urbanisation aided the spread of diseases and squalid living conditions in many places exacerbated the problem.<a href="#cite_note-Robinson-201152-95">[89]</a> The population of England, Scotland and Wales grew rapidly during the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-98">[91]</a> Various factors are considered contributary to this, including a rising <a href="/wiki/Total_fertility_rate" title="Total fertility rate">fertility rate</a> (though it was falling by the end of the period),<a href="#cite_note-:02-88">[82]</a> the lack of a catastrophic pandemic or famine in the island of Great Britain during the 19th century for the first time in history,<a href="#cite_note-victorian_mortality22-99">[92]</a> improved nutrition,<a href="#cite_note-victorian_mortality22-99">[92]</a> and a lower overall mortality rate.<a href="#cite_note-victorian_mortality22-99">[92]</a> Ireland's population shrank significantly, mostly due to emigration and the Great Famine.<a href="#cite_note-100">[93]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 158px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 156px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Slum_in_Glasgow,_1871.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Slum area in Glasgow (1871)"><noscript><img alt="Slum area in Glasgow (1871)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg/234px-Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="368" data-file-height="472"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 156px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg/234px-Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg" data-alt="Slum area in Glasgow (1871)" data-width="156" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg/351px-Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Slum_in_Glasgow%2C_1871.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Slum area in <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> (1871)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 268.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 266.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Buildings originally built as Llanfyllin workhouse, a state-funded home for the destitute which operated from 1838 to 1930.[94][95]"><noscript><img alt="Buildings originally built as Llanfyllin workhouse, a state-funded home for the destitute which operated from 1838 to 1930.[94][95]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg/400px-Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 267px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg/400px-Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg" data-alt="Buildings originally built as Llanfyllin workhouse, a state-funded home for the destitute which operated from 1838 to 1930.[94][95]" data-width="267" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg/600px-Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Llanfyllin_Workhouse_-_geograph.org.uk_-_3098623.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Buildings originally built as <a href="/wiki/Llanfyllin" title="Llanfyllin">Llanfyllin</a> <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouse</a>, a state-funded home for the destitute which operated from 1838 to 1930.<a href="#cite_note-Llanfyllin,_Montgomeryshire_-_Workhouse-101">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-A_Victorian_prison_for_the_poor-102">[95]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 184.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 182.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:-Vignetted_portrait,_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (c. 1850s or 60s)"><noscript><img alt="Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (c. 1850s or 60s)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/-Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg/274px--Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2720" data-file-height="2977"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 183px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/-Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg/274px--Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg" data-alt="Photograph of a mother and baby by Alfred Capel-Cure (c. 1850s or 60s)" data-width="183" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/-Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg/411px--Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/-Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg/548px--Vignetted_portrait%2C_woman_holding_a_baby-_MET_DP113912.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photograph of a mother and baby by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Capel-Cure" title="Alfred Capel-Cure">Alfred Capel-Cure</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1850s or 60s)</div> </li> </ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Knowledge">Knowledge</h2></div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science">Science</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mathematics,_science,_technology_and_engineering_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era">Mathematics, science, technology and engineering of the Victorian era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg/220px-Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="915" data-file-height="600"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg/220px-Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg/330px-Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg/440px-Faraday_Michael_Christmas_lecture_detail.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> delivering a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution_Christmas_Lectures" title="Royal Institution Christmas Lectures">Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1855)</figcaption></figure> The professionalisation of scientific study began in parts of Europe following the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> but was slow to reach Britain. <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> coined the term 'scientist' in 1833 to refer to those who studied what was generally then known as natural philosophy, but it took a while to catch on. Having been previously dominated by amateurs with a separate income, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> admitted only professionals from 1847 onwards.<a href="#cite_note-:4-103">[96]</a> The British biologist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> indicated in 1852 that it remained difficult to earn a living as a scientist alone.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-200732-55">[49]</a> Scientific knowledge and debates such as that about <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>'s <a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a> (1859), which sought to explain biological evolution by natural selection, gained a high profile in the public consciousness. Simplified (and at times inaccurate) <a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">popular science</a> was increasingly distributed through a variety of publications which caused tension with the professionals.