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<li id="toc-History_and_religious_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_religious_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 History and religious texts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History_and_religious_texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History and religious texts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History_and_religious_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Roman_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Roman_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pre-Roman states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Roman_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Rome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Rome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Ancient Rome </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Rome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Society and law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 In Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Burma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archaeological_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaeological_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Archaeological evidence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaeological_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Modern use </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Modern use subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crucifixion_in_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crucifixion_in_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Crucifixion in Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crucifixion_in_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crucifixion_in_the_South_Sudan_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crucifixion_in_the_South_Sudan_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Crucifixion in the South Sudan Civil War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crucifixion_in_the_South_Sudan_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_execution_in_Islamic_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_execution_in_Islamic_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Legal execution in Islamic states </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_execution_in_Islamic_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jihadism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jihadism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Jihadism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jihadism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_incidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_incidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Other incidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_incidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_culture_and_arts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_culture_and_arts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 In culture and arts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_culture_and_arts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_a_devotional_practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_a_devotional_practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 As a devotional practice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_a_devotional_practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_crucifixions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_crucifixions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notable crucifixions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_crucifixions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Crucifixion</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" > 70 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruisiging" title="Kruisiging – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kruisiging" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A8_(%D8%AD%D9%83%D9%85)" title="صلب (حكم) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صلب (حكم)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifix%C3%B3n" title="Crucifixón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Crucifixón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87arm%C4%B1xa_%C3%A7%C9%99km%C9%99" title="Çarmıxa çəkmə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Çarmıxa çəkmə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A3" title="ক্রুশারোপণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ক্রুশারোপণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BF%D1%8A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%81%D1%82" title="Разпъване на кръст – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Разпъване на кръст" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixi%C3%B3" title="Crucifixió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crucifixió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uk%C5%99i%C5%BEov%C3%A1n%C3%AD" title="Ukřižování – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ukřižování" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croeshoelio" title="Croeshoelio – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Croeshoelio" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korsf%C3%A6stelse" title="Korsfæstelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Korsfæstelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kreuzigung" title="Kreuzigung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kreuzigung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ristil%C3%B6%C3%B6mine" title="Ristilöömine – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ristilöömine" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8D%CF%81%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Σταύρωση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σταύρωση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixi%C3%B3n" title="Crucifixión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crucifixión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krucumado" title="Krucumado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Krucumado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurutziltzaketa" title="Gurutziltzaketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gurutziltzaketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="تصلیب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تصلیب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifiement" title="Crucifiement – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Crucifiement" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krusiging" title="Krusiging – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Krusiging" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixi%C3%B3n" title="Crucifixión – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Crucifixión" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%AD%EC%9E%90%EA%B0%80%ED%98%95" title="십자가형 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="십자가형" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%A1%D5%B9%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Խաչելություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խաչելություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razapinjanje" title="Razapinjanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Razapinjanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krucago" title="Krucago – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Krucago" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyaliban" title="Penyaliban – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penyaliban" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krossfesting" title="Krossfesting – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Krossfesting" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocifissione" title="Crocifissione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Crocifissione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%91%D7%94" title="צליבה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צליבה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%A3" title="ಕ್ರೂಶಾರೋಹಣ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕ್ರೂಶಾರೋಹಣ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ჯვარცმა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯვარცმა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crux" title="Crux – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Crux" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krust%C4%81_si%C5%A1ana" title="Krustā sišana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Krustā sišana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%A4izegung" title="Kräizegung – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kräizegung" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukry%C5%BEiavimas" title="Nukryžiavimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Nukryžiavimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6fa_(Keriso)" title="Röfa (Keriso) – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Röfa (Keriso)" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target">Li Niha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keresztre_fesz%C3%ADt%C3%A9s" title="Keresztre feszítés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Keresztre feszítés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82" title="Распнување на крст – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Распнување на крст" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucify&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Crucify">Crucify</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Christ-like pose" redirects here. Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ_Pose" title="Jesus Christ Pose">Jesus Christ Pose</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Inflicting death by nailing or tying a victim to a wooden cross</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the practice in general. For the crucifixion of Jesus, see <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion of Jesus</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Crucifixion (disambiguation)">Crucifixion (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crucifixion_Strasbourg_Unterlinden_Inv88RP536.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Crucifixion_Strasbourg_Unterlinden_Inv88RP536.jpg/220px-Crucifixion_Strasbourg_Unterlinden_Inv88RP536.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Crucifixion_Strasbourg_Unterlinden_Inv88RP536.jpg/330px-Crucifixion_Strasbourg_Unterlinden_Inv88RP536.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Crucifixion_Strasbourg_Unterlinden_Inv88RP536.jpg/440px-Crucifixion_Strasbourg_Unterlinden_Inv88RP536.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2310" data-file-height="3323" /></a><figcaption>A 15th-century depiction of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> crucified between <a href="/wiki/The_two_thieves" class="mw-redirect" title="The two thieves">the two thieves</a></figcaption></figure> Crucifixion is a method of <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a> in which the condemned is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross, beam or stake and left to hang until eventual death.<a href="#cite_note-EECO_2018-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-josephus-jewishwars-5.11.1-2">[2]</a> It was used as a punishment by the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a>,<a href="#cite_note-EECO_2018-1">[1]</a> among others. Crucifixion has been used in some countries as recently as the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucifixion of Jesus</a> is central to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><a href="#cite_note-EECO_2018-1">[1]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">cross</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> usually <a href="/wiki/Crucifix" title="Crucifix">depicted with Jesus nailed to it</a>) is Christianity's preeminent <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">religious symbol</a>. His death is the most prominent example of crucifixion in history, which in turn has led many cultures in the modern world to associate the execution method closely with Jesus and with Christian spirituality. Other figures in Christianity are traditionally believed to have undergone crucifixion as well, including <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a>, who was crucified upside-down. Today, limited numbers of Christians voluntarily undergo non-lethal crucifixions as a <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_practice" title="Spiritual practice">devotional practice</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cross#Name" title="Cross">Cross § Name</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> has two verbs for crucify: anastauroo (ἀνασταυρόω), from <a href="/wiki/Stauros" title="Stauros">stauros</a> (which in modern Greek only means "<a href="/wiki/Cross" title="Cross">cross</a>" but which in antiquity was used for any kind of wooden pole, pointed or blunt, bare or with attachments) and apotumpanizo (ἀποτυμπανίζω) "crucify on a plank",<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> together with anaskolopizo (ἀνασκολοπίζω "<a href="/wiki/Impale" class="mw-redirect" title="Impale">impale</a>"). In earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means "impale".<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Greek</a> used in the Christian <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> uses four verbs, three of them based upon stauros (σταυρός), usually translated "cross". The most common term is stauroo (σταυρόω), "to crucify", occurring 46 times; sustauroo (συσταυρόω), "to crucify with" or "alongside" occurs five times, while anastauroo (ἀνασταυρόω), "to crucify again" occurs only once at the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Epistle to the Hebrews</a> <a href="/wiki/Hebrews_6:6" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrews 6:6">6:6</a>. Prospegnumi (προσπήγνυμι), "to fix or fasten to, impale, crucify" occurs only once, at the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a> <a href="/wiki/Acts_2:23" class="mw-redirect" title="Acts 2:23">2:23</a>. The English term cross derives from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word crux,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> which classically referred to a tree or any construction of wood used to hang criminals as a form of execution. The term later came to refer specifically to a cross.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The related term crucifix derives from the Latin crucifixus or cruci fixus, past participle passive of crucifigere or cruci figere, meaning "to crucify" or "to fasten to a cross".<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Detail">Detail</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Detail">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gabriel_Max_1866_St_Julia_img02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gabriel_Max_1866_St_Julia_img02.jpg/220px-Gabriel_Max_1866_St_Julia_img02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gabriel_Max_1866_St_Julia_img02.jpg/330px-Gabriel_Max_1866_St_Julia_img02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Gabriel_Max_1866_St_Julia_img02.jpg/440px-Gabriel_Max_1866_St_Julia_img02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_von_Max" title="Gabriel von Max">Gabriel von Max</a>'s 1866 painting Martyress depicts a crucified young woman and a young man laying flowers at her feet</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cross_shape">Cross shape</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Cross shape">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:321px;max-width:321px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Lipsius_Crux_Simplex_1629.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Justus_Lipsius_Crux_Simplex_1629.jpg/130px-Justus_Lipsius_Crux_Simplex_1629.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Justus_Lipsius_Crux_Simplex_1629.jpg/195px-Justus_Lipsius_Crux_Simplex_1629.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Justus_Lipsius_Crux_Simplex_1629.jpg/260px-Justus_Lipsius_Crux_Simplex_1629.jpg 2x" data-file-width="748" data-file-height="1346" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:185px;max-width:185px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Cruce_Libri_Tres_47.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/De_Cruce_Libri_Tres_47.jpg/183px-De_Cruce_Libri_Tres_47.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/De_Cruce_Libri_Tres_47.jpg/275px-De_Cruce_Libri_Tres_47.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/De_Cruce_Libri_Tres_47.jpg 2x" data-file-width="284" data-file-height="361" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Two illustrations from editions of a book by <a href="/wiki/Justus_Lipsius" title="Justus Lipsius">Justus Lipsius</a> (1547–1606): on left, a crux simplex (1629 edition, p. 19); on right, crucifixion of Jesus (1593 edition, p. 47).