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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Paleolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesolithic_and_Neolithic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesolithic_and_Neolithic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Mesolithic and Neolithic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesolithic_and_Neolithic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bronze_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Bronze Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iron_Age_Celts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iron_Age_Celts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4.1</span> <span>Iron Age Celts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iron_Age_Celts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Roman era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roman_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages:_383–1066" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages:_383–1066"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Early Middle Ages: 383–1066</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Middle_Ages:_383–1066-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early Middle Ages: 383–1066 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages:_383–1066-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise_and_fall_Gwynedd:_401–1283" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_and_fall_Gwynedd:_401–1283"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Rise and fall Gwynedd: 401–1283</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_and_fall_Gwynedd:_401–1283-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages:_1066–1283" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages:_1066–1283"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>High Middle Ages: 1066–1283</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-High_Middle_Ages:_1066–1283-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle High Middle Ages: 1066–1283 subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages:_1066–1283-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Norman_invasion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norman_invasion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Norman invasion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norman_invasion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dominance_of_Gwynedd_and_Edwardian_conquest:_1216–1283" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dominance_of_Gwynedd_and_Edwardian_conquest:_1216–1283"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Dominance of Gwynedd and Edwardian conquest: 1216–1283</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dominance_of_Gwynedd_and_Edwardian_conquest:_1216–1283-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_middle_ages:_1283–1542" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_middle_ages:_1283–1542"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Late middle ages: 1283–1542</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_middle_ages:_1283–1542-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Early modern period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Modern history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1800–1914" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1800–1914"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>1800–1914</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1800–1914-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1914–1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1914–1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>1914–1945</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1914–1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Post war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Devolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Welsh_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Welsh_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Welsh language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Welsh_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.3</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Wales</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D8%B2" title="تاريخ ويلز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ ويلز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Gales" title="Historia de Gales – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de Gales" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="ওয়েলসের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ওয়েলসের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istor_Kembre" title="Istor Kembre – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Istor Kembre" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_Gal%C2%B7les" title="Història de Gal·les – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de Gal·les" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_Walesu" title="Dějiny Walesu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny Walesu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_Cymru" title="Hanes Cymru – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes Cymru" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales%27_historie" title="Wales' historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Wales' historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_von_Wales" title="Geschichte von Wales – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte von Wales" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_Gales" title="Historia de Gales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de Gales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galesko_historia" title="Galesko historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Galesko historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_pays_de_Galles" title="Histoire du pays de Galles – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du pays de Galles" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%A8%EC%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="웨일스의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="웨일스의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%BD%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ուելսի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուելսի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Walesa" title="Povijest Walesa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Walesa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Wales" title="Sejarah Wales – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Wales" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_Galles" title="Storia del Galles – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del Galles" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%A1" title="היסטוריה של ויילס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של ויילס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Cambriae" title="Historia Cambriae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia Cambriae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Wales" title="Geschiedenis van Wales – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Wales" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB%E3%82%BA%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="ウェールズの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウェールズの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales%E2%80%99_historie" title="Wales’ historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Wales’ historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_Pa%C3%ADs_de_Gales" title="História do País de Gales – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do País de Gales" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Wales" title="Category:History of Wales">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of <span class="fn org label">Wales</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Welsh_Dragon_(Y_Ddraig_Goch).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red Dragon of Wales"><img alt="Red Dragon of Wales" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/40px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/60px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/80px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="219" /></a></span><br /> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="WALLIA PRINCIPATUS Vulgo WALES"><img alt="WALLIA PRINCIPATUS Vulgo WALES" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/150px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/225px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/300px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="4325" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Chronology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Welsh_history" title="Timeline of Welsh history">Timeline</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_history" title="Timeline of British history">British</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Welsh_history" title="Bibliography of Welsh history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Wales" title="Archaeology of Wales">archaeology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Anglesey" title="Roman conquest of Anglesey">of Anglesey</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">In the Roman era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_rebellions_against_English_rule" title="Welsh rebellions against English rule">rebellions</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">In the Middle Ages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">early</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">high</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cambro-Normans" title="Cambro-Normans">settlement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Settlement in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period_in_Wales" title="Early modern period in Wales">Early modern period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Wales" title="Witchcraft in early modern Wales">witchcraft</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrial revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Wales" title="Modern history of Wales">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">World Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Template:Welsh_kingdoms" title="Template:Welsh kingdoms">Medieval kingdoms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">history</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">culture</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg" title="Kingdom of Morgannwg">Morgannwg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> (<a href="/wiki/Powys_Wenwynwyn" title="Powys Wenwynwyn">Wenwynwyn</a> • <a href="/wiki/Powys_Fadog" title="Powys Fadog">Fadog</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhwng_Gwy_a_Hafren" title="Rhwng Gwy a Hafren">Rhwng Gwy a Hafren</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Rulers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Britons" title="King of the Britons">King of the Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Welsh_royal_houses" title="Category:Welsh royal houses">Royal houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Wales" title="King of Wales">King of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">List of rulers in Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">Rulers of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Powys" title="List of monarchs of Powys">Rulers of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Tribes_of_Wales" title="Fifteen Tribes of Wales">Fifteen Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_the_Welsh_Court" title="Titles of the Welsh Court">Titles of the Welsh Court</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">English monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">British monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_peers_and_baronets" title="Welsh peers and baronets">Peers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Law</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Cyfraith_Hywel_manuscripts" title="List of Cyfraith Hywel manuscripts">manuscripts</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_Wales" title="Category:Treaties of Wales">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Constitutional_laws_of_Wales" title="Category:Constitutional laws of Wales">Constitutional laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_against_the_Welsh" title="Penal laws against the Welsh">Penal laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Welsh_Poor_Laws" title="Category:Welsh Poor Laws">Poor laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_policy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Language policy in the United Kingdom">Language laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> (<a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> • <a href="/wiki/March_law_(Anglo-Welsh_border)" title="March law (Anglo-Welsh border)">former march law</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">contemporary Welsh law</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales-only_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales-only laws">Wales-only laws</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_concerning_Wales" title="Category:Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning Wales">Wales-only acts</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="History of the courts of England and Wales">History of the courts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Polities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council of Wales and the Marches</a>)<hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom (1801–1922)</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Council_for_Wales_and_Monmouthshire" title="Council for Wales and Monmouthshire">Council for Wales and Monmouthshire</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Office" title="Welsh Office">Welsh Office</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_Office" title="Wales Office">Wales Office</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Local history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff" title="History of Cardiff">Cardiff</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Wales" title="Capital of Wales">as capital</a> • <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cardiff_history" title="Timeline of Cardiff history">timeline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Llanelli_history" title="Timeline of Llanelli history">Llanelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Milford_Haven" title="History of Milford Haven">Milford Haven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Monmouth,_Wales" title="Category:History of Monmouth, Wales">Monmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Newport,_Wales" title="Category:History of Newport, Wales">Newport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Swansea" title="History of Swansea">Swansea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wrexham" title="History of Wrexham">Wrexham</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Welsh_language" title="History of the Welsh language">Welsh language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature" title="Welsh literature">Welsh literature</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">medieval</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">in Welsh</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_historical_documents" title="List of Welsh historical documents">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Wales" title="Archaeology of Wales">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">Local government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_Wales" title="Historic counties of Wales">historic counties</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music history</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_harp_in_Wales" title="History of the harp in Wales">harp</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Britain#Wales" title="History of Christianity in Britain">Christian history</a> (<a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_revival" title="1904–1905 Welsh revival">1904–1905 Welsh revival</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Wales" title="Economic history of Wales">Economic history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">slate</a> • <a href="/wiki/Woollen_industry_in_Wales" title="Woollen industry in Wales">woollen industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Wales" title="History of education in Wales">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Teaching_of_Welsh_history" title="Teaching of Welsh history">history-specific</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_NHS_Wales" title="History of NHS Wales">Health service</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_National_Health_Service" title="History of the National Health Service">UK-wide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Plaid_Cymru" title="History of Plaid Cymru">Plaid Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geological history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Wales">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team" title="History of the Wales national football team">Football team</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team_(1876%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the Wales national football team (1876–1976)">1876–1976</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team_(1977%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Wales national football team (1977–present)">1977–present</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rugby_union_in_Wales" title="History of rugby union in Wales">Rugby union</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_rugby_union_team_(2004%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Wales national rugby union team (2004–present)">team since 2004</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Wales_national_rugby_union_team_matches" title="Category:Wales national rugby union team matches">with other teams</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C." title="History of Cardiff City F.C.">History of Cardiff City F.C.</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C._(1899%E2%80%931962)" title="History of Cardiff City F.C. (1899–1962)">1899–1962</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C._(1962%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Cardiff City F.C. (1962–present)">1962–present</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Britain" title="Military history of Britain">British military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rent_control_in_England_and_Wales" title="History of rent control in England and Wales">Rent control</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rent_regulation_in_England_and_Wales" title="Rent regulation in England and Wales">regulation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Wales" title="Witchcraft in early modern Wales">Early modern Witchcraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/16px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/24px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Wales" title="Category:Wales">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa"><span class="wraplinks"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture of Wales</a></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image photo"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Wales.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/150px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/225px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/300px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Welsh_history" title="Timeline of Welsh history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Welsh_history" title="Bibliography of Welsh history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Colonies</a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">People</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Y_Fro_Gymraeg" title="Y Fro Gymraeg">Y Fro Gymraeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Welsh_language" title="History of the Welsh language">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_placenames" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh placenames">Welsh placenames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_surnames" title="Welsh surnames">Welsh surnames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-medium_education" title="Welsh-medium education">Welsh-medium education</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Romani_language" title="Welsh Romani language">Welsh Romani</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Traditions</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Welsh_costume" title="Traditional Welsh costume">Traditional Welsh costume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a></li> <li>Land division (<a href="/wiki/Commote" title="Commote">Commote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantref" title="Cantref">Cantref</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_Wales" title="Historic counties of Wales">Historic counties</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Folklore of Wales">folklore</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">Arthurian legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Matter of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mabinogion" title="Mabinogion">Mabinogion</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_cuisine" title="Welsh cuisine">Cuisine</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bara_brith" title="Bara brith">Bara brith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laverbread" title="Laverbread">Bara Lafwr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cawl" title="Cawl">Cawl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leek_soup" title="Leek soup">Cawl Cennin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crempog" title="Crempog">Crempog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_Gower" title="Cuisine of Gower">Gower cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glamorgan_sausage" title="Glamorgan sausage">Selsig Morgannwg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatws_Pum_Munud" title="Tatws Pum Munud">Tatws Pum Munud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_breakfast#Full_Welsh_breakfast" title="Full breakfast">Welsh breakfast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_cake" title="Welsh cake">Welsh cake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_rarebit" title="Welsh rarebit">Welsh rarebit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_dishes" title="List of Welsh dishes">Welsh dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_restaurants_in_Wales" title="List of restaurants in Wales">Restaurants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_festivals_in_Wales" title="List of food festivals in Wales">Food festivals</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_festival_days_of_Wales" title="Traditional festival days of Wales">Festivals</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calennig" title="Calennig">Calennig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dydd_Santes_Dwynwen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dydd Santes Dwynwen">Dydd Santes Dwynwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C5%B5yl_Fair_y_Canhwyllau" title="Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau">Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_David%27s_Day" title="Saint David's Day">Saint David's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calan_Mai" title="Calan Mai">Calan Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_Day" title="Gathering Day">Calan Awst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calan_Gaeaf" title="Calan Gaeaf">Calan Gaeaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C5%B5yl_Mabsant" title="Gŵyl Mabsant">Gŵyl Mabsant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_holidays#Gŵyl_San_Steffan" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh holidays">Gŵyl San Steffan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Wales" title="List of festivals in Wales">List of festivals in Wales</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales#History" title="Religion in Wales">Religion in Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain#Christianity" title="Roman Britain">Christianity in Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_of_England_and_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Church of England and Wales">Catholic Church of England and Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Rite#British_(i.e._Welsh,_Cornish,_or_Breton)" title="Celtic Rite">Celtic Rite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">Saint David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubricius" title="Dubricius">Dubricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Teilo">Teilo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Bible">Welsh Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Salesbury" title="William Salesbury">William Salesbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morgan_(Bible_translator)" title="William Morgan (Bible translator)">William Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="1904–1905 Welsh Revival">1904–1905 Welsh Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_in_Wales#Disestablishment" title="Church in Wales">Disestablishment of Church in Wales</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:105%;line-height:1.6;"> <a href="/wiki/Art_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Art of Wales">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Wales">Literature</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">in Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_language_authors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Welsh language authors">Authors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_language_poets_(6th_century_to_c.1600)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Welsh language poets (6th century to c.1600)">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_historical_documents" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh historical documents">Welsh historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_comics" title="Welsh-language comics">Welsh-language comics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music</a> and performing arts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_folk_music" title="Welsh folk music">Welsh folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_dance" title="Welsh dance">Welsh dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_stepdance" title="Welsh stepdance">Welsh stepdance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerdd_Dant" title="Cerdd Dant">Cerdd Dant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crwth" title="Crwth">Crwth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cymanfa_Ganu" title="Cymanfa Ganu">Cymanfa Ganu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynghanedd" title="Cynghanedd">Cynghanedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9ilidh" class="mw-redirect" title="Céilidh">Noson Lawen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pibgorn_(instrument)" title="Pibgorn (instrument)">Pibgorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabor_(instrument)" title="Tabor (instrument)">Tabwrdd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_harp" title="Triple harp">Triple harp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twmpath" title="Twmpath">Twmpath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_bagpipes" title="Welsh bagpipes">Welsh bagpipes</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Media in Wales">Media</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_Wales" title="Radio in Wales">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Wales" title="Television in Wales">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Wales" title="Cinema of Wales">Cinema</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Wales" title="Sport in Wales">Sport</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bando_(sport)" title="Bando (sport)">Bando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxing_in_Wales" title="Boxing in Wales">Boxing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnapan" title="Cnapan">Cnapan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cricket_in_Wales" title="Cricket in Wales">Cricket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Wales" title="Football in Wales">Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golf_in_Wales" title="Golf in Wales">Golf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_racing_in_Wales" title="Horse racing in Wales">Horse Racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Baseball" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Baseball">Pel-Fas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_handball" title="Welsh handball">Pêl-Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_league_in_Wales" title="Rugby league in Wales">Rugby League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_union_in_Wales" title="Rugby union in Wales">Rugby Union</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Monuments</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Wales" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Wales">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Wales" title="Flag of Wales">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Coat of arms of Wales">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of Wales">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Saint_David" title="Flag of Saint David">Flag of Saint David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_flags" title="List of Welsh flags">Other flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Dragon" title="Welsh Dragon">Welsh Dragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_heraldry" title="Welsh heraldry">Welsh heraldry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_cross" title="Celtic cross">Celtic cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_knot" title="Celtic knot">Celtic knot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Welsh inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/16px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/24px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_Wales" title="Template:Culture of Wales"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_Wales" title="Template talk:Culture of Wales"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_Wales" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of Wales"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The history of what is now <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">Cymru</i>) begins with evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> presence from at least 230,000 years ago, while <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> arrived by about 31,000 BC. However, continuous habitation by modern humans dates from the period after the end of the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">last ice age</a> around 9000 BC, and Wales has many remains from the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Britain" title="Bronze Age Britain">Bronze Age</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, as in all of Britain south of the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a>, the culture had become Celtic, with a common <a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Brittonic language</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>, who began their <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">conquest of Britain</a> in AD 43, first campaigned in what is now northeast Wales in 48 against the <a href="/wiki/Deceangli" title="Deceangli">Deceangli</a>, and gained total control of the region with their defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a> in 79. The Romans <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">departed from Britain</a> in the 5th century, opening the door for the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">Anglo-Saxon settlement</a>. Thereafter, the culture began to splinter into a number of kingdoms. The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh people</a> formed with English encroachment that effectively separated them from the other surviving <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a>-speaking peoples in the early middle ages. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">post-Roman</a> period, a number of Welsh kingdoms formed in present-day Wales, including <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ergyng" title="Ergyng">Ergyng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg" title="Kingdom of Morgannwg">Morgannwg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a>. While some rulers extended their control over other Welsh territories and into western England, none were able to unite Wales for long. Internecine struggles and external pressure from the English, and later the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> conquerors of England, led to the Welsh kingdoms coming gradually under the sway of the English crown. In 1282, the death of <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">conquest</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a> by King <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a>; since then, the <a href="/wiki/Heir_apparent" title="Heir apparent">heir apparent</a> to the English monarch has borne the title "<a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a>". The Welsh launched several revolts against English rule, the last significant one being that led by <a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a> in the early 15th century. In the 16th century <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>, himself of Welsh extraction as a great-grandson of <a href="/wiki/Owen_Tudor" title="Owen Tudor">Owen Tudor</a>, passed the <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535%E2%80%931542" class="mw-redirect" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542">Laws in Wales Acts</a> aiming to fully incorporate Wales into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a>. </p><p>Wales became part of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> in 1707 and then the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland</a> in 1801. Yet, the Welsh retained their language and culture despite heavy English dominance. The publication of the extremely significant first complete <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Bible">Welsh translation of the Bible</a> by <a href="/wiki/William_Morgan_(Bible_translator)" title="William Morgan (Bible translator)">William Morgan</a> in 1588 greatly advanced the position of Welsh as a <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary language</a>. The 18th century saw the beginnings of two changes that would greatly affect Wales: the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a>, which led the country to turn increasingly <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformist</a> in religion, and the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrial Revolution</a>. During the rise of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, 19th century Southeast Wales in particular experienced rapid industrialisation and a dramatic rise in population as a result of the explosion of the <a href="/wiki/Coal_industry_in_Wales" title="Coal industry in Wales">coal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_and_steel_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron and steel industry">iron industries</a>. Wales played a full and willing role in World War One. The industries of the Empire in Wales declined in the 20th century with the end of the British Empire following the Second World War, while <a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">nationalist</a> sentiment and interest in self-determination rose. The <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> replaced the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a> as the dominant political force in the 1920s. Wales played a considerable role during World War Two, along with the rest of the United Kingdom and its allies, and its cities were bombed extensively during <a href="/wiki/The_Blitz" title="The Blitz">the Blitz</a>. The nationalist party <a href="/wiki/Plaid_Cymru" title="Plaid Cymru">Plaid Cymru</a> gained momentum from the 1960s. In a 1997 <a href="/wiki/1997_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="1997 Welsh devolution referendum">referendum</a>, Welsh voters approved the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Devolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Devolution">devolution</a> of governmental responsibility to a <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_for_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly for Wales">National Assembly for Wales</a> which first met in 1999, and was renamed as the <a href="/wiki/Senedd_Cymru/Welsh_Parliament" class="mw-redirect" title="Senedd Cymru/Welsh Parliament">Senedd Cymru/Welsh Parliament</a> in May 2020. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistoric_era">Prehistoric era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistoric era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistoric Wales</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Paleolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest known item of human remains discovered in modern-day Wales is a <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> jawbone, found at the <a href="/wiki/Bontnewydd_Palaeolithic_site" title="Bontnewydd Palaeolithic site">Bontnewydd Palaeolithic site</a> in the valley of the <a href="/wiki/River_Elwy" title="River Elwy">River Elwy</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a>; it dates from about 230,000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">years before present (BP)</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Lower_Palaeolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Palaeolithic">Lower Palaeolithic</a> period,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19943_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19943-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and from then, there have been skeletal remains found of the Paleolithic Age man in multiple regions of Wales, including South Pembrokeshire and Gower.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19942_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19942-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is known that Britain was visited over a long period during interglacial periods, perhaps as far back as far as an interstadial period of the <a href="/wiki/Mindel_glaciation" title="Mindel glaciation">Mindel glaciation</a>, some 300,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFosterDaniel201418_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFosterDaniel201418-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but in the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum" title="Last Glacial Maximum">last Glacial Maximum</a>, 26,000-20,000 BP, most of Wales was covered in an ice sheet. Despite this, Wales has been inhabited by <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human">modern humans</a> for at least 29,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPettitt2010207_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettitt2010207-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Red_Lady_of_Paviland" title="Red Lady of Paviland">Red Lady of Paviland</a>, a human skeleton dyed in <a href="/wiki/Red_ochre" class="mw-redirect" title="Red ochre">red ochre</a>, was discovered in 1823 in one of the Paviland <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> caves of the <a href="/wiki/Gower_Peninsula" title="Gower Peninsula">Gower Peninsula</a> in <a href="/wiki/Swansea" title="Swansea">Swansea</a>, South Wales. Despite the name, the skeleton is that of a young man who lived about 33,000 BP at the end of the Upper <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> Period (<a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Stone Age">Old Stone Age</a>). Paviland cave lay just to the south of the ice sheet and the sea level was lower, so the cave was inland at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsTrinkaus2009_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsTrinkaus2009-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is considered to be the oldest known ceremonial burial in Western Europe. The skeleton was found along with jewellery made from <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">seashells</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoth</a>'s skull. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesolithic_and_Neolithic">Mesolithic and Neolithic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mesolithic and Neolithic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_British_Isles" title="Neolithic British Isles">Neolithic British Isles</a></div> <p>Continuous human habitation dates from the end of the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">last ice age</a>, between 12,000 and 10,000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">years before present (BP)</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> (middle stone age) <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a> from Central Europe began to migrate to Great Britain. At that time, sea levels were much lower than today. Wales was free of <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> by about 10,250 BP, the warmer climate allowing the area to become heavily wooded. The post-glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland, forming the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Sea" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a>. By 8,000 BP the British Peninsula had become an island.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard200113–25_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200113–25-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008647–648_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008647–648-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20142_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20142-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the last ice age, Wales became roughly the shape it is today by about 8000 BC and was inhabited by small numbers (a few hundred) of Mesolithic <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>. These people lived in caves and wood-contructed houses, the latter of which have not stood the test of time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20142-3_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20142-3-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19947_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19947-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest farming communities are now believed to date from about 4000 BC, marking the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period. This period saw the construction of many <a href="/wiki/Megalithic_tomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Megalithic tomb">chambered tombs</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">dolmens</a> or <i><a href="/wiki/Dolmen" title="Dolmen">cromlechs</a></i>. The most notable examples of megalithic tombs include <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Celli_Ddu" title="Bryn Celli Ddu">Bryn Celli Ddu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barclodiad_y_Gawres" title="Barclodiad y Gawres">Barclodiad y Gawres</a> on Anglesey,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch200034–42,_58_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch200034–42,_58-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pentre_Ifan" title="Pentre Ifan">Pentre Ifan</a> in Pembrokeshire, and <a href="/wiki/Tinkinswood" title="Tinkinswood">Tinkinswood Burial Chamber</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Vale_of_Glamorgan" title="Vale of Glamorgan">Vale of Glamorgan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle1992_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle1992-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6,000 BP</span>) sea levels in the <a href="/wiki/Bristol_Channel" title="Bristol Channel">Bristol Channel</a> were still about 33 feet (10 metres) lower than today.<sup id="cite_ref-GGAT_72_4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GGAT_72_4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199417_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199417-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">John Davies</a> theorised that the story of <a href="/wiki/Cantre%27r_Gwaelod" title="Cantre'r Gwaelod">Cantre'r Gwaelod</a>'s drowning and tales in the <i><a href="/wiki/Mabinogion" title="Mabinogion">Mabinogion</a></i>, of the waters between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower, may be distant folk memories of this time.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_4–6_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_4–6-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_British_Isles" title="Neolithic British Isles">Neolithic</a> (new stone age) colonists integrated with the indigenous people, gradually changing their lifestyles from a nomadic life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farmers about 6,000 BP – the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_4–6_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_4–6-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GGAT_72_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GGAT_72-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land, developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production, and built <a href="/wiki/Cromlech" title="Cromlech">cromlechs</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Pentre_Ifan" title="Pentre Ifan">Pentre Ifan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bryn_Celli_Ddu" title="Bryn Celli Ddu">Bryn Celli Ddu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Parc_Cwm_long_cairn" title="Parc Cwm long cairn">Parc Cwm long cairn</a> between about 5,800 BP and 5,500 BP.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200536_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200536-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19949_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19949-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_Age">Bronze Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bronze Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Britain" title="Bronze Age Britain">Bronze Age Britain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BrynCelliDdu3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A low grassy mound with an entrance at its centre framed by cyclopean stones" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BrynCelliDdu3.jpg/220px-BrynCelliDdu3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BrynCelliDdu3.jpg/330px-BrynCelliDdu3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/BrynCelliDdu3.jpg/440px-BrynCelliDdu3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bryn_Celli_Ddu" title="Bryn Celli Ddu">Bryn Celli Ddu</a>, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Metal tools first appeared in Wales about 2500 BC, initially copper followed by <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>. The climate during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a> (c. 5000–1400 BC) is thought to have been warmer than at present, as there are many remains from this period in what are now bleak uplands. The Late Bronze Age (c. 1400–750 BC) saw the development of more advanced bronze implements. Much of the copper for the production of bronze probably came from the copper mine on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Orme" title="Great Orme">Great Orme</a>, where prehistoric mining on a very large scale dates largely from the middle Bronze Age.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch199539–40_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch199539–40-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a> has shown the earliest hillforts in what would become Wales to have been constructed during this period. Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">John Davies</a> theorises that a worsening climate after around 1250 BC (lower temperatures and heavier rainfall) required more productive land to be defended.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200923_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200923-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the centuries following their initial settlement, the Neolithic population assimilated immigrants and adopted ideas from <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a> cultures. Some historians, such as <a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">John T. Koch</a>, consider Wales in the Late Bronze Age as part of <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Bronze_Age" title="Atlantic Bronze Age">a maritime trading-networked culture</a> that included other <a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koch2009_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koch2009-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffeKoch2010384_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunliffeKoch2010384-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffe200855–64_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunliffe200855–64-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This "Atlantic-Celtic" view is opposed by others who hold that the Celtic languages derive their origins from the more easterly <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2009b_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch2009b-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iron_Age">Iron Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Britain">Iron Age Britain</a></div> <p>The earliest iron implement found in Wales is a sword from <a href="/wiki/Llyn_Fawr" title="Llyn Fawr">Llyn Fawr</a> which overlooks the head of the <a href="/wiki/Vale_of_Neath" title="Vale of Neath">Vale of Neath</a>, which is thought to date to about 600 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199419_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199419-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/List_of_hillforts_in_Wales" title="List of hillforts in Wales">Hillforts</a> continued to be built during the British Iron Age. Nearly 600 hillforts are in Wales, over 20% of those found in Britain, examples being <a href="/wiki/Pen_Dinas" title="Pen Dinas">Pen Dinas</a> near <a href="/wiki/Aberystwyth" title="Aberystwyth">Aberystwyth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tre%27r_Ceiri" title="Tre'r Ceiri">Tre'r Ceiri</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Llŷn peninsula">Llŷn peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200923_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200923-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A particularly significant find from this period was made in 1943 at <a href="/wiki/Llyn_Cerrig_Bach" title="Llyn Cerrig Bach">Llyn Cerrig Bach</a> on Anglesey when the ground was being prepared for the construction of a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> base. The cache included weapons, shields, <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariots</a> along with their fittings and harnesses, and slave chains and tools. Many had been deliberately broken and seem to have been <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive offerings</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1995249–277_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1995249–277-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A tendency to see the creation of hillforts as evidence of a Celtic invasion that also brought a Celtic language to the Britain has been dealt a blow by recognition that the earliest forts predate the arrival of Iron Age Celtic culture by hundreds of years. The present tendency is to reject the hypothesis of mass invasion in favour of more sporadic migration and a cultural spread of language and ideas, a "culminative Celticity".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200923_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200923-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, with the coming of the Celts, there was an agricultural improvement of farming in Britain. This is evident with the then new use of the iron ploughshare, a type of <a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">Plough</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20145_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20145-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iron_Age_Celts">Iron Age Celts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Iron Age Celts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a></div> <p>During the late Bronze Age or early Iron Age in <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Britain">Celtic Britain</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 800 BC</span>) is when modern-day Wales was split into 4 regional <a href="/wiki/Tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribes">tribes</a>. They were, the <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mid_Wales" title="Mid Wales">Mid Wales</a> to <a href="/wiki/North_West_Wales" title="North West Wales">North West Wales</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Deceangli" title="Deceangli">Deceangli</a> (<a href="/wiki/North_East_Wales" title="North East Wales">North East Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Silures" title="Silures">Silures</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_East_Wales" title="South East Wales">South East Wales</a>, Mid Wales) and the <a href="/wiki/Demetae" title="Demetae">Demetae</a> (<a href="/wiki/South_West_Wales" title="South West Wales">South West Wales</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch2000184_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch2000184-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second wave (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BC- 200 BC</span>) of migration of <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Celtic tribes</a> from <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> emerged in Britain and established stone <a href="/wiki/Hut" title="Hut">hut</a> circle <a href="/wiki/Roundhouse_(dwelling)#United_Kingdom" title="Roundhouse (dwelling)">roundhouse</a> settlements within or near the previously inhabited hillfort enclosures. Hut circles were used as dwellings until after the end of Roman rule in Britain. During the Roman occupation, another <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Briton" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Briton">Celtic Briton</a> tribe in modern-day Wales was identified as the <a href="/wiki/Gangani" title="Gangani">Gangani</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ll%C5%B7n_Peninsula" title="Llŷn Peninsula">Llŷn Peninsula</a>, North West Wales), they were a tribe with connections to <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffe1978206_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunliffe1978206-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_era">Roman era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Roman era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Wales in the Roman era</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Britons" title="King of the Britons">King of the Britons</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caradog_(5227657).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Caradog_%285227657%29.jpg/170px-Caradog_%285227657%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Caradog_%285227657%29.jpg/255px-Caradog_%285227657%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Caradog_%285227657%29.jpg/340px-Caradog_%285227657%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1816" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Caratacus" title="Caratacus">Caradog</a> by Thomas Prydderch. Caradog was leader of the north Walian Celtic tribe, the <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a>, and led multiple Celtic tribes against the Romans.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Roman conquest of Wales began in AD 48 and took 30 years to complete; the occupation lasted over 300 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990151_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990151-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most famous resistance was led by <a href="/wiki/Caratacus" title="Caratacus">Caratacus</a> of the Catuvellauni tribe (modern day Essex), who were defeated by the Romans. Caratacus then fled to the <a href="/wiki/Silures" title="Silures">Silures</a> (of present day Monmouthshire) and the <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a> (of North Wales) and led them in a war against the Romans. His forces were eventually <a href="/wiki/Caratacus%27_last_battle" title="Caratacus' last battle">defeated</a> and Caratacus was handed over to the Romans. He was taken to Rome and gave a speech, impressing the Roman emperor to the extent that he was pardoned and allowed to live peacefully in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebster201937–39_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebster201937–39-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman conquest was completed in 78, with Roman rule lasting until 383. Roman rule in Wales was a military occupation, save for the southern coastal region of <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a> east of the <a href="/wiki/Gower_Peninsula" title="Gower Peninsula">Gower Peninsula</a>, where there is a legacy of Romanisation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990151_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990151-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The only town in Wales founded by the Romans, <a href="/wiki/Caerwent" title="Caerwent">Caerwent</a>, is located in South Wales. Both Caerwent and <a href="/wiki/Carmarthen" title="Carmarthen">Carmarthen</a>, also in southern Wales, would become Roman <i><a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitates</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990154_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990154-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wales.Roman.Conquest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Wales.Roman.Conquest.jpg/220px-Wales.Roman.Conquest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Wales.Roman.Conquest.jpg/330px-Wales.Roman.Conquest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Wales.Roman.Conquest.jpg/440px-Wales.Roman.Conquest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3076" data-file-height="3080" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Roman invasion of Wales</figcaption></figure> <p>By AD 47, Rome had invaded and conquered all of southernmost and southeastern Britain under the first <a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Roman governor</a> of Britain. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a>, a series of campaigns to conquer Wales was launched by his successor in 48 and would continue intermittently under successive <a href="/wiki/Roman_governors_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman governors of Britain">governors</a> until the conquest was completed in 78. It is these campaigns of conquest that are the most widely known feature of Wales during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman era</a> due to the spirited but unsuccessful defence of their homelands by two native tribes, the <a href="/wiki/Silures" title="Silures">Silures</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ordovices" title="Ordovices">Ordovices</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Demetae" title="Demetae">Demetae</a> of southwestern Wales seem to have quickly made their peace with the Romans, as there is no indication of war with Rome, and their homeland was not heavily planted with forts nor overlaid with roads. The Demetae would be the only Welsh tribe to emerge from Roman rule with their homeland and tribal name intact.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wales was a rich source of mineral wealth, and the Romans used their <a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">engineering</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">technology</a> to extract large amounts of gold, copper, and lead, as well as modest amounts of some other metals such as <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and silver.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990179–196_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990179–196-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the mines were no longer practical or profitable, they were abandoned. Roman economic development was concentrated in southeastern Britain, with no significant industries located in Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990179–196_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990179–196-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was largely a matter of circumstance, as Wales had none of the needed materials in suitable combination, and the forested, mountainous countryside was not amenable to development. Latin became the official language of Wales, though the people continued to speak in Brythonic. While Romanisation was far from complete, the upper classes came to consider themselves Roman, particularly after the <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">ruling of 212</a> that granted <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> to all free men throughout the Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies915_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies915-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further Roman influence came through the spread of Christianity, which gained many followers when Christians were allowed to worship freely; state persecution ceased in the 4th century, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> issuing an <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">edict of toleration</a> in 313.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies915_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies915-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early historians, including the 6th-century cleric <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a>, have noted 383 as a significant point in Welsh history.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies531_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies531-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that year, the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> stripped Britain of troops to launch a successful bid for imperial power, continuing to rule Britain from <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a> as emperor from 383 to 388, and transferring power to local leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrere1987354_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrere1987354-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles184113_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles184113-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent medieval Welsh lore developed a series of legends around Macsen Wledig, a literary and mythical figure derived from <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200078_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200078-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch20061231–1233_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch20061231–1233-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several medieval Welsh dynasties claimed that they were descended from Macsen, thereby linking their origins to the legitimacy and prestige of a <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">Roman past</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200078_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200078-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch20061231–1233_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch20061231–1233-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the earliest Welsh genealogies cite Maximus as the founder of several royal dynasties,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillimore188783–92_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillimore188783–92-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillimore1888148–183_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillimore1888148–183-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as the father of the Welsh nation.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies531_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies531-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is given as the ancestor of a Welsh king on the <a href="/wiki/Pillar_of_Eliseg" title="Pillar of Eliseg">Pillar of Eliseg</a> in the 9th century,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVermaatn.d._44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVermaatn.d.-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> erected nearly 500 years after he left Britain, and he appears in lists of the <a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Tribes_of_Wales" title="Fifteen Tribes of Wales">Fifteen Tribes of Wales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBromwich2006441–444_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBromwich2006441–444-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later Welsh genealogies, medieval poetry, for example the <i><a href="/wiki/Mabinogion" title="Mabinogion">Mabinogion</a></i>, and chronicles such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Annales_Cambriae" title="Annales Cambriae">Annales Cambriae</a></i>, used myths and legends to give roles in Welsh history to historical and quasi-historical figures from the Roman and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-Roman">Sub-Roman</a> periods. Aside from Macsen Wledig, other such figures include <a href="/wiki/Helena,_mother_of_Constantine_I" title="Helena, mother of Constantine I">St Helena</a>, the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coel_Hen" title="Coel Hen">Coel Hen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarbus200252–63_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarbus200252–63-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages:_383–1066"><span id="Early_Middle_Ages:_383.E2.80.931066"></span>Early Middle Ages: 383–1066</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages: 383–1066"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Wales in the Early Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Wales in the Middle Ages</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">List of Anglo-Welsh wars</a></div> <p>The 400-year period following the collapse of Roman rule is the most difficult to interpret in the history of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies915_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies915-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Roman garrison of Britain was withdrawn in 410, the various British states were left self-governing. Evidence for a continuing Roman influence after the departure of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Roman legions</a> is provided by an inscribed stone from <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a> dated between the late 5th and mid-6th centuries commemorating a certain <a href="/wiki/Cantiorix_Inscription" title="Cantiorix Inscription">Cantiorix</a> who was described as a citizen (<i>cives</i>) of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the <a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">magistrate</a> (<i>magistratus</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1995126_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1995126-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There was considerable Irish colonisation in <a href="/wiki/Dyfed" title="Dyfed">Dyfed</a>, where there are many stones with <a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">ogham</a> inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199452_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199452-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wales had become Christian under the Romans, and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Saints" title="Age of the Saints">Age of the Saints</a> (approximately 500–700) was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country, by religious leaders such as <a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">Saint David</a>, <a href="/wiki/Illtud" title="Illtud">Illtud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Teilo" title="Saint Teilo">Saint Teilo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a143–159_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a143–159-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cadfan.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cadfan.JPG/250px-Cadfan.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cadfan.JPG/375px-Cadfan.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Cadfan.JPG/500px-Cadfan.JPG 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption>Gravestone of King <a href="/wiki/Cadfan_ap_Iago" title="Cadfan ap Iago">Cadfan ap Iago</a> of Gwynedd (died c. 625) in <a href="/wiki/Llangadwaladr" title="Llangadwaladr">Llangadwaladr</a> church</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg/170px-Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="281" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg/255px-Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg/340px-Britain_in_AD500_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Britain in <a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">AD</a> 500: The areas shaded pink on the map were inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a>, here labelled <i>Welsh</i>. The pale blue areas in the east were controlled by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a>, while the pale green areas to the north were inhabited by the <a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the <a href="/wiki/Angles_(tribe)" title="Angles (tribe)">Angles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>, gradually took control of eastern and southern Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2013345_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2013345-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">Roman departure</a> in AD 410, much of the lowlands of Britain to the east and south-east was overrun by various <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a>, commonly known as Anglo-Saxons. Some have theorized that the cultural dominance of the Anglo-Saxons was due to apartheid-like social conditions in which the Britons were at a disadvantage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERavilious2006_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERavilious2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By AD 500 the land that would become Wales had divided into a number of kingdoms free from Anglo-Saxon rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies915_36-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies915-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Caredigion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glywysing" title="Glywysing">Morgannwg</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ystrad_Tywi" title="Ystrad Tywi">Ystrad Tywi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a> emerged as independent Welsh <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_states" title="Succession of states">successor states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies915_36-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies915-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest of these being <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a> in northwest Wales and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> in the east. Gwynedd was the most powerful of these kingdoms in the 6th and 7th centuries, under rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Maelgwn_Gwynedd" title="Maelgwn Gwynedd">Maelgwn Gwynedd</a> (died 547)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a131_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a131-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a> (died 634/5)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200636_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200636-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who in alliance with <a href="/wiki/Penda_of_Mercia" title="Penda of Mercia">Penda of Mercia</a> was able to lead his armies as far as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Kingdom of Northumbria</a> and control it for a period. Following Cadwallon's death in battle the following year, his successor <a href="/wiki/Cadafael_Cadomedd_ap_Cynfeddw" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadafael Cadomedd ap Cynfeddw">Cadafael Cadomedd ap Cynfeddw</a> also allied himself with Penda against Northumbria but thereafter Gwynedd, like the other Welsh kingdoms, was mainly engaged in defensive warfare against the growing power of <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>. </p><p>Archaeological evidence, in the Low Countries and what was to become England, shows early Anglo-Saxon migration to Great Britain reversed between 500 and 550, which concurs with Frankish chronicles.