<a href="#cite_note-:4-103">[96]</a> There were significant advances in various fields of research, including <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Katz-2009a-104">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity</a>,<a href="#cite_note-105">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-2007-1-106">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-200732-55">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Baigrie-2007a-107">[100]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg/220px-Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="500"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 133px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg/220px-Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="133" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg/330px-Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg/440px-Victorian_Railways_F_Class.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A railway crew (1873)</figcaption></figure>Known as the 'workshop of the world', Britain was uniquely advanced in technology in the mid-19th century.<a href="#cite_note-109">[102]</a> Engineering, having developed into a profession in the 18th century, gained new profile and prestige in this period.<a href="#cite_note-110">[103]</a> The Victorian era saw methods of communication and transportation develop significantly. In 1837, <a href="/wiki/William_Fothergill_Cooke" title="William Fothergill Cooke">William Fothergill Cooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a> invented the first <a href="/wiki/Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">telegraph system</a>. This system, which used electrical currents to transmit coded messages, quickly spread across Britain, appearing in every town and post office. A worldwide network developed towards the end of the century. In 1876, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">an American</a> patented the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">telephone</a>. A little over a decade later, 26,000 telephones were in service in Britain. Multiple switchboards were installed in every major town and city.<a href="#cite_note-Atterbury-2011-76">[70]</a> <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> developed early radio broadcasting at the end of the period.<a href="#cite_note-Baigrie-2007b-111">[104]</a> The railways were important economically in the Victorian era, allowing goods, raw materials, and people to be moved around, stimulating trade and industry. They were also a major employer and industry in their own right.<a href="#cite_note-112">[105]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Moral_standards">Moral standards</h2></div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Victorian_morality" title="Victorian morality">Victorian morality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Women in the Victorian era">Women in the Victorian era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png/220px-If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2449"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 175px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png/220px-If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png" data-width="220" data-height="175" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png/330px-If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png/440px-If_we_lift_our_skirts_they_level_their_eye-glasses_at_our_ankles.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>If we lift our skirts they level their eye-glasses at our ankles (1854), cartoon suggesting that men saw women lifting their dresses as a titillating opportunity to see some of their body shape.</figcaption></figure> Expected standards of personal conduct changed in around the first half of the 19th century, with good manners and self-restraint becoming much more common.<a href="#cite_note-:1-113">[106]</a> Historians have suggested various contributing factors, such as Britain's <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">major conflicts with France</a> during the early 19th century, meaning that the distracting temptations of sinful behaviour had to be avoided in order to focus on the war effort, and the evangelical movement's push for moral improvement.<a href="#cite_note-114">[107]</a> There is evidence that the expected standards of moral behaviour were reflected in action as well as rhetoric across all classes of society.<a href="#cite_note-115">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[109]</a> For instance, an analysis suggested that less than 5% of working class couples cohabited before marriage.<a href="#cite_note-:0-116">[109]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Harold_Perkin" title="Harold Perkin">Harold Perkin</a> argued that the change in moral standards led by the middle of the 19th century to 'diminished cruelty to animals, criminals, lunatics, and children (in that order)'.<a href="#cite_note-:1-113">[106]</a> Legal restrictions were placed on cruelty to animals.<a href="#cite_note-117">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rep-119">[112]</a> Restrictions were placed on the working hours of child labourers in the 1830s and 1840s.<a href="#cite_note-120">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[114]</a> Further interventions took place throughout the century to increase the level of child protection.<a href="#cite_note-122">[115]</a> Use of the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Capital punishment in the United Kingdom">death penalty</a> also decreased.<a href="#cite_note-:1-113">[106]</a> Crime rates fell significantly in the second half of the 19th century. Sociologist <a href="/wiki/Christie_Davies" title="Christie Davies">Christie Davies</a> linked this change to attempts to morally educate the population, especially at <a href="/wiki/Sunday_school" title="Sunday school">Sunday schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_behavior">Sexual behavior</h3></div> Contrary to popular belief, Victorian society understood that both men and women enjoyed <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">copulation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-draznin2001-124">[117]</a> Chastity was expected of women, whilst attitudes to male sexual behaviour were more relaxed.<a href="#cite_note-125">[118]</a> The development of police forces led to a rise in prosecutions for illegal <a href="/wiki/Sodomy" title="Sodomy">sodomy</a> in the middle of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-126">[119]</a> Male sexuality became a favourite subject of medical researchers' study.<a href="#cite_note-127">[120]</a> For the first time, all male homosexual acts were outlawed.