</div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Instrument_of_Jesus%27_crucifixion" title="Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion">Instrument of Jesus' crucifixion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crucifix" title="Crucifix">Crucifix</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gibbet" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibbet">gibbet</a> (instrument of execution) for crucifixions took on many shapes. <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4 BCE–65 CE) states: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet."<a href="#cite_note-Seneca_1946-14">[14]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>, during Emperor <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)" title="Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)">Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)</a>, Roman soldiers nailed innumerable <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> captives to crosses in various ways.<a href="#cite_note-josephus-jewishwars-5.11.1-2">[2]</a> At times the gibbet was only one vertical stake, called in Latin crux simplex.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> This was the simplest available construction for torturing and killing the condemned. Frequently, however, there was a cross-piece attached either at the top to give the shape of a T (<a href="/wiki/Crux_commissa" class="mw-redirect" title="Crux commissa">crux commissa</a>) or just below the top, as in the form most familiar in Christian symbolism (crux immissa).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion depicts an individual on a T-shaped cross. It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (late 1st century to early 2nd century CE).<a href="#cite_note-Cook-17">[17]</a> Writers in the 2nd century who speak of the execution cross describe the crucified person's arms as outstretched, not attached to a single stake: <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a> speaks of <a href="/wiki/Prometheus" title="Prometheus">Prometheus</a> as crucified "above the ravine with his hands outstretched". He also says that the shape of the letter Τ (the Greek letter <a href="/wiki/Tau" title="Tau">tau</a>) was that of the wooden instrument used for crucifying.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Artemidorus" title="Artemidorus">Artemidorus</a>, another writer of the same period, says that a cross is made of posts (plural) and nails and that the arms of the crucified are outstretched.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Speaking of the generic execution cross, <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a> (c. 130–202), a Christian writer, describes it as composed of an upright and a transverse beam, sometimes with a small projection in the upright.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> New Testament writings about the crucifixion of Jesus do not specify the shape of that cross, but subsequent early writings liken it to the letter T. According to <a href="/wiki/William_Barclay_(theologian)" title="William Barclay (theologian)">William Barclay</a>, because tau is shaped exactly like the crux commissa and represented the number 300, "wherever the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">fathers</a> came across the number 300 in the Old Testament they took it to be a mystical prefiguring of the cross of Christ".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> The earliest example, written around the late 1st century, is the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> with another example being <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 – c. 215).<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 – c. 165) sees the cross of Christ represented in the crossed <a href="/wiki/Rotisserie" title="Rotisserie">spits</a> used to roast the <a href="/wiki/Passover_lamb" class="mw-redirect" title="Passover lamb">Passover lamb</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nail_placement">Nail placement</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nail placement">edit</a>]</div> In popular depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus (possibly because in translations of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2020:25&version=nrsv">John 20:25</a> the wounds are described as being "in his hands"), Jesus is shown with nails in his hands. But in Greek the word "χείρ", usually translated as "hand", could refer to the entire portion of the arm below the elbow,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> and to denote the hand as distinct from the arm some other word could be added, as "ἄκρην οὔτασε χεῖρα" (he wounded the end of the χείρ, i.e., "he wounded him in the hand".<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> A possibility that does not require tying is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, through the <a href="/wiki/Soft_tissue" title="Soft tissue">soft tissue</a>, between the two bones of the forearm (the <a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">radius</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">ulna</a>).<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> A foot-rest (suppedaneum) attached to the cross, perhaps for the purpose of taking the person's weight off the wrists, is sometimes included in representations of the crucifixion of Jesus but is not discussed in ancient sources. Some scholars interpret the <a href="/wiki/Alexamenos_graffito" title="Alexamenos graffito">Alexamenos graffito</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200), the earliest surviving depiction of the crucifixion, as including such a foot-rest.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Ancient sources also mention the sedile, a small seat attached to the front of the cross, about halfway down,<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> which could have served a similar purpose. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hombre_de_Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hombre_de_Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar..jpg/220px-Hombre_de_Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar..jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hombre_de_Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar..jpg/330px-Hombre_de_Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar..jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Hombre_de_Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar..jpg 2x" data-file-width="434" data-file-height="525" /></a><figcaption>1st century <a href="/wiki/Calcaneum" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcaneum">calcaneum</a> (heel bone) with a nail</figcaption></figure> In 1968, archaeologists discovered at <a href="/wiki/Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Giv'at ha-Mivtar">Giv'at ha-Mivtar</a> in northeast <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> the remains of one <a href="/wiki/Jehohanan" title="Jehohanan">Jehohanan</a>, who was crucified in the 1st century CE. The remains included a heel bone with a nail driven through it from the side. The tip of the nail was bent, perhaps because of striking a knot in the upright beam, which prevented it being extracted from the foot. A first inaccurate account of the length of the nail led some to believe that it had been driven through both heels, suggesting that the man had been placed in a sort of sidesaddle position, but the true length of the nail, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>11.5 centimetres (4+1⁄2 inches), suggests instead that in this case of crucifixion the heels were nailed to opposite sides of the upright.<a href="#cite_note-:5-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> As of 2011, the skeleton from <a href="/wiki/Giv%27at_ha-Mivtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Giv'at ha-Mivtar">Giv'at ha-Mivtar</a> was the only confirmed example of ancient crucifixion in the archaeological record.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> A second set of skeletal remains with holes transverse through the <a href="/wiki/Calcaneum" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcaneum">calcaneum</a> heel bones, found in 2007, could be a second archaeological record of crucifixion.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The find in <a href="/wiki/Cambridgeshire" title="Cambridgeshire">Cambridgeshire</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>) in November 2017 of the remains of the heel bone of a (probably enslaved) man with an iron nail through it, is believed by the archeologists to confirm the use of this method in ancient Rome.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cause_of_death">Cause of death</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cause of death">edit</a>]</div> The length of time required to reach death could range from hours to days depending on method, the victim's health, and the environment.<a href="#cite_note-patho-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-StroudSimpson1871-37">[37]</a> A theory attributed to <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Barbet_(physician)" title="Pierre Barbet (physician)">Pierre Barbet</a> held that, when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the typical cause of death was <a href="/wiki/Asphyxiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Asphyxiation">asphyxiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> He wrote that the condemned would have severe difficulty inhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the chest muscles and lungs. The condemned would therefore have to draw himself up by the arms, leading to <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">exhaustion</a>, or have his feet supported by tying or by a wood block. When no longer able to lift himself, the condemned would die within a few minutes. This theory has been supported by multiple scholars.<a href="#cite_note-Habermas-39">[39]</a> Other scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Zugibe" title="Frederick Zugibe">Frederick Zugibe</a>, posit other causes of death. Zugibe suspended test subjects with their arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical. The test subjects had no difficulty breathing during experiments, but did suffer rapidly increasing pain,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zugibe2005-41">[41]</a> which is consistent with the Roman use of crucifixion to achieve a prolonged, agonizing death. However, Zugibe's positioning of the test subjects necessarily did not precisely replicate the conditions of historical crucifixion.<a href="#cite_note-Maslen2006-42">[42]</a> In 2023, an analysis of medical literature concluded that asphyxiation is discredited as the primary cause of death from crucifixion.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> There is scholarly support for several<a href="#cite_note-Maslen2006-42">[42]</a> possible non-asphyxiation causes of death: <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_arrest" title="Cardiac arrest">heart failure</a> or <a href="/wiki/Heart_arrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart arrhythmia">arrhythmia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Edwards-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypovolemic_shock" title="Hypovolemic shock">hypovolemic shock</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Zugibe2005-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Acidosis" title="Acidosis">acidosis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wijffels-46">[46]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">dehydration</a>,<a href="#cite_note-patho-36">[36]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_embolism" title="Pulmonary embolism">pulmonary embolism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brenner2005-47">[47]</a> Death could result from any combination of those factors, or from other causes, including <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a> following infection due to the wounds caused by the nails or by the <a href="/wiki/Flagellation" title="Flagellation">scourging</a> that often preceded crucifixion, or from stabbing by the guards.<a href="#cite_note-patho-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Habermas-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-Edwards-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Survival">Survival</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Survival">edit</a>]</div> Since death does not follow immediately on crucifixion, survival after a short period of crucifixion is possible, as in the case of those who choose each year <a href="#As_a_devotional_practice">as a devotional practice</a> to be non-lethally crucified. There is an ancient record of one person who survived a crucifixion that was intended to be lethal, but was interrupted. Josephus recounts:<blockquote>I saw many captives crucified, and remembered three of them as my former acquaintances. I was very sorry at this in my mind, and went with tears in my eyes to Titus, and told him of them; so he immediately commanded them to be taken down, and to have the greatest care taken of them, in order to their recovery; yet two of them died under the physician's hands, while the third recovered.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></blockquote>Josephus gives no details of the method or duration of the crucifixion of his three friends. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_religious_texts">History and religious texts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History and religious texts">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Roman_states">Pre-Roman states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pre-Roman states">edit</a>]</div> Crucifixion (or impalement), in one form or another, was used by <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Persia">Persians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a>, and among the Greeks, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a>. The Greeks were generally opposed to performing crucifixions.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> However, in his Histories, ix.120–122, Greek writer <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> describes the execution of a Persian general at the hands of Athenians in about 479 BC: "They nailed him to a plank and hung him up ... this <a href="/wiki/Artayctes" title="Artayctes">Artayctes</a> who suffered death by crucifixion."<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The Commentary on Herodotus by How and Wells remarks: "They crucified him with hands and feet stretched out and nailed to cross-pieces; cf. vii.33. This act, supposedly unusual on the part of Greeks, may be explained by the enormity of the outrage or by Athenian deference to local feeling."<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustrations_pour_Salammb%C3%B4_Poirson_Victor-Armand.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black-and-white painting showing five men, two in armour, crucified in front of a city" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Illustrations_pour_Salammb%C3%B4_Poirson_Victor-Armand.jpeg/180px-Illustrations_pour_Salammb%C3%B4_Poirson_Victor-Armand.jpeg" decoding="async" width="180" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Illustrations_pour_Salammb%C3%B4_Poirson_Victor-Armand.jpeg/270px-Illustrations_pour_Salammb%C3%B4_Poirson_Victor-Armand.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Illustrations_pour_Salammb%C3%B4_Poirson_Victor-Armand.jpeg/360px-Illustrations_pour_Salammb%C3%B4_Poirson_Victor-Armand.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2650" data-file-height="3891" /></a><figcaption>A 19-century depiction of the crucifixion of rebel leaders by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginians</a> in 238 BC</figcaption></figure> Some Christian <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologians</a>, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tarsus,_Mersin" title="Tarsus, Mersin">Tarsus</a> writing in <a href="/wiki/Galatians_3:13" class="mw-redirect" title="Galatians 3:13">Galatians 3:13</a>, have interpreted an allusion to crucifixion in <a href="/wiki/Deuteronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuteronomy">Deuteronomy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%2021:22–23&version=nrsv">21:22–23</a>. This reference is to being hanged from a tree, and may be associated with <a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">lynching</a> or traditional hanging. However, Rabbinic law limited capital punishment to just 4 methods of execution: stoning, burning, strangulation, and decapitation, while the passage in Deuteronomy was interpreted as an obligation to hang the corpse on a tree as a form of deterrence.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The fragmentary Aramaic Testament of Levi (DSS 4Q541) interprets in column 6: "God ... (partially legible)-will set ... right errors. ... (partially legible)-He will judge ... revealed sins. Investigate and seek and know how Jonah wept. Thus, you shall not destroy the weak by wasting away or by ... (partially legible)-crucifixion ... Let not the nail touch him."<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The Jewish king <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a>, king of Judea from 103 to 76 BCE, crucified 800 rebels, said to be <a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, in the middle of Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> is reputed to have crucified 2,000 survivors from <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">his siege</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>,<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's lifelong friend <a href="/wiki/Hephaestion" title="Hephaestion">Hephaestion</a>. Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified <a href="/wiki/Callisthenes" title="Callisthenes">Callisthenes</a>, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of <a href="/wiki/Proskynesis" title="Proskynesis">royal adoration</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, crucifixion was an established mode of execution, which could even be imposed on generals for suffering a major defeat.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The oldest crucifixion may be a post-mortem one mentioned by Herodotus. <a href="/wiki/Polycrates" title="Polycrates">Polycrates</a>, the tyrant of <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a>, was put to death in 522 BCE by the Persians, and his dead body was then crucified.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Rome">Ancient Rome</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ancient Rome">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="History">History</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The Greek and Latin words corresponding to "crucifixion" applied to many different forms of painful execution, including being impaled on a stake, or affixed to a tree, upright pole (a <a href="/wiki/Crux_simplex" title="Crux simplex">crux simplex</a>), or to a combination of an upright (in Latin, stipes) and a crossbeam (in Latin, patibulum). Seneca the Younger wrote: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet".<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Crucifixion was generally performed within Ancient Rome as a means to dissuade others from perpetrating similar crimes, with victims sometimes left on display after death as a warning. Crucifixion was intended to provide a death that was particularly slow, painful (hence the term excruciating, literally "out of crucifying"), gruesome, humiliating, and public, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and period. One hypothesis suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Roman</a> custom of crucifixion may have developed out of a primitive custom of arbori suspendere—hanging on an <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#arbor_felix" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">arbor infelix</a> ("inauspicious tree") dedicated to the gods of the nether world. This hypothesis is rejected by William A. Oldfather, who shows that this form of execution (the supplicium more maiorum, punishment in accordance with the custom of our ancestors) consisted of suspending someone from a tree, not dedicated to any particular gods, and flogging him to death.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> mentions a 1st-century AD case in which trees were used for crucifixion,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> but Seneca the Younger earlier used the phrase infelix lignum (unfortunate wood) for the transom ("patibulum") or the whole cross.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> are the two main sources for accounts of criminals carrying their own patibula to the upright stipes.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Notorious mass crucifixions followed the <a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a> in 73–71 BCE (the slave rebellion led by <a href="/wiki/Spartacus" title="Spartacus">Spartacus</a>), and other <a href="/wiki/Roman_civil_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman civil wars">Roman civil wars</a> in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. <a href="/wiki/Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus">Crassus</a> ordered the crucifixion of 6,000 of Spartacus' followers who had been hunted down and captured after the slave defeat in battle.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Josephus says that in the siege that led to the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of Jerusalem">destruction of Jerusalem</a> in AD 70, the Roman soldiers crucified Jewish captives before the walls of Jerusalem and out of anger and hatred amused themselves by nailing them in different positions.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> In some cases, the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam to the place of execution.<a href="#cite_note-:2-68">[68]</a> A whole cross would weigh well over 135 kg (300 lb), but the crossbeam would not be as burdensome, weighing around 45 kg (100 lb).<a href="#cite_note-Mississippi-69">[69]</a> The Roman historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> records that the city of Rome had a specific place for carrying out executions, situated outside the <a href="/wiki/Esquiline_Gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Esquiline Gate">Esquiline Gate</a>,<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> and had a specific area reserved for the execution of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slaves</a> by crucifixion.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in that place, and the crossbeam, with the condemned person perhaps already nailed to it, would then be attached to the post. The person executed may have been attached to the cross by rope, though nails and other sharp materials are mentioned in a passage by Josephus, where he states that at the Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), "the soldiers out of rage and hatred, nailed those they caught, one after one way, and another after another, to the crosses, by way of jest".<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Objects used in the crucifixion of criminals, such as nails, were sought as <a href="/wiki/Amulets" class="mw-redirect" title="Amulets">amulets</a> with perceived medicinal qualities.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> While a crucifixion was an execution, it was also a humiliation, by making the condemned as vulnerable as possible. Although artists have traditionally depicted the figure on a cross with a loin cloth or a covering of the genitals, the person being crucified was usually stripped naked. Writings by Seneca the Younger state some victims suffered a stick forced upwards through their groin.<a href="#cite_note-Seneca_1946-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Despite its frequent use by the Romans, the horrors of crucifixion did not escape criticism by some eminent Roman orators. <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, for example, described crucifixion as "a most cruel and disgusting punishment",<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> and suggested that "the very mention of the cross should be far removed not only from a Roman citizen's body, but from his mind, his eyes, his ears".<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Elsewhere he says, "It is a crime to bind a Roman citizen; to scourge him is a wickedness; to put him to death is almost parricide. What shall I say of crucifying him? So guilty an action cannot by any possibility be adequately expressed by any name bad enough for it."<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Frequently, the legs of the person executed were broken or shattered with an iron <a href="/wiki/Club_(weapon)" title="Club (weapon)">club</a>, an act called crurifragium, which was also frequently applied without crucifixion to slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Wine-78">[78]</a> This act hastened the death of the person but was also meant to <a href="/wiki/Punishment#Deterrence" title="Punishment">deter</a> those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses.<a href="#cite_note-Wine-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine the Great</a>, the first Christian <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">emperor</a>, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire in 337 out of veneration for <a href="/wiki/Jesus_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus Christ">Jesus Christ</a>, its most famous victim.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Society_and_law">Society and law</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Society and law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:268px;max-width:268px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexorig.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Alexorig.jpg/140px-Alexorig.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Alexorig.jpg/210px-Alexorig.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Alexorig.jpg/280px-Alexorig.jpg 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="450" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:122px;max-width:122px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:AlexGraffito.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/AlexGraffito.svg/120px-AlexGraffito.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/AlexGraffito.svg/180px-AlexGraffito.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/AlexGraffito.svg/240px-AlexGraffito.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1084" data-file-height="1443" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Alexamenos_graffito" title="Alexamenos graffito">Alexamenos graffito</a>, a satirical representation of the Christian worship, depicting a man worshiping a crucified donkey (Rome, c AD 85 to 3rd century). It is inscribed ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ (ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟϹ) ΣΕΒΕΤΕ (ϹΕΒΕΤΕ) ΘΕΟΝ, which translates as "Alexamenos worships his god". Visible at the museum on the Palatine Hill, Rome, Italy (left). A modern-day tracing (right).</div></div></div></div> Crucifixion was intended to be a gruesome spectacle: the most painful and humiliating death imaginable.<a href="#cite_note-:7-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-83">[83]</a> It was used to punish <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">slaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirate">pirates</a>, and enemies of the state. It was originally reserved for slaves (hence still called "supplicium servile" by Seneca), and later extended to citizens of the lower classes (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire#Unequal_justice" title="Roman Empire">humiliores</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> The victims of crucifixion were stripped naked<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> and put on public display<a href="#cite_note-:8-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a> while they were slowly <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">tortured</a> to death so that they would serve as a <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_(legal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterrence (legal)">spectacle and an example</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-83">[83]</a> According to Roman law, if a slave killed his or her owner, all of the owner's slaves would be crucified as punishment.<a href="#cite_note-Barth-87">[87]</a> Both men and women were crucified.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a> Tacitus writes in his <a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annals</a> that when <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Pedanius_Secundus" title="Lucius Pedanius Secundus">Lucius Pedanius Secundus</a> was murdered by a slave, some in the Senate tried to prevent the mass crucifixion of four hundred of his slaves<a href="#cite_note-Barth-87">[87]</a> because there were so many women and children, but in the end tradition prevailed and they were all executed.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Although not conclusive evidence for female crucifixion by itself, the most ancient image of a Roman crucifixion may depict a crucified woman, whether real or imaginary.<a href="#cite_note-91">[a]</a> Crucifixion was such a gruesome and <a href="/wiki/Humiliating" class="mw-redirect" title="Humiliating">humiliating</a> way to die that the subject was somewhat of a taboo in Roman culture, and few crucifixions were specifically documented. One of the only specific female crucifixions that are documented is that of Ida, a <a href="/wiki/Freedwoman" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedwoman">freedwoman</a> (former slave) who was crucified by order of Tiberius.<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Process">Process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Process">edit</a>]</div> Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurion</a> and his soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> First, the condemned would be stripped naked<a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> and scourged.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> This would cause the person to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of <a href="/wiki/Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">shock</a>. The convict then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (patibulum in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a> During the death march, the prisoner, probably<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> still <a href="/wiki/Nude" class="mw-redirect" title="Nude">nude</a> after the scourging,<a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> would be led through the most crowded streets<a href="#cite_note-:8-85">[85]</a> bearing a titulus – a sign board proclaiming the prisoner's name and crime.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> Upon arrival at the place of execution, selected to be especially public,<a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-96">[95]</a> the convict would be stripped of any remaining clothing, then nailed to the cross naked.<a href="#cite_note-:2-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-96">[95]</a> If the crucifixion took place in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (stipes) might be permanently embedded in the ground.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> In this case, the condemned person's wrists would first be nailed to the patibulum, and then he or she would be hoisted off the ground with ropes to hang from the elevated patibulum while it was fastened to the stipes.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> Next the feet or ankles would be nailed to the upright stake.<a href="#cite_note-:0-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> The 'nails' were tapered iron spikes approximately 13 to 18 cm (5 to 7 in) long, with a square shaft <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027">10 millimetres (3⁄8 in) across.<a href="#cite_note-:5-30">[30]</a> The titulus would also be fastened to the cross to notify onlookers of the person's name and crime as they hung on the cross, further maximizing the public impact.<a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-94">[93]</a> There may have been considerable variation in the position in which prisoners were nailed to their crosses and how their bodies were supported while they died.<a href="#cite_note-:9-83">[83]</a> Seneca the Younger recounts: "I see crosses there, not just of one kind but made in many different ways: some have their victims with head down to the ground; some impale their private parts; others stretch out their arms on the gibbet."<a href="#cite_note-Seneca_1946-14">[14]</a> One source claims that for Jews (apparently not for others), a man would be crucified with his back to the cross as is traditionally depicted, while a woman would be nailed facing her cross, probably with her back to onlookers, or at least with the stipes providing some semblance of <a href="/wiki/Modesty" title="Modesty">modesty</a> if viewed from the front.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> Such concessions were "unique" and not made outside a Jewish context.<a href="#cite_note-:3-32">[32]</a> Several sources mention some sort of seat fastened to the stipes to help support the person's body,<a href="#cite_note-:6-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> thereby prolonging the person's suffering<a href="#cite_note-:8-85">[85]</a> and humiliation<a href="#cite_note-:9-83">[83]</a> by preventing the <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiation</a> caused by hanging without support. Justin Martyr calls the seat a cornu, or "horn,"<a href="#cite_note-:6-97">[96]</a> leading some scholars to believe it may have had a pointed shape designed to torment the crucified person.<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a> This would be consistent with Seneca's observation of victims with their private parts impaled. In Roman-style crucifixion, the condemned could take up to a few days to die, but death was sometimes hastened by human action. "The attending Roman guards could leave the site only after the victim had died, and were known to precipitate death by means of deliberate fracturing of the tibia and/or fibula, spear stab wounds into the heart, sharp blows to the front of the chest, or a smoking fire built at the foot of the cross to asphyxiate the victim."<a href="#cite_note-patho-36">[36]</a> The Romans sometimes broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death and usually forbade burial.<a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a> On the other hand, the person was often deliberately kept alive as long as possible to prolong their suffering and humiliation, so as to provide the maximum deterrent effect.