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies56_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies56-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Davies notes this as consistent with a victory for the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a> at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Badon" title="Battle of Badon">Badon Hill</a> against the Saxons, which was attributed to <a href="/wiki/King_Arthur" title="King Arthur">Arthur</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nennius" title="Nennius">Nennius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies56_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies56-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chester" title="Battle of Chester">Battle of Chester</a> in 616, the forces of <a href="/wiki/Powys" title="Powys">Powys</a> and other British kingdoms were defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbrians</a> under <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelfrith" title="Æthelfrith">Æthelfrith</a>, with king <a href="/wiki/Selyf_ap_Cynan" title="Selyf ap Cynan">Selyf ap Cynan</a> among the dead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2013345_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2013345-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a> ("Old North"), the <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic-speaking</a> regions of what is now southern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">northern England</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Rheged" title="Rheged">Rheged</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Strathclyde" title="Kingdom of Strathclyde">Strathclyde</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elmet" title="Elmet">Elmet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gododdin" title="Gododdin">Gododdin</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a> was also spoken.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Brittonic</a> areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>. </p><p>Having lost much of what is now the <a href="/wiki/West_Midlands_(region)" title="West Midlands (region)">West Midlands</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> in the 6th and early 7th centuries, a resurgent late-7th-century Powys checked Mercian advances. <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelbald_of_Mercia" title="Æthelbald of Mercia">Æthelbald of Mercia</a>, looking to defend recently acquired lands, had built <a href="/wiki/Wat%27s_Dyke" title="Wat's Dyke">Wat's Dyke</a>. According to Davies, this had been with the agreement of king <a href="/wiki/Elisedd_ap_Gwylog" title="Elisedd ap Gwylog">Elisedd ap Gwylog</a> of Powys, as this boundary, extending north from the valley of the <a href="/wiki/River_Severn" title="River Severn">River Severn</a> to the Dee estuary, gave him <a href="/wiki/Oswestry" title="Oswestry">Oswestry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hist_Wales_65-66_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hist_Wales_65-66-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another theory, after carbon dating placed the dyke's existence 300 years earlier, is that it was built by the post-Roman rulers of <a href="/wiki/Wroxeter" title="Wroxeter">Wroxeter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King <a href="/wiki/Offa_of_Mercia" title="Offa of Mercia">Offa of Mercia</a> seems to have continued this initiative when he created a larger earthwork, now known as <a href="/wiki/Offa%27s_Dyke" title="Offa's Dyke">Offa's Dyke</a> (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Clawdd Offa</i></span>). Davies wrote of <a href="/wiki/Cyril_Fox" title="Cyril Fox">Cyril Fox</a>'s study of Offa's Dyke: "In the planning of it, there was a degree of consultation with the kings of Powys and Gwent. On the Long Mountain near <a href="/wiki/Trelystan" title="Trelystan">Trelystan</a>, the dyke veers to the east, leaving the fertile slopes in the hands of the Welsh; near <a href="/wiki/Ruabon" title="Ruabon">Rhiwabon</a>, it was designed to ensure that Cadell ap Brochwel retained possession of the Fortress of Penygadden." And, for Gwent, Offa had the dyke built "on the eastern crest of the gorge, clearly with the intention of recognizing that the <a href="/wiki/River_Wye" title="River Wye">River Wye</a> and its traffic belonged to the kingdom of Gwent."<sup id="cite_ref-Hist_Wales_65-66_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hist_Wales_65-66-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Fox's interpretations of both the length and purpose of the Dyke have been questioned by more recent research.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillWorthington2003_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillWorthington2003-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The southern and eastern parts of Great Britain lost to English settlement became known in Welsh as <span title="Middle Welsh-language text"><i lang="wlm"><a href="/wiki/Lloegyr" title="Lloegyr">Lloegyr</a></i></span> (Modern Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Lloegr</i></span>), which may have referred to the kingdom of Mercia originally and which came to refer to England as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Germanic tribes who now dominated these lands were invariably called <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Saeson</i></span>, meaning "<a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a>". The Anglo-Saxons called the Romano-British <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem"><a href="/wiki/*Walhaz" title="*Walhaz">Walha</a></i></span>, meaning 'Romanised foreigner' or 'stranger'.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_2_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Welsh continued to call themselves <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Brythoniaid</i></span> (Brythons or Britons) well into the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, though the first written evidence of the use of <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymru</i></span> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">y Cymry</i></span> is found in a praise poem to <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a></span></span> (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Moliant Cadwallon</i></span>, by <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Afan Ferddig</span></span>) <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 633</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_71_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_71-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><a href="/wiki/Armes_Prydein" title="Armes Prydein">Armes Prydein</a></i></span>, believed to be written around 930–942, the words <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymry</i></span> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymro</i></span> are used as often as 15 times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008714_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008714-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement onwards, the people gradually begin to adopt the name <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Cymry</i></span> over <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Brythoniad</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies186_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies186-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 800 onwards, a series of dynastic marriages led to <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodri_Mawr" title="Rhodri Mawr">Rhodri Mawr</a></span></span>'s (<abbr title="ruled">r.</abbr> 844–77) inheritance of <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a></span></span> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Powys" title="Powys">Powys</a></span></span>. His sons founded the three dynasties of <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Aberffraw" title="Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a></span></span> for <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Gwynedd</span></span>, <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/House_of_Dinefwr" title="House of Dinefwr">Dinefwr</a></span></span> for <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></span></span> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Mathrafal" title="Mathrafal">Mathrafal</a></span></span> for <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Powys</span></span>. <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Rhodri</span></span>'s grandson <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hywel_Dda" title="Hywel Dda">Hywel Dda</a></span></span> (r. 900–50) founded <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Deheubarth</span></span> out of his maternal and paternal inheritances of <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Dyfed" title="Dyfed">Dyfed</a></span></span> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Seisyllwg" title="Seisyllwg">Seisyllwg</a></span></span> in 930, ousted the <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Aberffraw" title="Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a></span></span> dynasty from <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Gwynedd</span></span> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Powys</span></span> and then codified <a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Welsh law</a> in the 940s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008388_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008388-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_and_fall_Gwynedd:_401–1283"><span id="Rise_and_fall_Gwynedd:_401.E2.80.931283"></span>Rise and fall Gwynedd: 401–1283</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rise and fall Gwynedd: 401–1283"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_Wales.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Medieval_Wales.JPG/260px-Medieval_Wales.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Medieval_Wales.JPG/390px-Medieval_Wales.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Medieval_Wales.JPG/520px-Medieval_Wales.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="1581" /></a><figcaption>Medieval kingdoms of Wales shown within the boundaries of the present day country of Wales and not inclusive of all</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Offa%27s_Dyke_Map_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Offa%27s_Dyke_Map_2.png/220px-Offa%27s_Dyke_Map_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Offa%27s_Dyke_Map_2.png/330px-Offa%27s_Dyke_Map_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Offa%27s_Dyke_Map_2.png/440px-Offa%27s_Dyke_Map_2.png 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption>Offa's Dyke (Clawdd Offa) Map.</figcaption></figure> <p>Eventually, after the 5th century, Wales was unified and ruled again by the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Brythonic</a> Celtic tribes who inhabited the lands. The Kingdom of Gwynedd was established in <a href="/wiki/North_West_Wales" title="North West Wales">North West Wales</a> during the year 401 by <a href="/wiki/Cunedda_Wledig" class="mw-redirect" title="Cunedda Wledig">Cunedda Wledig</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman soldier</a> who hailed from <a href="/wiki/Manaw_Gododdin" title="Manaw Gododdin">Manaw Gododdin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>) to pacify the invading fellow <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rulers of Gwynedd would establish a Kingdom as descendants of the final <a href="/wiki/List_of_legendary_Kings_of_Britain" class="mw-redirect" title="List of legendary Kings of Britain">Kings of Britain</a>. During the age of <a href="/wiki/Cadwaladr" title="Cadwaladr">Cadwaladr</a> (last King of Britain, Prince of Gwynedd <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 660s</span>), his family settled the lands of Southwest <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a> as patrons of <a href="/wiki/St_Cadwaladr%27s_Church,_Llangadwaladr" title="St Cadwaladr's Church, Llangadwaladr">St Cadwaladr's Church, Llangadwaladr</a>, an inscription in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> is still found in the Church today speaks of his grandfather (<a href="/wiki/Cadfan_ap_Iago" title="Cadfan ap Iago">Cadfan ap Iago</a>), "the Wisest and Most Renowned of All Kings".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles1848277–288chpt_1,2_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1848277–288chpt_1,2-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1959_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1959-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 700s, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> as the easternmost of the major kingdoms of Wales came under the most pressure from the English in <a href="/wiki/Cheshire" title="Cheshire">Cheshire</a>, Shropshire and <a href="/wiki/Herefordshire" title="Herefordshire">Herefordshire</a>. This kingdom originally extended east into areas now in England, and its ancient capital, <a href="/wiki/Pengwern" title="Pengwern">Pengwern</a>, has been variously identified as modern <a href="/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a> or a site north of <a href="/wiki/Baschurch" title="Baschurch">Baschurch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199464_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199464-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These areas were lost to the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>. The construction of the earthwork known as <a href="/wiki/Offa%27s_Dyke" title="Offa's Dyke">Offa's Dyke</a> (usually attributed to <a href="/wiki/Offa_of_Mercia" title="Offa of Mercia">Offa of Mercia</a> in the 8th century) may have marked an agreed border.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199465–66_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199465–66-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a single man to rule the whole country during this period was rare. This is often ascribed to the inheritance system practised in Wales. All sons received an equal share of their father's property (including illegitimate sons), resulting in the division of territories. However, the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh laws</a> prescribe this system of division for land in general, not for kingdoms, where there is provision for an <i>edling</i> (or heir) to the kingdom to be chosen, usually by the king. Any son, legitimate or illegitimate, could be chosen as edling and there were frequently disappointed candidates prepared to challenge the chosen heir.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The King <a href="/wiki/Rhodri_Mawr" title="Rhodri Mawr">Rhodri Mawr</a> later established a new dynasty (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 870s AD</span>) by constructing a <a href="/wiki/Royal_palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal palace">royal palace</a> at <a href="/wiki/Aberffraw" title="Aberffraw">Aberffraw</a>, it was named after the village it was located at, the <i><a href="/wiki/House_of_Aberffraw" title="House of Aberffraw">House of Aberffraw</a></i> on Anglesey, then in the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959c_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1959c-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELlwyd183262,63_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELlwyd183262,63-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rhodri was able to extend his rule to <a href="/wiki/Powys" title="Powys">Powys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ceredigion" title="Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200650–54_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200650–54-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On his death his realms were divided between his sons. Rhodri's grandson, <a href="/wiki/Hywel_Dda" title="Hywel Dda">Hywel Dda</a> (Hywel the Good), formed the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a> by joining smaller kingdoms in the southwest and had extended his rule to most of Wales by 942.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a337_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a337-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is traditionally associated with the codification of <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a> at a council which he called at <a href="/wiki/Whitland" title="Whitland">Whitland</a>, the laws from then on usually being called the "Laws of Hywel". Hywel followed a policy of peace with the English. On his death in 949 his sons were able to keep control of <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a> but lost <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a> to the traditional dynasty of this kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a343–344_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a343–344-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wales was now coming under increasing attack by <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a>, particularly Danish raids in the period between 950 and 1000. According to the chronicle <i><a href="/wiki/Brut_y_Tywysogion" title="Brut y Tywysogion">Brut y Tywysogion</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Gofraid_mac_Arailt" title="Gofraid mac Arailt">Godfrey Haroldson</a> carried off two thousand captives from <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a> in 987, and the king of Gwynedd, <a href="/wiki/Maredudd_ab_Owain" title="Maredudd ab Owain">Maredudd ab Owain</a> is reported to have redeemed many of his subjects from slavery by paying the Danes a large ransom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a351–352_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a351–352-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 853, the <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Vikings</a> raided <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>, but in 856, <a href="/wiki/Rhodri_Mawr" title="Rhodri Mawr">Rhodri Mawr</a> defeated and killed their leader, Gorm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008911_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008911-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a> of Wales made peace with the Vikings and <a href="/wiki/Anarawd_ap_Rhodri" title="Anarawd ap Rhodri">Anarawd ap Rhodri</a> allied with the Norsemen occupying <a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> to conquer the north.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2001104_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2001104-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This alliance later broke down and Anarawd came to an agreement with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>, with whom he fought against the west Welsh. According to <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Annales_Cambriae" title="Annales Cambriae">Annales Cambriae</a></i></span>, in 894, "Anarawd came with the Angles and laid waste to <a href="/wiki/Ceredigion" title="Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ystrad_Tywi" title="Ystrad Tywi">Ystrad Tywi</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2001176_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2001176-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Gruffydd ap Llywelyn">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</a> was the only ruler to be able to unite the Welsh kingdoms under his rule. Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1055 he was ruler of almost all of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. However, he was defeated by <a href="/wiki/Harold_Godwinson" title="Harold Godwinson">Harold Godwinson</a> in 1063 and killed by his own men. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund199164_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund199164-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Llywelyn II">Llywelyn II</a> (the last) became the first official Prince of Wales and inherited the lands gained by his father, <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Llywelyn the Great">Llywelyn the Great</a>. He was appointed Prince by the English Crown in 1267. In 1282, he was ambushed and killed without a male heir. The execution of his brother <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Gruffydd" class="mw-redirect" title="Dafydd ap Gruffydd">Dafydd ap Gruffydd</a> in 1283 on the orders of King <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a> effectively ended <a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a>. The title of Prince of Wales was then used by the English monarchy as the heir to the English throne.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurvey201011,_99-105_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurvey201011,_99-105-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Gruffydd ap Llywelyn">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</a> was the only ruler to unite all of Wales under his rule, described by one chronicler after his death as <a href="/wiki/King_of_Wales" title="King of Wales">king of Wales</a>. In 1055 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed his rival <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Rhydderch" title="Gruffydd ap Rhydderch">Gruffydd ap Rhydderch</a> in battle and recaptured <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1959_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1959-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he was ruler of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. He ruled Wales with no internal battles.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216-_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216--84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97_80-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">John Davies</a> states that <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Gruffydd</span></span> was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</span></span>. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor."<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_100_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_100-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd" title="Owain Gwynedd">Owain Gwynedd</a> (1100–1170) of the Aberffraw line was the first Welsh ruler to use the title <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">princeps Wallensium</i></span> (prince of the Welsh), a title of substance given his victory on the <a href="/wiki/Berwyn_range" title="Berwyn range">Berwyn range</a>, according to Davies.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_128_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_128-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, between 1053 and 1063, Wales lacked any internal strife and was at peace.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_Middle_Ages:_1066–1283"><span id="High_Middle_Ages:_1066.E2.80.931283"></span>High Middle Ages: 1066–1283</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages: 1066–1283"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">Wales in the High Middle Ages</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Wales">List of rulers of Wales</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CymruMap.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/CymruMap.PNG/170px-CymruMap.PNG" decoding="async" width="170" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/CymruMap.PNG/255px-CymruMap.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/CymruMap.PNG/340px-CymruMap.PNG 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="566" /></a><figcaption>Medieval map of Welsh realms</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laws_of_Hywel_Dda_(f.1.v)_King_Hywel_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Laws_of_Hywel_Dda_%28f.1.v%29_King_Hywel_cropped.jpg/170px-Laws_of_Hywel_Dda_%28f.1.v%29_King_Hywel_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Laws_of_Hywel_Dda_%28f.1.v%29_King_Hywel_cropped.jpg/255px-Laws_of_Hywel_Dda_%28f.1.v%29_King_Hywel_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Laws_of_Hywel_Dda_%28f.1.v%29_King_Hywel_cropped.jpg/340px-Laws_of_Hywel_Dda_%28f.1.v%29_King_Hywel_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="823" /></a><figcaption>King <a href="/wiki/Hywel_Dda" title="Hywel Dda">Hywel Dda</a> depicted enthroned in a 13th-century manuscript</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norman_invasion">Norman invasion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Norman invasion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion of Wales</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COA_Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn,_Prince_of_of_Gwynedd_and_Powys.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/COA_Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn%2C_Prince_of_of_Gwynedd_and_Powys.svg/100px-COA_Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn%2C_Prince_of_of_Gwynedd_and_Powys.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/COA_Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn%2C_Prince_of_of_Gwynedd_and_Powys.svg/150px-COA_Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn%2C_Prince_of_of_Gwynedd_and_Powys.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/COA_Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn%2C_Prince_of_of_Gwynedd_and_Powys.svg/200px-COA_Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn%2C_Prince_of_of_Gwynedd_and_Powys.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="660" /></a><figcaption>Standard of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, King of Powys 1063-1075.</figcaption></figure> <p>Within four years of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hastings" title="Battle of Hastings">Battle of Hastings</a> (1066), England had been <a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">completely subjugated</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_100_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_100-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William I of England</a> established a series of lordships, allocated to his most powerful warriors, along the Welsh border, their boundaries fixed only to the east (where they met other feudal properties inside England).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994101_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994101-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 1070s, these lords began conquering land in southern and eastern Wales, west of the <a href="/wiki/River_Wye" title="River Wye">River Wye</a>. The frontier region, and any English-held lordships in Wales, became known as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Marchia Wallie</i></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Marcher_lord" title="Marcher lord">Marcher lords</a> were subject to neither <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English</a> nor <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman20106_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman20106-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extent of the March varied as the fortunes of the Marcher lords and the Welsh princes ebbed and flowed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman20105_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman20105-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the time of the <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of England">Norman conquest of England</a> in 1066, the dominant ruler in Wales was <a href="/wiki/Bleddyn_ap_Cynfyn" title="Bleddyn ap Cynfyn">Bleddyn ap Cynfyn</a>, who was king of <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Powys" title="Powys">Powys</a>. The initial Norman successes were in the south, where <a href="/wiki/William_Fitzosbern,_1st_Earl_of_Hereford" class="mw-redirect" title="William Fitzosbern, 1st Earl of Hereford">William Fitz Osbern</a> overran <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a> before 1070. By 1074, the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="Earl of Shrewsbury">Earl of Shrewsbury</a> were ravaging <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies198728–30_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies198728–30-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 led to civil war and gave the <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> an opportunity to seize lands in <a href="/wiki/North_Wales" title="North Wales">North Wales</a>. In 1081 <a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" title="Gruffudd ap Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</a>, who had just won the throne of Gwynedd from <a href="/wiki/Trahaearn_ap_Caradog" title="Trahaearn ap Caradog">Trahaearn ap Caradog</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mynydd_Carn" title="Battle of Mynydd Carn">Battle of Mynydd Carn</a> was enticed to a meeting with the <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Chester" title="Earl of Chester">Earl of Chester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Shrewsbury" title="Earl of Shrewsbury">Earl of Shrewsbury</a> and promptly seized and imprisoned, leading to the seizure of much of Gwynedd by the Normans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund2006110_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund2006110-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the south <a href="/wiki/William_the_Conqueror" title="William the Conqueror">William the Conqueror</a> advanced into <a href="/wiki/Dyfed" title="Dyfed">Dyfed</a> founding castles and mints at <a href="/wiki/St_David%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="St David's">St David's</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cardiff" title="Cardiff">Cardiff</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemfry20034–5_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERemfry20034–5-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Rhys_ap_Tewdwr" title="Rhys ap Tewdwr">Rhys ap Tewdwr</a> of Deheubarth was killed in 1093 in <a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a>, and his kingdom was seized and divided between various Norman lordships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b398_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b398-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Norman conquest of Wales appeared virtually complete.</p><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caerphilly_castle_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Caerphilly_castle_-_panoramio.jpg/280px-Caerphilly_castle_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Caerphilly_castle_-_panoramio.jpg/420px-Caerphilly_castle_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Caerphilly_castle_-_panoramio.jpg/560px-Caerphilly_castle_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Caerphilly_Castle" title="Caerphilly Castle">Caerphilly Castle</a>. The construction of this castle between 1268 and 1271 by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_Clare,_6th_Earl_of_Hertford" class="mw-redirect" title="Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford">Gilbert de Clare</a> led to a dispute between <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</a> and the English crown, one of the issues which led to the wars of 1277 and 1282 and the end of Welsh independence</figcaption></figure><p>In 1094, however, there was a general Welsh revolt against Norman rule, and gradually territories were won back. <a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Cynan" title="Gruffudd ap Cynan">Gruffudd ap Cynan</a> was eventually able to build a strong kingdom in <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>. His son, <a href="/wiki/Owain_Gwynedd" title="Owain Gwynedd">Owain Gwynedd</a>, allied with <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Rhys" title="Gruffydd ap Rhys">Gruffydd ap Rhys</a> of Deheubarth won a crushing victory over the Normans at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crug_Mawr" title="Battle of Crug Mawr">Battle of Crug Mawr</a> in 1136 and annexed <a href="/wiki/Ceredigion" title="Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a>. Owain followed his father on the throne of Gwynedd the following year and ruled until his death in 1170.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund2006162–171_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund2006162–171-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was able to profit from disunity in England, where King <a href="/wiki/Stephen_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen of England">Stephen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empress_Matilda" title="Empress Matilda">Empress Matilda</a> were engaged in a struggle for the throne, to extend the borders of Gwynedd further east than ever before. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> also had a strong ruler at this time in <a href="/wiki/Madog_ap_Maredudd" title="Madog ap Maredudd">Madog ap Maredudd</a>, but when his death in 1160 was quickly followed by the death of his heir, <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Madog" title="Llywelyn ap Madog">Llywelyn ap Madog</a>, Powys was split into two parts and never subsequently reunited.