<a href="#cite_note-128">[121]</a> Concern about sexual exploitation of adolescent girls increased during the period, especially following the <a href="/wiki/The_Maiden_Tribute_of_Modern_Babylon" title="The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon">white slavery scandal</a>, which contributed to the increasing of the age of consent <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Law_Amendment_Act_1885" title="Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885">from 13 to 16</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-129">[122]</a> At a time when job options for women were limited and generally low-paying, some women, particularly those without familial support, took to prostitution to support themselves. Attitudes in public life and among the general population to prostitution varied. Evidence about prostitutes' situation also varies. One contemporary study argues that the trade was a short-term stepping stone to a different lifestyle for many women, while another, more recent study argues they were subject to physical abuse, financial exploitation, state persecution, and difficult working conditions. Due to worries about <a href="/wiki/Venereal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Venereal disease">venereal disease</a>, especially among soldiers, women suspected of prostitution were for a period between the 1860s and 1880s subject to spot compulsory examinations for <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infections" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted infections">sexually transmitted infections</a>, and detainment if they were found to be infected. This caused a great deal of resentment among women in general due to the principle underlying the checks, that women had to be controlled in order to be safe for sexual use by men, and the checks were opposed by some of the earliest feminist campaigning.<a href="#cite_note-:5-129">[122]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/19th-century_London" title="19th-century London">19th-century London</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_and_diplomatic_history_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era">Political and diplomatic history of the Victorian era </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_and_culture_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Society and culture of the Victorian era">Society and culture of the Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Theatre in the Victorian era">Theatre in the Victorian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_burlesque" title="Victorian burlesque">Victorian burlesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_erotica" title="Victorian erotica">Victorian erotica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_fashion" title="Victorian fashion">Victorian fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_house" title="Victorian house">Victorian house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_jewellery" title="Victorian jewellery">Victorian jewellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_masculinity" title="Victorian masculinity">Victorian masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_painting" title="Victorian painting">Victorian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_Turkish_baths" title="Victorian Turkish baths">Victorian Turkish baths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Victorian_era" title="Women in the Victorian era">Women in the Victorian era</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> This is the term used for the period covered by Patrick Leary's international academic mailing-list VICTORIA 19th-century British culture & society. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> A Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> A Scottish Reform Act and Irish Reform Act were passed separately. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Ireland)_Act_1868" title="Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868">Representation of the People (Ireland) Act 1868</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_the_People_(Scotland)_Act_1868" title="Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868">Representation of the People (Scotland) Act 1868</a> for equivalent reforms made in those jurisdictions </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Avoiding addictions such as <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a> and excessive <a href="/wiki/Gambling" title="Gambling">gambling</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> They were a clear majority in Wales. Scotland and Ireland had separate religious cultures. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> These life expectancy figures are rounded to the nearest whole. </li> </ol></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlunkett20122-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlunkett20122_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPlunkett2012">Plunkett 2012</a>, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFPlunkett2012 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-hewitt20062-4"><a href="#cite_ref-hewitt20062_4-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHewitt2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hewitt, Martin (Spring 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/article/204106">"Why the Notion of Victorian Britain Does Make Sense"</a>. 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A. (1959). The Cambridge History of the British Empire Vol. iii: The Empire – Commonwealth 1870–1919. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521045124" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521045124"><bdi>978-0521045124</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+British+Empire+Vol.+iii%3A+The+Empire+%E2%80%93+Commonwealth+1870%E2%80%931919&rft.pages=1-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=978-0521045124&rft.aulast=Benians&rft.aufirst=E.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandiford2011" class="citation book cs1">Sandiford, Keith A. (2011). "Foreign relations". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 307–309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreign+relations&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=307-309&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Sandiford&rft.aufirst=Keith+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland1940" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Rose, John (1940). The Cambridge history of the British empire: volume II: the growth of the new empire, 1783-1870. pp. x–vi. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/81942369">81942369</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+history+of+the+British+empire%3A+volume+II%3A+the+growth+of+the+new+empire%2C+1783-1870&rft.pages=x-vi&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F81942369&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Rose%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor60-612-22"><a href="#cite_ref-taylor60-612_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1954" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, A. J. P. (1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dli.bengal.10689.13016">The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918</a>. Mumbai: Oxford University Press. pp. 60–61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Struggle+for+Mastery+in+Europe%3A+1848%E2%80%931918&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pages=60-61&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=A.