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The low-cost device can be fabricated more quickly than traditional thrusters, potentially from on board a spacecraft, and could enable CubeSats to perform precise, in-orbit maneuvers, aiding space research projects." /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://news.mit.edu/2025/mit-engineers-develop-fully-3d-printed-electrospray-engine-0212" /> <meta property="og:author" content="Adam Zewe | MIT News" /> <link rel="image_src" href="https://news.mit.edu/sites/default/files/images/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-01-press.jpg" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://news.mit.edu/2025/mit-engineers-develop-fully-3d-printed-electrospray-engine-0212" /> <title>MIT engineers develop a fully 3D-printed electrospray engine | MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology</title> <link rel="icon" href="/themes/mit/assets/img/favicon/favicon.ico" 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3D-printed electrospray engine </li> </ol> </div> </div> <div data-drupal-messages-fallback class="hidden"></div> <div id="block-mit-page-title"> <div class="block-inner"> <h1><span itemprop="name headline">MIT engineers develop a fully 3D-printed electrospray engine</span> </span> </h1> </div> </div> <div id="block-mit-content"> <div class="block-inner"> <article> <div> <div itemprop="description" class="news-article--dek"> <span>Ideal for propelling tiny satellites, the lightweight devices could be produced on board a spacecraft and cost much less than traditional thrusters.</span> </div> <div class="news-article--indicators"> </div> <div itemprop="author" class="news-article--authored-by"> <span class="news-article--author">Adam Zewe</span> <span class="news-article--authored-by--separator">|</span> <span class="news-article--source">MIT News</span> </div> <div itemprop="datePublished" class="news-article--publication-date"> <div class="visually-hidden"> <span class="label">Publication Date</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </div> <time datetime="2025-02-12T05:00:00Z">February 12, 2025</time> </div> <div data-nosnippet="true" class="news-article--press-inquiries"> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--header"><a href="#press-inquiries" class="news-article--press-inquiries--title--link"><span class="arrow down"></span><svg class="icon--info" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20"> <path id="iconfinder_icon-information_2867914" d="M12,22A10,10,0,1,1,22,12,10,10,0,0,1,12,22Zm0-2a8,8,0,1,0-8-8A8,8,0,0,0,12,20Zm0-9a1,1,0,0,1,1,1v4a1,1,0,0,1-2,0V12A1,1,0,0,1,12,11Zm0-4a1,1,0,1,1-1,1A1,1,0,0,1,12,7Z" transform="translate(-2 -2)" fill="currentColor"/> </svg> <span class="link-text">Press Inquiries</span></a></div> <div id="press-inquiries" class="news-article--press-inquiries--descr"> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--press-contacts"> <h3 > <span class="label">Press Contact</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </h3> <div class="press-contact"> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--press-contact--name"> Melanie Grados </div> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--press-contact--email"> <span class="label"> Email: </span> <a href="mailto:mgrados@mit.edu">mgrados@mit.edu</a> </div> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--press-contact--phone"> <span class="label"> Phone: </span> 617-253-1682 </div> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--press-contact--org"> MIT News Office </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--download-images"> <h3>Media Download</h3> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--download-item-image paragraph--view-mode--news-article__downloadable-image"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--file"> <a href="/sites/default/files/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-01-press.jpg" target="_blank"> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__download/public/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-01-press.jpg?itok=rArqYVM7" width="270" height="180" alt="The 3D-printed device has a 3x3 array of cone-shaped emitters, and is next to a quarter showing that it’s about twice the size." /> </a> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--file--download"> ↓ <a href="/sites/default/files/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-01-press.jpg" target="_blank" class="news-article--download-image--item--file--download-link">Download Image</a> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--descr"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--caption"> <span class="label">Caption</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> MIT engineers have demonstrated the first fully 3D-printed, droplet-emitting electrospray engine. The device, which would be ideal for enabling small satellites to make in-orbit maneuvers, can be produced for a fraction of the cost of traditional thrusters. </div> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--credits"> <span class="label">Credits</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> Credit: Courtesy of the researchers </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--download-item-image paragraph--view-mode--news-article__downloadable-image"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--file"> <a