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<span>Historical background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_in_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_in_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Arrival in Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_in_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rule</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rule-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rule subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Accession_to_the_throne_and_treaty_of_Melfi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accession_to_the_throne_and_treaty_of_Melfi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Accession to the throne and treaty of Melfi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accession_to_the_throne_and_treaty_of_Melfi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaigns_in_Calabria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaigns_in_Calabria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Campaigns in Calabria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaigns_in_Calabria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_Sicily" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_Sicily"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Conquest of Sicily</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_Sicily-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquests_of_Bari,_Salerno_and_Benevento" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquests_of_Bari,_Salerno_and_Benevento"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Conquests of Bari, Salerno and Benevento</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquests_of_Bari,_Salerno_and_Benevento-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Against_the_Byzantines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Against_the_Byzantines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Against the Byzantines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Against_the_Byzantines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Succession" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succession"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Succession</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succession-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage_and_issue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage_and_issue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Marriage and issue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage_and_issue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Depictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Depictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert Guiscard</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="روبرت جيسكارد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="روبرت جيسكارد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Qviskar" title="Robert Qviskar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Robert Qviskar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Роберт Гвіскар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Роберт Гвіскар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Робер Гискар – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Робер Гискар" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gviskard" title="Robert Gviskard – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Robert Gviskard" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiskard" title="Robert Guiskard – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Robert Guiskard" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%BF%CE%B2%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%93%CF%85%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ροβέρτος Γυισκάρδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ροβέρτος Γυισκάρδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Guiscardo" title="Roberto Guiscardo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Roberto Guiscardo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Gviskardo" title="Roberto Gviskardo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Roberto Gviskardo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Guiscard" title="Roberto Guiscard – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Roberto Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="رابرت گیسکارد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رابرت گیسکارد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%B2%A0%EB%A5%B4_%EA%B8%B0%EC%8A%A4%EC%B9%B4%EB%A5%B4" title="로베르 기스카르 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로베르 기스카르" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D5%A2%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%BF_%D4%B3%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Ռոբերտ Գվիսկար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռոբերտ Գվիսկար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_il_Guiscardo" title="Roberto il Guiscardo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Roberto il Guiscardo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%A8" title="רובר גיסקאר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רובר גיסקאר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A2_%E1%83%92%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="რობერტ გუისკარი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რობერტ გუისკარი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robertus_Guiscardus" title="Robertus Guiscardus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Robertus Guiscardus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberts_Guisk%C4%81rs" title="Roberts Guiskārs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Roberts Guiskārs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="روبرت جيسكارد – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="روبرت جيسكارد" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%99%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B0%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B9%E3%82%AB%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89" title="ロベルト・イル・グイスカルド – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ロベルト・イル・グイスカルド" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_de_Altavila" title="Roberto de Altavila – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Roberto de Altavila" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Роберт Гвискар – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Роберт Гвискар" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiskard" title="Robert Guiskard – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Robert Guiskard" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubbertu_lu_Guiscardu" title="Rubbertu lu Guiscardu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Rubbertu lu Guiscardu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Роберт Гвискар – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Роберт Гвискар" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_%D0%93%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Роберт Гвіскар – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Роберт Гвіскар" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Guiscard" title="Robert Guiscard – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Robert Guiscard" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E8%B2%9D%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%90%89%E6%96%AF%E5%8D%A1%E7%88%BE" title="羅貝爾·吉斯卡爾 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="羅貝爾·吉斯卡爾" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q203792#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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.infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn" style="background-color: #cbe; color:inherit; font-size: 125%">Robert Guiscard</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image photo"><div class="center"><div class="center"> <div style="width: 235px; height: 247px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -170px; left: -110px; width: 850px"><div