+J.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdli.bengal.10689.13016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-swisher248-502-23">^ <a href="#cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-swisher248-502_23-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwisher2000" class="citation book cs1">Swisher, Clarice (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/victorianengland00swis/page/n5/mode/2up">Victorian England</a>. Greenhaven Press. pp. 248–250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780737702217" title="Special:BookSources/9780737702217"><bdi>9780737702217</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victorian+England&rft.pages=248-250&rft.pub=Greenhaven+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780737702217&rft.aulast=Swisher&rft.aufirst=Clarice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvictorianengland00swis%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC_Teach2-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_Teach2_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_Teach2_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/ks3-gcse-history-queen-victoria-monarchy/z73rnrd">"Queen Victoria: The woman who redefined Britain's monarchy"</a>. BBC Teach. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201127013659/https://www.bbc.co.uk/teach/ks3-gcse-history-queen-victoria-monarchy/z73rnrd">Archived</a> from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 12 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Teach&rft.atitle=Queen+Victoria%3A+The+woman+who+redefined+Britain%27s+monarchy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fteach%2Fks3-gcse-history-queen-victoria-monarchy%2Fz73rnrd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-houghton12-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-houghton12_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-houghton12_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoughton2008" class="citation book cs1">Houghton, Walter E. (2008). The Victorian Frame of Mind. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12987%2F9780300194289">10.12987/9780300194289</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300194289" title="Special:BookSources/9780300194289"><bdi>9780300194289</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246119772">246119772</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+Frame+of+Mind&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246119772%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12987%2F9780300194289&rft.isbn=9780300194289&rft.aulast=Houghton&rft.aufirst=Walter+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_Élie_Halévy2-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_%C3%89lie_Hal%C3%A9vy2_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-On_the_interactions_of_evangelicalism_and_utilitarianism_see_%C3%89lie_Hal%C3%A9vy2_26-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalévy1924" class="citation book cs1">Halévy, Élie (1924). A history of the English people ... T. F. Unwin. pp. 585–595. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1295721374">1295721374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+English+people+...&rft.pages=585-595&rft.pub=T.+F.+Unwin&rft.date=1924&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1295721374&rft.aulast=Hal%C3%A9vy&rft.aufirst=%C3%89lie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wohl-19782-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wohl-19782_27-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWohl1978" class="citation book cs1">Wohl, Anthony S. (1978). The Victorian family: structure and stresses. London: Croom Helm. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780856644382" title="Special:BookSources/9780856644382"><bdi>9780856644382</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+family%3A+structure+and+stresses&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Croom+Helm&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=9780856644382&rft.aulast=Wohl&rft.aufirst=Anthony+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> : Cited in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kate_Summerscale" title="Kate Summerscale">Summerscale, Kate</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780747582151">The suspicions of Mr. Whicher or the murder at Road Hill House</a>. London: Bloomsbury. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780747582151/page/109">109–110</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780747596486" title="Special:BookSources/9780747596486"><bdi>9780747596486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+suspicions+of+Mr.+Whicher+or+the+murder+at+Road+Hill+House&rft.place=London&rft.pages=109-110&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780747596486&rft.aulast=Summerscale&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780747582151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> (novel) </li> <li id="cite_note-K2-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-K2_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-K2_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheodore.2000" class="citation book cs1">Theodore., Hoppen, K. (30 June 2000). The Mid-Victorian Generation 1846-1886. Oxford University Press. p. 316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-254397-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-254397-4"><bdi>978-0-19-254397-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1016061494">1016061494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mid-Victorian+Generation+1846-1886&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000-06-30&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1016061494&rft.isbn=978-0-19-254397-4&rft.aulast=Theodore.&rft.aufirst=Hoppen%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Boston-20192-29"><a href="#cite_ref-Boston-20192_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoston2019" class="citation web cs1">Boston, Michelle (12 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/news/stories/2948/five-victorian-paintings-break-tradition/">"Five Victorian paintings that break tradition in their celebration of love"</a>. USC Dornsife. University of Southern California. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210210193513/https://dornsife.usc.edu/news/stories/2948/five-victorian-paintings-break-tradition/">Archived</a> from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USC+Dornsife&rft.atitle=Five+Victorian+paintings+that+break+tradition+in+their+celebration+of+love&rft.date=2019-02-12&rft.aulast=Boston&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdornsife.usc.edu%2Fnews%2Fstories%2F2948%2Ffive-victorian-paintings-break-tradition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobyn_Ryle2012" class="citation book cs1">Robyn Ryle (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CHHz_p-j9hMC&pg=PA342">Questioning gender: a sociological exploration</a>. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE/Pine Forge Press. pp. 342–343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6594-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6594-1"><bdi>978-1-4129-6594-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Questioning+gender%3A+a+sociological+exploration&rft.place=Thousand+Oaks%2C+Calif.&rft.pages=342-343&rft.pub=SAGE%2FPine+Forge+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6594-1&rft.au=Robyn+Ryle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCHHz_p-j9hMC%26pg%3DPA342&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Susan_Rubinow_Gorsky2_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinow.1992" class="citation book cs1">Rubinow., Gorsky, Susan (1992). Femininity to feminism: women and literature in the Nineteenth century. Twayne Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8057-8978-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8057-8978-2"><bdi>0-8057-8978-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/802891481">802891481</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Femininity+to+feminism%3A+women+and+literature+in+the+Nineteenth+century&rft.pub=Twayne+Publishers&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F802891481&rft.isbn=0-8057-8978-2&rft.aulast=Rubinow.&rft.aufirst=Gorsky%2C+Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGray2004" class="citation journal cs1">Gray, F. 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Open University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202903/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/body-mind/childhood-youth/working-young-people/history-child-protection">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2021. 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Retrieved 10 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=victorianweb.org&rft.atitle=Coleridge%27s+Religion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvictorianweb.org%2Fprevictorian%2Fstc%2Freligion1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwick1966" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Chadwick, Owen (1966). The Victorian Church. Vol. 1: 1829–1859. pp. 487–489.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Victorian+Church&rft.pages=487-489&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-200732-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis-200732_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis-200732_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis-200732_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2007" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Christopher (2007). "Chapter 5: Energy and Entropy: The Birth of Thermodynamics". Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33332-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33332-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33332-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+5%3A+Energy+and+Entropy%3A+The+Birth+of+Thermodynamics&rft.btitle=Heat+and+Thermodynamics%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33332-3&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisen1990" class="citation book cs1">Eisen, Sydney (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-10974-6_2">"The Victorian Crisis of Faith and the Faith That was Lost"</a>. In Helmstadter, Richard J.; Lightman, Bernard (eds.). Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Religious Belief. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 2–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-10974-6_2">10.1007/978-1-349-10974-6_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781349109746" title="Special:BookSources/9781349109746"><bdi>9781349109746</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221019085106/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-349-10974-6_2">Archived</a> from the original on 19 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Victorian+Crisis+of+Faith+and+the+Faith+That+was+Lost&rft.btitle=Victorian+Faith+in+Crisis%3A+Essays+on+Continuity+and+Change+in+Nineteenth-Century+Religious+Belief&rft.pages=2-9&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan+UK&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-10974-6_2&rft.isbn=9781349109746&rft.aulast=Eisen&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fchapter%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-10974-6_2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-British_Library2-57"><a href="#cite_ref-British_Library2_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/collections/early/victorian/pu_novel.html">"Aspects of the Victorian book: the novel"</a>. British Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180524101310/http://www.bl.uk/collections/early/victorian/pu_novel.html">Archived</a> from the original on 24 May 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Library&rft.atitle=Aspects+of+the+Victorian+book%3A+the+novel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fcollections%2Fearly%2Fvictorian%2Fpu_novel.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritLib-20202-58"><a href="#cite_ref-BritLib-20202_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/collections/early/victorian/pu_magaz.html">"Aspects of the Victorian book: Magazines for Women"</a>. 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Oxford Bibliographies. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031081053/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199799558/obo-9780199799558-0088.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 28 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies&rft.atitle=Children%27s+Literature+-+Victorian+Literature&rft.date=2016-05-06&rft.aulast=McGillis&rft.aufirst=Roderick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fview%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199799558%2Fobo-9780199799558-0088.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiner2011" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Joel H. (2011). "Press, Popular". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). 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British Library. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422020111/https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/street-literature">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 22 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Library&rft.atitle=Street+literature&rft.date=2014-05-15&rft.aulast=Richardson&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Fromantics-and-victorians%2Farticles%2Fstreet-literature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichardson2014" class="citation web cs1">Richardson, Ruth (15 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/chapbooks">"Chapbooks"</a>. 