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b508–509_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b508–509-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the south, <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Rhys" title="Gruffydd ap Rhys">Gruffydd ap Rhys</a> was killed in 1137, but his four sons, who all ruled Deheubarth in turn, were eventually able to win back most of their grandfather's kingdom from the Normans. The youngest of the four, <a href="/wiki/Rhys_ap_Gruffydd" title="Rhys ap Gruffydd">Rhys ap Gruffydd</a> (Lord Rhys) ruled from 1155 to 1197. In 1171 Rhys met <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">King Henry II</a> and came to an agreement with him whereby Rhys had to pay a tribute but was confirmed in all his conquests and was later named <a href="/wiki/Justiciar_of_South_Wales" title="Justiciar of South Wales">Justiciar of South Wales</a>. Rhys held a <a href="/wiki/1176_Cardigan_eisteddfod" title="1176 Cardigan eisteddfod">festival of poetry and song at his court</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cardigan,_Ceredigion" title="Cardigan, Ceredigion">Cardigan</a> over Christmas 1176 which is generally regarded as the first recorded <a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a>. Owain Gwynedd's death led to the splitting of Gwynedd between his sons, while Rhys made Deheubarth dominant in Wales for a time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b536_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b536-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dominance_of_Gwynedd_and_Edwardian_conquest:_1216–1283"><span id="Dominance_of_Gwynedd_and_Edwardian_conquest:_1216.E2.80.931283"></span>Dominance of Gwynedd and Edwardian conquest: 1216–1283</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Dominance of Gwynedd and Edwardian conquest: 1216–1283"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Conquest of Wales by Edward I</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Llywelyn5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Llywelyn5.jpg/220px-Llywelyn5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Llywelyn5.jpg/330px-Llywelyn5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Llywelyn5.jpg/440px-Llywelyn5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption>The Llywelyn Monument at Cilmeri</figcaption></figure> <p>Out of the power struggle in Gwynedd eventually arose one of the greatest of Welsh leaders, <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Owain Gwynedd</span></span>'s grandson, <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ab_Iorwerth" title="Llywelyn ab Iorwerth">Llywelyn ab Iorwerth</a>, also known as Llywelyn Fawr (the Great). Llywelyn ab Iorwerth was sole ruler of Gwynedd by 1200<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005108–109_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005108–109-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by his death in 1240 was effectively ruler of much of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005124_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005124-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Llywelyn made his 'capital' and headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Abergwyngregyn" title="Abergwyngregyn">Abergwyngregyn</a> on the north coast, overlooking the <a href="/wiki/Menai_Strait" title="Menai Strait">Menai Strait</a>. In 1200 he became King of Gwynedd and agreed to a treaty of peace with King John of England, marrying his illegitimate daughter Joan. In 1208, Llywelyn claimed the Kingdom of Powys after the arrest of Gwenwynwyn ap Owain by King John, who disapproved of his attacks on Marcher Lords of the South. Friendship broke down and John invaded parts of Gwynedd in 1211, taking Llywelyn's eldest son as hostage, and also forcing the surrender of territory in north-east Wales. Llywelyn's son, <a href="/wiki/Gruffydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Gruffydd ap Llywelyn">Gruffydd ap Llywelyn</a>, and other hostages were used as security by the king. However the Welsh and Scots joined English rebel Barons in forcing John to sign the Magna Carta of 1215. The document therefore holds specific Welsh provisions. These included the return of lands and liberties to Welshmen if those lands and liberties had been taken by English (and vice versa) without a law abiding judgement of their peers. Also the immediate return of Gruffydd and the other Welsh hostages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarpenter2015_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter2015-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Llywelyn went on to gain dominance over all Wales the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959a_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1959a-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the death of John in 1216, Llywelyn ab Iorwerth and the new King Henry III agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Worcester" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Worcester">treaty of Worcester</a> in 1218, which confirmed Llywelyn's right to Wales until his death, recognising him as Prince of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959a_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1959a-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Llywelyn ab Iorwerth received the <a href="/wiki/Fealty" title="Fealty">fealty</a> of other Welsh lords in 1216 at the council at <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Aberdyfi" title="Aberdyfi">Aberdyfi</a></span></span>, becoming in effect the first <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">prince of Wales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His son <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Llywelyn" title="Dafydd ap Llywelyn">Dafydd ap Llywelyn</a> followed him as ruler of Gwynedd, but King <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III of England</a> would not allow him to inherit his father's position elsewhere in Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b693_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b693-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> War broke out in 1241 and then again in 1244, and the issue was still in the balance when Dafydd died suddenly at Abergwyngregyn, without leaving an heir in early 1246. Llywelyn the Great's other son, <a href="/wiki/Gruffudd_ap_Llywelyn_Fawr" class="mw-redirect" title="Gruffudd ap Llywelyn Fawr">Gruffudd</a> had been killed trying to escape from the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_London" title="Tower of London">Tower of London</a> in 1244. Gruffudd had left four sons, and a period of internal conflict between three of these ended in the rise to power of <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</a> (also known as <i>Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf</i>; <i>Llywelyn, Our Last Leader</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurvey201096,_99-102_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurvey201096,_99-102-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959b_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1959b-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Llywelyn ab Iorwerth's grandson <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_ap_Gruffudd" title="Llywelyn ap Gruffudd">Llywelyn ap Gruffudd</a></span></span> secured the recognition of the title <i>Prince of Wales</i> from <a href="/wiki/Henry_III_of_England" title="Henry III of England">Henry III</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Montgomery" title="Treaty of Montgomery">Treaty of Montgomery</a> in 1267.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This treaty confirmed Llywelyn in control, directly or indirectly, over a large part of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowicke1962409_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowicke1962409-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of subsequent disputes, including the imprisonment of <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Llywelyn</span></span>'s wife <a href="/wiki/Eleanor_de_Montfort" title="Eleanor de Montfort">Eleanor</a>, culminated in a declaration of war and the first invasion by King <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I of England</a> in November 1276.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies151_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies151-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowicke1962409_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowicke1962409-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Realising his position was hopeless, Llywelyn II surrendered without battle. Edward negotiated a settlement, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aberconwy" title="Treaty of Aberconwy">Treaty of Aberconwy</a>, which greatly restricted Llywelyn's authority and exacted <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Llywelyn</span></span>'s fealty to England in 1277.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies151_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies151-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrestwich2007151_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrestwich2007151-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>War broke out again when Llywelyn's brother <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Gruffudd" title="Dafydd ap Gruffudd">Dafydd ap Gruffudd</a> attacked <a href="/wiki/Hawarden_Castle_(medieval)" title="Hawarden Castle (medieval)">Hawarden Castle</a> on <a href="/wiki/Palm_Sunday" title="Palm Sunday">Palm Sunday</a> 1282. On 11 December 1282, Llywelyn was lured into a meeting in Cilmeri in <a href="/wiki/Builth_Wells" title="Builth Wells">Builth Wells</a> <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castle</a> with unknown Marchers, where he was killed and his army subsequently destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2000353_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2000353-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His brother Dafydd ap Gruffudd continued an increasingly forlorn resistance. He was captured in June 1283 and was <a href="/wiki/Hanged,_drawn_and_quartered" title="Hanged, drawn and quartered">hanged, drawn and quartered</a> at <a href="/wiki/Shrewsbury" title="Shrewsbury">Shrewsbury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurvey2010112_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurvey2010112-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the deaths of Llywelyn and Dafydd, Edward ended <a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a>, introducing the royal ordinance of the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a> in 1284. The statute was a constitutional change annexing the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a> to the Realm of England, completing the <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1969_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1969-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPilkington200223–24_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilkington200223–24-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_middle_ages:_1283–1542"><span id="Late_middle_ages:_1283.E2.80.931542"></span>Late middle ages: 1283–1542</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Late middle ages: 1283–1542"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Wales in the Late Middle Ages</a></div><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg/168px-SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg/252px-SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg/336px-SDJ_Harlech_Castle_Gatehouse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Harlech_Castle" title="Harlech Castle">Harlech Castle</a> was one of a series built by <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a> to consolidate his conquest.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a> in 1284 provided the constitutional basis for a post-conquest government of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Principality of North Wales</a> from 1284 until 1535/36.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott-Macnab1999459_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott-Macnab1999459-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It defined Wales as "annexed and united" to the English Crown, separate from England but under the same monarch. The king ruled directly in two areas: the Statute divided the north and delegated administrative duties to the <a href="/wiki/Justice_of_Chester" title="Justice of Chester">Justice of Chester</a> and <a href="/wiki/Justiciar_of_North_Wales" title="Justiciar of North Wales">Justiciar of North Wales</a>, and further south in western Wales the King's authority was delegated to the <a href="/wiki/Justiciar_of_South_Wales" title="Justiciar of South Wales">Justiciar of South Wales</a>. The existing royal lordships of <a href="/wiki/Montgomery,_Powys" title="Montgomery, Powys">Montgomery</a> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Builth_Wells" title="Builth Wells">Builth Wells</a></span></span> remained unchanged.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2000357,_364_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2000357,_364-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wales became, effectively, part of England, even though its people spoke a different language and had a different culture. English kings appointed a Council of Wales, sometimes presided over by the heir to the throne. This Council normally sat in <a href="/wiki/Ludlow" title="Ludlow">Ludlow</a>, now in England but at that time still part of the disputed border area in the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a>. Welsh literature, particularly poetry, continued to flourish however, with the lesser nobility now taking over from the princes as the patrons of the poets. <a href="/wiki/Dafydd_ap_Gwilym" title="Dafydd ap Gwilym">Dafydd ap Gwilym</a>, who flourished in the middle of the 14th century, is considered by many to be the greatest of the Welsh poets. </p><p>After passing the Statute of Rhuddlan, which restricted <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1987386_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1987386-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edward constructed a series of castles to maintain his dominance: <a href="/wiki/Beaumaris_Castle" title="Beaumaris Castle">Beaumaris</a>, <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Caernarfon_Castle" title="Caernarfon Castle">Caernarfon</a></span></span>, <a href="/wiki/Harlech_Castle" title="Harlech Castle">Harlech</a> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Conwy_Castle" title="Conwy Castle">Conwy</a></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ring of impressive stone <a href="/wiki/Castle" title="Castle">castles</a> assisted the domination of Wales, and he crowned his conquest by giving the title <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a> to his son and heir in 1301.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1987386_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1987386-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This son, the future <a href="/wiki/Edward_II_of_England" title="Edward II of England">Edward II</a>, was born at <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Caernarfon" title="Caernarfon">Caernarfon</a></span></span> in 1284.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he became the first English prince of Wales in 1301, this provided an income from northwest Wales known as the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r_at_Cardiff_City_Hall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The statue of a man in a tunic and short cape clasped at his right shoulder, sculpted in white stone. The figure, set indoors with its back to an arched window, holds a down-pointed sword in his right hand and a scroll in his left." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r_at_Cardiff_City_Hall.jpg/170px-Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r_at_Cardiff_City_Hall.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r_at_Cardiff_City_Hall.jpg/255px-Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r_at_Cardiff_City_Hall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r_at_Cardiff_City_Hall.jpg/340px-Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r_at_Cardiff_City_Hall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1966" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a></span></span> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1354</span> or 1359 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1416</span>) at <a href="/wiki/City_Hall,_Cardiff" title="City Hall, Cardiff">Cardiff City Hall</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glendower_by_A.C.Michael.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Glendower_by_A.C.Michael.jpg/176px-Glendower_by_A.C.Michael.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Glendower_by_A.C.Michael.jpg/265px-Glendower_by_A.C.Michael.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Glendower_by_A.C.Michael.jpg/352px-Glendower_by_A.C.Michael.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1065" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There were a number of rebellions including ones led by <a href="/wiki/Madog_ap_Llywelyn" title="Madog ap Llywelyn">Madog ap Llywelyn</a> – who styled himself Prince of Wales in the <a href="/wiki/Penmachno_Document" title="Penmachno Document">Penmachno Document</a> – in <a href="/wiki/Welsh_rebellions_against_English_rule#Madog_ap_Llywelyn" title="Welsh rebellions against English rule">1294–1295</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005159_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005159-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_194_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_194-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by <a href="/wiki/Llywelyn_Bren" title="Llywelyn Bren">Llywelyn Bren</a>, Lord of Senghenydd, in 1316–1318. In the 1370s the last representative in the male line of the ruling house of <a href="/wiki/Gwynedd" title="Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a>, <a href="/wiki/Owain_Lawgoch" title="Owain Lawgoch">Owain Lawgoch</a>, twice planned an invasion of Wales with French support. The English government responded to the threat by sending an agent to assassinate Owain in <a href="/wiki/Poitou" title="Poitou">Poitou</a> in 1378.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005164–166_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005164–166-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last uprising was led by <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Owain_Glynd%C5%B5r" title="Owain Glyndŵr">Owain Glyndŵr</a></span></span>, against <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV_of_England" title="Henry IV of England">Henry IV of England</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_194_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_194-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1400, Owain Glyndŵr, then a Welsh nobleman, revolted. Owain inflicted a number of defeats on the English forces and for a few years controlled most of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1404, <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Owain</span></span> was crowned prince of Wales in the presence of emissaries from France, Spain (Castille) and Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-Wales_Hist_194_122-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wales_Hist_194-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;">Glyndŵr</span></span> went on to hold parliamentary assemblies at several Welsh towns, including a Welsh parliament (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">senedd</i>) at <span title="Welsh-language text"><span lang="cy" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Machynlleth" title="Machynlleth">Machynlleth</a></span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of Glyndŵr's achievements included holding the first Welsh Parliament at <a href="/wiki/Machynlleth" title="Machynlleth">Machynlleth</a> and plans for two universities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rebellion was eventually defeated by 1412. Having failed Glyndŵr went into hiding and nothing was known of him after 1413.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glyndŵr's rebellion caused a great upsurge in Welsh identity and he was widely supported by Welsh people throughout the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185_124-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a response to Glyndŵr's rebellion, the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">English parliament</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/Penal_Laws_against_the_Welsh" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal Laws against the Welsh">Penal Laws against the Welsh</a> in 1402. These prohibited the Welsh from carrying arms, from holding office and from dwelling in fortified towns. These prohibitions also applied to Englishmen who married Welsh women. These laws remained in force after the rebellion, although in practice they were gradually relaxed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994199_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994199-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The laws made the Welsh second-class citizens. With hopes of independence ended, there were no further wars or rebellions against English colonial rule and the laws remained on the statute books until 1624.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins2007107–119_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins2007107–119-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>, which began in 1455, both sides made considerable use of Welsh troops. The main figures in Wales were the two <a href="/wiki/Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Earl of Pembroke">Earls of Pembroke</a>, the Yorkist <a href="/wiki/William_Herbert,_1st_Earl_of_Pembroke_(died_1469)" title="William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke (died 1469)">William Herbert</a> and the Lancastrian <a href="/wiki/Jasper_Tudor,_Duke_of_Bedford" class="mw-redirect" title="Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford">Jasper Tudor</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council of Wales and the Marches</a> was created to rule Wales, by the Lancastrian <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> for his son <a href="/wiki/Edward_of_Westminster,_Prince_of_Wales" title="Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales">Edward of Westminster</a> in 1457. The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council</a> was created again in 1471 by <a href="/wiki/Edward_IV_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward IV of England">Edward IV</a> for his son <a href="/wiki/Edward_V_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward V of England">Edward V</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Henry7England.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Henry7England.jpg/220px-Henry7England.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Henry7England.jpg/330px-Henry7England.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Henry7England.jpg 2x" data-file-width="337" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Henry Tudor, later King Henry VII</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1485 Jasper's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a>, landed in Wales with a small force to launch his bid for the throne of England. Henry was of Welsh descent, counting princes such as <a href="/wiki/Rhys_ap_Gruffydd" title="Rhys ap Gruffydd">Rhys ap Gruffydd</a> among his ancestors, and his cause gained much support in Wales. Henry defeated King <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III of England</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth_Field" title="Battle of Bosworth Field">Battle of Bosworth Field</a> with an army containing many Welsh soldiers and gained the throne as <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII of England</a>. Henry VII again created a <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council of Wales and the Marches</a> for his son <a href="/wiki/Arthur,_Prince_of_Wales" title="Arthur, Prince of Wales">Prince Arthur</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987217–226_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987217–226-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry Tudor</a> (born in Wales in 1457) seized the throne of England from <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III of England</a> in 1485, uniting England and Wales under one royal house.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987231ff_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987231ff-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Welsh law</a> was abolished and replaced by English law by the <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a> during the reign of Henry VII's son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes201965–66_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes201965–66-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These laws integrated Wales with England in legal terms. As well as abolishing the Welsh legal system, the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh language</a> could not be used for any official role. The laws also, for the first time, defined the Wales–England border and allowed members representing constituencies in Wales to be elected to the English Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987268–273_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987268–273-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also abolished any legal distinction between the Welsh and the English, thereby effectively ending the Penal Code although this was not formally repealed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994233_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994233-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the legal jurisdiction of <a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>, Wales became unified with the kingdom of England; the "<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a>" began to refer to the whole country, though it remained a "principality" only in a ceremonial sense.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott-Macnab1999459_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott-Macnab1999459-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman20104_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman20104-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Marcher lordships were abolished, and Wales began electing members of the Westminster parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_period">Early modern period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Early modern period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period_in_Wales" title="Early modern period in Wales">Early modern period in Wales</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BpWilliamMorgan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/BpWilliamMorgan.jpg/220px-BpWilliamMorgan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/BpWilliamMorgan.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="323" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of William Morgan.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:George_Childs_Dowlais_Ironworks_1840.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/George_Childs_Dowlais_Ironworks_1840.jpg/220px-George_Childs_Dowlais_Ironworks_1840.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/George_Childs_Dowlais_Ironworks_1840.jpg/330px-George_Childs_Dowlais_Ironworks_1840.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/George_Childs_Dowlais_Ironworks_1840.jpg/440px-George_Childs_Dowlais_Ironworks_1840.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1070" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption><i>Dowlais Ironworks</i> (1840) by George Childs (1798–1875)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1536 Wales had around 278,000 inhabitants, which increased to around 360,000 by 1620. This was primarily due to rural settlement, where animal farming was central to the Welsh economy. Increase in trade and increased economic stability occurred due to the increased diversity of the Welsh economy and the passing of the Laws in Wales Acts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994258-259_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994258-259-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry VIII of England">Henry VIII</a>'s break with Rome and the Pope, Wales for the most part followed England in accepting <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>, although a number of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholics</a> were active in attempting to counteract this and produced some of the earliest books printed in Welsh. In 1588, <a href="/wiki/William_Morgan_(Bible_translator)" title="William Morgan (Bible translator)">William Morgan</a> produced the first complete translation of the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Bible" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh Bible">Welsh Bible</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008572_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008572-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Morgan's Bible is one of the most significant books in the Welsh language, and its publication greatly increased the stature and scope of the Welsh language and <a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Wales_(Welsh_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Wales (Welsh language)">literature</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008572_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008572-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bishop <a href="/wiki/Richard_Davies_(bishop)" title="Richard Davies (bishop)">Richard Davies</a> and dissident Protestant cleric <a href="/wiki/John_Penry" title="John Penry">John Penry</a> introduced Calvinist theology to Wales. Calvinism developed through the Puritan period, following the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II, and within Wales' Methodist movement. However, few copies of Calvin's works were available before the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan200922–36_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan200922–36-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1567, Davies, <a href="/wiki/William_Salesbury" title="William Salesbury">William Salesbury</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huet" title="Thomas Huet">Thomas Huet</a> completed the first modern translation of the New Testament and the first translation of the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">Y Llyfr Gweddi Gyffredin</i>). In 1588, <a href="/wiki/William_Morgan_(Bible_translator)" title="William Morgan (Bible translator)">William Morgan</a> completed a translation of the whole Bible. These translations were as important to the survival of the Welsh language and had the effect of conferring status on Welsh as a <a href="/wiki/Liturgical_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Liturgical language">liturgical language</a> and vehicle for worship. This had a significant role in its continued use as a means of everyday communication and as a literary language down to the present day despite the pressure of English. Wales was overwhelmingly <a href="/wiki/Cavalier" title="Cavalier">Royalist</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Three_Kingdoms" title="Wars of the Three Kingdoms">Wars of the Three Kingdoms</a> in the early 17th century, though there were some notable exceptions such as <a href="/wiki/John_Jones_Maesygarnedd" title="John Jones Maesygarnedd">John Jones Maesygarnedd</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> writer <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Llwyd" title="Morgan Llwyd">Morgan Llwyd</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins19877_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins19877-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wales was an important source of men for the armies of King <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I of England</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins19875–6_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins19875–6-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though no major battles took place in Wales. The <a href="/wiki/Second_English_Civil_War" title="Second English Civil War">Second English Civil War</a> began when unpaid Parliamentarian troops in <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a> changed sides in early 1648.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994280_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994280-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colonel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Horton_(soldier)" title="Thomas Horton (soldier)">Thomas Horton</a> defeated the Royalist rebels at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Fagans" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of St. Fagans">battle of St. Fagans</a> in May and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on 11 July after the protracted two-month <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pembroke" title="Siege of Pembroke">siege of Pembroke</a>. </p><p> Education in Wales was at a very low ebb in this period, with the only education available being in English while the majority of the population spoke only Welsh. In 1731, <a href="/wiki/Griffith_Jones_(Llanddowror)" class="mw-redirect" title="Griffith Jones (Llanddowror)">Griffith Jones</a> started circulating schools in <a href="/wiki/Carmarthenshire" title="Carmarthenshire">Carmarthenshire</a>, held in one location for about three months before moving (or "circulating") to another location. The language of instruction in these schools was Welsh. By Griffith Jones' death, in 1761, it is estimated that up to 250,000 people had learnt to read in schools throughout Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987370–377_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987370–377-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blaenafon_Ironworks_-two_furnaces-24May2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Blaenafon_Ironworks_-two_furnaces-24May2008.jpg/220px-Blaenafon_Ironworks_-two_furnaces-24May2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Blaenafon_Ironworks_-two_furnaces-24May2008.jpg/330px-Blaenafon_Ironworks_-two_furnaces-24May2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Blaenafon_Ironworks_-two_furnaces-24May2008.jpg/440px-Blaenafon_Ironworks_-two_furnaces-24May2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3283" data-file-height="2462" /></a><figcaption>Two of the furnaces of the <a href="/wiki/Blaenavon_Ironworks" title="Blaenavon Ironworks">Blaenavon Ironworks</a></figcaption></figure><p>The 18th century also saw the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Rowland_(preacher)" title="Daniel Rowland (preacher)">Daniel Rowland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howell_Harris" title="Howell Harris">Howell Harris</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Williams_Pantycelyn" title="William Williams Pantycelyn">William Williams Pantycelyn</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987347–350_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987347–350-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonconformity was a significant influence in Wales from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries. The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a> of the 18th century was one of the most significant religious and social movements in the history of Wales. The revival began within the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> in Wales and at the beginning remained as a group within it, but the Welsh revival differed from the Methodist revival in England in that its theology was <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinist</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminian</a>. In the early 19th century the Welsh <a href="/wiki/Methodist" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodist">Methodists</a> broke away from the <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> church and established their own denomination, now the <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_Wales" title="Presbyterian Church of Wales">Presbyterian Church of Wales</a>. This also led to the strengthening of other nonconformist denominations, and by the middle of the 19th century, Wales was largely <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">Nonconformist</a> in religion. This had considerable implications for the Welsh language as it was the main language of the nonconformist churches in Wales. The <a href="/wiki/Sunday_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunday schools">Sunday schools</a> which became an important feature of Welsh life made a large part of the population literate in Welsh, which was important for the survival of the language as it was not taught in the schools. Welsh Methodists gradually built up their own networks, structures, and even meeting houses (or chapels), which led eventually to the secession of 1811 and the formal establishment of the Calvinistic Methodist <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_church_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian church of Wales">Presbyterian Church of Wales</a> in 1823.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYalden2004293–324_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYalden2004293–324-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Welsh Methodist revival also had an influence on the older <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformist</a> churches, or <a href="/wiki/Dissenter" title="Dissenter">dissenters</a> the <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Congregationalist_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregationalist church">Congregationalists</a> who in turn also experienced growth and renewal. As a result, by the middle of the nineteenth century, Wales was predominantly a <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformist</a> country. </p><p>Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrial Revolution in Wales</a>, there were small-scale industries scattered throughout Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies392_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies392-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ranged from those connected to agriculture, such as milling and the <a href="/wiki/Woollen_industry_in_Wales" title="Woollen industry in Wales">manufacture of woollen textiles</a>, through to mining and quarrying.