class="noresize"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Guiscard_claimed_as_a_Duke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Robert Guiscard claimed as a Duke.jpg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Robert_Guiscard_claimed_as_a_Duke.jpg/850px-Robert_Guiscard_claimed_as_a_Duke.jpg" decoding="async" width="850" height="575" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Robert_Guiscard_claimed_as_a_Duke.jpg/1275px-Robert_Guiscard_claimed_as_a_Duke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Robert_Guiscard_claimed_as_a_Duke.jpg/1700px-Robert_Guiscard_claimed_as_a_Duke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2849" data-file-height="1928" /></a></span></div></div> </div> </div></div><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-bottom:0.2em;padding-top:0.2em;">Robert Guiscard being crowned as Duke of Apulia and Calabria by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_II" title="Pope Nicholas II">Pope Nicholas II</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Apulia and Calabria">Duke of Apulia and Calabria</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">23 August 1059 – 17 July 1085</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>title created</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Borsa" title="Roger Borsa">Roger Borsa</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Count_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" class="mw-redirect" title="Count of Apulia and Calabria">Count of Apulia and Calabria</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">August 1057 – 23 August 1059</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_of_Hauteville" title="Humphrey of Hauteville">Humphrey of Hauteville</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">Lord of Sicily</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">Invested on 23 August 1059</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Roger_I_of_Sicily" title="Roger I of Sicily">Roger I</a> (as count)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Benevento" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince of Benevento">Prince of Benevento</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reign</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">1078 - 1081</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Predecessor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Landulf_VI_of_Benevento" title="Landulf VI of Benevento">Landulf VI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Successor</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>title extinct</i></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #e4dcf6;color:inherit;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><div style="height: 4px; width:100%;"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1015</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Hauteville-la-Guichard" title="Hauteville-la-Guichard">Hauteville-la-Guichard</a> or somewhere else in <a href="/wiki/Cotentin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotentin">Cotentin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Normandy" title="Duchy of Normandy">Normandy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">17 July 1085<span style="display:none">(1085-07-17)</span> (aged 69–70)<br /><a href="/wiki/Cephalonia" title="Cephalonia">Cephalonia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Burial</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="label"><a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_the_Santissima_Trinit%C3%A0_(Venosa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of the Santissima Trinità (Venosa)">Abbey of the Santissima Trinità</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venosa" title="Venosa">Venosa</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alberada_of_Buonalbergo" title="Alberada of Buonalbergo">Alberada of Buonalbergo</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sikelgaita" title="Sikelgaita">Sikelgaita</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)" title="Issue (genealogy)">Issue</a></th><td class="infobox-data">see <a href="#Marriage_and_issue">below</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Noble family</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hauteville_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Hauteville family">Hauteville</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Father</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tancred_of_Hauteville" title="Tancred of Hauteville">Tancred of Hauteville</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Mother</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Fressenda" title="Fressenda">Fressenda</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Robert Guiscard</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">ghee-<span style="font-size:90%">SKAR</span></i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <small>Modern</small> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">French:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ɡiskaʁ]</a></span>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1015</span> – 17 July 1085), also referred to as <b>Robert de Hauteville</b>, was a <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Norman</a> adventurer remembered for his <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">conquest of southern Italy and Sicily</a> in the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Robert was born into the <a href="/wiki/Hauteville_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Hauteville family">Hauteville family</a> in <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>, the sixth son of <a href="/wiki/Tancred_of_Hauteville" title="Tancred of Hauteville">Tancred de Hauteville</a> and his wife <a href="/wiki/Fressenda" title="Fressenda">Fressenda</a>. He inherited the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">County of Apulia and Calabria</a> from his brother in 1057, and in 1059 he was made <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Apulia and Calabria">Duke of Apulia and Calabria</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">Lord of Sicily</a> by Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_II" title="Pope Nicholas II">Nicholas II</a>. He was also briefly <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Benevento" class="mw-redirect" title="Prince of Benevento">Prince of Benevento</a> (1078–1081), before returning the title to the papacy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Robert's sobriquet, "Guiscard" (in contemporary <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Viscardus</i></span> and <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> <span title="Old French (842-ca. 1400)-language text"><i lang="fro">Viscart</i></span>, closely related to the English <a href="/wiki/Archaism" title="Archaism">archaism</a> <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/wiseacre" class="extiw" title="mwod:wiseacre">wiseacre</a>) is often rendered as "the Resourceful", "the Cunning", "the Wily", "the Fox", or "the Weasel". In Italian sources he is known as <i>Roberto il Guiscardo</i> or <i>Roberto d'Altavilla</i> (meaning Robert Guiscard and Robert de Hauteville), while medieval <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> sources call him simply <i>Abārt al-dūqa</i> (Duke Robert).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohns2015124_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohns2015124-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 999 to 1042, different <a href="/wiki/Normans" title="Normans">Normans</a> began migrating to Italy, where they mainly worked as mercenaries, serving at various times the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> and a number of <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombard</a> nobles.