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Routledge. pp. 518–520. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Music&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=518-520&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Sally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/press/exhibitions/2010/photocollages-reveal-wit-and-whimsy-of-the-victorian-era-in-metropolitan-museum-exhibition-opening-february-2">"Photocollages Reveal Wit and Whimsy of the Victorian Era in Metropolitan Museum Exhibition Opening February 2"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>. 27 January 2010. 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(2011). "Poverty". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 622–625. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poverty&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=622-625&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=Bernard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Metcalfe, Richard. (1877) Sanitas sanitatum et omnia sanitas. Vol.1 (All published) London: Co-operative Printing Co. </li> <li id="cite_note-dan2-93"><a href="#cite_ref-dan2_93-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hiddenlives.org.uk/articles/poverty.html">"Poverty and Families in the Victorian Era"</a>. www.hiddenlives.org.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081206083852/http://www.hiddenlives.org.uk/articles/poverty.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2008. 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BBC History. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201108110941/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_medicine_01.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+History&rft.atitle=Victorian+Medicine+%E2%80%93+From+Fluke+to+Theory&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fvictorians%2Fvictorian_medicine_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoomis2011" class="citation book cs1">Loomis, Abigail A. (2011). "Lighting". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia. 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Social History of Medicine. 1: 1–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fshm%2F1.1.1">10.1093/shm/1.1.1</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34704101">34704101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+importance+of+social+intervention+in+Britain%27s+mortality+decline+c.1850%E2%80%931914%3A+A+re-interpretation+of+the+role+of+public+health&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=1-37&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fshm%2F1.1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34704101%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Szreter&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://homepage.tinet.ie/~cronews/geog/census/popcosum.html">"Ireland – Population Summary"</a>. 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Retrieved 30 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Llanfyllin%2C+Montgomeryshire&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.workhouses.org.uk%2FLlanfyllin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-A_Victorian_prison_for_the_poor-102"><a href="#cite_ref-A_Victorian_prison_for_the_poor_102-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.powys.org.uk/school1/llanfyllin/workmenu.shtml">"Llanfyllin and district – The Union Workhouse – A Victorian prison for the poor"</a>. Victorian Powys. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230425161039/http://history.powys.org.uk/school1/llanfyllin/workmenu.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Llanfyllin+and+district+%E2%80%93+The+Union+Workhouse+%E2%80%93+A+Victorian+prison+for+the+poor&rft.pub=Victorian+Powys&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.powys.org.uk%2Fschool1%2Fllanfyllin%2Fworkmenu.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-103">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_103-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_103-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYeo2011" class="citation book cs1">Yeo, Richard R. (2011). "Science". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia. 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Addison-Wesley. pp. 824–830. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-38700-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-38700-4"><bdi>978-0-321-38700-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+23%3A+Probability+and+Statistics+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Mathematics%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=824-830&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-321-38700-4&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Victor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKline1972" class="citation book cs1">Kline, Morris (1972). "28.7: Systems of Partial Differential Equations". Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. 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"Chapter 7: Black Bodies, Free Energy, and Absolute Zero". Heat and Thermodynamics: A Historical Perspective. 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Electricity and Magnetism: A Historical Perspective. United States of America: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33358-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33358-3"><bdi>978-0-313-33358-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+Forces+and+Fields&rft.btitle=Electricity+and+Magnetism%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33358-3&rft.aulast=Baigrie&rft.aufirst=Brian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2009" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Victor (2009). "21.3: Symbolic Algebra". 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How to be a Victorian. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-95834-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-95834-6"><bdi>978-0-241-95834-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%3A+Behind+the+bedroom+door&rft.btitle=How+to+be+a+Victorian&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-241-95834-6&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Sean Brady, Masculinity and Male Homosexuality in Britain, 1861–1913 (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrozier2007" class="citation journal cs1">Crozier, I. (5 August 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/jrm046">"Nineteenth-Century British Psychiatric Writing about Homosexuality before Havelock Ellis: The Missing Story"</a>. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63 (1): 65–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrm046">10.1093/jhmas/jrm046</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5045">0022-5045</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18184695">18184695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Medicine+and+Allied+Sciences&rft.atitle=Nineteenth-Century+British+Psychiatric+Writing+about+Homosexuality+before+Havelock+Ellis%3A+The+Missing+Story&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=65-102&rft.date=2007-08-05&rft.issn=0022-5045&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18184695&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrm046&rft.aulast=Crozier&rft.aufirst=I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrm046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1976" class="citation journal cs1">Smith, F. B. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10314617608595545">"Labouchere's amendment to the Criminal Law Amendment bill"</a>. Historical Studies. 17 (67): 165–173. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10314617608595545">10.1080/10314617608595545</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2559">0018-2559</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=Labouchere%27s+amendment+to+the+Criminal+Law+Amendment+bill&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=67&rft.pages=165-173&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10314617608595545&rft.issn=0018-2559&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=F.+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F10314617608595545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_129-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2011" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Anna (2011). "Prostitution". In Mitchell, Sally (ed.). Victorian Britain An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 642–645. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415669726" title="Special:BookSources/9780415669726"><bdi>9780415669726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prostitution&rft.btitle=Victorian+Britain+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=642-645&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780415669726&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVictorian+era" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_Victorian_era" title="Bibliography of the Victorian era">Bibliography of the Victorian era</a></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div><section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 13px;height: 16px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" data-alt="" data-width="13" data-height="16" 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  <a href="/wiki/Portal:Victorian_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Victorian era">Victorian era</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&mobile=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victorian_era&oldid=1258146552">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Victorian_era&oldid=1258146552</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Victorian_era&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 18 November 2024, at 10:14 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriaanse_tydperk" title="Victoriaanse tydperk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Victoriaanse tydperk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="العصر الفيكتوري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العصر الفيكتوري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B3mina_victoriana" title="Dómina victoriana – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dómina victoriana" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriya_d%C3%B6vr%C3%BC" title="Viktoriya dövrü – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Viktoriya dövrü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="ভিক্টোরীয় যুগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভিক্টোরীয় যুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_s%C3%AE-t%C4%81i" title="Victoria sî-tāi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Victoria sî-tāi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Віктарыянская эпоха – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Віктарыянская эпоха" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Викторианска епоха – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Викторианска епоха" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88poca_victoriana" title="Època victoriana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Època victoriana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%85%C4%83%D1%80%C4%95" title="Виктория тапхăрĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Виктория тапхăрĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktori%C3%A1nsk%C3%A9_obdob%C3%AD" title="Viktoriánské období – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Viktoriánské období" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nthawi_ya_Victorian" title="Nthawi ya Victorian – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Nthawi ya Victorian" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oes_Fictoria" title="Oes Fictoria – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Oes Fictoria" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriatiden" title="Victoriatiden – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Victoriatiden" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorianisches_Zeitalter" title="Viktorianisches Zeitalter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Viktorianisches Zeitalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_ajastu" title="Victoria ajastu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Victoria ajastu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%89%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%87%CE%AE" title="Βικτωριανή εποχή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βικτωριανή εποχή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poca_victoriana" title="Época victoriana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Época victoriana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorina_epoko" title="Viktorina epoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Viktorina epoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriar_Aroa" title="Viktoriar Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Viktoriar Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="دوره ویکتوریا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دوره ویکتوریا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poque_victorienne" title="Époque victorienne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Époque victorienne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiktoriaanske_Tiid" title="Fiktoriaanske Tiid – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fiktoriaanske Tiid" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9_Victeoiriach" title="Ré Victeoiriach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ré Victeoiriach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poca_vitoriana" title="Época vitoriana – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Época