<a href="#cite_note-:9-83">[83]</a> Corpses of the crucified were typically left on the crosses to decompose and be eaten by animals.<a href="#cite_note-:9-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Islam">In Islam</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In Islam">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hirabah" title="Hirabah">Hirabah</a></div> Islam spread in a region where many societies, including the Persian and Roman empires, had used crucifixion to punish traitors, rebels, robbers and criminal slaves.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> The Qur'an refers to crucifixion in six passages, of which the most significant for later legal developments is verse 5:33:<a href="#cite_note-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His Apostle, and strive with might and main for mischief through the land is: execution, or crucifixion, or the cutting off of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land: that is their disgrace in this world, and a heavy punishment is theirs in the Hereafter.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a></blockquote> The corpus of <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> provides contradictory statements about the first use of crucifixion under Islamic rule, attributing it variously to <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> himself (for murder and robbery of a shepherd) or to the second caliph <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a> (applied to two slaves who murdered their mistress).<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> Classical Islamic jurisprudence applies the verse 5:33 chiefly to highway robbers, as a <a href="/wiki/Hadd" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadd">hadd</a> (scripturally prescribed) punishment.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> The preference for crucifixion over the other punishments mentioned in the verse or for their combination (which <a href="/wiki/Sadakat_Kadri" title="Sadakat Kadri">Sadakat Kadri</a> has called "Islam's equivalent of the hanging, drawing and quartering that medieval Europeans inflicted on traitors")<a href="#cite_note-kadri-218-105">[104]</a> is subject to "complex and contested rules" in classical jurisprudence.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> Most scholars required crucifixion for highway robbery combined with murder, while others allowed execution by other methods for this scenario.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> The main methods of crucifixion are:<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> <ul><li>Exposure of the culprit's body after execution by another method, ascribed to "most scholars"<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-peters-106">[105]</a> and in particular to <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hanbal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Hanbal">Ibn Hanbal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Shafi%27i" title="Al-Shafi'i">Al-Shafi'i</a>;<a href="#cite_note-EoF-taslib-107">[106]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbalis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'is</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EoF-hiraba-108">[107]</a></li> <li>Crucifying the culprit alive, then executing him with a lance thrust or another method, ascribed to Malikis, most <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafis</a> and most <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> Shi'is;<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> the majority of the Malikis;<a href="#cite_note-peters-106">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malik_ibn_Anas" title="Malik ibn Anas">Malik</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abu Hanifa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Awzai" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Awzai">al-Awza'i</a>;<a href="#cite_note-EoF-taslib-107">[106]</a> or Malikis, Hanafis, and Shafi'is.<a href="#cite_note-EoF-hiraba-108">[107]</a></li> <li>Crucifying the culprit alive and sparing his life if he survives for three days, ascribed to Shiites.<a href="#cite_note-peters-106">[105]</a></li></ul> Most classical jurists limit the period of crucifixion to three days.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> Crucifixion involves affixing or impaling the body to a beam or a tree trunk.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> Various minority opinions also prescribed crucifixion as punishment for a number of other crimes.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a> Cases of crucifixion under most of the legally prescribed categories have been recorded in the history of Islam, and prolonged exposure of crucified bodies was especially common for political and religious opponents.<a href="#cite_note-EI2-102">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japan">Japan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Crucifixion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Japanese_Crucifixion.jpg/220px-Japanese_Crucifixion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Japanese_Crucifixion.jpg/330px-Japanese_Crucifixion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Japanese_Crucifixion.jpg/440px-Japanese_Crucifixion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="446" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption>Early <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a> crucifixion (c. 1865–1868), <a href="/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>. A 25-year-old servant, Sokichi, was executed by crucifixion for murdering his employer's son during the course of a robbery. He was affixed by tying to a stake with two cross-pieces.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Worswick1979-111">[110]</a></figcaption></figure> Crucifixion was introduced into <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Sengoku_period" title="Sengoku period">Sengoku period</a> (1467–1573), after a 350-year period with no capital punishment.<a href="#cite_note-JapaneseMind-112">[111]</a> It is believed to have been suggested to the Japanese by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> into the region,<a href="#cite_note-JapaneseMind-112">[111]</a> although similar types of punishment had been used as early as the <a href="/wiki/Kamakura_period" title="Kamakura period">Kamakura period</a>. Known in Japanese as haritsuke (磔), crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Shogunate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tokugawa Shogunate">Tokugawa Shogunate</a>. Several related crucifixion techniques were used. Petra Schmidt, in "Capital Punishment in Japan", writes:<a href="#cite_note-113">[112]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Execution by crucifixion included, first of all, hikimawashi (i.e, being paraded about town on horseback); then the unfortunate was tied to a cross made from one vertical and two horizontal poles. The cross was raised, the convict speared several times from two sides, and eventually killed with a final thrust through the throat. The corpse was left on the cross for three days. If one condemned to crucifixion died in prison, his body was pickled and the punishment executed on the dead body. Under <a href="/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi" title="Toyotomi Hideyoshi">Toyotomi Hideyoshi</a>, one of the great 16th-century unifiers, crucifixion upside down (i.e, sakasaharitsuke) was frequently used. Water crucifixion (mizuharitsuke) awaited mostly Christians: a cross was raised at low tide; when the high tide came, the convict was submerged under water up to the head, prolonging death for many days</blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png/220px-Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png/330px-Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png/440px-Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png 2x" data-file-width="3341" data-file-height="2335" /></a><figcaption>The 1622 <a href="/wiki/Great_Genna_Martyrdom" title="Great Genna Martyrdom">Great Genna Martyrdom</a> included crucifixions</figcaption></figure> In 1597, <a href="/wiki/26_Martyrs_of_Japan" title="26 Martyrs of Japan">26 Christian Martyrs</a> were nailed to crosses at <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, Japan. Among those executed were Saints <a href="/wiki/Paulo_Miki" class="mw-redirect" title="Paulo Miki">Paulo Miki</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Jesus" title="Philip of Jesus">Philip of Jesus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Bautista" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro Bautista">Pedro Bautista</a>, a Spanish <a href="/wiki/Franciscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan">Franciscan</a>. The executions marked the beginning of a long history of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Martyrs">persecution of Christianity in Japan</a>, which continued until its decriminalization in 1871. Crucifixion was used as a punishment for prisoners of war during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ringer_Edwards" title="Ringer Edwards">Ringer Edwards</a>, an Australian prisoner of war, was crucified for killing cattle, along with two others. He survived 63 hours before being let down. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burma">Burma</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Burma">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>, crucifixion was a central element in several execution rituals. Felix Carey, a missionary in Burma from 1806 to 1812,<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> wrote the following:<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Four or five persons, after being nailed through their hands and feet to a scaffold, had first their tongues cut out, then their mouths slit open from ear to ear, then their ears cut off, and finally their bellies ripped open. Six people were crucified in the following manner: their hands and feet nailed to a scaffold; then their eyes were extracted with a blunt hook; and in this condition they were left to expire; two died in the course of four days; the rest were liberated, but died of mortification on the sixth or seventh day. Four persons were crucified, viz. not nailed but tied with their hands and feet stretched out at full length, in an erect posture. In this posture they were to remain till death; every thing they wished to eat was ordered them with a view to prolong their lives and misery. In cases like this, the legs and feet of the criminals begin to swell and mortify at the expiration of three or four days; some are said to live in this state for a fortnight, and expire at last from fatigue and mortification. Those which I saw, were liberated at the end of three or four days.</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Your_Liberty_Bond_will_help_stop_this_Crisco_restoration_and_colours.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Your_Liberty_Bond_will_help_stop_this_Crisco_restoration_and_colours.jpg/220px-Your_Liberty_Bond_will_help_stop_this_Crisco_restoration_and_colours.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Your_Liberty_Bond_will_help_stop_this_Crisco_restoration_and_colours.jpg/330px-Your_Liberty_Bond_will_help_stop_this_Crisco_restoration_and_colours.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Your_Liberty_Bond_will_help_stop_this_Crisco_restoration_and_colours.jpg/440px-Your_Liberty_Bond_will_help_stop_this_Crisco_restoration_and_colours.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2776" data-file-height="3512" /></a><figcaption>Poster showing a German soldier nailing a man to a tree, as American soldiers come to his rescue. Published in Manila by Bureau of Printing (1917).</figcaption></figure> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers <a href="/wiki/The_Crucified_Soldier" title="The Crucified Soldier">had crucified a Canadian soldier</a> on a tree or barn door with <a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">bayonets</a> or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Canadian_Division" title="1st Canadian Division">1st Canadian Division</a>. Two investigations, one a post-war official investigation, and the other an independent investigation by the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">Canadian Broadcasting Corporation</a>, concluded that there was no evidence to support the story.<a href="#cite_note-PotJ-116">[115]</a> However, British documentary maker <a href="/wiki/Iain_Overton" title="Iain Overton">Iain Overton</a> in 2001 published an article claiming that the story was true, identifying the soldier as <a href="/wiki/Harry_Band" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Band">Harry Band</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PotJ-116">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[116]</a> Overton's article was the basis for a 2002 episode of the <a href="/wiki/Channel_4" title="Channel 4">Channel 4</a> documentary show <a href="/wiki/Secret_History_(television_documentary_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret History (television documentary series)">Secret History</a>.<a href="#cite_note-118">[117]</a> It has been reported that crucifixion was used in several cases against the <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> civil population of <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> when it was occupied by <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">Soviet</a> forces at the end of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-119">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Archaeological_evidence">Archaeological evidence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Archaeological evidence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Jehohanan" title="Jehohanan">Jehohanan</a></div> Although the Roman historians <a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a> refer to the crucifixion of thousands in during the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Roman-Jewish wars</a> in <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a> by the Romans, there are few actual archaeological remains. A prominent example is the crucified body found in a Jewish tomb dating back to the 1st century which was discovered at <a href="/wiki/Givat_HaMivtar" title="Givat HaMivtar">Givat HaMivtar</a>, Jerusalem in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> The remains were found accidentally in an <a href="/wiki/Ossuary" title="Ossuary">ossuary</a> with the crucified man's name on it, "Jehohanan, the son of Hagakol."<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[121]</a> Nicu Haas, from the Hebrew University Medical School, examined the ossuary and discovered that it contained a heel bone with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the man had been crucified. The position of the nail relative to the bone suggests the feet had been nailed to the cross from their side, not from their front; various opinions have been proposed as to whether they were both nailed together to the front of the cross or one on the left side, one on the right side. The point of the nail had olive wood fragments on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olive wood or on an olive tree. Additionally, a piece of <a href="/wiki/Acacia" title="Acacia">acacia</a> wood was located between the bones and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the condemned from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. His legs were found broken, possibly to hasten his death. It is thought that because in earlier Roman times iron was valuable, the nails were removed from the dead body to conserve costs. According to Haas, this could help to explain why only one nail has been found, as the tip of the nail in question was bent in such a way that it could not be removed. Haas had also identified a scratch on the inner surface of the right radius bone of the forearm, close to the wrist. He deduced from the form of the scratch, as well as from the intact wrist bones, that a nail had been driven into the forearm at that position.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Many of Haas' findings have, however, been challenged. For instance, it was subsequently determined that the scratches in the wrist area were non-traumatic – and, therefore, not evidence of crucifixion – while reexamination of the heel bone revealed that the two heels were not nailed together, but rather separately to either side of the upright post of the cross.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> In 2007, a possible case of a crucified body, with a round hole in a heel bone, possibly caused by a nail, was discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> near <a href="/wiki/Rovigo" title="Rovigo">Rovigo</a>, in northern Italy.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> In 2017 part of a crucified body, with a nail in the heel, was additionally discovered at <a href="/wiki/Fenstanton" title="Fenstanton">Fenstanton</a> in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-125">[124]</a> Further studies suggested that the remains may be those of a slave, because at that time crucifixion was banned in Roman law for citizens, although not necessarily for slaves.