href="/sites/default/files/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-02-press.jpg" target="_blank"> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__download/public/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-02-press.jpg?itok=RiJplwvL" width="270" height="180" alt="Four closeup shots of the tiny emitter show the droplet forming." /> </a> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--file--download"> ↓ <a href="/sites/default/files/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-02-press.jpg" target="_blank" class="news-article--download-image--item--file--download-link">Download Image</a> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--descr"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--caption"> <span class="label">Caption</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> Electrospray engines produce thrust by shooting out a stream of highly charged droplets. The MIT researchers used a precise fabrication method that enhances the electrohydrodynamic reaction that generates these droplets. </div> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--credits"> <span class="label">Credits</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> Credit: Courtesy of the researchers </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--download-item-image paragraph--view-mode--news-article__downloadable-image"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--file"> <a href="/sites/default/files/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-03-press.jpg" target="_blank"> <img loading="lazy" src="/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__download/public/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-03-press.jpg?itok=NqAMn-Zp" width="270" height="180" alt="Illustration with text pointing out the “microchannels,” which are like coils, and the cone-shaped “emitter spouts.” The system is “7mm wide.”" /> </a> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--file--download"> ↓ <a href="/sites/default/files/download/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-03-press.jpg" target="_blank" class="news-article--download-image--item--file--download-link">Download Image</a> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--descr"> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--caption"> <span class="label">Caption</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> The device requires a complex hydraulic system to store and regulate the flow of liquid, efficiently shuttling propellant through microfluidic channels to a series of emitters. </div> <div class="news-article--download-image--item--credits"> <span class="label">Credits</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> Credit: Courtesy of the researchers </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--download-images--terms-of-use"> <h4 class="news-article--press-inquiries--download-images--terms-of-use--title">*Terms of Use:</h4> <p> Images for download on the MIT News office website are made available to non-commercial entities, press and the general public under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/" target="_blank">Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives license</a>. You may not alter the images provided, other than to crop them to size. A credit line must be used when reproducing images; if one is not provided below, credit the images to "MIT." </p> </div> <div class="news-article--press-inquiries--descr--close--container"> <a href="#" class="news-article--press-inquiries--descr--close--button-link"><span class="news-article--press-inquiries--descr--close--button-icon"><svg class="icon--button--close" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="22" height="22" viewBox="0 0 22 22"> <g transform="translate(-32 -33)"> <path id="Path_2543" data-name="Path 2543" d="M43,33A11,11,0,1,0,54,44,11,11,0,0,0,43,33Zm5.318,14.708a.386.386,0,0,1,.113.275.378.378,0,0,1-.113.275l-1.061,1.066a.382.382,0,0,1-.275.113.4.4,0,0,1-.275-.113L43,45.611l-3.7,3.717a.375.375,0,0,1-.275.113.4.4,0,0,1-.275-.113l-1.061-1.066a.386.386,0,0,1-.113-.275.378.378,0,0,1,.113-.275L41.4,43.98,37.677,40.3a.394.394,0,0,1,0-.555l1.061-1.066a.391.391,0,0,1,.55,0L43,42.345l3.717-3.668a.391.391,0,0,1,.55,0l1.061,1.066a.394.394,0,0,1,0,.555L44.606,43.98Z" fill="currentColor"/> </g> </svg> </span> Close</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--full-width-wrapper"> <div class="news-article--full-width-wrapper-inner"> <div class="news-article--images-gallery--wrapper"> <div class="news-article--images-gallery"> <div class="news-article--image-item"> <div class="news-article--media--image--file"> <img loading="lazy" src="/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--news-article--image-gallery.jpg" width="900" height="600" alt="The 3D-printed device has a 3x3 array of cone-shaped emitters, and is next to a quarter showing that it’s about twice the size." class="ondemand" data-src="/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__image_gallery/public/images/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-01-press_0.jpg?itok=QYYgUSkB" /> </div> <div class="news-article--media--image--descr--wrapper"> <div class="news-article--media--image--descr"> <div class="news-article--media--image--caption"> <div