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of the independent Norman lords was <a href="/wiki/Rainulf_Drengot" title="Rainulf Drengot">Rainulf Drengot</a>, who established himself in the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Aversa" title="Aversa">Aversa</a>, becoming <a href="/wiki/Count_of_Aversa" class="mw-redirect" title="Count of Aversa">Count of Aversa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Gaeta" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Gaeta">Duke of Gaeta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1038, <a href="/wiki/William_Iron_Arm" title="William Iron Arm">William Iron Arm</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drogo_of_Hauteville" title="Drogo of Hauteville">Drogo</a>, the eldest sons of <a href="/wiki/Tancred_of_Hauteville" title="Tancred of Hauteville">Tancred of Hauteville</a> (Seigneur of Hauteville-La-Guichard, a town in <a href="/wiki/Cotentin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cotentin">Cotentin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Normandy" title="Normandy">Normandy</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elder brothers of Robert Guiscard, arrived in Italy. The two joined a revolt against the Byzantine rule of <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a>, started by the Lombards. By 1040 the Byzantines had lost most of the province. In 1042 a group of Normans settled in Apulia and chose <a href="/wiki/Melfi" title="Melfi">Melfi</a> as their capital; in September of the same year they elected William Iron Arm as their count, who was succeeded in turn by his brothers Drogo, <i>comes Normannorum totius Apuliæ e Calabriæ</i> ("the count of all Normans in Apulia and Calabria"), and after him <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_of_Hauteville" title="Humphrey of Hauteville">Humphrey</a>, who arrived around 1044.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arrival_in_Italy">Arrival in Italy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arrival in Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Robert Guiscard was born around 1015, a son of <a href="/wiki/Tancred_of_Hauteville" title="Tancred of Hauteville">Tancred of Hauteville</a> and his second wife <a href="/wiki/Fressenda" title="Fressenda">Fressenda</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the sixth of Tancred's twelve sons. According to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Anna_Komnene" title="Anna Komnene">Anna Komnene</a>, he left Normandy to follow his brothers' footsteps with only five mounted riders and thirty followers on foot. Upon arriving in southern Italy in 1047, he became the chief of a roving band of robbers.<sup id="cite_ref-AAC54_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAC54-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anna Komnene gives us a physical description of Guiscard:<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This Robert was Norman by birth,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of obscure origins, with an overbearing character and a thoroughly villainous mind;<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he was a brave fighter, very cunning in his assaults on the wealth and power of great men;<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in achieving his aims absolutely inexorable, diverting criticism by incontrovertible argument. He was a man of immense stature, surpassing even the biggest men; he had a ruddy complexion, fair hair, broad shoulders, eyes that all but shot out sparks of fire. In a well-built man one looks for breadth here and slimness there; in him all was admirably well-proportioned and elegant... Homer remarked of Achilles that when he shouted his hearers had the impression of a multitude in uproar, but Robert's bellow, so they say, put tens of thousands to flight.<sup id="cite_ref-AAC54_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAC54-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>When Robert arrived in Apulia, lands were scarce, and thus he couldn't expect any land grant from his brother <a href="/wiki/Drogo_of_Hauteville" title="Drogo of Hauteville">Drogo</a>, then count (especially since Drogo had already given <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_of_Hauteville" title="Humphrey of Hauteville">Humphrey</a> the county of <a href="/wiki/Lavello" title="Lavello">Lavello</a>). In 1048, Guiscard joined <a href="/wiki/Pandulf_IV_of_Capua" title="Pandulf IV of Capua">Pandulf IV of Capua</a> in a war against <a href="/wiki/Guaimar_IV_of_Salerno" title="Guaimar IV of Salerno">Guaimar IV of Salerno</a>. The next year, however, he left the war. Chronicler <a href="/wiki/Amatus_of_Montecassino" title="Amatus of Montecassino">Amatus of Montecassino</a> says this was due to Pandulf denying a previous promise that he had made to Robert, which included the gift of a castle and his daughter's hand in marriage. Robert therefore returned to Drogo's court, and he asked his brother to grant him a fief. Drogo, who had just finished a military campaign in <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a>, granted him command of the fortress of <a href="/wiki/Spezzano_Albanese" title="Spezzano Albanese">Scribla</a>, but Guiscard, dissatisfied, transferred to the castle of <a href="/wiki/San_Marco_Argentano" title="San Marco Argentano">San Marco Argentano</a>. During his time in Calabria, Robert married <a href="/wiki/Alberada_of_Buonalbergo" title="Alberada of Buonalbergo">Alberada of Buonalbergo</a>, under the promise of her nephew <a href="/wiki/Girard_of_Buonalbergo" title="Girard of Buonalbergo">Girard of Buonalbergo</a> that he would join Robert with his 200 knights if the marriage took place.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the Normans gained more and more power in southern Italy, the Lombards, of whom they had been allies for a long time, turned against him. <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_IX" title="Pope Leo IX">Pope Leo IX</a> formed an anti-Norman coalition in an effort to expel them from the peninsula, but in 1053 he was defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Civitate" title="Battle of Civitate">Battle of Civitate</a> by the Norman forces, led by Humphrey, now count. Robert fought personally in the battle, and according to <a href="/wiki/William_of_Apulia" title="William of Apulia">William of Apulia</a> he was dismounted from his horse on three occasions, but he remounted every time.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rule">Rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accession_to_the_throne_and_treaty_of_Melfi">Accession to the throne and treaty of Melfi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Accession to the throne and treaty of Melfi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roberto_il_Guiscardo_Costantino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Roberto_il_Guiscardo_Costantino.jpg/220px-Roberto_il_Guiscardo_Costantino.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Roberto_il_Guiscardo_Costantino.jpg/330px-Roberto_il_Guiscardo_Costantino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Roberto_il_Guiscardo_Costantino.jpg/440px-Roberto_il_Guiscardo_Costantino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Robert Guiscard and Sikelgaita welcoming <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_African" title="Constantine the African">Constantine the African</a> to court</figcaption></figure><p> When Humphrey died in 1057, Guiscard succeeded him as <a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">Count of Apulia and Calabria</a>, skipping over his elder half-brother <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_of_Hauteville" title="Geoffrey of Hauteville">Geoffrey</a> in the line of succession. Soon after, probably in 1058, Guiscard's marriage to Alberada was annulled due to <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a>. It was the first time that a marriage was annulled for this cause. After that, Robert married <a href="/wiki/Sikelgaita" title="Sikelgaita">Sikelgaita</a>, sister of <a href="/wiki/Gisulf_II_of_Salerno" title="Gisulf II of Salerno">Gisulf II of Salerno</a>, securing a new alliance between Lombards and Normans. In return for his sister's hand in marriage, Gisulf demanded that Guiscard destroyed two castles which belonged to his brother <a href="/wiki/William_of_the_Principate" title="William of the Principate">William</a>, because they stood on Gisulf's territory. </p><p>The Papacy, in a conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a>, now opted to secure the Normans as allies. Therefore, in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Melfi" title="Treaty of Melfi">Treaty of Melfi</a> of 1059, Guiscard swore fealty to <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_II" title="Pope Nicholas II">Pope Nicholas II</a>. In return, Nicholas invested Guiscard of the titles of <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Apulia and Calabria">Duke of Apulia and Calabria</a> and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">Lord of Sicily</a> (<i>by the Grace of God and St Peter duke of Apulia and Calabria and, if either aid me, future lord of Sicily</i>), legitimizing his intervention against the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Sicily" title="Muslim Sicily">Sicilian emirates</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslim</a> faith.