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies392_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies392-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Agriculture remained the dominant source of wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies392_147-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies392-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emerging industrial period saw the development of copper smelting in the <a href="/wiki/Swansea" title="Swansea">Swansea</a> area. With access to local coal deposits and a harbour that connected it with Cornwall's copper mines in the south and the large copper deposits at <a href="/wiki/Parys_Mountain" title="Parys Mountain">Parys Mountain</a> on Anglesey, Swansea developed into the world's major centre for non-ferrous metal smelting in the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies392_147-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies392-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second metal industry to expand in Wales was iron smelting, and iron manufacturing became prevalent in both the north and the south of the country.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies393_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies393-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the north, <a href="/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(industrialist)" title="John Wilkinson (industrialist)">John Wilkinson</a>'s Ironworks at <a href="/wiki/Bersham" title="Bersham">Bersham</a> was a major centre, while in the south, at <a href="/wiki/Merthyr_Tydfil" title="Merthyr Tydfil">Merthyr Tydfil</a>, the ironworks of <a href="/wiki/Dowlais_Ironworks" title="Dowlais Ironworks">Dowlais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyfarthfa_Ironworks" title="Cyfarthfa Ironworks">Cyfarthfa</a>, Plymouth and <a href="/wiki/Penydarren_Ironworks" title="Penydarren Ironworks">Penydarren</a> became the most significant hub of iron manufacture in Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies393_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies393-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1820s, south Wales produced 40 per cent of all Britain's <a href="/wiki/Pig_iron" title="Pig iron">pig iron</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies393_148-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies393-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">slate quarrying</a> began to expand rapidly, most notably in North Wales. The <a href="/wiki/Penrhyn_quarry" title="Penrhyn quarry">Penrhyn quarry</a>, opened in 1770 by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Pennant,_1st_Baron_Penrhyn" title="Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn">Richard Pennant, 1st Baron Penrhyn</a>, was employing 15,000 men by the late 19th century,<sup id="cite_ref-Davies818_149-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies818-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and along with <a href="/wiki/Dinorwic_quarry" title="Dinorwic quarry">Dinorwic quarry</a>, it dominated the Welsh slate trade. Although slate quarrying has been described as "the most Welsh of Welsh industries",<sup id="cite_ref-Davies819_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies819-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is coal mining which became the industry synonymous with Wales and its people. Initially, coal seams were exploited to provide energy for local metal industries but, with the opening of canal systems and later the railways, Welsh coal mining saw an explosion in demand. As the <a href="/wiki/South_Wales_Coalfield" title="South Wales Coalfield">South Wales Coalfield</a> was exploited, Cardiff, Swansea, <a href="/wiki/Penarth" title="Penarth">Penarth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barry,_Vale_of_Glamorgan" title="Barry, Vale of Glamorgan">Barry</a> grew as world exporters of coal. By its height in 1913, Wales was producing almost 60 million <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a> of coal.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014148,_149_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014148,_149-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of the 18th century saw the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrial Revolution</a>, and the presence of iron ore, <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> and large coal deposits in south-east Wales meant that this area soon saw the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Ironworks" title="Ironworks">ironworks</a> and coal mines, notably the <a href="/wiki/Cyfarthfa_Ironworks" title="Cyfarthfa Ironworks">Cyfarthfa Ironworks</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dowlais_Ironworks" title="Dowlais Ironworks">Dowlais Ironworks</a> at <a href="/wiki/Merthyr_Tydfil" title="Merthyr Tydfil">Merthyr Tydfil</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_history">Modern history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Wales" title="Modern history of Wales">Modern history of Wales</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1800–1914"><span id="1800.E2.80.931914"></span>1800–1914</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1800–1914"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_revolution_in_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial revolution in Wales">Industrial revolution in Wales</a></div> <p>The modern history of Wales starts in the 19th century when South Wales became heavily industrialised with ironworks; this, along with the spread of coal mining to the <a href="/wiki/Cynon_Valley" title="Cynon Valley">Cynon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhondda" title="Rhondda">Rhondda</a> valleys from the 1840s, led to an increase in population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1985183_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1985183-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The social effects of industrialisation resulted in armed uprisings against the mainly English owners.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994366–367_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994366–367-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Socialism developed in South Wales in the latter part of the century, accompanied by the increasing politicisation of religious <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">Nonconformism</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour</a> MP, <a href="/wiki/Keir_Hardie" title="Keir Hardie">Keir Hardie</a>, was elected as a junior member for the Welsh constituency of <a href="/wiki/Merthyr_Tydfil" title="Merthyr Tydfil">Merthyr Tydfil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aberdare" title="Aberdare">Aberdare</a> in 1900.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan198246–47_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan198246–47-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Big_Pit_National_Coal_Museum._Wales_(7879351588).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Big_Pit_National_Coal_Museum._Wales_%287879351588%29.jpg/220px-Big_Pit_National_Coal_Museum._Wales_%287879351588%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Big_Pit_National_Coal_Museum._Wales_%287879351588%29.jpg/330px-Big_Pit_National_Coal_Museum._Wales_%287879351588%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Big_Pit_National_Coal_Museum._Wales_%287879351588%29.jpg/440px-Big_Pit_National_Coal_Museum._Wales_%287879351588%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Big Pit, National Coal Museum.</figcaption></figure> <p>The population of Wales doubled to over one million between 1801 and 1851 and doubled again, reaching 2,421,000 by 1911. Most of the increase came in the coal mining districts especially <a href="/wiki/Glamorganshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Glamorganshire">Glamorganshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell196220,_22_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell196220,_22-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part of this increase can be attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">demographic transition</a> seen in most industrialising countries during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrial Revolution</a>, as death rates dropped and birth rates remained steady. However, there was also a large-scale migration of people into Wales during the industrial revolution. The English were the most numerous group, but there were also considerable numbers of Irish and smaller numbers of <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Italians" title="Welsh Italians">Italians</a>, migrating to South Wales, as well as Russian and Polish Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Leary2002302_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Leary2002302-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first decade of the 20th century was the period of the coal boom in South Wales when population growth exceeded 20 per cent.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Demographic changes affected the language frontier; the proportion of Welsh speakers in the Rhondda valley fell from 64 per cent in 1901 to 55 per cent ten years later, and similar trends were evident elsewhere in South Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans1989_158-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans1989-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (April 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_Revival" class="mw-redirect" title="1904–1905 Welsh Revival">1904–1905 Welsh Revival</a> was the largest full-scale <a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Christian revival</a> of Wales of the 20th century. It is believed that at least 100,000 people became Christians during the 1904–1905 revival, but despite this it did not put a stop to the gradual decline of Christianity in Wales, only holding it back slightly.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGitre2004792–827_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGitre2004792–827-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_O._Morgan" title="Kenneth O. Morgan">Kenneth O. Morgan</a> described Wales on the eve of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> as a "relatively placid, self-confident and successful nation". The output from the coalfields continued to increase, with the Rhondda Valley recording a peak of 9.6 million tons of coal extracted in 1913.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohn1980183_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohn1980183-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The First World War (1914–1918) saw a total of 272,924 Welshmen under arms, representing 21.5 per cent of the male population. Of these, roughly 35,000 were killed,<sup id="cite_ref-Davies284_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies284-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with particularly heavy losses of <a href="/wiki/38th_(Welsh)_Infantry_Division" title="38th (Welsh) Infantry Division">Welsh forces</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mametz_Wood_Memorial" title="Mametz Wood Memorial">Mametz Wood</a> on the Somme and the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Passchendaele" title="Battle of Passchendaele">Battle of Passchendaele</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kenneth O. Morgan argues that the 1850-1914 era: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>was a story of growing political democracy with the hegemony of the Liberals in national and local government, of an increasingly thriving economy in the valleys of South Wales, the world's dominant coal-exporting area with massive ports at Cardiff and Barry, increasingly buoyant literature and a revival in the eisteddfod, and of much vitality in the nonconformist chapels especially after the short-lived impetus from the ‘great revival’, Y Diwygiad Mawr, of 1904–5. Overall, there was a pervasive sense of strong national identity, with a national museum, a national library and a national university as its vanguard.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595_163-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MametzWood_Christopher_Williams.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/MametzWood_Christopher_Williams.jpg/220px-MametzWood_Christopher_Williams.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/MametzWood_Christopher_Williams.jpg/330px-MametzWood_Christopher_Williams.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/MametzWood_Christopher_Williams.jpg/440px-MametzWood_Christopher_Williams.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption><i>Battle at <a href="/wiki/Mametz_Wood_Memorial" title="Mametz Wood Memorial">Mametz Wood</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Williams_(Welsh_artist)" title="Christopher Williams (Welsh artist)">Christopher Williams</a> (1918), commissioned by Secretary of State for War at the time, David Lloyd George.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1914–1945"><span id="1914.E2.80.931945"></span>1914–1945</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1914–1945"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">Wales in the World Wars</a></div> <p>The world wars and interwar period were hard times for Wales, in terms of the faltering economy of antiwar losses. Men eagerly volunteered for war service.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillips199394–105_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips199394–105-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> and its aftermath had severe impact on Wales in terms of economic impact as well as war-time casualties. The result was significant social deprivation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595_163-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first quarter of the 20th century also saw a shift in the political landscape of Wales. Since 1865, the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a> had held a parliamentary majority in Wales and, following the <a href="/wiki/1906_United_Kingdom_general_election" title="1906 United Kingdom general election">general election of 1906</a>, only one non-Liberal Member of Parliament, <a href="/wiki/Keir_Hardie" title="Keir Hardie">Keir Hardie</a> of <a href="/wiki/Merthyr_Tydfil_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" title="Merthyr Tydfil (UK Parliament constituency)">Merthyr Tydfil</a>, represented a Welsh constituency at Westminster. Yet by 1906, industrial dissension and political militancy had begun to undermine Liberal consensus in the southern coalfields.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies461_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies461-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1916, <a href="/wiki/David_Lloyd_George" title="David Lloyd George">David Lloyd George</a> became the first and only Welshman to become Prime Minister of Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUK_Governmentn.d._166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUK_Governmentn.d.-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 1918, Lloyd George was re-elected as the head of a Conservative-dominated coalition government, and his poor handling of the 1919 coal miners' strike was a key factor in destroying support for the Liberal party in south Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies515_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies515-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The industrial workers of Wales began shifting towards the <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a>. When in 1908 the <a href="/wiki/National_Union_of_Mineworkers_(Great_Britain)" title="National Union of Mineworkers (Great Britain)">Miners' Federation of Great Britain</a> became affiliated to the Labour Party, the four Labour candidates sponsored by miners were all elected as MPs. By 1922, half the Welsh seats at Westminster were held by Labour politicians—the start of a Labour dominance of Welsh politics that continued into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies439_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies439-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)" title="Labour Party (UK)">Labour Party</a> replaced the Liberals as the dominant party in Wales, particularly in the industrial valleys of <a href="/wiki/South_Wales" title="South Wales">South Wales</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plaid_Cymru" title="Plaid Cymru">Plaid Cymru</a> was formed in 1925, but initially, its growth was slow and it gained few votes at parliamentary elections.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982206–8,_272_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982206–8,_272-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plaid Cymru sought sufficient autonomy or independence from the rest of the UK to ensure the survival of Welsh identity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcAllister200125_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcAllister200125-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After economic growth in the first two decades of the 20th century, Wales's staple industries endured a prolonged slump from the early 1920s to the late 1930s, leading to widespread unemployment and poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982208–210_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982208–210-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the first time in centuries, the population of Wales went into decline; unemployment reduced only with the production demands of the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war saw Welsh servicemen and women fight in all major theatres, with some 15,000 of them killed. Bombing raids brought high loss of life as the <a href="/wiki/Luftwaffe" title="Luftwaffe">German Air Force</a> targeted the docks at <a href="/wiki/Swansea_Blitz" title="Swansea Blitz">Swansea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiff_Blitz" title="Cardiff Blitz">Cardiff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pembroke_Dock" title="Pembroke Dock">Pembroke</a>. After 1943, 10 per cent of Welsh conscripts aged 18 were sent to work in the coal mines, where there were labour shortages; they became known as <a href="/wiki/Bevin_Boys" title="Bevin Boys">Bevin Boys</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifist</a> numbers during both World Wars were fairly low, especially in the Second World War, which was seen as a fight against <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies807_173-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies807-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post_war">Post war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Post war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plaid_Cymru_rally_in_Machynlleth_in_1949_where_the_%27Parliament_for_Wales_in_5_years%27_campaign_was_started_(1455089).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Plaid_Cymru_rally_in_Machynlleth_in_1949_where_the_%27Parliament_for_Wales_in_5_years%27_campaign_was_started_%281455089%29.jpg/220px-Plaid_Cymru_rally_in_Machynlleth_in_1949_where_the_%27Parliament_for_Wales_in_5_years%27_campaign_was_started_%281455089%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Plaid_Cymru_rally_in_Machynlleth_in_1949_where_the_%27Parliament_for_Wales_in_5_years%27_campaign_was_started_%281455089%29.jpg/330px-Plaid_Cymru_rally_in_Machynlleth_in_1949_where_the_%27Parliament_for_Wales_in_5_years%27_campaign_was_started_%281455089%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Plaid_Cymru_rally_in_Machynlleth_in_1949_where_the_%27Parliament_for_Wales_in_5_years%27_campaign_was_started_%281455089%29.jpg/440px-Plaid_Cymru_rally_in_Machynlleth_in_1949_where_the_%27Parliament_for_Wales_in_5_years%27_campaign_was_started_%281455089%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1722" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Plaid_Cymru" title="Plaid Cymru">Plaid Cymru</a> rally in <a href="/wiki/Machynlleth" title="Machynlleth">Machynlleth</a> in 1949, where the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_for_Wales_Campaign" title="Parliament for Wales Campaign">Parliament for Wales Campaign</a> began</figcaption></figure> <p>In the immediate period after the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> there was a strong revival in economic growth, accompanied by greater personal material well-being for the poorer elements of society as a result of the new systems of social welfare. Support for political nationalism strengthened with some success for Plaid Cymru and increasing pressure for Welsh devolution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595_163-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Personal incomes rose during the post war period; In 1962, for example, the average weekly wage of male manual workers stood at 315s 8d, compared with the UK average of 312s 10d. According to one study, “Only in the Midlands and the south of England were male manual wages higher than in Wales.”<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes2013_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes2013-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the coal industry steadily declined after 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994533_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994533-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early 1990s, there was only one deep pit still working in Wales. There was a similar catastrophic decline in the steel industry (the <a href="/wiki/Steel_crisis" title="Steel crisis">steel crisis</a>), and the Welsh economy, like that of other developed societies, tilted increasingly towards the expanding service sector. </p><p>The term "<a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>" became common for describing the area to which English law applied, and in 1955 Cardiff was proclaimed as Wales's capital. <i><a href="/wiki/Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith_Gymraeg" class="mw-redirect" title="Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg">Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg</a></i> (The Welsh Language Society) was formed in 1962, in response to fears that the language might die out if not required in government business.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994649_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994649-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nationalist sentiment grew following the <a href="/wiki/Tryweryn_flooding" title="Tryweryn flooding">flooding of the Tryweryn valley</a> in 1965 to create a reservoir to supply water to the English city of <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>. Although 35 of the 36 Welsh MPs voted against the bill (one abstained), Parliament passed the bill in 1957 and the village of <a href="/wiki/Capel_Celyn" title="Capel Celyn">Capel Celyn</a> was submerged. This highlighted Welsh powerlessness in the face of the numerical superiority of English MPs in Parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994665_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994665-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Separatist groupings, such as the <a href="/wiki/Free_Wales_Army" title="Free Wales Army">Free Wales Army</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Mudiad_Amddiffyn_Cymru" title="Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru">Mudiad Amddiffyn Cymru</a></i> were formed, conducting campaigns from 1963.<sup id="cite_ref-MAC_&_FWA_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MAC_&_FWA-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_of_the_Prince_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Investiture of the Prince of Wales">investiture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charles,_Prince_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles, Prince of Wales">Charles III</a> in 1969, these groups were responsible for a number of bomb attacks on infrastructure.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClews198022,_59,_60_&_216_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClews198022,_59,_60_&_216-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At a by-election in 1966, <a href="/wiki/Gwynfor_Evans" title="Gwynfor Evans">Gwynfor Evans</a> won the parliamentary seat of <a href="/wiki/Carmarthen_(UK_Parliament_constituency)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carmarthen (UK Parliament constituency)">Carmarthen</a>, Plaid Cymru's first Parliamentary seat.<sup id="cite_ref-Gwynfor_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gwynfor-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 1960s, the policy of bringing businesses into disadvantaged areas of Wales through financial incentives had proven very successful in diversifying the industrial economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies236_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies236-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This policy, begun in 1934, was enhanced by the construction of <a href="/wiki/Industrial_estates" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial estates">industrial estates</a> and improvements in transport communications,<sup id="cite_ref-Davies236_181-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies236-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> most notably the <a href="/wiki/M4_motorway" title="M4 motorway">M4 motorway</a> linking south Wales directly to London. It was believed that the foundations for stable economic growth had been firmly established in Wales during this period, but this was shown to be optimistic after the <a href="/wiki/Early_1980s_recession" title="Early 1980s recession">recession of the early 1980s</a> saw the collapse of much of the manufacturing base that had been built over the preceding forty years.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies237_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies237-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Devolution">Devolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Devolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Welsh devolution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Queen_Elizabeth_II_addresses_the_Senedd_inside_the_Siambr_(Chamber)_during_the_ceremonial_opening_of_the_Sixth_Senedd_in_Cardiff._(52355107245).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Queen_Elizabeth_II_addresses_the_Senedd_inside_the_Siambr_%28Chamber%29_during_the_ceremonial_opening_of_the_Sixth_Senedd_in_Cardiff._%2852355107245%29.jpg/220px-Queen_Elizabeth_II_addresses_the_Senedd_inside_the_Siambr_%28Chamber%29_during_the_ceremonial_opening_of_the_Sixth_Senedd_in_Cardiff._%2852355107245%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Queen_Elizabeth_II_addresses_the_Senedd_inside_the_Siambr_%28Chamber%29_during_the_ceremonial_opening_of_the_Sixth_Senedd_in_Cardiff._%2852355107245%29.jpg/330px-Queen_Elizabeth_II_addresses_the_Senedd_inside_the_Siambr_%28Chamber%29_during_the_ceremonial_opening_of_the_Sixth_Senedd_in_Cardiff._%2852355107245%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Queen_Elizabeth_II_addresses_the_Senedd_inside_the_Siambr_%28Chamber%29_during_the_ceremonial_opening_of_the_Sixth_Senedd_in_Cardiff._%2852355107245%29.jpg/440px-Queen_Elizabeth_II_addresses_the_Senedd_inside_the_Siambr_%28Chamber%29_during_the_ceremonial_opening_of_the_Sixth_Senedd_in_Cardiff._%2852355107245%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2242" /></a><figcaption>Opening of the Sixth Senedd in Cardiff in 2021</figcaption></figure> <p>Meanwhile growing calls to recognise the Welsh language at an institutional level led to the passing of the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Act_1967" title="Welsh Language Act 1967">Welsh Language Act 1967</a>. The Welsh language was thus formally recognised as a legitimate language in legal and administrative contexts for the first time in English law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1985169_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1985169-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proportion of the Welsh population able to speak the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh language</a> was declining, falling from just under 50% in 1901 to 43.5% in 1911 and reaching a low of 18.9% in 1981. It has risen slightly since.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199356,_67_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199356,_67-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Act_1967" title="Welsh Language Act 1967">Welsh Language Act 1967</a> repealed a section of the <a href="/wiki/Wales_and_Berwick_Act_1746" title="Wales and Berwick Act 1746">Wales and Berwick Act</a> and thus "Wales" was no longer part of the legal definition of England. This essentially defined Wales as a separate entity legally (but within the UK), for the first time since before the <a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a> which defined Wales as a part of the Kingdom of England. The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Act_1967" title="Welsh Language Act 1967">Welsh Language Act 1967</a> also expanded areas where use of Welsh was permitted, including in some legal situations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2011_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2011-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2020_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2020-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Senedd.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Senedd.JPG/220px-Senedd.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Senedd.JPG/330px-Senedd.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Senedd.JPG/440px-Senedd.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2132" data-file-height="1514" /></a><figcaption>Senedd-Welsh Parliament, Cardiff Bay.</figcaption></figure> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/1979_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="1979 Welsh devolution referendum">referendum</a> in 1979, Wales voted against <a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">devolution for Wales</a> by an 80 per cent majority. In 1997, a <a href="/wiki/1997_Welsh_devolution_referendum" title="1997 Welsh devolution referendum">second referendum</a> on the same issue secured a very narrow majority (50.3 per cent).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012loc:400_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012loc:400-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_for_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly for Wales">National Assembly for Wales</a> (<i>Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru</i>) was set up in 1999 (under the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Wales_Act_1998" title="Government of Wales Act 1998">Government of Wales Act 1998</a>) with the power to determine how Wales' central government budget is spent and administered, although the UK Parliament reserved the right to set limits on its powers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Government of Wales Act 2006 (c 32) of the UK Parliament reformed the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_for_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly for Wales">National Assembly for Wales</a> and allowed further powers to be granted to it more easily. The Act created a system of government with a separate executive drawn from and accountable to the legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733_189-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following a successful referendum in 2011 on extending the law-making powers of the National Assembly, it was then able to make laws, known as Acts of the Assembly, on all matters in devolved subject areas, without needing the UK Parliament's agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733-34_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733-34-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Senedd_and_Elections_(Wales)_Act_2020" title="Senedd and Elections (Wales) Act 2020">Senedd and Elections (Wales) Act 2020</a>, in May 2020 the National Assembly was renamed "<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Senedd Cymru</i></span>" in Welsh and the "Welsh Parliament" in English, which was seen as a better reflection of the body's expanded legislative powers, commonly known as the "<a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a>" in both English and Welsh.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201718,_33-34_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201718,_33-34-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Welsh_language">Welsh language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Welsh language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protest_Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith,_1972.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Protest_Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith%2C_1972.jpg/220px-Protest_Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith%2C_1972.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Protest_Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith%2C_1972.jpg/330px-Protest_Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith%2C_1972.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Protest_Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith%2C_1972.jpg/440px-Protest_Cymdeithas_yr_Iaith%2C_1972.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Society" title="Welsh Language Society">Cymdeithas yr Iaith</a>" (Society for the Language) bilingual road sign protest, 1972.</figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Welsh_language" title="History of the Welsh language">History of the Welsh language</a></div><p>The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">Cymraeg</i>) is an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language family">Indo-European language</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic family</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies20141,_4_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies20141,_4-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the most closely related languages are <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>. Most linguists believe that the Celtic languages arrived in Britain around 600 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies20146_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies20146-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Brythonic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Brythonic languages">Brythonic languages</a> ceased to be spoken in England and were replaced by the English language, a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic language</a> which arrived in Wales around the end of the eighth century due to the defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies201419_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies201419-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Welsh" title="Bible translations into Welsh">Bible translations into Welsh</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, which encouraged use of the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> in religious services, helped the language survive after Welsh elites abandoned it in favour of English in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies201437,_39_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies201437,_39-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Successive Welsh Language Acts, in 1942, <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Act_1967" title="Welsh Language Act 1967">1967</a> and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Act_1993" title="Welsh Language Act 1993">1993</a>, improved the legal status of Welsh.