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_use">Modern use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Modern use">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punishment_china_1900.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Punishment_china_1900.jpg/220px-Punishment_china_1900.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Punishment_china_1900.jpg/330px-Punishment_china_1900.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Punishment_china_1900.jpg/440px-Punishment_china_1900.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1490" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Prisoner kneeling on chains, thumbs supporting arms, photographic print on <a href="/wiki/Stereoscope" title="Stereoscope">stereo card</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Mukden</a>, China (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1906)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crucifixion_in_Europe">Crucifixion in Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Crucifixion in Europe">edit</a>]</div> In 2005, a priest and four nuns in Romania <a href="/wiki/Tanacu_exorcism" title="Tanacu exorcism">were convicted</a> of crucifying Maricica Irina Cornici, a 25 year old nun with schizophrenia, who they believed was possessed by the devil.<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-casualty-128">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FN2007-129">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crucifixion_in_the_South_Sudan_Civil_War">Crucifixion in the South Sudan Civil War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Crucifixion in the South Sudan Civil War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/South_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="South Sudanese Civil War">South Sudanese Civil War</a></div> In 2017, The Standard News Channel reported on a series of crimes against civilians, including women being hung up trees<a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_execution_in_Islamic_states">Legal execution in Islamic states</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Legal execution in Islamic states">edit</a>]</div> Crucifixion is still used as a rare method of execution in Saudi Arabia. The punishment of crucifixion (șalb) imposed in Islamic law is variously interpreted as exposure of the body after execution, crucifixion followed by stabbing in the chest, or crucifixion for three days, survivors of which are allowed to live.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> Several people have been subjected to crucifixion in <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> in the 2000s, although on occasion they were first beheaded and then crucified. In March 2013, a robber was set to be executed by being crucified for three days.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian-132">[131]</a> However, the method was changed to death by firing squad.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> The Saudi Press Agency reported that the body of another individual was crucified after his execution in April 2019 as part of a crackdown on charges of terrorism.<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ali_Mohammed_Baqir_al-Nimr" title="Ali Mohammed Baqir al-Nimr">Ali Mohammed Baqir al-Nimr</a> was arrested in 2012 when he was 17 years old for taking part in an <a href="/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Saudi_Arabian_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2011–12 Saudi Arabian protests">anti-government protest</a> in Saudi Arabia during the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> In May 2014, Ali al-Nimr was sentenced to be publicly beheaded and crucified.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> Theoretically, crucifixion is still one of the <a href="/wiki/Hadd" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadd">Hadd</a> punishments in <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> If a crucified person were to survive three days of crucifixion, that person would be allowed to live.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> Execution by hanging is described as follows: "In execution by hanging, the prisoner will be hung on a hanging truss which should look like a cross, while his (her) back is toward the cross, and (s)he faces the direction of <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a> [in Saudi Arabia], and his (her) legs are vertical and distant from the ground."<a href="#cite_note-141">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Penal_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal code">penal code</a>, based upon the government's interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Shari%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shari'a">shari'a</a>,<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[143]</a> includes execution followed by crucifixion as a penalty. When, in 2002, 88 people were sentenced to death for crimes relating to murder, armed robbery, and participating in ethnic clashes, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a> wrote that they could be executed by either hanging or crucifixion.<a href="#cite_note-145">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jihadism">Jihadism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Jihadism">edit</a>]</div> On 5 February 2015, the United Nations <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Committee on the Rights of the Child">Committee on the Rights of the Child</a> (CRC) reported that the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant</a> (ISIL) had committed "several cases of mass executions of boys, as well as reports of beheadings, crucifixions of children and burying children alive".<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> On 30 April 2014, a total of seven public executions were carried out in <a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">Raqqa</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[146]</a> The pictures, originally posted to <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">Twitter</a> by a student at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>, were retweeted by a Twitter account owned by a known member of ISIL causing major media outlets to incorrectly attribute the origin of the post to the militant group.<a href="#cite_note-TDB-Extremists-148">[147]</a> In most of these cases of crucifixion the victims are shot first then their bodies are displayed<a href="#cite_note-CNN_crucifixion-149">[148]</a> but there have also been reports of crucifixion preceding shootings or decapitations<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> as well as a case where a man was said to have been "crucified alive for eight hours" with no indication of whether he died.<a href="#cite_note-CNN_crucifixion-149">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_incidents">Other incidents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other incidents">edit</a>]</div> The human rights group Karen Women Organization documented a case of <a href="/wiki/Tatmadaw" title="Tatmadaw">Tatmadaw</a> forces crucifying several <a href="/wiki/Karen_people" title="Karen people">Karen</a> villagers in 2000 in the <a href="/wiki/Dooplaya_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Dooplaya District">Dooplaya District</a> in <a href="/wiki/Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Burma">Burma</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Kayin_State" title="Kayin State">Kayin State</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> On 22 January 2014, <a href="/wiki/Dmytro_Bulatov" title="Dmytro Bulatov">Dmytro Bulatov</a>, a Ukrainian anti-government activist and member of <a href="/wiki/AutoMaidan" class="mw-redirect" title="AutoMaidan">AutoMaidan</a>, claimed to have been kidnapped by unknown persons "speaking in Russian accents" and tortured for a week. His captors kept him in the dark, beat him, cut off a piece of his ear, and nailed him to a cross. His captors ultimately left him in a forest outside <a href="/wiki/Kyiv" title="Kyiv">Kyiv</a> after forcing him to confess to being an <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> spy and accepting money from the US Embassy in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> to organize <a href="/wiki/Euromaidan" title="Euromaidan">protests</a> against then-President <a href="/wiki/Viktor_Yanukovych" title="Viktor Yanukovych">Viktor Yanukovych</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> Bulatov said he believed Russian secret services were responsible.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> In 1997, the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(United_Arab_Emirates)" title="Ministry of Justice (United Arab Emirates)">Ministry of Justice</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a> issued a statement that a court had sentenced two murderers to be crucified, to be followed by their executions the next day.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[157]</a> A Ministry of Justice official later stated that the crucifixion sentence should be considered cancelled.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> The crucifixions were not carried out, and the convicts were instead executed by <a href="/wiki/Firing_squad" class="mw-redirect" title="Firing squad">firing squad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Invasion_of_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Invasion of Ukraine">Russian Invasion of Ukraine</a>, Captain Vladyslav Pastukh of the 211th Pontoon Bridge Brigade crucified another member of the brigade by tying the soldier's hands to a wooden cross and the soldier's helmet to his left arm. He then took a picture of himself squatting in front of the cross with the soldier's body hanging from it.<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> On 16 December 2024, Ukrainian defense minister <a href="/wiki/Rustem_Umerov" title="Rustem Umerov">Rustem Umerov</a> ordered an immediate investigation into the incident as well as an investigation into other alleged abuse, extortion, and humiliation of soldiers of the 211th Pontoon Bridge Brigade by their commanding officers.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_culture_and_arts">In culture and arts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: In culture and arts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_in_the_arts" title="Crucifixion in the arts">Crucifixion in the arts</a></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Construction_Crucifixion_Homage_to_Mondrian_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sculpture construction: Crucifixion, homage to Mondrian, by Barbara Hepworth, United Kingdom (2007)"><img alt="Sculpture construction: Crucifixion, homage to Mondrian, by Barbara Hepworth, United Kingdom (2007)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Construction_Crucifixion_Homage_to_Mondrian_crop.jpg/120px-Construction_Crucifixion_Homage_to_Mondrian_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Construction_Crucifixion_Homage_to_Mondrian_crop.jpg/180px-Construction_Crucifixion_Homage_to_Mondrian_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Construction_Crucifixion_Homage_to_Mondrian_crop.jpg/240px-Construction_Crucifixion_Homage_to_Mondrian_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1923" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sculpture construction: Crucifixion, homage to Mondrian, by <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Hepworth" title="Barbara Hepworth">Barbara Hepworth</a>, United Kingdom (2007)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sergey_Solomko_025.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Allegory of Poland (1914–1918), postcard by Sergey Solomko"><img alt="Allegory of Poland (1914–1918), postcard by Sergey Solomko" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Sergey_Solomko_025.JPG/79px-Sergey_Solomko_025.JPG" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Sergey_Solomko_025.JPG/118px-Sergey_Solomko_025.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Sergey_Solomko_025.JPG/157px-Sergey_Solomko_025.JPG 2x" data-file-width="394" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Allegory of Poland (1914–1918), postcard by <a href="/wiki/Sergey_Solomko" title="Sergey Solomko">Sergey Solomko</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CarFloatLagosDoctores201103.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Car-float at the feast of the Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos, Colonia Doctores, Mexico City (2011)"><img alt="Car-float at the feast of the Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos, Colonia Doctores, Mexico City (2011)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/CarFloatLagosDoctores201103.jpg/120px-CarFloatLagosDoctores201103.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/CarFloatLagosDoctores201103.jpg/180px-CarFloatLagosDoctores201103.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/CarFloatLagosDoctores201103.jpg/240px-CarFloatLagosDoctores201103.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2687" data-file-height="2213" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Car-float at the feast of the Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos, <a href="/wiki/Colonia_Doctores" title="Colonia Doctores">Colonia Doctores</a>, Mexico City (2011)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antisemitic American political cartoon, Sound Money magazine, April 15, 1896, issue"><img alt="Antisemitic American political cartoon, Sound Money magazine, April 15, 1896, issue" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg/120px-18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg/180px-18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg/240px-18960415_antisemitic_political_cartoon_in_Sound_Money.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="658" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitic</a> American political cartoon, Sound Money magazine, April 15, 1896, issue</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Protester_tied_to_a_cross_in_Washington_D.C_-_NARA_-_194675.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Protester tied to a cross in Washington D.C. (1970)"><img alt="Protester tied to a cross in Washington D.C. (1970)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Protester_tied_to_a_cross_in_Washington_D.C_-_NARA_-_194675.tif/lossy-page1-81px-Protester_tied_to_a_cross_in_Washington_D.C_-_NARA_-_194675.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Protester_tied_to_a_cross_in_Washington_D.C_-_NARA_-_194675.tif/lossy-page1-121px-Protester_tied_to_a_cross_in_Washington_D.C_-_NARA_-_194675.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Protester_tied_to_a_cross_in_Washington_D.C_-_NARA_-_194675.tif/lossy-page1-162px-Protester_tied_to_a_cross_in_Washington_D.C_-_NARA_-_194675.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2022" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Protester tied to a cross in Washington D.C. (1970)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_van_Eyck_-_Diptych_-_WGA07587_crop_of_the_crucified_Jesus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Crucifixion, by Jan Van Eyck (c. 1430–1440)"><img alt="Crucifixion, by Jan Van Eyck (c. 1430–1440)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jan_van_Eyck_-_Diptych_-_WGA07587_crop_of_the_crucified_Jesus.jpg/120px-Jan_van_Eyck_-_Diptych_-_WGA07587_crop_of_the_crucified_Jesus.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jan_van_Eyck_-_Diptych_-_WGA07587_crop_of_the_crucified_Jesus.jpg/180px-Jan_van_Eyck_-_Diptych_-_WGA07587_crop_of_the_crucified_Jesus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jan_van_Eyck_-_Diptych_-_WGA07587_crop_of_the_crucified_Jesus.jpg/240px-Jan_van_Eyck_-_Diptych_-_WGA07587_crop_of_the_crucified_Jesus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1089" data-file-height="888" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_(van_Eyck)" title="Crucifixion (van Eyck)">Crucifixion</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan Van Eyck</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1430–1440)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_007.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christ Crucified, by Diego Velázquez (1632)"><img alt="Christ Crucified, by Diego Velázquez (1632)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_007.jpg/80px-Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_007.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_007.jpg/121px-Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_007.jpg/161px-Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="2346" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Christ_Crucified_(Vel%C3%A1zquez)" title="Christ Crucified (Velázquez)">Christ Crucified</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez" title="Diego Velázquez">Diego Velázquez</a> (1632)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="As_a_devotional_practice">As a devotional practice</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: As a devotional practice">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_in_the_Philippines" title="Crucifixion in the Philippines">Crucifixion in the Philippines</a></div> In July 1805, a man named Mattio Lovat <a href="/wiki/Self-crucifixion_of_Mattio_Lovat" title="Self-crucifixion of Mattio Lovat">attempted to crucify himself</a> at a public street in <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, Italy. The attempt was unsuccessful, and he was sent to an asylum, where he died a year later.