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaigns_in_Calabria">Campaigns in Calabria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Campaigns in Calabria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the treaty of Melfi, Robert engaged in a large <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">series of conquests in southern Italy</a>, mainly in <a href="/wiki/Calabria" title="Calabria">Calabria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, with the help of his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Roger_I_of_Sicily" title="Roger I of Sicily">Roger I</a>. At the time of treaty, Guiscard was already leading an army in Calabria, in an attempt to fully subjugate the province, still partially held by the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantines</a>. After being invested of his titles, Guiscard returned to Calabria, where his army was besieging <a href="/wiki/Cariati" title="Cariati">Cariati</a>. Upon his arrival Cariati submitted, and, before winter, <a href="/wiki/Rossano" title="Rossano">Rossano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gerace" title="Gerace">Gerace</a> followed. He briefly returned to Apulia to remove the Byzantine garrisons from <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taranto</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brindisi" title="Brindisi">Brindisi</a>, before returning once again in Calabria, where after a long and arduous siege, he conquered <a href="/wiki/Reggio_Calabria" title="Reggio Calabria">Reggio</a>. Finally, he took <a href="/wiki/Scilla,_Calabria" title="Scilla, Calabria">Scilla</a>, an island to which the Reggian garrison had fled. The complete control over Calabria opened the way to his planned conquest of Sicily. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_Sicily">Conquest of Sicily</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Conquest of Sicily"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italy_and_Illyria_1084_AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Multicoloured map of Italian peninsula, showing smaller states" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Italy_and_Illyria_1084_AD.svg/220px-Italy_and_Illyria_1084_AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Italy_and_Illyria_1084_AD.svg/330px-Italy_and_Illyria_1084_AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Italy_and_Illyria_1084_AD.svg/440px-Italy_and_Illyria_1084_AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="586" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption>Norman progress in Sicily during Robert's expeditions to the Balkans: <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Capua" title="Principality of Capua">Capua</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="County of Apulia and Calabria">Apulia and Calabria</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">County of Sicily</a> are Norman. The <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Emirate of Sicily">Emirate of Sicily</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Naples" title="Duchy of Naples">Duchy of Naples</a> and lands in the <a href="/wiki/Abruzzo" title="Abruzzo">Abruzzo</a> (in the southern <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Spoleto" title="Duchy of Spoleto">Duchy of Spoleto</a>) are not yet conquered.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman conquest of Sicily">Norman conquest of Sicily</a></div> <p>Robert's brother, Roger, had initially led a tiny force to attack <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a>, but he was easily repulsed by the <a href="/wiki/Saracen" title="Saracen">Saracen</a> garrison. After that, Guiscard was once again forced to return to Apulia, under the threat of byzantine emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_X_Doukas" title="Constantine X Doukas">Constantine X</a>'s army, which in January 1061 had begun besieging Melfi itself. The full weight of Guiscard's army forced the Byzantines to retreat, and by May Apulia was free again. </p><p>Robert and Roger returned to Sicily, where in 1061 they took <a href="/wiki/Messina" title="Messina">Messina</a> by surprise with comparable ease. After fortifying the city, Guiscard allied himself with the emir of <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Timnah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn al-Timnah (page does not exist)">ibn al-Timnah</a>, against the emir of <a href="/wiki/Enna" title="Enna">Castrogiovanni</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Hawas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn al-Hawas (page does not exist)">Ibn al-Hawas</a>. The forces of Robert, Roger and their Muslim ally marched into central Sicily through <a href="/wiki/Rometta" title="Rometta">Rometta</a>, conquering <a href="/wiki/Patern%C3%B2" title="Paternò">Paternò</a>. They then tried to besiege Castrogiovanni, failing to conquer the fort. In 1063 Robert left for Apulia to spend Christmas with Sikelgaita, leaving behind the fort of <a href="/wiki/San_Marco_d%27Alunzio" title="San Marco d'Alunzio">San Marco d'Alunzio</a> (which he had named after San Marco Argentano, his castle in Calabria). In 1064 he returned to Sicily, bypassing Castrogiovanni and going straight for <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a>. His campsite was however infested with <a href="/wiki/Tarantula" title="Tarantula">tarantulas</a>, and the expedition was abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers201066_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers201066-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1071 the Norman <a href="/wiki/County_of_Sicily" title="County of Sicily">County of Sicily</a> was created, and given to <a href="/wiki/Roger_I_of_Sicily" title="Roger I of Sicily">Roger</a>. A year later Palermo finally fell, and the rest of Sicily was gradually conquered. A last resistance was held by <a href="/wiki/Benavert" title="Benavert">Benavert</a>, emir of Syracuse, but he was ultimately defeated in 1086. The last Muslim holding in Sicily, Noto, fell in 1091. As a result of his Sicilian campaigns, Robert Guiscard is also referred to as "Black Shirt Robert" because throughout the campaign he wore elegant black clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RogerReceivingTheKeysOfPalermo.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RogerReceivingTheKeysOfPalermo.JPG/220px-RogerReceivingTheKeysOfPalermo.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RogerReceivingTheKeysOfPalermo.JPG/330px-RogerReceivingTheKeysOfPalermo.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/RogerReceivingTheKeysOfPalermo.JPG/440px-RogerReceivingTheKeysOfPalermo.