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_120,_122–123_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_120,_122–123-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_(Wales)_Measure_2011" title="Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011">Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011</a> modernised the 1993 Welsh Language Act and gave Welsh an official status in Wales for the first time, a major landmark for the language. The Measure also created the post of <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissioner" title="Welsh Language Commissioner">Welsh Language Commissioner</a>, replacing the Welsh Language Board.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaw_Walesn.d._197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw_Walesn.d.-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in the 1960s, many <a href="/wiki/Road_signs_in_Wales" title="Road signs in Wales">road signs</a> have been replaced by bilingual versions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_121_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_121-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various public and private sector bodies have adopted bilingualism to a varying degree and (since 2011) Welsh is the only official (<i>de jure</i>) language in any part of Great Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2014122–123_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2014122–123-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Until recently, says Martin Johnes: </p> <dl><dd>the historiography of modern Wales was rather narrow. Its domain was the fortunes of the Liberals and Labour, the impact of trade unions and protest, and the cultural realms of nonconformity and the Welsh language. This was not surprising—all emergent fields start with the big topics and the big questions—but it did give much of Welsh academic history a rather particular flavour. It was institutional and male, and yet still concerned with fields of enquiry that lay outside the confines of the British establishment.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes2016_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes2016-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">History of the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_historical_documents" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh historical documents">Welsh historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Wales" title="Archaeology of Wales">Archaeology of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Anglo-Welsh Wars">List of Anglo-Welsh Wars</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gildas, writing c. 540, condemns the "tyrant of the Demetians".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles184127_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles184127-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The earliest instance of <span title="Middle Welsh-language text"><i lang="wlm">Lloegyr</i></span> occurs in the early 10th-century prophetic poem <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><a href="/wiki/Armes_Prydein" title="Armes Prydein">Armes Prydein</a></i></span>. It seems comparatively late as a place name, the nominative plural <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><a href="/wiki/Lloegyr" title="Lloegyr">Lloegrwys</a></i></span>, "men of <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Lloegr</i></span>", being earlier and more common. The English were sometimes referred to as an entity in early poetry (<span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Saeson</i></span>, as today) but just as often as <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Eingl</i></span> (Angles), <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Iwys</i></span> (Wessex-men), etc. <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Lloegr</i></span> and <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Sacson</i></span> became the norm later when England emerged as a kingdom. As for its origins, some scholars have suggested that it originally referred only to <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> – at that time a powerful kingdom and for centuries the main foe of the Welsh. It was then applied to the new kingdom of England as a whole (see for instance <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Bromwich" title="Rachel Bromwich">Rachel Bromwich</a> (ed.), <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Triads" title="Welsh Triads">Trioedd Ynys Prydein</a></i></span>, University of Wales Press, 1987). "The lost land" and other fanciful meanings, such as <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a>'s monarch Locrinus, have no etymological basis. (See also Discussion in Reference 40)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a discussion of this, see <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephenson1984138–141_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephenson1984138–141-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The year in which English independence was preserved by the defeat of the Armada was also the one in which the linguistic and cultural integrity of Wales was saved by Morgan's Bible."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987322–323_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987322–323-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19943-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19943_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19942-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19942_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFosterDaniel201418-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFosterDaniel201418_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFosterDaniel2014">Foster & Daniel 2014</a>, p. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettitt2010207-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPettitt2010207_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPettitt2010">Pettitt 2010</a>, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERichardsTrinkaus2009-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERichardsTrinkaus2009_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRichardsTrinkaus2009">Richards & Trinkaus 2009</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPollard200113–25-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPollard200113–25_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPollard2001">Pollard 2001</a>, pp. 13–25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008647–648-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008647–648_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, pp. 647–648.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20142-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20142_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2014">Jones 2014</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20142-3-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20142-3_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2014">Jones 2014</a>, p. 2-3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19947-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19947_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch200034–42,_58-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch200034–42,_58_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch2000">Lynch 2000</a>, pp. 34–42, 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhittle1992-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhittle1992_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhittle1992">Whittle 1992</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GGAT_72_4-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GGAT_72_4_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvansLewis2003">Evans & Lewis 2003</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199417-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199417_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wales_Hist_4–6-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_4–6_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_4–6_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 4–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GGAT_72-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GGAT_72_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvansLewis2003">Evans & Lewis 2003</a>, p. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson200536-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPearson200536_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPearson2005">Pearson 2005</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies19949-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies19949_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch199539–40-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch199539–40_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1995">Lynch 1995</a>, pp. 39–40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200923-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200923_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200923_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200923_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2009">Davies 2009</a>, p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koch2009-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koch2009_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2009">Koch 2009</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECunliffeKoch2010384-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffeKoch2010384_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCunliffeKoch2010">Cunliffe & Koch 2010</a>, p. 384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECunliffe200855–64-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffe200855–64_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCunliffe2008">Cunliffe 2008</a>, pp. 55–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch2009b-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch2009b_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2009b">Koch 2009b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199419-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199419_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1995249–277-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1995249–277_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1995">Lynch 1995</a>, pp. 249–277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones20145-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones20145_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2014">Jones 2014</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch2000184-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch2000184_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch2000">Lynch 2000</a>, p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECunliffe1978206-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffe1978206_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCunliffe1978">Cunliffe 1978</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990151-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990151_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990151_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWebster201937–39-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWebster201937–39_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWebster2019">Webster 2019</a>, pp. 37–39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990154-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990154_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>, pp. 154.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles184127-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles184127_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiles1841">Giles 1841</a>, pp. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990179–196-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990179–196_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesMattingly1990179–196_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>, pp. 179–196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies915-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies915_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies915_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies915_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies915_36-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies915_36-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 915</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies531-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies531_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies531_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 531</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrere1987354-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrere1987354_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrere1987">Frere 1987</a>, p. 354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles184113-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles184113_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiles1841">Giles 1841</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies200078-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200078_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies200078_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2000">Davies 2000</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKoch20061231–1233-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch20061231–1233_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKoch20061231–1233_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoch2006">Koch 2006</a>, pp. 1231–1233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillimore188783–92-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillimore188783–92_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhillimore1887">Phillimore 1887</a>, pp. 83–92.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillimore1888148–183-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillimore1888148–183_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhillimore1888">Phillimore 1888</a>, pp. 148–183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVermaatn.d.-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVermaatn.d._44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVermaatn.d.">Vermaat n.d</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBromwich2006441–444-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBromwich2006441–444_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBromwich2006">Bromwich 2006</a>, pp. 441–444.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarbus200252–63-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarbus200252–63_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarbus2002">Harbus 2002</a>, pp. 52–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELynch1995126-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELynch1995126_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLynch1995">Lynch 1995</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199452-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199452_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a143–159-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a143–159_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911a">Lloyd 1911a</a>, pp. 143–159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2013345-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2013345_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2013345_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCharles-Edwards2013">Charles-Edwards 2013</a>, p. 345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERavilious2006-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERavilious2006_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRavilious2006">Ravilious 2006</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a131-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a131_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911a">Lloyd 1911a</a>, p. 131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200636-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200636_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund2006">Maund 2006</a>, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies56-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies56_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies56_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hist_Wales_65-66-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hist_Wales_65-66_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hist_Wales_65-66_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 65–66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 926</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillWorthington2003-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHillWorthington2003_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHillWorthington2003">Hill & Worthington 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wales_Hist_2-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_2_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wales_Hist_71-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_71_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008714-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008714_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 714.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies186-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies186_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 186</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008388-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008388_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 388.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a_64-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a_64-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911a">Lloyd 1911a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiles1848277–288chpt_1,2-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiles1848277–288chpt_1,2_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGiles1848">Giles 1848</a>, pp. 277–288, chpt 1,2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1959-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1959_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1959">Lloyd 1959</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199464-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199464_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199465–66-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199465–66_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStephenson1984138–141-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStephenson1984138–141_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStephenson1984">Stephenson 1984</a>, pp. 138–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1959c-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959c_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPierce1959c">Pierce 1959c</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELlwyd183262,63-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELlwyd183262,63_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLlwyd1832">Llwyd 1832</a>, p. 62,63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200650–54-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200650–54_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund2006">Maund 2006</a>, pp. 50–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a337-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a337_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911a">Lloyd 1911a</a>, p. 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a343–344-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a343–344_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911a">Lloyd 1911a</a>, pp. 343–344.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a351–352-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911a351–352_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911a">Lloyd 1911a</a>, pp. 351–352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008911-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008911_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 911.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2001104-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-Edwards2001104_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCharles-Edwards2001">Charles-Edwards 2001</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill2001176-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill2001176_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2001">Hill 2001</a>, p. 176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund200687–97_80-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund2006">Maund 2006</a>, pp. 87–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund199164-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund199164_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund1991">Maund 1991</a>, p. 64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurvey201011,_99-105-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurvey201011,_99-105_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurvey2010">Turvey 2010</a>, p. 11, 99-105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1959-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1959_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1959">Jones 1959</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216--84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216-_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund1991">Maund 1991</a>, pp. 216-.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wales_Hist_100-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_100_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_100_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 100</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wales_Hist_128-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_128_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 128</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund1991216_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund1991">Maund 1991</a>, p. 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994101-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994101_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman20106-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman20106_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2010">Lieberman 2010</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman20105-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman20105_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2010">Lieberman 2010</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies198728–30-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies198728–30_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1987">Davies 1987</a>, pp. 28–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund2006110-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund2006110_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund2006">Maund 2006</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERemfry20034–5-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERemfry20034–5_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRemfry2003">Remfry 2003</a>, pp. 4–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b398-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b398_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911b">Lloyd 1911b</a>, p. 398.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaund2006162–171-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaund2006162–171_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaund2006">Maund 2006</a>, pp. 162–171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b508–509-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b508–509_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911b">Lloyd 1911b</a>, pp. 508–509.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b536-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b536_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911b">Lloyd 1911b</a>, p. 536.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005108–109-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005108–109_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2005">Moore 2005</a>, pp. 108–109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005124-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005124_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2005">Moore 2005</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter2015-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarpenter2015_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarpenter2015">Carpenter 2015</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1959a-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959a_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959a_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPierce1959a">Pierce 1959a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 133–134</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b693-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911b693_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911b">Lloyd 1911b</a>, p. 693.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurvey201096,_99-102-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurvey201096,_99-102_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurvey2010">Turvey 2010</a>, p. 96, 99-102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2005">Moore 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPierce1959b-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPierce1959b_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPierce1959b">Pierce 1959b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 143–144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPowicke1962409-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowicke1962409_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPowicke1962409_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPowicke1962">Powicke 1962</a>, p. 409.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies151-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies151_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies151_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 151–152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrestwich2007151-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrestwich2007151_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPrestwich2007">Prestwich 2007</a>, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2000353-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2000353_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2000">Davies 2000</a>, p. 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETurvey2010112-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurvey2010112_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTurvey2010">Turvey 2010</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones1969-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones1969_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones1969">Jones 1969</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPilkington200223–24-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPilkington200223–24_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPilkington2002">Pilkington 2002</a>, pp. 23–24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott-Macnab1999459-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott-Macnab1999459_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott-Macnab1999459_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFScott-Macnab1999">Scott-Macnab 1999</a>, p. 459.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2000357,_364-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2000357,_364_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2000">Davies 2000</a>, pp. 357, 364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1987386-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1987386_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1987386_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1987">Davies 1987</a>, p. 386.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 162</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 711</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005159-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005159_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2005">Moore 2005</a>, p. 159.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wales_Hist_194-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_194_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_194_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wales_Hist_194_122-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 194</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005164–166-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005164–166_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2005">Moore 2005</a>, pp. 164–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2005169–185_124-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2005">Moore 2005</a>, pp. 169–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994199-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994199_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins2007107–119-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins2007107–119_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJenkins2007">Jenkins 2007</a>, pp. 107–119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987217–226-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987217–226_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1987">Williams 1987</a>, pp. 217–226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987231ff-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987231ff_130-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1987">Williams 1987</a>, pp. 231ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes201965–66-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes201965–66_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnes2019">Johnes 2019</a>, p. 65–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987268–273-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987268–273_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1987">Williams 1987</a>, pp. 268–273.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994233-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994233_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 233.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELieberman20104-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman20104_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLieberman2010">Lieberman 2010</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 232</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994258-259-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994258-259_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 258-259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2008572-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008572_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2008572_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 572.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987322–323-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1987322–323_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1987">Williams 1987</a>, pp. 322–323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan200922–36-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan200922–36_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan2009">Morgan 2009</a>, pp. 22–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins19877-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins19877_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJenkins1987">Jenkins 1987</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins19875–6-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins19875–6_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJenkins1987">Jenkins 1987</a>, pp. 5–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994280-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994280_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987370–377-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987370–377_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJenkins1987">Jenkins 1987</a>, pp. 370–377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987347–350-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987347–350_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJenkins1987">Jenkins 1987</a>, pp. 347–350.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYalden2004293–324-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYalden2004293–324_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYalden2004">Yalden 2004</a>, pp. 293–324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies392-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies392_147-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies392_147-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies392_147-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies392_147-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 392</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies393-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies393_148-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies393_148-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies393_148-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 393</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies818-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies818_149-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 818</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies819-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies819_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Attributed to historian <a href="/wiki/A._H._Dodd" title="A. H. Dodd">A. H. Dodd</a>: <a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 819</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJones2014148,_149-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJones2014148,_149_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2014">Jones 2014</a>, pp. 148, 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1985183-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1985183_152-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilliams1985">Williams 1985</a>, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994366–367-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994366–367_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, pp. 366–367.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan198246–47-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan198246–47_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan1982">Morgan 1982</a>, pp. 46–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell196220,_22-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell196220,_22_155-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitchell1962">Mitchell 1962</a>, pp. 20, 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Leary2002302-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Leary2002302_156-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFO'Leary2002">O'Leary 2002</a>, p. 302.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins1987_157-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJenkins1987">Jenkins 1987</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans1989-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans1989_158-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans1989">Evans 1989</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGitre2004792–827-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGitre2004792–827_159-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGitre2004">Gitre 2004</a>, pp. 792–827.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohn1980183-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohn1980183_160-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohn1980">John 1980</a>, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies284-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies284_161-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 284</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 285</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595_163-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595_163-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan201595_163-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan2015">Morgan 2015</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhillips199394–105-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPhillips199394–105_164-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhillips1993">Phillips 1993</a>, pp. 94–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies461-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies461_165-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 461</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUK_Governmentn.d.