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calvary_Baptist_Crosses.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Calvary_Baptist_Crosses.png/220px-Calvary_Baptist_Crosses.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Calvary_Baptist_Crosses.png/330px-Calvary_Baptist_Crosses.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Calvary_Baptist_Crosses.png/440px-Calvary_Baptist_Crosses.png 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="1334" /></a><figcaption>Crosses used for mock crucifixions during Holy Week at Calvary Baptist Church, in Oak Hill, WV</figcaption></figure>In some cases, a crucifixion is simulated within a <a href="/wiki/Passion_play" class="mw-redirect" title="Passion play">passion play</a>, as in the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of <a href="/wiki/Passion_Play_of_Iztapalapa" title="Passion Play of Iztapalapa">Iztapalapa</a>, on the outskirts of <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, since 1833,<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> and in the famous <a href="/wiki/Oberammergau_Passion_Play" title="Oberammergau Passion Play">Oberammergau Passion Play</a>. Also, since at least the mid-19th century, a group of <a href="/wiki/Flagellants" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagellants">flagellants</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>, called Hermanos de Luz ("Brothers of Light"), have annually conducted reenactments of Christ's crucifixion during <a href="/wiki/Holy_Week" title="Holy Week">Holy Week</a>, in which a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross.<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a> This tradition is sometimes practiced in other regions of the United States, such as in Appalachia, where members of Protestant churches stage mock crucifixions wherein worshippers hang from straps on the crosses during Good Friday re-enactments.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crucifixion_in_San_Fernando,_Pampanga,_Philippines,_easter_2006,_p-ad20060414-12h54m52s-r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Crucifixion_in_San_Fernando%2C_Pampanga%2C_Philippines%2C_easter_2006%2C_p-ad20060414-12h54m52s-r.jpg/280px-Crucifixion_in_San_Fernando%2C_Pampanga%2C_Philippines%2C_easter_2006%2C_p-ad20060414-12h54m52s-r.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Crucifixion_in_San_Fernando%2C_Pampanga%2C_Philippines%2C_easter_2006%2C_p-ad20060414-12h54m52s-r.jpg/420px-Crucifixion_in_San_Fernando%2C_Pampanga%2C_Philippines%2C_easter_2006%2C_p-ad20060414-12h54m52s-r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Crucifixion_in_San_Fernando%2C_Pampanga%2C_Philippines%2C_easter_2006%2C_p-ad20060414-12h54m52s-r.jpg/560px-Crucifixion_in_San_Fernando%2C_Pampanga%2C_Philippines%2C_easter_2006%2C_p-ad20060414-12h54m52s-r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Devotional crucifixion in <a href="/wiki/San_Fernando,_Pampanga" title="San Fernando, Pampanga">San Fernando, Pampanga</a>, Philippines, Easter 2006</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> frowns upon self-crucifixion as a form of devotion: "Penitential practices leading to self-crucifixion with nails are not to be encouraged."<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> Despite this, the practice persists in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, where some Catholics are <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_in_the_Philippines" title="Crucifixion in the Philippines">voluntarily, non-lethally crucified</a> for a limited time on <a href="/wiki/Good_Friday" title="Good Friday">Good Friday</a> to imitate the sufferings of Christ. Pre-sterilised nails are driven through the palm of the hand between the bones, while there is a footrest to which the feet are nailed. Rolando del Campo, a carpenter in <a href="/wiki/Pampanga" title="Pampanga">Pampanga</a>, vowed to be crucified every Good Friday for 15 years if God would carry his wife through a difficult childbirth,<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a> while in <a href="/wiki/San_Pedro_Cutud" class="mw-redirect" title="San Pedro Cutud">San Pedro Cutud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruben_Enaje" title="Ruben Enaje">Ruben Enaje</a> has been crucified 34 times.<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_Philippines" title="Catholic Church in the Philippines">Filipino Catholic Church</a> has repeatedly voiced disapproval of crucifixions and self-<a href="/wiki/Flagellation" title="Flagellation">flagellation</a>, while the government has noted that it cannot deter devotees. The <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_(Philippines)" title="Department of Health (Philippines)">Department of Health</a> recommends that participants in the rites should have <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> shots and that the nails used should be sterilized.<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_crucifixions">Notable crucifixions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notable crucifixions">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Crucifixion" title="Special:EditPage/Crucifixion">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The rebel slaves of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a>: Between 73 and 71 BCE, a band of slaves, eventually numbering about 120,000, under the (at least partial) leadership of <a href="/wiki/Spartacus" title="Spartacus">Spartacus</a> were in open revolt against the <a href="/wiki/Roman_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman republic">Roman republic</a>. The rebellion was eventually crushed and, while Spartacus himself most likely died in the final battle of the revolt, approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200-km <a href="/wiki/Appian_Way" title="Appian Way">Appian Way</a> between Capua and Rome<a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-171">[170]</a> as a warning to any other would-be rebels.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehohanan" title="Jehohanan">Jehohanan</a>: Jewish man who was crucified around the same time as Jesus; it is widely accepted that his ankles were nailed to the side of the stipes of the cross.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>: <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">His death by crucifixion</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pontius_Pilate" title="Pontius Pilate">Pontius Pilate</a> (c. 30 or 33 AD), recounted in the four 1st-century canonical <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a>, is referred to repeatedly as something well known in the earlier letters of <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Tarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul of Tarsus">Saint Paul</a>, for instance, five times in his First Letter to the Corinthians, written in 57 CE (1:13, 1:18, 1:23, 2:2, 2:8). Pilate, the Roman governor of <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judaea province</a> at the time, is explicitly linked with the condemnation of Jesus by the Gospels, and <a href="/wiki/Tacitus_on_Jesus" title="Tacitus on Jesus">subsequently</a> by <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> The civil charge was a claim to be <a href="/wiki/Jesus,_King_of_the_Jews" title="Jesus, King of the Jews">King of the Jews</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a>: Christian apostle, who according to tradition was crucified upside-down at his own request (hence the <a href="/wiki/Cross_of_Saint_Peter" title="Cross of Saint Peter">Cross of Saint Peter</a>),<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a> because he did not feel worthy enough to die the same way as Jesus.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Andrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Andrew">Saint Andrew</a>: Christian apostle and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a>'s brother, who is traditionally said to have been crucified on an X-shaped cross (hence the <a href="/wiki/Saltire" title="Saltire">Saint Andrew's Cross</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_of_Jerusalem" title="Simeon of Jerusalem">Simeon of Jerusalem</a>: second <a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Patriarch_of_Jerusalem#Bishops_of_Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem">Bishop of Jerusalem</a>, crucified in either 106 or 107 CE.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a>: the founder of <a href="/wiki/Manicheanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manicheanism">Manicheanism</a>, he was depicted by followers as having died by crucifixion in 274 CE.<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulalia_of_Barcelona" title="Eulalia of Barcelona">Eulalia of Barcelona</a> was venerated as a saint. According to her hagiography, she was stripped naked, tortured, and ultimately crucified on an X-shaped cross.<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilgefortis" title="Wilgefortis">Wilgefortis</a> was venerated as a saint and represented as a crucified woman, however her legend comes from a misinterpretation of a full-clothed crucifix known as the <a href="/wiki/Volto_Santo_of_Lucca" class="mw-redirect" title="Volto Santo of Lucca">Volto Santo of Lucca</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/26_Martyrs_of_Japan" title="26 Martyrs of Japan">26 Martyrs of Japan</a>: Japanese martyrs who were crucified and impaled with spears.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wheel" title="Breaking wheel">Breaking wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_darkness" title="Crucifixion darkness">Crucifixion darkness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_methods_of_capital_punishment" title="List of methods of capital punishment">List of methods of capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positional_asphyxia" title="Positional asphyxia">Positional asphyxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shroud_of_Turin" title="Shroud of Turin">Shroud of Turin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropaion" title="Tropaion">Tropaion</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Crucifixion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> Informational notes <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> It is a graffito found in a taberna (hostel for wayfarers) in Puteoli, dating to the time of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (late 1st century to early 2nd century AD). An inscription over the person's left shoulder reads "Ἀλκίμιλα" (Alkimila), a female name. It is not clear, however, whether the inscription was written by the same person who drew the picture, or added by another person later. It is also not known whether the graffito is intended to depict an actual event, as distinguished from, perhaps, the writer's desire for someone to be crucified, or as a jest. As such, the graffito does not itself provide conclusive evidence of female crucifixion.<a href="#cite_note-Cook-17">[17]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> Citations <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EECO_2018-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EECO_2018_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EECO_2018_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EECO_2018_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGranger_Cook2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Granger Cook, John (2018). "Cross/Crucifixion". In Hunter, David G.; van Geest, Paul J. J.; Lietaert Peerbolte, Bert Jan (eds.). Brill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000808">10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000808</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2589-7993">2589-7993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cross%2FCrucifixion&rft.btitle=Brill+Encyclopedia+of+Early+Christianity+Online&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000808&rft.issn=2589-7993&rft.aulast=Granger+Cook&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-josephus-jewishwars-5.11.1-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-josephus-jewishwars-5.11.1_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-josephus-jewishwars-5.11.1_2-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D5%3Awhiston+chapter%3D11%3Awhiston+section%3D1#note1">[1]</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJosephus" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pace.webhosting.rug.nl/york/york/showText?book=5&chapter=11&textChunk=whistonSection&chunkId=1&up.x=&up.y=&text=wars&version=&direction=&tab=&layout=english">The Jewish War</a>. 5.11.1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jewish+War&rft.pages=5.11.1&rft.au=Josephus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpace.webhosting.rug.nl%2Fyork%2Fyork%2FshowText%3Fbook%3D5%26chapter%3D11%26textChunk%3DwhistonSection%26chunkId%3D1%26up.x%3D%26up.y%3D%26text%3Dwars%26version%3D%26direction%3D%26tab%3D%26layout%3Denglish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988">, <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+BJ+5.11.1">BJ5.11.1</a>, . </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Roger Bourke, Prisoners of the Japanese: Literary imagination and the prisoner-of-war experience (St Lucia: University of Queensland Press, 2006), Chapter 2 "A Town Like Alice and the prisoner of war as Christ-figure", pp. 30–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da)potumpani%2Fzw&highlight=crucify">LSJ apotumpanizo</a> ἀποτυμπα^ν-ίζω (later ἀποτύμπα^ν-τυπ- UPZ119 (2nd century BC), POxy.1798.1.7), A. crucify on a plank, D.8.61,9.61: – Pass., Lys.13.56, D.19.137, Arist. Rh. 1383a5, Beros. ap. J.Ap.1.20. 2. generally, destroy, Plu.2.1049d. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> LSJ anastauro ἀνασταυρ-όω, = foreg., Hdt.3.125, 6.30, al.; identical with ἀνασκολοπίζω, 9.78: – Pass., Th. 1.110, Pl.Grg.473c. II. in Rom. times, affix to a cross, crucify, Plb. 1.11.5, al., Plu.Fab.6, al. 2. crucify afresh, Ep.Hebr.6.6. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Plutarch Fabius Maximus 6.3 "Hannibal now perceived the mistake in his position, and its peril, and crucified the native guides who were responsible for it." </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Polybius 1.11.5 [5] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/polybioyistoriai00polyuoft">Historiae</a>. Polybius. Theodorus Büttner-Wobst after L. Dindorf. Leipzig. Teubner. 1893. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cross">"Online Etymology Dictionary, "cross""</a>. Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary%2C+%22cross%22&rft.pub=Etymonline.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dcross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dcrux">Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary:</a> crux, ŭcis, f. (m., Enn. ap. Non. p. 195, 13; Gracch. ap. Fest. s. v. masculino, p. 150, 24, and 151, 12 Müll.) [perh. kindred with circus]. I. Lit. A. In gen., a tree, frame, or other wooden instruments of execution, on which criminals were impaled or hanged, Sen. Prov. 3, 10; Cic. Rab. Perd. 3, 10 sqq. – B. In partic., a cross, Ter. And. 3, 5, 15; Cic. Verr. 2, 1, 3, § 7; 2, 1, 4, § 9; id. Pis. 18, 42; id. Fin. 5, 30, 92; Quint. 4, 2, 17; Tac. A. 15, 44; Hor. S. 1, 3, 82; 2, 7, 47; id. Ep. 1, 16, 48 et saep.: "dignus fuit qui malo cruce periret, Gracch. ap. Fest. l. l.: pendula", the pole of a carriage, Stat. S. 4, 3, 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/crucify">"Collins English Dictionary, "crucify""</a>. Collins. 31 December 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Collins+English+Dictionary%2C+%22crucify%22&rft.pub=Collins&rft.date=2011-12-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fcrucify&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130521192929/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/crucify?view=uk">"Compact Oxford English Dictionary, "crucify""</a>. Oxford University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/crucify?view=uk">the original</a> on May 21, 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Compact+Oxford+English+Dictionary%2C+%22crucify%22&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fenglish%2Fcrucify%3Fview%3Duk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://websters.yourdictionary.com/crucify">"Webster New World College Dictionary, "crucify""</a>. yourdictionary.com/. Retrieved 12 December 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=yourdictionary.com%2F&rft.atitle=Webster+New+World+College+Dictionary%2C+%22crucify%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebsters.yourdictionary.com%2Fcrucify&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=crucify">"Online Etymology Dictionary, "crucify""</a>. Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary%2C+%22crucify%22&rft.pub=Etymonline.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dcrucify&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seneca_1946-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seneca_1946_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seneca_1946_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seneca_1946_14-2">c</a> Seneca, Dialogue "To Marcia on Consolation", in Moral Essays, 6.20.3, trans. John W. Basore, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1946) 2:69 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarclay1998" class="citation book cs1">Barclay, William (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bBOqGJc6tpcC&pg=PA78">The Apostles' Creed</a>. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25826-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25826-9"><bdi>978-0-664-25826-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Apostles%27+Creed&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25826-9&rft.aulast=Barclay&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbBOqGJc6tpcC%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> "The ... oldest depiction of a crucifixion ... was uncovered by archaeologists more than a century ago on the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a> in Rome. It is a 2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> scratched into a wall that was part of the imperial palace complex. It includes a caption – not by a Christian, but by someone taunting and deriding Christians and the crucifixions they underwent. It shows crude <a href="/wiki/Stick_figure" title="Stick figure">stick-figures</a> of a boy reverencing his 'God', who has the head of a <a href="/wiki/Donkey" title="Donkey">jackass</a> and is upon a cross with arms spread wide and with hands nailed to the crossbeam. Here we have a Roman sketch of a Roman crucifixion, and it is in the traditional cross shape." Clayton F. Bower Jr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/1991/9110fea1.asp">"Cross or Torture Stake?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080329020551/http://www.catholic.com/thisrock/1991/9110fea1.asp">Archived</a> 2008-03-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cook-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cook_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cook_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2012" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, John Granger (2012). "Crucifixion as Spectacle in Roman Campania". Novum Testamentum. 54 (1): 60, 92–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853611X589651">10.1163/156853611X589651</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23253630">23253630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Novum+Testamentum&rft.atitle=Crucifixion+as+Spectacle+in+Roman+Campania&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=60%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853611X589651&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23253630%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=John+Granger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> "It was his body that tyrants took for a model, his shape that they imitated, when they set up the erections on which men are crucified" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/wl1/wl110.htm">Lucian, Trial in the Court of Vowels, p. 30</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2018" class="citation book cs1">Cook, John Granger (10 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cMd9DwAAQBAJ&dq=artemidorus+posts&pg=PA289">Crucifixion in the Mediterranean World</a>. Mohr Siebeck. p. 289; cf. pp. 7–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-156001-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-156001-9"><bdi>978-3-16-156001-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crucifixion+in+the+Mediterranean+World&rft.pages=289%3B+cf.+pp.+7-8&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2018-12-10&rft.isbn=978-3-16-156001-9&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=John+Granger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcMd9DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dartemidorus%2Bposts%26pg%3DPA289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> "The very form of the cross, too, has five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails" ( Irenaeus, <a href="/wiki/On_the_Detection_and_Overthrow_of_the_So-Called_Gnosis" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis">Adversus Haereses</a> II, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103224.htmxxiv,">4</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]). </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarclay1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Barclay_(theologian)" title="William Barclay (theologian)">Barclay, William</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bBOqGJc6tpcC&dq=Noah+ark+300+prefigure+cross+Jesus&pg=PA79">The Apostles' Creed</a>. <a href="/wiki/Westminster_John_Knox_Press" title="Westminster John Knox Press">Westminster John Knox Press</a>. p. 79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25826-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25826-9"><bdi>978-0-664-25826-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Apostles%27+Creed&rft.pages=79&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25826-9&rft.aulast=Barclay&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbBOqGJc6tpcC%26dq%3DNoah%2Bark%2B300%2Bprefigure%2Bcross%2BJesus%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas#Chapter_9" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas, chapter 9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://logoslibrary.org/clement/stromata/611.html">"Clement of Alexandria, The Stromata, book VI, chapter 11"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Clement+of+Alexandria%2C+The+Stromata%2C+book+VI%2C+chapter+11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flogoslibrary.org%2Fclement%2Fstromata%2F611.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.iv.xl.html">"Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, XL, 3"</a>. <q>That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Justin+Martyr%2C+Dialogue+with+Trypho%2C+XL%2C+3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fanf01.viii.iv.xl.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Homeric_Greek" title="Homeric Greek">Homeric Greek</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a> XX, 478–480, a spear-point is said to have pierced the χεῖρ "where the sinews of the elbow join" (ἵνα τε ξενέχουσι τένοντες / ἀγκῶνος, τῇ τόν γε φίλης διὰ χειρὸς ἔπειρεν / αἰχμῇ χακλκείῃ). </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=xe/ir">χείρ</a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWynne-Jones2008" class="citation news cs1">Wynne-Jones, Jonathan (16 March 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080319214803/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/16/nrowan216.xml">"Why the BBC thinks Christ did not die this way"</a>. Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2008/03/16/nrowan216.xml">the original</a> on 19 March 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Why+the+BBC+thinks+Christ+did+not+die+this+way&rft.date=2008-03-16&rft.aulast=Wynne-Jones&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fmain.jhtml%3Fxml%3D%2Fnews%2F2008%2F03%2F16%2Fnrowan216.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViladesau2006" class="citation book cs1">Viladesau, Richard (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cTFh4tm9cMwC">The beauty of the cross: the passion of Christ in theology and the arts, from the catacombs to the eve of the Renaissance</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518811-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518811-0"><bdi>978-0-19-518811-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/58791208">58791208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+beauty+of+the+cross%3A+the+passion+of+Christ+in+theology+and+the+arts%2C+from+the+catacombs+to+the+eve+of+the+Renaissance&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F58791208&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518811-0&rft.aulast=Viladesau&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcTFh4tm9cMwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_29-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohlerHirsch" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kohler, Kaufmann; Hirsch, Emil G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=905&letter=C">"Crucifixion"</a>. Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2018-03-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crucifixion&rft.btitle=Jewish+Encyclopedia&rft.aulast=Kohler&rft.aufirst=Kaufmann&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+Emil+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Fview.jsp%3Fartid%3D905%26letter%3DC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110718171841/http://chesterrep.openrepository.com/cdr/bitstream/10034/40813/1/Some%20Notes%20on%20Crucifixion.pdf">"Some Notes on Crucifixion"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chesterrep.openrepository.com/cdr/bitstream/10034/40813/1/Some%20Notes%20on%20Crucifixion.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-07-18. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Some+Notes+on+Crucifixion&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fchesterrep.openrepository.com%2Fcdr%2Fbitstream%2F10034%2F40813%2F1%2FSome%2520Notes%2520on%2520Crucifixion.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EdbdQ-5fMr0C">David W. Chapman, Ancient Jewish and Christian perceptions of crucifixion</a> (Mohr Siebeck, 2008), pp. 86–89 </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_32-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040311065035/http://www.joezias.com/CrucifixionAntiquity.html">"Joe Zias, Crucifixion in Antiquity — The Anthropological Evidence"</a>. Joezias.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.joezias.com/CrucifixionAntiquity.html">the original</a> on 2004-03-11. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Joe+Zias%2C+Crucifixion+in+Antiquity+%E2%80%94+The+Anthropological+Evidence&rft.pub=Joezias.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.joezias.com%2FCrucifixionAntiquity.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.poweredbyosteons.org/2011/11/line-on-left-one-cross-each.html">"The Bioarchaeology of Crucifixion"</a>. PoweredbyOsteons.org. 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Retrieved 2021-06-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+multidisciplinary+study+of+calcaneal+trauma+in+Roman+Italy%3Aa+possible+case+of+crucifixion%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F324496883&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archaeologyuk.org/static/1693fb3b-1b3a-4d2d-b28b53059f7f3822/Crucifixion-in-the-Fens-Life-and-Death-in-Roman-Fenstanton.pdf">"Crucifixion in the Fens: life & death in Roman Fenstanton"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.archaeologyuk.org/static/1693fb3b-1b3a-4d2d-b28b53059f7f3822/Crucifixion-in-the-Fens-Life-and-Death-in-Roman-Fenstanton.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2021-12-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Crucifixion+in+the+Fens%3A+life+%26+death+in+Roman+Fenstanton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeologyuk.org%2Fstatic%2F1693fb3b-1b3a-4d2d-b28b53059f7f3822%2FCrucifixion-in-the-Fens-Life-and-Death-in-Roman-Fenstanton.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-patho-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-patho_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-patho_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-patho_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-patho_36-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRetiefCilliers2003" class="citation journal cs1">Retief FP, Cilliers L (December 2003). "The history and pathology of crucifixion". 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Hamilton, Adams & Company. Retrieved 12 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+the+Physical+Cause+of+the+Death+of+Christ+and+Its+Relation+to+the+Principles+and+Practice+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Hamilton%2C+Adams+%26+Company&rft.date=1871&rft.au=William+Stroud&rft.au=Sir+James+Young+Simpson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fb21987877&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091211204031/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/barbet.html">"Columbia University page of Pierre Barbet on Crucifixion"</a>. columbia.edu. 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New York: Paragon House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-913729-75-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-913729-75-5"><bdi>978-0-913729-75-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+cross+and+the+shroud%3A+a+medical+inquiry+into+the+crucifixion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Paragon+House&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-913729-75-5&rft.aulast=Zugibe&rft.aufirst=Frederick+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Zugibe2005-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Zugibe2005_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Zugibe2005_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZugibe,_Frederick_T.2005" class="citation book cs1">Zugibe, Frederick T. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crucifixionofjes0000zugi">The Crucifixion Of Jesus: A Forensic Inquiry</a>. New York: M. 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Linacre Quarterly. 90 (1): 64–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00243639221116217">10.1177/00243639221116217</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10009142">10009142</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36923675">36923675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Linacre+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Did+Jesus+Die+by+Suffocation%3F+An+Appraisal+of+the+Evidence&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E64-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.date=2023-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10009142%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36923675&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F00243639221116217&rft.aulast=McGovern&rft.aufirst=Thomas+W.&rft.au=Kaminskas%2C+David+A.&rft.au=Fernandes%2C+Eustace+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10009142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Edwards-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Edwards_44-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwardsGabel_WJHosmer_FE1986" class="citation journal cs1">Edwards, WD; Gabel WJ; Hosmer FE (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.creativeyouthideas.com/resources/crucifixion_of_christ.pdf">"On the physical cause of death of Jesus Christ"</a> (PDF). 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"The Crucifixion of Jesus. The Passion of Christ From a Medical Point of View". Arizona Medicine. 22: 182.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arizona+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Crucifixion+of+Jesus.+The+Passion+of+Christ+From+a+Medical+Point+of+View&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=182&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=CT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wijffels-46"><a href="#cite_ref-Wijffels_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWijffels2000" class="citation journal cs1">Wijffels, F (2000). "Death on the cross: did the Turin Shroud once envelop a crucified body?". Br Soc Turin Shroud Newsl. 52 (3).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Br+Soc+Turin+Shroud+Newsl&rft.atitle=Death+on+the+cross%3A+did+the+Turin+Shroud+once+envelop+a+crucified+body%3F&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Wijffels&rft.aufirst=F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brenner2005-47"><a href="#cite_ref-Brenner2005_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrenner2005" class="citation journal cs1">Brenner, B (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1538-7836.2005.01525.x">"Did Jesus Christ die of pulmonary embolism?"</a>. J Thromb Haemost. 3 (9): 1–2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1538-7836.2005.01525.x">10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01525.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16102134">16102134</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38121158">38121158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J+Thromb+Haemost&rft.atitle=Did+Jesus+Christ+die+of+pulmonary+embolism%3F&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38121158%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16102134&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1538-7836.2005.01525.x&rft.aulast=Brenner&rft.aufirst=B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1538-7836.2005.01525.