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1233" data-file-height="1101" /></a><figcaption>The surrender of Palermo by the Muslims, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Patania" title="Giuseppe Patania">Giuseppe Patania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_dei_Normanni" title="Palazzo dei Normanni">Palazzo dei Normanni</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquests_of_Bari,_Salerno_and_Benevento"><span id="Conquests_of_Bari.2C_Salerno_and_Benevento"></span>Conquests of Bari, Salerno and Benevento</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Conquests of Bari, Salerno and Benevento"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statua_di_Roberto_il_Guiscardo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Statua_di_Roberto_il_Guiscardo.jpg/220px-Statua_di_Roberto_il_Guiscardo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="466" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Statua_di_Roberto_il_Guiscardo.jpg/330px-Statua_di_Roberto_il_Guiscardo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Statua_di_Roberto_il_Guiscardo.jpg/440px-Statua_di_Roberto_il_Guiscardo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1533" data-file-height="3247" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Robert Guiscard, 1700–1749, <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Ottoni" title="Lorenzo Ottoni">Lorenzo Ottoni</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>While the Conquest of Sicily was still in progress, Robert had to fight once again with the Byzantines. The Byzantine forces had occupied <a href="/wiki/Bari" title="Bari">Bari</a>, on request of Robert's nephew <a href="/wiki/Abelard_of_Hauteville" title="Abelard of Hauteville">Abelard of Hauteville</a>, who wanted to claim the throne for himself. Guiscard besieged the city by land and water for four years, until in 1071 the people decided to surrender; he would later repair the damages done by the siege. The Greeks were finally chased off the italian peninsula, and Robert now focused his attention on the various Lombard independent realms in southern Italy. </p><p>Robert firstly attacked the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Salerno" title="Principality of Salerno">Principality of Salerno</a>, held by his brother in law Gisulf II. <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a> was besieged and fell in December 1076, and Gisulf abandoned his castle with his court in May 1077. Robert then took the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Benevento" title="Duchy of Benevento">principality of Benevento</a> in 1078. Pope <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Gregory VII</a> was alarmed, as Benevento was considered possession of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">papal state</a>. Nevertheless, he decided not to enter a conflict with the Normans, as he was already busy with <a href="/wiki/Henry_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor">Emperor Henry V</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">investiture controversy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_de_Cr%C3%A9py" title="Simon de Crépy">Simon de Crépy</a> negotiated an alliance with Guiscard on behalf of Gregory VII, and in June 1080 the Pope gave Guiscard claims on <a href="/wiki/Abruzzo" title="Abruzzo">Abruzzi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amalfi" title="Amalfi">Amalfi</a>, and on the <a href="/wiki/March_of_Fermo" title="March of Fermo">March of Fermo</a>. Robert would later return Benevento to the papacy in 1081.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes1879413_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes1879413-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Against_the_Byzantines">Against the Byzantines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Against the Byzantines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his last campaign, Guiscard attacked the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> itself, supporting the cause of <a href="/wiki/Raiktor" title="Raiktor">Raiktor</a>, a monk who claimed to be deposed emperor <a href="/wiki/Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII</a>. Even after it was clear that Raiktor was lying, Robert didn't stop, believing that he himself had the right to rule the Byzantine Empire since <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a>, son of the real Michael VII, had once been proposed to his daughter <a href="/wiki/Olympias_(daughter_of_Robert_Guiscard)" title="Olympias (daughter of Robert Guiscard)">Olympias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1081 Robert sailed with an army of Norman and Lombard troop (1,300 knights according to <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Malaterra" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Malaterra">Geoffrey Malaterra</a>, up to 10,000 troops according to <a href="/wiki/Orderic_Vitalis" title="Orderic Vitalis">Orderic Vitalis</a>). In October 1081 defeated <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dyrrhachium_(1081)" title="Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)">Battle of Dyrrachium</a>, and by 1082 he had occupied <a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Durr%C3%ABs" title="Durrës">Durazzo</a>. In 1083, however, he was forced to return to Italy to help Pope Gregory VII, who was being besieged in <a href="/wiki/Castel_Sant%27Angelo" title="Castel Sant'Angelo">Castel Sant'Angelo</a> by Henry VI. In May 1084 Guiscard entered Rome, and forced Henry to retreat. A revolt of the citizens led to <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1084)" title="Sack of Rome (1084)">a three-day sack of the city</a>, after which Robert escorted the Pope out of the city. Guiscard's son <a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond</a>, who had remained in the Balkans, had by this time lost his father's conquests. Robert returned to the Balkans and reoccupied Corfu and <a href="/wiki/Cephalonia" title="Cephalonia">Cephalonia</a>, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Dubrovnik" title="Dubrovnik">Ragusa</a> and other dalmatian cities under the rule of king <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_Zvonimir" title="Demetrius Zvonimir">Demetrius Zvonimir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes1879413_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes1879413-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> On 17 July 1085, Guiscard died of a fever in Cephalonia, at Atheras, north of <a href="/wiki/Lixouri" title="Lixouri">Lixouri</a>. His remains were brought back to Italy, and he was buried in the <a href="/wiki/Hauteville_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Hauteville family">Hauteville</a> family mausoleum, the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Santissima_Trinit%C3%A0,_Venosa" title="Abbey of Santissima Trinità, Venosa">Abbey of Santissima Trinità</a> in <a href="/wiki/Venosa" title="Venosa">Venosa</a>. The town of <a href="/wiki/Fiskardo" title="Fiskardo">Fiskardo</a> in Cephalonia is named after him. On his epigraph there are four Latin verses; the last one reads "<i>Hic terror mundi Guiscardus</i>", which translates to "<i>Here (lies) Guiscard, terror of the world</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tomba_degli_Altavilla.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Tomba_degli_Altavilla.jpg/220px-Tomba_degli_Altavilla.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Tomba_degli_Altavilla.jpg/330px-Tomba_degli_Altavilla.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Tomba_degli_Altavilla.jpg/440px-Tomba_degli_Altavilla.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hauteville_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Hauteville family">Hauteville family</a> mausoleum, where Robert Guiscard was buried. <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_the_Santissima_Trinit%C3%A0_(Venosa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of the Santissima Trinità (Venosa)">Trinity Abbey</a> in <a href="/wiki/Venosa" title="Venosa">Venosa</a>, Italy.