class="visually-hidden"> <span class="label">Caption</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </div> MIT engineers have demonstrated the first fully 3D-printed, droplet-emitting electrospray engine. The device, which would be ideal for enabling small satellites to make in-orbit maneuvers, can be produced for a fraction of the cost of traditional thrusters. </div> <div class="news-article--media--image--credits"> <div class="visually-hidden"> <span class="label">Credits</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </div> Credit: Courtesy of the researchers </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--image-item"> <div class="news-article--media--image--file"> <img loading="lazy" src="/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--news-article--image-gallery.jpg" width="900" height="375" alt="Four closeup shots of the tiny emitter show the droplet forming." class="ondemand" data-src="/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__image_gallery/public/images/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-02-press.jpg?itok=4Le-h4RK" /> </div> <div class="news-article--media--image--descr--wrapper"> <div class="news-article--media--image--descr"> <div class="news-article--media--image--caption"> <div class="visually-hidden"> <span class="label">Caption</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </div> Electrospray engines produce thrust by shooting out a stream of highly charged droplets. The MIT researchers used a precise fabrication method that enhances the electrohydrodynamic reaction that generates these droplets. </div> <div class="news-article--media--image--credits"> <div class="visually-hidden"> <span class="label">Credits</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </div> Credit: Courtesy of the researchers </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--image-item"> <div class="news-article--media--image--file"> <img loading="lazy" src="/themes/mit/src/img/placeholder/placeholder--news-article--image-gallery.jpg" width="900" height="600" alt="Illustration with text pointing out the “microchannels,” which are like coils, and the cone-shaped “emitter spouts.” The system is “7mm wide.”" class="ondemand" data-src="/sites/default/files/styles/news_article__image_gallery/public/images/202502/MIT-Electrospray-Thrusters-03-press.jpg?itok=5ti74msj" /> </div> <div class="news-article--media--image--descr--wrapper"> <div class="news-article--media--image--descr"> <div class="news-article--media--image--caption"> <div class="visually-hidden"> <span class="label">Caption</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </div> The device requires a complex hydraulic system to store and regulate the flow of liquid, efficiently shuttling propellant through microfluidic channels to a series of emitters. </div> <div class="news-article--media--image--credits"> <div class="visually-hidden"> <span class="label">Credits</span><span class="visually-hidden">:</span> </div> Credit: Courtesy of the researchers </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--images-gallery--nav"> <p class="news-article--images-gallery--nav--inner"> <button class="news-article--images-gallery--nav--button news-article--images-gallery--nav--button--previous"><svg class="arrow--point-west--slider" data-name="Group 2041" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" width="0" viewBox="0 0 16.621 30.183"> <defs> <clipPath id="clip-path"> <path id="Path_494" data-name="Path 494" d="M0-126.293H16.621V-96.11H0Z" transform="translate(0 126.293)" /> </clipPath> </defs> <g id="Group_112" data-name="Group 112" clip-path="url(#clip-path)"> <g id="Group_111" data-name="Group 111" transform="translate(0 0)"> <path id="Path_493" data-name="Path 493" d="M-48.055-96.11a1.522,1.522,0,0,1-1.081-.448L-62.7-110.12a1.529,1.529,0,0,1,0-2.163l13.562-13.562a1.528,1.528,0,0,1,2.162,0,1.529,1.529,0,0,1,0,2.163L-59.454-111.2l12.48,12.48a1.529,1.529,0,0,1,0,2.163,1.524,1.524,0,0,1-1.081.448" transform="translate(63.146 126.293)" /> </g> </g> </svg> <span class="visually-hidden">Previous image</span></button> <button class="news-article--images-gallery--nav--button news-article--images-gallery--nav--button--next"><span class="visually-hidden">Next image</span><svg class="arrow--point-east--slider" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" width="0" viewBox="0 0 16.621 30.183"> <defs> <clipPath id="clip-path"> <path id="Path_496" data-name="Path 496" d="M0-126.293H16.621V-96.11H0Z" transform="translate(0 126.293)"/> </clipPath> </defs> <g id="Group_2042" data-name="Group 2042" transform="translate(16.621 30.183) rotate(180)"> <g id="Group_115" data-name="Group 115" clip-path="url(#clip-path)"> <g id="Group_114" data-name="Group 114" transform="translate(0 0)"> <path id="Path_495" data-name="Path 495" d="M-48.055-96.11a1.522,1.522,0,0,1-1.081-.448L-62.7-110.12a1.529,1.529,0,0,1,0-2.163l13.562-13.562a1.528,1.528,0,0,1,2.162,0,1.529,1.529,0,0,1,0,2.163L-59.454-111.2l12.48,12.48a1.529,1.529,0,0,1,0,2.163,1.524,1.524,0,0,1-1.081.448" transform="translate(63.146 126.293)" /> </g> </g> </g> </svg></button> </p> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--content"> <div class="news-article--content--body" itemprop="articleBody"> <div class="news-article--content--body--inner"> <div class="paragraph paragraph--type--content-block-text paragraph--view-mode--default"> <p>An electrospray engine applies an electric field to a conductive liquid, generating a high-speed jet of tiny droplets that can propel a spacecraft. These miniature engines are ideal for small satellites called CubeSats that are often used in academic research.