-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUK_Governmentn.d._166-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUK_Governmentn.d.">UK Government n.d</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies515-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies515_167-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 515</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies439-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies439_168-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 439</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982206–8,_272-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982206–8,_272_169-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan1982">Morgan 1982</a>, pp. 206–8, 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcAllister200125-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcAllister200125_170-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcAllister2001">McAllister 2001</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982208–210-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorgan1982208–210_171-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMorgan1982">Morgan 1982</a>, pp. 208–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 918</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies807-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies807_173-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 807</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes2013-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes2013_174-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnes2013">Johnes 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994533-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994533_175-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 533.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994649-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994649_176-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 649.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1994665-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1994665_177-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1994">Davies 1994</a>, p. 665.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MAC_&_FWA-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MAC_&_FWA_178-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClews1980">Clews 1980</a>, pp. 15, 21, 25–31</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClews198022,_59,_60_&_216-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClews198022,_59,_60_&_216_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClews1980">Clews 1980</a>, pp. 22, 59, 60 & 216.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gwynfor-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gwynfor_180-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans2000">Evans 2000</a>, p. 152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies236-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies236_181-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies236_181-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 236</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies237-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davies237_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2008">Davies 2008</a>, p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaker1985169-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBaker1985169_183-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBaker1985">Baker 1985</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies199356,_67-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies199356,_67_184-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1993">Davies 1993</a>, pp. 56, 67.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2011-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2011_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSenedd_Cymru2011">Senedd Cymru 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2020-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESenedd_Cymru2020_186-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSenedd_Cymru2020">Senedd Cymru 2020</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012loc:400-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012loc:400_187-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWyn_Jones2012">Wyn Jones 2012</a>, p. loc:400.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWyn_Jones2012_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWyn_Jones2012">Wyn Jones 2012</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733_189-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_2017">Expert Panel on Assembly Electoral Reform 2017</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733-34-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201733-34_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_2017">Expert Panel on Assembly Electoral Reform 2017</a>, p. 33-34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201718,_33-34-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_201718,_33-34_191-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_2017">Expert Panel on Assembly Electoral Reform 2017</a>, p. 18, 33-34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies20141,_4-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies20141,_4_192-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2014">Davies 2014</a>, pp. 1, 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies20146-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies20146_193-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2014">Davies 2014</a>, p. 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies201419-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies201419_194-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2014">Davies 2014</a>, p. 19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies201437,_39-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies201437,_39_195-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2014">Davies 2014</a>, pp. 37, 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_120,_122–123-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_120,_122–123_196-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2014">Davies 2014</a>, p. 117, 120, 122–123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw_Walesn.d.-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaw_Walesn.d._197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaw_Walesn.d.">Law Wales n.d</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_121-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2014117,_121_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2014">Davies 2014</a>, pp. 117, 121.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies2014122–123-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies2014122–123_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2014">Davies 2014</a>, p. 122–123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes2016-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes2016_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnes2016">Johnes 2016</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBaker1985" class="citation book cs1">Baker, Colin (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/aspectsofbilingu0000bake/page/168/mode/2up?view=theater&q=1967"><i>Aspects of bilingualism in Wales</i></a>. Clevedon, Avon, England : Multilingual Matters. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-905028-51-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-905028-51-4"><bdi>978-0-905028-51-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+bilingualism+in+Wales&rft.pub=Clevedon%2C+Avon%2C+England+%3A+Multilingual+Matters&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-905028-51-4&rft.aulast=Baker&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faspectsofbilingu0000bake%2Fpage%2F168%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater%26q%3D1967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeddoe2000" class="citation book cs1">Beddoe, Deirdre (2000). <i>Out of the shadows : a history of women in twentieth-century Wales</i>. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0708315917" title="Special:BookSources/0708315917"><bdi>0708315917</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+shadows+%3A+a+history+of+women+in+twentieth-century+Wales&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0708315917&rft.aulast=Beddoe&rft.aufirst=Deirdre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogdanor1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Bogdanor" title="Vernon Bogdanor">Bogdanor, Vernon</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lTnHwWWKAR8C&pg=PA52"><i>The Monarchy and the Constitution</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827769-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-827769-9"><bdi>978-0-19-827769-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Monarchy+and+the+Constitution&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-827769-9&rft.aulast=Bogdanor&rft.aufirst=Vernon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlTnHwWWKAR8C%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBromwich2006" class="citation book cs1">Bromwich, Rachel, ed. (2006). <i>Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads</i> (3 ed.). University of Wales Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trioedd+Ynys+Prydein%3A+The+Welsh+Triads&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-Edwards2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Charles-Edwards" title="Thomas Charles-Edwards">Charles-Edwards, T M</a> (2001). "Wales and Mercia, 613–918". In <a href="/wiki/Michelle_P._Brown" title="Michelle P. Brown">Brown, Michelle P</a>; Farr, Carol Ann (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H8Ke9acHFm4C&pg=PA176"><i>Mercia: an Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Europe</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leicester" title="University of Leicester">Leicester University Press</a>. p. 104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-0231-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-0231-7"><bdi>978-0-7185-0231-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wales+and+Mercia%2C+613%E2%80%93918&rft.btitle=Mercia%3A+an+Anglo-Saxon+kingdom+in+Europe&rft.pages=104&rft.pub=Leicester+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7185-0231-7&rft.aulast=Charles-Edwards&rft.aufirst=T+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH8Ke9acHFm4C%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-Edwards2013" class="citation book cs1">Charles-Edwards, T. M. (2013). <i>Wales and the Britons, 350-1064</i>. OUP Oxford. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821731-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821731-2"><bdi>978-0-19-821731-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wales+and+the+Britons%2C+350-1064&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-821731-2&rft.aulast=Charles-Edwards&rft.aufirst=T.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarpenter2015" class="citation web cs1">Carpenter, David (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/2015-parliament-in-the-making/2015-historic-anniversaries/magna-carta/magna-carta---wales-scotland-and-ireland/">"Magna Carta: Wales, Scotland and Ireland"</a>. Hansard.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Magna+Carta%3A+Wales%2C+Scotland+and+Ireland&rft.pub=Hansard&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Carpenter&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fabout%2Fliving-heritage%2Fevolutionofparliament%2F2015-parliament-in-the-making%2F2015-historic-anniversaries%2Fmagna-carta%2Fmagna-carta---wales-scotland-and-ireland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClews1980" class="citation book cs1">Clews, Roy (1980). <i>To Dream of Freedom – The story of MAC and the Free Wales Army</i>. Y Lolfa Cyf., Talybont. pp. 15, 21 & 26–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86243-586-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86243-586-8"><bdi>978-0-86243-586-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+Dream+of+Freedom+%E2%80%93+The+story+of+MAC+and+the+Free+Wales+Army&rft.pages=15%2C+21+%26+26-31&rft.pub=Y+Lolfa+Cyf.%2C+Talybont&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-86243-586-8&rft.aulast=Clews&rft.aufirst=Roy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe1978" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry W. (1978). <i>Iron age communities in Britain : an account of England, Scotland, and Wales from the seventh century BC until the Roman conquest</i> (2d ed.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-8725-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-8725-X"><bdi>0-7100-8725-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iron+age+communities+in+Britain+%3A+an+account+of+England%2C+Scotland%2C+and+Wales+from+the+seventh+century+BC+until+the+Roman+conquest&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2d&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-7100-8725-X&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffeKoch2010" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry W.; Koch, John T. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Celtic_from_the_West/DKsxAwEACAAJ?hl=en"><i>Celtic from the West: Alternative Perspectives from Archaeology, Genetics, Language, and Literature</i></a>. Oxbow Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-475-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-475-3"><bdi>978-1-84217-475-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+from+the+West%3A+Alternative+Perspectives+from+Archaeology%2C+Genetics%2C+Language%2C+and+Literature&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-84217-475-3&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry+W.&rft.au=Koch%2C+John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.uk%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FCeltic_from_the_West%2FDKsxAwEACAAJ%3Fhl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (2008). <i>A Race Apart: Insularity and Connectivity in Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 75, 2009, pp. 55–64</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Prehistoric_Society" title="The Prehistoric Society">The Prehistoric Society</a>. p. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Race+Apart%3A+Insularity+and+Connectivity+in+Proceedings+of+the+Prehistoric+Society+75%2C+2009%2C+pp.+55%E2%80%9364&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=The+Prehistoric+Society&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1993" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Janet (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/welshlanguage0000davi_n2d3/page/36/mode/2up?view=theater&q=decline"><i>The Welsh language</i></a>. Cardiff : University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1211-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1211-7"><bdi>978-0-7083-1211-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+language&rft.pub=Cardiff+%3A+University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-1211-7&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwelshlanguage0000davi_n2d3%2Fpage%2F36%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater%26q%3Ddecline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2014" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Janet (2014). <i>The Welsh Language: A History</i> (2 ed.). Cardiff: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wales_Press" title="University of Wales Press">University of Wales Press</a>. pp. 1, 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78316-019-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78316-019-8"><bdi>978-1-78316-019-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Language%3A+A+History&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=1%2C+4&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78316-019-8&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">Davies, John</a> (1994). <i>A History of Wales</i>. London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-014581-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-014581-8"><bdi>0-14-014581-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-14-014581-8&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Davies_(historian)" title="John Davies (historian)">Davies, John (Ed)</a> (2008). <i>The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales</i>. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 572. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1953-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1953-6"><bdi>978-0-7083-1953-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Academy+Encyclopaedia+of+Wales&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=572&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John+%28Ed%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2009" class="citation book cs1">Davies, John (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL21433685W/Making_of_Wales?edition=key%3A/books/OL29020288M"><i>The making of Wales</i></a> (2nd ed.). Stroud [England]: History Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780752452418" title="Special:BookSources/9780752452418"><bdi>9780752452418</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+making+of+Wales&rft.place=Stroud+%5BEngland%5D&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=History+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780752452418&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fworks%2FOL21433685W%2FMaking_of_Wales%3Fedition%3Dkey%253A%2Fbooks%2FOL29020288M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rees_Davies" title="Rees Davies">Davies, R. R.</a> (1987). <i>Conquest, Coexistence and Change: Wales 1063–1415</i>. History of Wales. Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821732-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821732-3"><bdi>0-19-821732-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conquest%2C+Coexistence+and+Change%3A+Wales+1063%E2%80%931415&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=History+of+Wales&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-19-821732-3&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2000" class="citation book cs1">Davies, R. R. (2000). <i>The Age of Conquest</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198208785.003.0002">10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198208785.003.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820878-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-820878-5"><bdi>978-0-19-820878-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Conquest&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780198208785.003.0002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-820878-5&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2015" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Russell (15 June 2015). <i>People, Places and Passions: A Social History of Wales and the Welsh 18701948 Volume 1</i> (1st ed.). University of Wales Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People%2C+Places+and+Passions%3A+A+Social+History+of+Wales+and+the+Welsh+18701948+Volume+1&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2015-06-15&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1989" class="citation book cs1">Evans, D. Gareth (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwales180000evan/page/n13/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>A history of Wales, 1815-1906</i></a>. Cardiff : University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1027-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-1027-4"><bdi>978-0-7083-1027-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Wales%2C+1815-1906&rft.pub=Cardiff+%3A+University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-1027-4&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=D.+Gareth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofwales180000evan%2Fpage%2Fn13%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvansLewis2003" class="citation journal cs1">Evans, Edith; Lewis, Richard (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ggat.org.uk/cadw/cadw_reports/pdfs/GGAT%2072%20Overviews.pdf">"The Prehistoric Funerary and Ritual Monument Survey of Glamorgan and Gwent: Overviews. A Report for Cadw by Edith Evans BA PhD MIFA and Richard Lewis BA"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society</i>. <b>64</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Prehistoric+Society&rft.atitle=The+Prehistoric+Funerary+and+Ritual+Monument+Survey+of+Glamorgan+and+Gwent%3A+Overviews.+A+Report+for+Cadw+by+Edith+Evans+BA+PhD+MIFA+and+Richard+Lewis+BA&rft.volume=64&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Edith&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ggat.org.uk%2Fcadw%2Fcadw_reports%2Fpdfs%2FGGAT%252072%2520Overviews.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span> ;</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gwynfor_Evans" title="Gwynfor Evans">Evans, Gwynfor</a> (2000). <i>The Fight for Welsh Freedom</i>. Y Lolfa Cyf., Talybont. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86243-515-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86243-515-8"><bdi>978-0-86243-515-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fight+for+Welsh+Freedom&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Y+Lolfa+Cyf.%2C+Talybont&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-86243-515-8&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Gwynfor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterDaniel2014" class="citation book cs1">Foster, I. Ll; Daniel, Glyn (24 October 2014). <i>Prehistoric and Early Wales</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-60487-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-60487-7"><bdi>978-1-317-60487-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prehistoric+and+Early+Wales&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-10-24&rft.isbn=978-1-317-60487-7&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=I.+Ll&rft.au=Daniel%2C+Glyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrere1987" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Sheppard_Frere" title="Sheppard Frere">Frere, Sheppard Sunderland</a> (1987), <i>Britannia: A History of Roman Britain</i> (3rd, revised ed.), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7102-1215-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7102-1215-1"><bdi>0-7102-1215-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Britannia%3A+A+History+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd%2C+revised&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-7102-1215-1&rft.aulast=Frere&rft.aufirst=Sheppard+Sunderland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles1848" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Monmouth" title="Geoffrey of Monmouth">Geoffrey of Monmouth</a> (1848). Giles, J.A. (ed.). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Six Old English Chronicles/Geoffrey's British History/Book 12"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Six_Old_English_Chronicles/Geoffrey%27s_British_History/Book_12"><i>Six Old English Chronicles/Geoffrey's British History/Book 12</i> </a></span>. pp. <span class="nowrap">277–</span>288 – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Six+Old+English+Chronicles%2FGeoffrey%27s+British+History%2FBook+12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E277-%3C%2Fspan%3E288&rft.date=1848&rft.au=Geoffrey+of+Monmouth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGitre2004" class="citation journal cs1">Gitre, Edward J. (December 2004). "The 1904–05 Welsh Revival: Modernization, Technologies, and Techniques of the Self". <i>Church History</i>. <b>73</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">792–</span>827. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009640700073054">10.1017/S0009640700073054</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1755-2613">1755-2613</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162398324">162398324</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Church+History&rft.atitle=The+1904%E2%80%9305+Welsh+Revival%3A+Modernization%2C+Technologies%2C+and+Techniques+of+the+Self&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E792-%3C%2Fspan%3E827&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162398324%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1755-2613&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009640700073054&rft.aulast=Gitre&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarbus2002" class="citation book cs1">Harbus, Antonina (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6uK4VHOYVHEC&dq=Helena+Coel+Hen&pg=PA65"><i>Helena of Britain in Medieval Legend</i></a>. DS Brewer. pp. <span class="nowrap">52–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85991-625-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-85991-625-1"><bdi>0-85991-625-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Helena+of+Britain+in+Medieval+Legend&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.pub=DS+Brewer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-85991-625-1&rft.aulast=Harbus&rft.aufirst=Antonina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6uK4VHOYVHEC%26dq%3DHelena%2BCoel%2BHen%26pg%3DPA65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2001" class="citation book cs1">Hill, David (2001). "Wales and Mercia, 613–918". In <a href="/wiki/Michelle_P._Brown" title="Michelle P. Brown">Brown, Michelle P</a>; Farr, Carol Ann (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H8Ke9acHFm4C&pg=PA176"><i>Mercia: an Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Europe</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leicester" title="University of Leicester">Leicester University Press</a>. p. 176. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-0231-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-0231-7"><bdi>978-0-7185-0231-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wales+and+Mercia%2C+613%E2%80%93918&rft.btitle=Mercia%3A+an+Anglo-Saxon+kingdom+in+Europe&rft.pages=176&rft.pub=Leicester+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7185-0231-7&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH8Ke9acHFm4C%26pg%3DPA176&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillWorthington2003" class="citation book cs1">Hill, David; Worthington, Margaret (2003). <i>Offa's Dyke: history and guide</i>. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1958-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-1958-9"><bdi>978-0-7524-1958-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Offa%27s+Dyke%3A+history+and+guide&rft.place=Stroud%2C+Gloucestershire&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-1958-9&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Worthington%2C+Margaret&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins1987" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Geraint H. (1987). <i>The foundations of modern Wales : Wales 1642-1780</i>. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821734-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821734-X"><bdi>0-19-821734-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+foundations+of+modern+Wales+%3A+Wales+1642-1780&rft.place=Oxford+%5BOxfordshire%5D&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-19-821734-X&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Geraint+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2007" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Geraint (2007). <i>A Concise History of Wales</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">107–</span>119.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Wales&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E107-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Geraint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenkins2014" class="citation book cs1">Jenkins, Philip (2014). <i>A history of modern Wales 1536-1990</i>. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, Taylor and Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87269-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-87269-6"><bdi>978-1-317-87269-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+modern+Wales+1536-1990&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-87269-6&rft.aulast=Jenkins&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn1980" class="citation book cs1">John, Arthur H. (1980). <i>Glamorgan County History, Volume V, Industrial Glamorgan from 1700 to 1970</i>. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Glamorgan+County+History%2C+Volume+V%2C+Industrial+Glamorgan+from+1700+to+1970&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=John&rft.aufirst=Arthur+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnes2010" class="citation journal cs1">Johnes, Martin (November 2010). "For Class and Nation: Dominant Trends in the Historiography of Twentieth-Century Wales: Historiography of Twentieth-Century Wales". <i>History Compass</i>. <b>8</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1257–</span>1274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2010.00737.x">10.1111/j.1478-0542.2010.00737.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=For+Class+and+Nation%3A+Dominant+Trends+in+the+Historiography+of+Twentieth-Century+Wales%3A+Historiography+of+Twentieth-Century+Wales&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1257-%3C%2Fspan%3E1274&rft.date=2010-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1478-0542.2010.00737.x&rft.aulast=Johnes&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnes2013" class="citation book cs1">Johnes, Martin (18 January 2013). <i>Wales since 1939</i>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84779-506-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84779-506-9"><bdi>978-1-84779-506-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wales+since+1939&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2013-01-18&rft.isbn=978-1-84779-506-9&rft.aulast=Johnes&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnes2016" class="citation journal cs1">Johnes, Martin (September 2016). "People, Places and Passions—'Pain and Pleasure': A Social History of Wales and the Welsh, 1870-1945 . By Russell Davies". <i>Twentieth Century British History</i>. <b>27</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">492–</span>494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ftcbh%2Fhww019">10.1093/tcbh/hww019</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Twentieth+Century+British+History&rft.atitle=People%2C+Places+and+Passions%E2%80%94%27Pain+and+Pleasure%27%3A+A+Social+History+of+Wales+and+the+Welsh%2C+1870-1945+.+By+Russell+Davies.&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E492-%3C%2Fspan%3E494&rft.date=2016-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ftcbh%2Fhww019&rft.aulast=Johnes&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnes2019" class="citation book cs1">Johnes, Martin (25 August 2019). <i>Wales: England's Colony?</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=GRUFFUDD+ap+LLYWELYN+%28died+1063%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd+and+Powys%2C+and+after+1055+king+of+all+Wales&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Farc_s-GRUF-APL-1063&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1">Koch, John T. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&dq=Macsen+%22magnus+maximus%22&pg=PA1232"><i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopaedia, vol. IV</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopaedia%2C+vol.+IV&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df899xH_quaMC%26dq%3DMacsen%2B%2522magnus%2Bmaximus%2522%26pg%3DPA1232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. 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(2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/29/54/26koch.pdf">"A Case for Tartessian as a Celtic Language"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Acta Palaeohispanica X Palaeohispanica</i>. <b>9</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Acta+Palaeohispanica+X+Palaeohispanica&rft.atitle=A+Case+for+Tartessian+as+a+Celtic+Language&rft.volume=9&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fifc.dpz.es%2Frecursos%2Fpublicaciones%2F29%2F54%2F26koch.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaingLaing1990" class="citation cs2">Laing, Lloyd; Laing, Jennifer (1990), "The non-Romanized zone of Britannia", <i>Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 200–800</i>, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">96–</span>123, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-04767-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-04767-3"><bdi>0-312-04767-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+non-Romanized+zone+of+Britannia&rft.btitle=Celtic+Britain+and+Ireland%2C+c.+200%E2%80%93800&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E96-%3C%2Fspan%3E123&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-312-04767-3&rft.aulast=Laing&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rft.au=Laing%2C+Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaing1975" class="citation cs2">Laing, Lloyd (1975), "Wales and the Isle of Man", <i>The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1200 AD</i>, Frome: Book Club Associates (published 1977), pp. <span class="nowrap">89–</span>119</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wales+and+the+Isle+of+Man&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Late+Celtic+Britain+and+Ireland%2C+c.+400%E2%80%931200+AD&rft.place=Frome&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E89-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.pub=Book+Club+Associates&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Laing&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaw_Walesn.d." class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.gov.wales/culture/welsh-language/welsh-language-wales-measure-2011">"Welsh Language (Wales) Measure 2011"</a>. <i>law.gov.wales</i>. 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Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76978-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76978-5"><bdi>978-0-521-76978-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medieval+March+of+Wales%3A+The+Creation+and+Perception+of+a+Frontier%2C+1066%E2%80%931283&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-76978-5&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=Max&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2nda0A3pVYAC%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1911a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1911a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofwalesfr01lloyuoft"><i>A History of Wales: From the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest</i></a>. 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London: Longmans, Green, and Co. – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales%3A+From+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Edwardian+Conquest&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co.&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdli.granth.106436&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1959" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-CADW-APC-0615">"CADWALADR (died 664), prince"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=CADWALADR+%28died+664%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-CADW-APC-0615&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlwyd1832" class="citation book cs1">Llwyd, Angharad (1832). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=DMY_AAAAcAAJ&rdid=book-DMY_AAAAcAAJ&rdot=1"><i>A history of Anglesey</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">62–</span>63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+Anglesey&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&rft.date=1832&rft.aulast=Llwyd&rft.aufirst=Angharad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fstore%2Fbooks%2Fdetails%3Fid%3DDMY_AAAAcAAJ%26rdid%3Dbook-DMY_AAAAcAAJ%26rdot%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLynch1995" class="citation book cs1">Lynch, Frances M. 