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Succession">Succession</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Succession"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Robert's oldest son, <a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond</a>, was declared illegitimate when Robert and <a href="/wiki/Alberada_of_Buonalbergo" title="Alberada of Buonalbergo">Alberada</a>'s marriage was annulled due to <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a>. Thus, he was succeeded as Duke of Apulia and Calabria by his eldest son by <a href="/wiki/Sikelgaita" title="Sikelgaita">Sikelgaita</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Borsa" title="Roger Borsa">Roger Borsa</a>. Bohemond was initially supposed to inherit Robert's conquests in the Balkans, but this didn't happen as they were soon re-conquered by the Byzantines. He instead got some land around the city of <a href="/wiki/Taranto" title="Taranto">Taranto</a>. Bohemond would later become one of the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">first crusade</a> and the first <a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Antioch" title="Prince of Antioch">prince of Antioch</a>. Guiscard's other sons, <a href="/wiki/Guy_of_Hauteville" title="Guy of Hauteville">Guy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scalio" title="Robert Scalio">Robert Scalio</a>, never claimed any title for themselves. </p><p>The descendants of Robert's brother, <a href="/wiki/Roger_I_of_Sicily" title="Roger I of Sicily">Roger I</a>, Count of Sicily, would later create the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Due to his conquest of Calabria and Sicily, Guiscard was instrumental in bringing <a href="/wiki/Latin_liturgical_rites" title="Latin liturgical rites">Latin Christianity</a> to an area that had historically followed the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rite" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine rite">Byzantine rite</a>. Guiscard laid the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Salerno_Cathedral" title="Salerno Cathedral">Salerno Cathedral</a> and of a Norman monastery at <a href="/wiki/Lamezia_Terme#Sant'Eufemia_Lamezia" title="Lamezia Terme">Sant'Eufemia Lamezia</a> in Calabria. This latter monastery, famous for its choir, began as a community of eleven monks from <a href="/wiki/Saint-Evroul" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint-Evroul">Saint-Evroul</a> in Normandy under the abbot <a href="/wiki/Robert_de_Grantmesnil_(archbishop)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert de Grantmesnil (archbishop)">Robert de Grantmesnil</a>. </p><p>Although his relationship with the pope was rocky, Guiscard preferred to be on good terms with the papacy, and he made a gesture of abandoning his first wife in response to church law. While the popes were often fearful of his growing power, they preferred the strong and independent hand of a Catholic Norman to the rule of a Byzantine Greek. Guiscard received his investment with Sicily at the hands of Pope Nicholas II, who feared the opposition of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_reform" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian reform">Papal reforms</a> more. Guiscard supported the reforms, coming to the rescue of a besieged Pope Gregory VII, who had once excommunicated him for encroaching on the territory of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/East-West_Schism" class="mw-redirect" title="East-West Schism">Great Schism</a> of 1054, the polarized religious atmosphere served to strengthen Guiscard's alliance with papal forces, resulting in a formidable papal-Norman opposition to the Eastern Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marriage_and_issue">Marriage and issue</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Marriage and issue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/House_of_Hauteville#Genealogy" title="House of Hauteville">House of Hauteville § Genealogy</a></div> <p>Guiscard’s first wife was <a href="/wiki/Alberada_of_Buonalbergo" title="Alberada of Buonalbergo">Alberada of Buonalbergo</a>, whom he married in 1051.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had two children: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond I, prince of Antioch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_of_Hauteville" title="Emma of Hauteville">Emma</a>, married <a href="/wiki/Odo_the_Good_Marquis" title="Odo the Good Marquis">Odo the Good Marquis</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Guiscard and Alberada’s marriage was later annulled, and in 1058 or 1059 he remarried to <a href="/wiki/Sichelgaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Sichelgaita">Sichelgaita</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They had ten children: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maud_of_Apulia" title="Maud of Apulia">Matilda</a>, married to Count <a href="/wiki/Ramon_Berenguer_II_of_Barcelona" class="mw-redirect" title="Ramon Berenguer II of Barcelona">Ramon Berenguer II of Barcelona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeygate2016178_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeygate2016178-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Borsa" title="Roger Borsa">Roger Borsa</a>, duke of Apulia and Calabria.<sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoud2000300-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Mabel, married to <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_de_Grandmesnil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William de Grandmesnil (page does not exist)">William de Grandmesnil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoud2000300-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>a daughter (maybe named Héria), married to Count <a href="/wiki/Hugh_V_of_Maine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh V of Maine">Hugh V of Maine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Scalio" title="Robert Scalio">Robert Scalio</a><sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoud2000300-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_of_Hauteville" title="Guy of Hauteville">Guy</a><sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoud2000300-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Sibylla, married to Count <a href="/wiki/Ebles_II_of_Roucy" title="Ebles II of Roucy">Ebles II of Roucy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(daughter_of_Robert_Guiscard)" title="Olympias (daughter of Robert Guiscard)">Olympias (renamed Helena)</a>, betrothed to <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoud2000300-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Cecile<sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gaitelgrima, married to Humphrey, Count of Sarno.<sup id="cite_ref-:Sicily_27-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Depictions">Depictions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Depictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <i><a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> sees Guiscard's spirit in the Heaven of Mars, along with other "warriors of the faith" who exemplify the cardinal virtue of fortitude. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)" title="Inferno (Dante)">Inferno</a></i>, Dante describes Guiscard's enemies as a field of mutilated shades stretching out to the horizon.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Guiscard was the protagonist of <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Kleist's</a> verse drama <i>Robert Guiskard</i>, incomplete at the author's death (1811).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">However, one should not trust this description, as the Byzantine princess was born in 1083 and Robert died in 1085. It is possible that Anna was inspired by a Norman mercenary or by <a href="/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond</a>, son of Robert)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lock indicates Emma as a daughter of Sigelgaita.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barton states that a "daughter" of Robert Guiscard married Hugh V of Maine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarton2004xiii_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton2004xiii-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Robert%20Guiscard">"Robert Guiscard"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary</a></i>. Merriam-Webster<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Robert+Guiscard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2FRobert%2520Guiscard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/guiscard.html">"Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)"</a>. <i>www.thelatinlibrary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thelatinlibrary.com&rft.atitle=Robert+Guiscard+%28c.