</p><p>Since electrospray engines utilize propellant more efficiently than the powerful, chemical rockets used on the launchpad, they are better suited for precise, in-orbit maneuvers. The thrust generated by an electrospray emitter is tiny, so electrospray engines typically use an array of emitters that are uniformly operated in parallel.</p><p>However, these multiplexed electrospray thrusters are typically made via expensive and time-consuming semiconductor cleanroom fabrication, which limits who can manufacture them and how the devices can be applied.</p><p>To help break down barriers to space research, MIT engineers have demonstrated the first fully 3D-printed, droplet-emitting electrospray engine. Their device, which can be produced rapidly and for a fraction of the cost of traditional thrusters, uses commercially accessible 3D printing materials and techniques. The devices could even be fully made in orbit, as 3D printing is compatible with in-space manufacturing.</p><p>By developing a modular process that combines two 3D printing methods, the researchers overcame the challenges involved in fabricating a complex device comprised of macroscale and microscale components that must work together seamlessly.</p><p>Their proof-of-concept thruster comprises 32 electrospray emitters that operate together, generating a stable and uniform flow of propellant. The 3D-printed device generated as much or more thrust than existing droplet-emitting electrospray engines. With this technology, astronauts might quickly print an engine for a satellite without needing to wait for one to be sent up from Earth. </p><p>“Using semiconductor manufacturing doesn’t match up with the idea of low-cost access to space. We want to democratize space hardware. In this work, we are proposing a way to make high-performance hardware with manufacturing techniques that are available to more players,” says Luis Fernando Velásquez-García, a principal research scientist in MIT’s Microsystems Technology Laboratories (MTL) and senior author of a paper describing the thrusters, which <a href="https://advanced.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/advs.202413706" target="_blank">appears in <em>Advanced Science</em></a>.</p><p>He is joined on the paper by lead author Hyeonseok Kim, an MIT graduate student in mechanical engineering.</p><p><strong>A modular approach</strong></p><p>An electrospray engine has a reservoir of propellant that flows through microfluidic channels to a series of emitters. An electrostatic field is applied at the tip of each emitter, triggering an electrohydrodynamic effect that shapes the free surface of the liquid into a cone-shaped meniscus that ejects a stream of high-speed charged droplets from its apex, producing thrust.</p><p>The emitter tips need to be as sharp as possible to attain the electrohydrodynamic ejection of propellant at a low voltage. The device also requires a complex hydraulic system to store and regulate the flow of liquid, efficiently shuttling propellant through microfluidic channels.</p><p>The emitter array is composed of eight emitter modules. Each emitter module contains an array of four individual emitters that must work in unison, forming a larger system of interconnected modules.</p><p>“Using a one-size-fits-all fabrication approach doesn’t work because these subsystems are at different scales. Our key insight was to blend additive manufacturing methods to achieve the desired outcomes, then come up with a way to interface everything so the parts work together as efficiently as possible,” Velásquez-García says.</p><p>To accomplish this, the researchers utilized two different types of vat photo polymerization printing (VPP). VPP involves shining light onto a photosensitive resin, which solidifies to form 3D structures with smooth, high-resolution features.</p><p>The researchers fabricated the emitter modules using a VPP method called two-photon printing. This technique utilizes a highly focused laser beam to solidify resin in a precisely defined area, building a 3D structure one tiny brick, or voxel, at a time. This level of detail enabled them to produce extremely sharp emitter tips and narrow, uniform capillaries to carry propellant.</p><p>The emitter modules are fitted into a rectangular casing called a manifold block, which holds each in place and supplies the emitters with propellant. The manifold block also integrates the emitter modules with the extractor electrode that triggers propellant ejection from the emitter tips when a suitable voltage is applied. Fabricating the larger manifold block using two-photon printing would be infeasible because of the method’s low throughput and limited printing volume.</p><p>Instead, the researchers used a technique called digital light processing, which utilizes a chip-sized projector to shine light into the resin, solidifying one layer of the 3D structure at a time.</p><p>“Each technology works very well at a certain scale. Combining them, so they work together to produce one device, lets us take the best of each method,” Velásquez-García says.