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Stroud: Tempus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7524-2973-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7524-2973-6"><bdi>0-7524-2973-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Kings%3A+Warriors%2C+Warlords+and+Princes&rft.place=Stroud&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7524-2973-6&rft.aulast=Maund&rft.aufirst=K.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAllister2001" class="citation book cs1">McAllister, Laura (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/plaidcymruemerge0000mcal/page/24/mode/2up?view=theater&q=independence"><i>Plaid Cymru : the emergence of a political party</i></a>. Bridgend, Wales : Seren. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85411-310-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85411-310-8"><bdi>978-1-85411-310-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 December</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plaid+Cymru+%3A+the+emergence+of+a+political+party&rft.pub=Bridgend%2C+Wales+%3A+Seren&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-85411-310-8&rft.aulast=McAllister&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplaidcymruemerge0000mcal%2Fpage%2F24%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater%26q%3Dindependence&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFExpert_Panel_on_Assembly_Electoral_Reform_2017" class="citation book cs1">McAllister, Laura; Campbell, Rosie; Childs, Sarah; Clements, Rob; Farrell, David; Renwick, Alan; Silk, Paul (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://senedd.wales/media/eqbesxl2/a-parliament-that-works-for-wales.pdf"><i>A parliament that works for Wales</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Cardiff: National Assembly for Wales<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+parliament+that+works+for+Wales&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pub=National+Assembly+for+Wales&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=McAllister&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Rosie&rft.au=Childs%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Clements%2C+Rob&rft.au=Farrell%2C+David&rft.au=Renwick%2C+Alan&rft.au=Silk%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsenedd.wales%2Fmedia%2Feqbesxl2%2Fa-parliament-that-works-for-wales.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMitchell1962" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Brian R. (1962). <i>Abstract of British historical statistics</i>. Cambridge [England]: University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521057387" title="Special:BookSources/9780521057387"><bdi>9780521057387</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abstract+of+British+historical+statistics&rft.place=Cambridge+%5BEngland%5D&rft.pub=University+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=9780521057387&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Brian+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2005" class="citation book cs1">Moore, David (2005). <i>The Welsh Wars of Independence: c.410–c.1415</i>. Stroud: Tempus. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3321-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7524-3321-9"><bdi>978-0-7524-3321-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Welsh+Wars+of+Independence%3A+c.410%E2%80%93c.1415&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Tempus&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7524-3321-9&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2009" class="citation journal cs1">Morgan, D Densil (2009). "Calvinism in Wales: c.1590–1909". <i>Welsh Journal of Religious History</i>. <b>4</b>: <span class="nowrap">22–</span>36.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Welsh+Journal+of+Religious+History&rft.atitle=Calvinism+in+Wales%3A+c.1590%E2%80%931909&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=D+Densil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1982" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, Kenneth O. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wales18801980reb0000morg/page/208"><i>Rebirth of a Nation: Wales 1880–1980</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wales18801980reb0000morg/page/208">208–210</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821760-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-821760-2"><bdi>978-0-19-821760-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rebirth+of+a+Nation%3A+Wales+1880%E2%80%931980&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=208-210&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-19-821760-2&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwales18801980reb0000morg%2Fpage%2F208&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2015" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, Kenneth O. (2015). <i>Kenneth O. Morgan : My Histories</i>. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1783163236" title="Special:BookSources/978-1783163236"><bdi>978-1783163236</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kenneth+O.+Morgan+%3A+My+Histories&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1783163236&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary2002" class="citation book cs1">O'Leary, Paul (2002). <i>Immigration and integration : the Irish in Wales, 1798-1922</i>. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0708317679" title="Special:BookSources/978-0708317679"><bdi>978-0708317679</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immigration+and+integration+%3A+the+Irish+in+Wales%2C+1798-1922&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0708317679&rft.aulast=O%27Leary&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Parker_Pearson" title="Mike Parker Pearson">Pearson, Mike Parker</a> (2005). <i>Bronze Age Britain </i>(Revised Edition)<i><span></span></i>. London: B.T. Batsford and English Heritage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7134-8849-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7134-8849-2"><bdi>0-7134-8849-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bronze+Age+Britain+%28Revised+Edition%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=B.T.+Batsford+and+English+Heritage&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7134-8849-2&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Mike+Parker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettitt2010" class="citation book cs1">Pettitt, Paul (20 December 2010). <i>The Palaeolithic Origins of Human Burial</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-69910-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-69910-8"><bdi>978-1-136-69910-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Palaeolithic+Origins+of+Human+Burial&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010-12-20&rft.isbn=978-1-136-69910-8&rft.aulast=Pettitt&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1887" class="citation book cs1">Phillimore, Egerton, ed. (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HlUrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA83">"Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20"</a>. <i>Y Cymmrodor</i>. Vol. VIII. <a href="/wiki/Honourable_Society_of_Cymmrodorion" title="Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion">Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">83–</span>92.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pedigrees+from+Jesus+College+MS.+20&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E83-%3C%2Fspan%3E92&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1887&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHlUrAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1888" class="citation book cs1">Phillimore, Egerton (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aFMrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141">"The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859"</a>. In Phillimore, Egerton (ed.). <i>Y Cymmrodor</i>. Vol. IX. <a href="/wiki/Honourable_Society_of_Cymmrodorion" title="Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion">Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">141–</span>183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Annales+Cambriae+and+Old+Welsh+Genealogies%2C+from+Harleian+MS.+3859&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Phillimore&rft.aufirst=Egerton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaFMrAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1993" class="citation journal cs1">Phillips, Gervase (1993). "Dai bach y soldiwr: Welsh soldiers in the British Army, 1914-1918". <i>Llafur</i>. <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">94–</span>105.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Llafur&rft.atitle=Dai+bach+y+soldiwr%3A+Welsh+soldiers+in+the+British+Army%2C+1914-1918&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E94-%3C%2Fspan%3E105&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Gervase&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959a" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Pierce, Thomas Jones (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-LLYW-API-1173">"Llywelyn ap Iorwerth ('Llywelyn the Great', often styled 'Llywelyn I', prince of Gwynedd)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Llywelyn+ap+Iorwerth+%28%27Llywelyn+the+Great%27%2C+often+styled+%27Llywelyn+I%27%2C+prince+of+Gwynedd%29&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Pierce&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Jones&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-LLYW-API-1173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959b" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-GRUF-APL-1244">"Gruffydd ap Llywelyn (died 1244), prince"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gruffydd+ap+Llywelyn+%28died+1244%29%2C+prince&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-GRUF-APL-1244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierce1959c" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Thomas Jones Pierce (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://biography.wales/article/s-RHOD-MAW-0877">"Rhodri Mawr ('the Great') (died 877), king of Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_Welsh_Biography" title="Dictionary of Welsh Biography">Dictionary of Welsh Biography</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Wales" title="National Library of Wales">National Library of Wales</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rhodri+Mawr+%28%27the+Great%27%29+%28died+877%29%2C+king+of+Gwynedd%2C+Powys%2C+and+Deheubarth&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Welsh+Biography&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Wales&rft.date=1959&rft.au=Thomas+Jones+Pierce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbiography.wales%2Farticle%2Fs-RHOD-MAW-0877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPilkington2002" class="citation book cs1">Pilkington, Colin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/devolutioninbrit0000pilk"><i>Devolution in Britain today</i></a>. Manchester University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">23–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6075-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-6075-5"><bdi>978-0-7190-6075-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Devolution+in+Britain+today&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E23-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-6075-5&rft.aulast=Pilkington&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdevolutioninbrit0000pilk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollard2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Pollard" title="Joshua Pollard">Pollard, Joshua</a> (2001). "Wales' Hidden History, Hunter-Gatherer Communities in Wales: The Neolithic". In <a href="/wiki/Prys_Morgan" title="Prys Morgan">Morgan, Prys</a>; Aldhouse-Green, Stephen (eds.). <i>History of Wales, 25,000 BC AD 2000</i>. 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London: Reader's Digest. p. 459. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-276-42412-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-276-42412-0"><bdi>978-0-276-42412-0</bdi></a>. <q>A country and principality within the mainland of Britain ... about half a million</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illustrated+Encyclopedia+of+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.pages=459&rft.pub=Reader%27s+Digest&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-276-42412-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenedd_Cymru2011" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160420062743/http://www.assembly.wales/Research%20Documents/The%20Constitution%20Wales%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom%20-%20Quick%20guide-22072011-217207/qg07-0001-English.pdf">"The Constitution Series: 1 – Wales in the United Kingdom"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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London: Black Raven Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85159-003-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-85159-003-9"><bdi>0-85159-003-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+was+Wales%3F+%3A+a+history+of+the+Welsh&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Black+Raven+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-85159-003-9&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Gwyn+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span>}</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWithey2009" class="citation thesis cs1">Withey, Alun (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12367555"><i>Health, Medicine and the Family in Wales, c. 1600-1750</i></a> (PhD thesis). Swansea University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Health%2C+Medicine+and+the+Family+in+Wales%2C+c.+1600-1750&rft.degree=PhD&rft.inst=Swansea+University&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Withey&rft.aufirst=Alun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F12367555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyn_Jones2012" class="citation book cs1">Wyn Jones, Richard (2012). <i>Wales says yes : devolution and the 2011 Welsh referendum</i>. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-2485-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7083-2485-1"><bdi>978-0-7083-2485-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wales+says+yes+%3A+devolution+and+the+2011+Welsh+referendum&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-7083-2485-1&rft.aulast=Wyn+Jones&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYalden2004" class="citation journal cs1">Yalden, Peter (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-ecclesiastical-history/article/abs/association-community-and-the-origins-of-secularisation-english-and-welsh-nonconformity-c-18501930/FD85746FD542FC2EB800D6778CE85948">"Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850–1930"</a>. <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History</i>. <b>55</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">293–</span>324. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0022046904009923">10.1017/S0022046904009923</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-7637">1469-7637</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Ecclesiastical+History&rft.atitle=Association%2C+Community+and+the+Origins+of+Secularisation%3A+English+and+Welsh+Nonconformity%2C+c.+1850%E2%80%931930&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E293-%3C%2Fspan%3E324&rft.date=2004-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0022046904009923&rft.issn=1469-7637&rft.aulast=Yalden&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fjournal-of-ecclesiastical-history%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fassociation-community-and-the-origins-of-secularisation-english-and-welsh-nonconformity-c-18501930%2FFD85746FD542FC2EB800D6778CE85948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li>Chambers, Paul, and Andrew Thompson. "Coming to terms with the past: religion and identity in Wales." <i>Social compass</i> 52.3 (2005): 337–352.</li> <li>Davies, Ebnezer Thomas. <i>Religion in the Industrial Revolution of South Wales</i> (U. of Wales Press, 1965)</li> <li>Jenkins, Geraint H. <i>Literature, religion and society in Wales, 1660-1730</i> (University of Wales Press, 1978)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorace_Mann1854" class="citation book cs1">Horace Mann (1854). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/censusofgreatbri00grea"><i>Census of Great Britain, 1851: Religious Worship in England and Wales</i></a>. Ge. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Census+of+Great+Britain%2C+1851%3A+Religious+Worship+in+England+and+Wales&rft.pub=Ge.+Routledge&rft.date=1854&rft.au=Horace+Mann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcensusofgreatbri00grea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Morgan, Derec Llwyd. <i>The Great Awakening in Wales</i> (Epworth Press, 1988)</li> <li>Walker, R. B. "The Growth of Wesleyan Methodism in Victorian England and Wales." <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History</i> 24.03 (1973): 267–284.</li> <li>Williams, Glanmor. <i>The Welsh Church from Conquest to Reformation</i> (University of Wales Press, 1976)</li> <li>Williams, Glanmor. <i>The Welsh Church from Reformation to Disestablishment: 1603–1920</i> (University of Wales Press, 2007)</li> <li>Williams, Glanmor, ed. <i>Welsh reformation essays</i> (University of Wales Press, 1967)</li> <li>Yalden, Peter. "Association, Community and the Origins of Secularisation: English and Welsh Nonconformity, c. 1850–1930." <i>The Journal of Ecclesiastical History</i> 55.02 (2004): 293–324.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography_2">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li>Evans, Neil. <i>Writing a Small Nation's Past: Wales in Comparative Perspective, 1850–1950</i> (Routledge, 2016).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles1841" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Giles" title="John Allen Giles">Giles, John Allen</a>, ed. (1841), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3R1mCE7p44MC&pg=PA1">"The Works of Gildas"</a>, <i>The Works of Gildas and Nennius</i>, London: James Bohn</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Works+of+Gildas&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Gildas+and+Nennius&rft.place=London&rft.pub=James+Bohn&rft.date=1841&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3R1mCE7p44MC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Wales" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Withey, Alun. "Unhealthy Neglect? The Medicine and Medical Historiography of Early Modern Wales." <i>Social history of medicine</i> 21.1 (2008): 163–174. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1001.182&rep=rep1&type=pdf">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li><i>Brut y Tywysogyon or The Chronicle of the Princes. Peniarth Ms. 20 version</i>, ed. and trans. T. Jones [Cardiff, 1952]</li> <li><i>Annales Cambriae. A Translation of Harleian 3859; PRO E.164/1; Cottonian Domitian, A 1; Exeter Cathedral Library MS. 3514 and MS Exchequer DB Neath, PRO E</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-899376-81-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-899376-81-X">1-899376-81-X</a>)</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rcahmw.gov.uk">Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.llgc.org.uk/">National Library of Wales official website</a> - includes historical information and resources</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/">BBC History – Wales</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wales.com/about-wales/history-ancestry">History and Ancestry webpage</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Welsh Government</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wales_articles356" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wales_topics" title="Template:Wales topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wales_topics" title="Template talk:Wales topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wales_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wales topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wales_articles356" class="adr" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Wales" title="Outline of Wales">List of topics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Welsh_history" title="Timeline of Welsh history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Welsh_history" title="Bibliography of Welsh history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_Wales" title="Biodiversity of Wales">Biodiversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Wales" title="Fauna of Wales">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Wales" title="Flora of Wales">Flora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Wales" title="Climate of Wales">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Wales" title="List of islands of Wales">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Wales" title="List of lakes of Wales">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains and hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Wales" title="Protected areas of Wales">Protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Wales" title="National parks of Wales">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areas_of_Outstanding_Natural_Beauty_in_Wales" title="Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Wales">AONBs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Wales" title="List of rivers of Wales">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England%E2%80%93Wales_border" title="England–Wales border">Wales–England border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Wales" title="List of waterfalls in Wales">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Wales" title="Elections in Wales">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Local government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Wales" title="List of cities in Wales">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayors_in_Wales" title="Mayors in Wales">Mayors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">Local rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Wales" title="List of political parties in Wales">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Wales" title="Secretary of State for Wales">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Wales" title="Unionism in Wales">Unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_Office" title="Wales Office">Wales Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counsel_General_for_Wales" title="Counsel General for Wales">Counsel General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Modern Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_forces_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Police forces of Wales">Police forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_in_Wales" title="Armed forces in Wales">British Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wales" title="Agriculture in Wales">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_finance_in_Wales" title="Banking and finance in Wales">Banking and finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_industry_in_Wales" title="Coal industry in Wales">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Wales" title="List of companies of Wales">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Wales" title="Forestry in Wales">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_and_construction_in_Wales" title="Housing and construction in Wales">Housing and construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Wales" title="List of power stations in Wales">Power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">Slate quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Wales" title="Transport in Wales">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Wales" title="Category:Society of Wales">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_art" title="Welsh art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Wales" title="List of castles in Wales">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Wales" title="Education in Wales">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorsedd_Cymru" title="Gorsedd Cymru">Gorsedd Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Literature in Welsh</a> / <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Wales" title="Media of Wales">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Wales" title="List of museums in Wales">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_scheduled_monuments_in_Wales" title="Lists of scheduled monuments in Wales">Scheduled monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Wales" title="Sport in Wales">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Wales" title="Demographics of Wales">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sign_Language" title="British Sign Language">British Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">People</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people" title="List of Welsh people">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Actors" title="List of Welsh people">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_Americans" title="List of Welsh Americans">Welsh Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_architects" title="List of Welsh architects">Architects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_artists" title="List of Welsh artists">Artists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_artists_associated_with_Wales" title="List of women artists associated with Wales">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_musicians" title="List of Welsh musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_poets_(6th_century_to_c._1600)" title="List of Welsh-language poets (6th century to c. 1600)">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Monarchs_and_princes" title="List of Welsh people">Royalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_scientists" title="List of Welsh scientists">Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women" title="List of Welsh women">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_writers" title="List of Welsh writers">Writers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_authors" title="List of Welsh-language authors">in Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women_writers" title="List of Welsh women writers">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Wales" title="Health in Wales">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Wales" title="Healthcare in Wales">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NHS_Wales" title="NHS Wales">Healthcare service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_health_board" title="Local health board">Boards</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_in_Wales" title="Church in Wales">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_in_Wales" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Wales">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_Wales" title="Presbyterian Church of Wales">Presbyterianism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Non-Christian belief systems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Wales" title="Baháʼí Faith in Wales">Bahá'ís</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Wales" title="Buddhism in Wales">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Wales" title="Hinduism in Wales">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Wales" title="Islam in Wales">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_Wales" title="Sikhism in Wales">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li> <li>History <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">Saint David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_revival" title="1904–1905 Welsh revival">1904–1905 Welsh revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Church_Act_1914" title="Welsh Church Act 1914">Welsh Church Act 1914</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Wales" title="National symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hen_Wlad_Fy_Nhadau" title="Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_flags" title="List of Welsh flags">Flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Wales" title="Flag of Wales">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers" title="Prince of Wales's feathers">Prince of Wales's feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Badge_of_Wales" title="Royal Badge of Wales">Royal Badge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Dragon" title="Welsh Dragon">Welsh Dragon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/48px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/64px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe117" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe117" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_British_Isles409" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks vcard mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Template:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Template talk:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_British_Isles409" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">History of the British Isles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">Overview</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Wight" title="History of the Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly#History" title="Isles of Scilly">Isles of Scilly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shetland" title="History of Shetland">Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Orkney" title="History of Orkney">Orkney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Hebrides#History" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Outer_Hebrides" title="History of the Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Wales</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglesey#History" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (Mann)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands#History" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/75px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/113px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/150px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Prehistoric" title="History of the British Isles">Prehistoric period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England#Prehistory" title="History of England">Prehistoric England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Scotland" title="Prehistoric Scotland">Prehistoric Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Shetland" title="Prehistoric Shetland">Prehistoric Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Orkney" title="Prehistoric Orkney">Prehistoric Orkney</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistoric Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland" title="Prehistoric Ireland">Prehistoric Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Prehistory" title="History of the Isle of Man">Prehistoric Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Classical_period" title="History of the British Isles">Classical period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Roman Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory_of_Ireland" title="Protohistory of Ireland">Protohistoric Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Roman_relations" title="Hiberno-Roman relations">Roman Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Medieval_period" title="History of the British Isles">Medieval period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">Medieval England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Early medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Medieval Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early medieval Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High medieval Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Medieval Wales</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Early Middle Ages">Early medieval Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">High medieval Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Ireland in the Middle Ages">Medieval Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">Early medieval Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">High medieval Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">Late medieval Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Middle_Ages" title="History of the Isle of Man">Medieval Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Early_Modern_period" title="History of the British Isles">Early modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Early modern Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Early modern England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Scotland in the early modern period">Early modern Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period_in_Wales" title="Early modern period in Wales">Early modern Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">Early modern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Early_Modern_period" title="History of the Isle of Man">Early modern Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#19th_century" title="History of the British Isles">Late modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (since 1707) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#Second_World_War_1939–1945" title="History of the United Kingdom">Second World War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">World Wars (Wales)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1945%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)">Post-war period (political history)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1945%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)">Post-war period (social history)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Late modern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Modern_period" title="History of the Isle of Man">Late modern Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_monarchs_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of monarchs in the British Isles">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&oldid=1270823439">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Wales&oldid=1270823439</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Wales" title="Category:History of Wales">History of 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class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-jtx6t","wgBackendResponseTime":136,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.331","walltime":"2.697","ppvisitednodes":{"value":22443,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":419407,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":51913,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":70,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":373447,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2223.908 1 -total"," 21.96% 488.292 176 Template:Sfn"," 17.18% 382.087 65 Template:Cite_book"," 10.17% 226.174 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 6.52% 145.070 1 Template:History_of_Wales"," 5.68% 126.369 4 Template:Langx"," 4.89% 108.663 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.44% 98.834 1 Template:Wales_topics"," 4.37% 97.143 1 Template:Country_topics"," 4.01% 89.190 1 Template:Culture_of_Wales"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.432","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23357858,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"short\"] = \"yes\",\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBaker1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeddoe2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBogdanor1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBromwich2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarpenter2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles-Edwards2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharles-Edwards2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClews1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunliffe1978\"] = 1,\n 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