+1015%E2%80%931085%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fimperialism%2Fnotes%2Fguiscard.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohns2015124-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohns2015124_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohns2015">Johns 2015</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Normans in Europe</i>, Ed. & Trans. <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_van_Houts" title="Elisabeth van Houts">Elisabeth van Houts</a> (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 2000), p. 223</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jim Bradbury, <i>The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare</i> (London & New York: Routledge, 2004), p. 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oscar Browning, <i>A General History of the World</i> (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), p. 316</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELock2006486-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELock2006486_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLock2006">Lock 2006</a>, p. 486.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAC54-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AAC54_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AAC54_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Alexiad of Anna Comnena</i>, Trans. (from the Greek) E.R.A. Sewter (London & New York: Penguin Books, 1969), p. 54 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-044215-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-044215-4">0-14-044215-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/guiscard.html">"Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)"</a>. <i>www.thelatinlibrary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thelatinlibrary.com&rft.atitle=Robert+Guiscard+%28c.+1015%E2%80%931085%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fimperialism%2Fnotes%2Fguiscard.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/guiscard.html">"Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)"</a>. <i>www.thelatinlibrary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thelatinlibrary.com&rft.atitle=Robert+Guiscard+%28c.+1015%E2%80%931085%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fimperialism%2Fnotes%2Fguiscard.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/guiscard.html">"Robert Guiscard (c. 1015–1085)"</a>. <i>www.thelatinlibrary.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.thelatinlibrary.com&rft.atitle=Robert+Guiscard+%28c.+1015%E2%80%931085%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fimperialism%2Fnotes%2Fguiscard.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Normans in Europe</i>, Ed. & Trans. Elisabeth van Houts (Manchester & New York: Manchester University Press, 2000), pp. 236–237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers201066-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERogers201066_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRogers2010">Rogers 2010</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Alessandro2008" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">D'Alessandro, Vincenzo (2008). "Les chevaliers de Dieu" [The Knights of God]. <i>Annales de Normandie</i> (in French). <b>58</b> (1): 59–66. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fannor.2008.6194">10.3406/annor.2008.6194</a>. <a href="/wiki/Institut_de_l%27information_scientifique_et_technique" title="Institut de l'information scientifique et technique">INIST</a><span class="nowrap"> </span><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=20623842">20623842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+Normandie&rft.atitle=Les+chevaliers+de+Dieu&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-66&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fannor.2008.6194&rft.aulast=D%27Alessandro&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForbes1879413-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes1879413_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForbes1879413_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForbes1879">Forbes 1879</a>, p. 413.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Alexiad, Book 1, Chapter 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loud, pp. 214-217.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferdo Šišić, Povijest Hrvata u vrijeme narodnih vladara, 1925, Zagreb <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/86-401-0080-2" title="Special:BookSources/86-401-0080-2">86-401-0080-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James van Wyck Osborne, <i>The Greatest Norman Conquest</i> (1937), p. 396.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Loud, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeanne1986" class="citation journal cs1">Jeanne, G.-R. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/etnor_0014-2158_1986_num_35_4_2694">"L'évocation romantique d'un héros normand"</a>. <i>Études Normandes</i>. <b>35</b> (4): 19–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fetnor.1986.2694">10.3406/etnor.1986.2694</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+Normandes&rft.atitle=L%27%C3%A9vocation+romantique+d%27un+h%C3%A9ros+normand&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=19-30&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fetnor.1986.2694&rft.aulast=Jeanne&rft.aufirst=G.-R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Fetnor_0014-2158_1986_num_35_4_2694&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAubé2016" class="citation book cs1">Aubé, Pierre (2016). <i>Roger II de Sicile: un Normand en Méditerranée</i>. Collection Tempus. Paris: Perrin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-262-06396-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-262-06396-2"><bdi>978-2-262-06396-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roger+II+de+Sicile%3A+un+Normand+en+M%C3%A9diterran%C3%A9e&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Collection+Tempus&rft.pub=Perrin&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-2-262-06396-2&rft.aulast=Aub%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStroock2011" class="citation journal cs1">Stroock, William (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48577881">"How to fight and win like a Norman: Strategy and tactics of the Norman"</a>. <i>Medieval Warfare</i>. <b>1</b> (4): 13–15. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2211-5129">2211-5129</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48577881">48577881</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Warfare&rft.atitle=How+to+fight+and+win+like+a+Norman%3A+Strategy+and+tactics+of+the+Norman&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=13-15&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48577881%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=2211-5129&rft.aulast=Stroock&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48577881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaviani-Carozzi1996" class="citation book cs1">Taviani-Carozzi, Huguette (1996). <i>La terreur du monde: Robert Guiscard et la conquête normande en Italie; mythe et histoire</i>. Paris: Fayard. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-213-59598-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-213-59598-6"><bdi>978-2-213-59598-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+terreur+du+monde%3A+Robert+Guiscard+et+la+conqu%C3%AAte+normande+en+Italie%3B+mythe+et+histoire&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Fayard&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-2-213-59598-6&rft.aulast=Taviani-Carozzi&rft.aufirst=Huguette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alexēs Geōrgiu K Sabbidēs, <i>Byzantino-Normannica: The Norman Capture of Italy (to A.D. 1081) and the First Two Invasions in Byzantium (A.D. 1081–1085 and 1107–1108)</i> (Leuven, Belgium; Dudley, Massachusetts: Peeters, 2007) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1911-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-1911-2">978-90-429-1911-2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:Sicily-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:Sicily_27-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/SICILY.htm#GuillaumeIdied1166">"SICILY"</a>. <i>Foundation for Medieval Genealogy</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foundation+for+Medieval+Genealogy&rft.atitle=SICILY&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffmg.ac%2FProjects%2FMedLands%2FSICILY.htm%23GuillaumeIdied1166&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeygate2016178-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeygate2016178_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeygate2016">Heygate 2016</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoud2000300-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoud2000300_30-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLoud2000">Loud 2000</a>, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton2004xiii-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarton2004xiii_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarton2004">Barton 2004</a>, p. xiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edward Moore, <i>Studies in Dante: Scripture and classical authors in Dante</i> (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1899), p. 274</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Olive Classe, <i>Encyclopedia of Literary Translation into English</i>, Volume 1 (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 2000), p. 767</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>von Kleist, Heinrich <i>Robert Guiskard, Herzog der Normänner</i>, student edition (<a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, 2011).</li> <li>Chalandon, F. <i>Histoire de la domination normande en Italie et en Sicile</i>. (<a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, 1907).</li> <li>von Heinemann, L. <i>Geschichte der Normannen in Unteritalien</i> (<a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, 1894).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Julius_Norwich" title="John Julius Norwich">Norwich, John Julius</a>. <i>The Normans in the South 1016–1130</i>. Longmans: <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, 1967.</li> <li>Chaplin, Danny. "Strenuitas: The Life and Times of Robert Guiscard and Bohemond of Taranto. Norman Power from the Mezzogiorno to Antioch, 1016–1111 AD" (<a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, 2015).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1879" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Forbes_Ren%C3%A9_de_Montalembert" title="Charles Forbes René de Montalembert">Forbes, Charles</a> (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xlPZAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Monks of the West from St. Benedict to St. Bernard: Vol. 6</i></a>. London: William Blackwood and Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Monks+of+the+West+from+St.+Benedict+to+St.+Bernard%3A+Vol.+6&rft.place=London&rft.pub=William+Blackwood+and+Sons&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Forbes&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxlPZAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clifford_J._Rogers" title="Clifford J. Rogers">Rogers, Clifford J.</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mzwpq6bLHhMC&q=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Warfare+and+Military+Technology:+Vol.+1"><i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology: Vol. 1</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195334036" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195334036"><bdi>978-0195334036</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Medieval+Warfare+and+Military+Technology%3A+Vol.+1&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0195334036&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Clifford+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dmzwpq6bLHhMC%26q%3DThe%2BOxford%2BEncyclopedia%2Bof%2BMedieval%2BWarfare%2Band%2BMilitary%2BTechnology%3A%2BVol.%2B1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLock2006" class="citation book cs1">Lock, Peter (2006). <i>The Routledge Companion to the Crusades</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Companion+to+the+Crusades&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Lock&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoud2000" class="citation book cs1">Loud, Graham A. (2000). <i>The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest</i>. Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Robert+Guiscard%3A+Southern+Italy+and+the+Norman+Conquest&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Loud&rft.aufirst=Graham+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeygate2016" class="citation book cs1">Heygate, Catherine (2016). "Marriage strategies among the Normans of Southern Italy in the Eleventh Century". In Stringer, Keith J.; Jotischky, Andrew (eds.). <i>Norman Expansion: Connections, Continuities and Contrasts</i>. Routledge. pp. 165–186.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marriage+strategies+among+the+Normans+of+Southern+Italy+in+the+Eleventh+Century&rft.btitle=Norman+Expansion%3A+Connections%2C+Continuities+and+Contrasts&rft.pages=165-186&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Heygate&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2004" class="citation book cs1">Barton, Richard Ewing (2004). <i>Lordship in the County of Maine, C. 890–1160</i>. The Boydell Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lordship+in+the+County+of+Maine%2C+C.+890%E2%80%931160&rft.pub=The+Boydell+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Richard+Ewing&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohns2015" class="citation book cs1">Johns, Jeremy (2015). "Arabic Inscriptions in the Capella Palatina: Performativity, Audience, Legibility and Illegibility". In Eastmond, Antony (ed.). <i>Viewing Inscriptions in the Late Antique and Medieval World</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Arabic+Inscriptions+in+the+Capella+Palatina%3A+Performativity%2C+Audience%2C+Legibility+and+Illegibility&rft.btitle=Viewing+Inscriptions+in+the+Late+Antique+and+Medieval+World&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Johns&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARobert+Guiscard" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Guiscard&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Robert_Guiscard" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Robert Guiscard">Robert Guiscard</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leeds.ac.uk/history/weblearning/MedievalHistoryTextCentre/medievalTexts.htm">Medieval History Texts in Translation</a> at <a href="/wiki/Leeds_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Leeds University">Leeds University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classes.bnf.fr/idrisi/grand/1_12.htm">Coin with Guiscard's effigy</a>.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #FFD700; text-align:center;"><div>Robert Guiscard </div><div><b><a href="/wiki/Hauteville_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Hauteville family">Hauteville family</a></b></div><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"><b>Born:</b> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1015</span></span><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-size:90%; margin:2em"> <b>Died:</b> 17 July 1085</span> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Humphrey_of_Hauteville" title="Humphrey of Hauteville">Humphrey</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" class="mw-redirect" title="Duke of Apulia and Calabria">Duke of Apulia and Calabria</a> </b><br />1057–1085 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Borsa" title="Roger Borsa">Roger Borsa</a></div> </td></tr> 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