</p><p><strong>Propelling performance</strong></p><p>But 3D printing the electrospray engine components is only half the battle. The researchers also conducted chemical experiments to ensure the printing materials were compatible with the conductive liquid propellant. If not, the propellant might corrode the engine or cause it to crack, which is undesirable for hardware meant for long-term operation with little to no maintenance.</p><p>They also developed a method to clamp the separate parts together in a way that avoids misalignments which could hamper performance and ensures the device remains watertight.</p><p>In the end, their 3D-printed prototype was able to generate thrust more efficiently than larger, more expensive chemical rockets and outperformed existing droplet electrospray engines.</p><p>The researchers also investigated how adjusting the pressure of propellant and modulating the voltage applied to the engine affected the flow of droplets. Surprisingly, they achieved a wider range of thrust by modulating the voltage. This could eliminate the need for a complex network of pipes, valves, or pressure signals to regulate the flow of liquid, leading to a lighter, cheaper electrospray thruster that is also more efficient.</p><p>“We were able to show that a simpler thruster can achieve better results,” Velásquez-García says.</p><p>The researchers want to continue exploring the benefits of voltage modulation in future work. They also want to fabricate denser and larger arrays of emitter modules. In addition, they may explore the use of multiple electrodes to decouple the process of triggering of the electrohydrodynamic ejection of propellant from setting up the shape and speed of the emitted jet. In the long run, they also hope to demonstrate a CubeSat that utilizes a fully 3D-printed electrospray engine during its operation and deorbiting.</p><p>This research is funded, in part, by a MathWorks fellowship and the NewSat Project, and was carried out, in part, using MIT.nano facilities.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--content--side-column"> <div> <div class="block-inner"> <div class="news-article--share"> <div class="news-article--share--inner"> <h3 class="news-article--share--title">Share<span class="visually-hidden"> this news article on:</span></h3> <ul class="news-article--share--list-items"> <li class="news-article--share--item"> <a class="news-article--share--link" href="https://twitter.com/share?url=https://news.mit.edu/2025/mit-engineers-develop-fully-3d-printed-electrospray-engine-0212" target="_blank"> <svg class="news-article--share--link--icon news-article--share--link--icon--twitter" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="37.347" height="37.347" 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</li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--content--paper-links"> <div class="views-element-container"><div class="js-view-dom-id-8a3f9f711219dc951237b65753ae03ef9f25fbb6e10d9c629bf269b7a614885f"> <header> <h2 class="visually-hidden">Paper</h2> </header> <div><div class="news-article--paper-link"> <span class="news-article--paper-link--icon"><svg class="icon--paper" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="29.5" height="39.912" viewBox="0 0 29.5 39.912"> <path id="iconfinder_12.File_290138" d="M33.029,40.912H10.471A3.471,3.471,0,0,1,7,37.441V4.471A3.471,3.471,0,0,1,10.471,1H26.956a.854.854,0,0,1,.673.343l8.528,8.528a.852.852,0,0,1,.343.673h0v26.9A3.471,3.471,0,0,1,33.029,40.912ZM27.824,3.934V9.676h5.743Zm6.941,7.478H26.956a.867.867,0,0,1-.868-.868V2.735H10.471A1.736,1.736,0,0,0,8.735,4.471V37.441a1.736,1.736,0,0,0,1.735,1.735H33.029a1.736,1.736,0,0,0,1.735-1.735ZM29.559,33.971H13.941a.868.868,0,1,1,0-1.735H29.559a.868.868,0,1,1,0,1.735Zm0-6.941H13.941a.868.868,0,0,1,0-1.735H29.559a.868.868,0,1,1,0,1.735Zm0-6.941H13.941a.868.868,0,0,1,0-1.735H29.559a.868.868,0,1,1,0,1.735Z" transform="translate(-7 -1)" fill="currentColor" fill-rule="evenodd"/> </svg> </span> <span class="news-article--paper-link--url"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202413706" target="_blank">Paper: “High-Impulse, Modular, 3D-Printed CubeSat Electrospray Thrusters Throttleable via Pressure and Voltage Control”</a></span> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--content--related-links"> <h2>Related Links</h2> <div class="views-element-container"><div class="js-view-dom-id-f1f6b0d1e43035b67289c675890a2f949057f42042bc9e9ce6b31a14bbe7f804"> <div><div class="news-article--content--related-links--items"><ul><li><a href="https://multiplexed.mit.edu" target="_blank">Luis Fernando Velásquez-García</a></li><li><a href="https://www.mtl.mit.edu" target="_blank">Microsystems Technology Laboratories</a></li><li><a href="https://www.eecs.mit.edu" target="_blank">Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science</a></li><li><a href="https://engineering.mit.edu" target="_blank">School of Engineering</a></li><li><a href="https://computing.mit.edu" target="_blank">MIT Schwarzman College of Computing</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="news-article--topics"> <h2>Related Topics</h2> <ul class="news-article--topics-list"> <li class="news-article--topics-list--item"><a href="/topic/research" 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