vitoriana" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%85%ED%86%A0%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84_%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80" title="빅토리아 시대 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="빅토리아 시대" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B7%D6%80%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Վիկտորյական դարաշրջան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիկտորյական դարաշրջան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijansko_doba" title="Viktorijansko doba – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Viktorijansko doba" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_Victoria" title="Era Victoria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Era Victoria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor%C3%ADut%C3%ADmabili%C3%B0" title="Viktoríutímabilið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Viktoríutímabilið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_vittoriana" title="Età vittoriana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Età vittoriana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התקופה הוויקטוריאנית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התקופה הוויקטוריאנית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aevum_Victorianum" title="Aevum Victorianum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aevum Victorianum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijas_laikmets" title="Viktorijas laikmets – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viktorijas laikmets" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijos_epocha" title="Viktorijos epocha – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viktorijos epocha" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%82" title="വിക്ടോറിയൻ കാലഘട്ടം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വിക്ടോറിയൻ കാലഘട്ടം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaman_Victoria" title="Zaman Victoria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Zaman Victoria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoriaans_tijdperk" title="Victoriaans tijdperk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Victoriaans tijdperk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A3%E3%82%AF%E3%83%88%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E6%9C%9D" title="ヴィクトリア朝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヴィクトリア朝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriatiden" title="Viktoriatiden – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Viktoriatiden" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriatida" title="Viktoriatida – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Viktoriatida" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88ra_Victoriana" title="Èra Victoriana – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Èra Victoriana" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="وکٹوریائی دور – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="وکٹوریائی دور" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%88%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="د ویکتوریا دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ویکتوریا دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoka_wiktoria%C5%84ska" title="Epoka wiktoriańska – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Epoka wiktoriańska" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_vitoriana" title="Era vitoriana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Era vitoriana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_victorian%C4%83" title="Epoca victoriană – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epoca victoriană" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Викторианска доба – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Викторианска доба" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Викторианская эпоха – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Викторианская эпоха" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F_%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%BA" title="වික්ටෝරියා යුගය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="වික්ටෝරියා යුගය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Victorian era" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktori%C3%A1nska_%C3%A9ra" title="Viktoriánska éra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Viktoriánska éra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijansko_obdobje" title="Viktorijansko obdobje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Viktorijansko obdobje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%95%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%A4%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سەردەمی ڤیکتۆریا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەردەمی ڤیکتۆریا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Викторијанско доба – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Викторијанско доба" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorijansko_doba" title="Viktorijansko doba – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Viktorijansko doba" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriaaninen_aikakausi" title="Viktoriaaninen aikakausi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Viktoriaaninen aikakausi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktoriansk_tid" title="Viktoriansk tid – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Viktoriansk tid" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="விக்டோரியா காலம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="விக்டோரியா காலம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="สมัยวิกตอเรีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สมัยวิกตอเรีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktorya_D%C3%B6nemi" title="Viktorya Dönemi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Viktorya Dönemi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0" title="Вікторіанська епоха – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вікторіанська епоха" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%B9%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1" title="وکٹوریائی دور – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وکٹوریائی دور" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%A4%9A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="维多利亚时代 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="维多利亚时代" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E5%A4%9A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9E%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="維多利亞時代 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="維多利亞時代" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%A4%9A%E5%88%A9%E4%BA%9A%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3" title="维多利亚时代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="维多利亚时代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img 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