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/autobiog.htm">The Life Of Flavius Josephus</a>, 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/LX/Stavros.html">Stavros, Scolops (σταῦρός, σκόλοψ). The cross</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628183300/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/LX/Stavros.html">Archived</a> 2011-06-28 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> encyclopedia Hellinica </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> Translation by Aubrey de Selincourt. The original, "σανίδα προσπασσαλεύσαντες, ἀνεκρέμασαν ... Τούτου δὲ τοῦ Ἀρταύκτεω τοῦ ἀνακρεμασθέντος ...", is translated by Henry Cary (Bohn's Classical Library: Herodotus Literally Translated. London, G. Bell and Sons 1917, pp. 591–592) as: "They nailed him to a plank and hoisted him aloft ... this Artayctes who was hoisted aloft". </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> W.W. How and J. Wells, A Commentary on Herodotus (Clarendon Press, Oxford 1912), vol. 2, p. 336 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> See Mishnah, Sanhedrin 7:1, translated in Jacob Neusner, The Mishnah: A New Translation 591 (1988), supra note 8, at 595–596 (indicating that court ordered execution by stoning, burning, decapitation, or strangulation only) </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/scrolls_deadsea/uncovered/uncovered05.htm">"Levi,Aramaic Testament of Levi 4Q541 column 6"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Levi%2CAramaic+Testament+of+Levi+4Q541+column+6&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bibliotecapleyades.net%2Fscrolls_deadsea%2Funcovered%2Funcovered05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShi2008" class="citation book cs1">Shi, Wenhua (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pbpSjsz_uY8C&pg=PA46">Paul's Message of the Cross As Body Language</a>. 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Eerdmans. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/deadseascrollsbi0000vand/page/110">110</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6679-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-6679-0"><bdi>978-0-8028-6679-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dead+Sea+Scrolls+and+the+Bible&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-6679-0&rft.aulast=VanderKam&rft.aufirst=James+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdeadseascrollsbi0000vand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160408155932/http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t09.html">"Quintus Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander the Great of Macedonia 4.4.21"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_t09.html">the original</a> on 2016-04-08. Retrieved 2020-03-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Quintus+Curtius+Rufus%2C+History+of+Alexander+the+Great+of+Macedonia+4.4.21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Faj-al%2Falexander%2Falexander_t09.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGabriel2011" class="citation book cs1">Gabriel, Richard A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h-VlDC4Jt6gC&pg=PT92">Hannibal</a>. Potomac Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-766-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59797-766-1"><bdi>978-1-59797-766-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hannibal&rft.pub=Potomac+Books&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59797-766-1&rft.aulast=Gabriel&rft.aufirst=Richard+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh-VlDC4Jt6gC%26pg%3DPT92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddell1855" class="citation book cs1">Liddell, Henry George (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistoryrometoe01liddgoog">A History of Rome</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistoryrometoe01liddgoog/page/n322">302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Rome&rft.pages=302&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fahistoryrometoe01liddgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaterfield2010" class="citation book cs1">Waterfield, Robin (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o_pZEpbG498C&pg=PA23">Polybius. The Histories</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953470-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-953470-8"><bdi>978-0-19-953470-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polybius.+The+Histories&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-953470-8&rft.aulast=Waterfield&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do_pZEpbG498C%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Herodotus, Histories, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126:book=3:chapter=125">3.125</a> ("Having killed him in some way not fit to be told, Oroetes then crucified him") </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sen/sen.consolatione2.shtml">"Dialogue "To Marcia on Consolation", 6.20.3"</a>. googleusercontent.com (in Latin). <a href="/wiki/The_Latin_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="The Latin Library">The Latin Library</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=googleusercontent.com&rft.atitle=Dialogue+%22To+Marcia+on+Consolation%22%2C+6.20.3&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Fsen%2Fsen.consolatione2.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/journals/TAPA/39/Supplicium_de_More_Maiorum*.html">"Livy I.26 and the Supplicium de More Maiorum"</a>. Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Livy+I.26+and+the+Supplicium+de+More+Maiorum&rft.pub=Penelope.uchicago.edu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2Fjournals%2FTAPA%2F39%2FSupplicium_de_More_Maiorum%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grtbooks.com/exitfram.asp?idx=3&yr=200&aa=AA&at=AA&ref=tertullian&URL=http://www.tertullian.org/latin/apologeticus.htm">"Apologia, IX, 1"</a>. Grtbooks.com. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Apologia%2C+IX%2C+1&rft.pub=Grtbooks.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.grtbooks.com%2Fexitfram.asp%3Fidx%3D3%26yr%3D200%26aa%3DAA%26at%3DAA%26ref%3Dtertullian%26URL%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.tertullian.org%2Flatin%2Fapologeticus.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> After quoting a poem by <a href="/wiki/Maecenas" class="mw-redirect" title="Maecenas">Maecenas</a> that speaks of preferring life to death even when life is burdened with all the disadvantages of old age or even with acute torture ("vel acuta si sedeam cruce"), Seneca disagrees with the sentiment, saying death would be better for a crucified person hanging from the patibulum: "I should deem him most despicable had he wished to live to the point of crucifixion ... Is it worth so much to weigh down upon one's own wound, and hang stretched out from a patibulum? ... Is anyone found who, after being fastened to that accursed wood, already weakened, already deformed, swelling with ugly weals on shoulders and chest, with many reasons for dying even before getting to the cross, would wish to prolong a life-breath that is about to experience so many torments?" ("Contemptissimum putarem, si vivere vellet usque ad crucem ... Est tanti vulnus suum premere et patibulo pendere districtum ... Invenitur, qui velit adactus ad illud infelix lignum, iam debilis, iam pravus et in foedum scapularum ac pectoris tuber elisus, cui multae moriendi causae etiam citra crucem fuerant, trahere animam tot tormenta tracturam?" – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sen/seneca.ep17-18.shtml">Letter 101, 12–14</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Titus Maccius Plautus Miles gloriosus Mason Hammond, Arthur M. Mack – 1997 p. 109, "The patibulum (in the next line) was a crossbar which the convicted criminal carried on his shoulders, with his arms fastened to it, to the place for ... Hoisted up on an upright post, the patibulum became the crossbar of the cross" </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/1*.html#120">"Appian • The Civil Wars – Book I"</a>. penelope.uchicago.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=penelope.uchicago.edu&rft.atitle=Appian+%E2%80%A2+The+Civil+Wars+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BBook+I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FAppian%2FCivil_Wars%2F1%2A.html%23120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0148%3Abook%3D5%3Awhiston+chapter%3D11%3Awhiston+section%3D1">"Josephus, The War of the Jews, book 5, chapter 11"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Josephus%2C+The+War+of+the+Jews%2C+book+5%2C+chapter+11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.01.0148%253Abook%253D5%253Awhiston%2Bchapter%253D11%253Awhiston%2Bsection%253D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_68-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFallow1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Macall_Fallow" title="Thomas Macall Fallow">Fallow, Thomas Macall</a> (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Cross_and_Crucifixion">"Cross and Crucifixion" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 506.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cross+and+Crucifixion&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=506&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Fallow&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Macall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mississippi-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Mississippi_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBall1989" class="citation journal cs1">Ball, DA (1989). "The crucifixion and death of a man called Jesus". Journal of the Mississippi State Medical Association. 30 (3): 77–83. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2651675">2651675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Mississippi+State+Medical+Association&rft.atitle=The+crucifixion+and+death+of+a+man+called+Jesus&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E83&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2651675&rft.aulast=Ball&rft.aufirst=DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/tacitus/tac.ann2.shtml#32">"Annales 2:32.2"</a>. Thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Annales+2%3A32.2&rft.pub=Thelatinlibrary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Ftacitus%2Ftac.ann2.shtml%2332&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/tacitus/tac.ann15.shtml#60">"Annales 15:60.1"</a>. Thelatinlibrary.com. Retrieved 2009-12-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Annales+15%3A60.1&rft.pub=Thelatinlibrary.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thelatinlibrary.com%2Ftacitus%2Ftac.ann15.shtml%2360&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlavius" class="citation web cs1">Flavius, Josephus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/war-5.htm">"Jewish War, Book V Chapter 11"</a>. ccel.org. Retrieved 1 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+War%2C+Book+V+Chapter+11&rft.pub=ccel.org&rft.aulast=Flavius&rft.aufirst=Josephus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fj%2Fjosephus%2Fworks%2Fwar-5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Mishna, Shabbath 6.10: see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EdbdQ-5fMr0C&pg=PA182">David W. Chapman, Ancient Jewish and Christian Perceptions of Crucifixion</a> (Mohn Siebeck 2008 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149579-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149579-3">978-3-16-149579-3</a>), p. 182 </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Of_Consolation:_To_Marcia#XX." class="extiw" title="wikisource:Of Consolation: To Marcia">Wikisource:Of Consolation: To Marcia#XX.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLicona2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Licona" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Licona">Licona, Michael</a> (2010). The Resurrection of Jesus: A New Historiographical Approach. InterVarsity Press. p. 304. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2719-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-2719-0"><bdi>978-0-8308-2719-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/620836940">620836940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Resurrection+of+Jesus%3A+A+New+Historiographical+Approach&rft.pages=304&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F620836940&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-2719-0&rft.aulast=Licona&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConway2008" class="citation book cs1">Conway, Colleen M. (2008). Behold the Man: Jesus and Greco-Roman Masculinity. Oxford University Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532532-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532532-4"><bdi>978-0-19-532532-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Behold+the+Man%3A+Jesus+and+Greco-Roman+Masculinity&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532532-4&rft.aulast=Conway&rft.aufirst=Colleen+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> (citing Cicero, pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=PerseusLatinTexts&getid=1&query=Cic.%20Rab.%20Perd.%2019">5.16</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304023505/http://perseus.uchicago.edu/perseus-cgi/citequery3.pl?dbname=PerseusLatinTexts&getid=1&query=Cic.%20Rab.%20Perd.%2019">Archived</a> 2016-03-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0018:text=Ver.:actio=2:book=5:section=170">"M. Tullius Cicero, Against Verres, actio 2, The Fifth Book of the Second Pleading in the Prosecution against Verres., section 170"</a>. www.perseus.tufts.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.perseus.tufts.edu&rft.atitle=M.+Tullius+Cicero%2C+Against+Verres%2C+actio+2%2C+The+Fifth+Book+of+the+Second+Pleading+in+the+Prosecution+against+Verres.%2C+section+170&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0018%3Atext%3DVer.%3Aactio%3D2%3Abook%3D5%3Asection%3D170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wine-78">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_78-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wine_78-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoskenniemiKirsi_NisulaJorma_Toppari2005" class="citation journal cs1">Koskenniemi, Erkki; Kirsi Nisula; Jorma Toppari (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090122113929/http://jnt.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/4/379">"Wine Mixed with Myrrh (Mark 15.23) and Crurifragium (John 19.31–32): Two Details of the Passion Narratives"</a>. Journal for the Study of the New Testament. 27 (4): 379–391. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0142064X05055745">10.1177/0142064X05055745</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170143075">170143075</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jnt.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/27/4/379">the original</a> on 2009-01-22. 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Retrieved March 10, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.mercaba.org&rft.atitle=Crucifixion+in+Antiquity%3A+The+Evidence&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Zias&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mercaba.org%2FFICHAS%2Fupsa%2Fcrucifixion.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew%2027:35&version=nrsv">Matthew 27:35</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Mark%2015:24&version=nrsv">Mark 15:24</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke%2023:34&version=nrsv">Luke 23:34</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2019:23–25&version=nrsv">John 19:23–25</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_85-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_85-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_85-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZias2016" class="citation web cs1">Zias, Joseph (2016-01-10). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180310074322/http://cojs.org/joe-zias-crucifixion-in-antiquity-the-anthropological-evidence/">"Crucifixion in Antiquity: The Anthropological Evidence"</a>. 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Mohr Siebeck. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-152508-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-152508-7"><bdi>978-3-16-152508-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crucifixion+in+Antiquity%3A+An+Inquiry+into+the+Background+and+Significance+of+the+New+Testament+Terminology+of+Crucifixion&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-3-16-152508-7&rft.aulast=Samuelsson&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barth-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Barth_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Barth_87-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarthBlanke2000" class="citation book cs1">Barth, Markus; Blanke, Helmut (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W6l4jhzIg7oC&pg=PA16">The Letter to Philemon: A New Translation with Notes and Commentary</a>. 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Eerdmans Publishing. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3829-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3829-2"><bdi>978-0-8028-3829-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Letter+to+Philemon%3A+A+New+Translation+with+Notes+and+Commentary&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-3829-2&rft.aulast=Barth&rft.aufirst=Markus&rft.au=Blanke%2C+Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW6l4jhzIg7oC%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarry2009" class="citation book cs1">Barry, Strauss (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j3LowhKACVwC&pg=PA193">The Spartacus War</a>. 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Vol. 17. وزارة الأوقاف والشئون الإسلامية في دولة الكويت. 1988.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9&rft.btitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%B9%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%82%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A9+%28Encyclopedia+of+Fiqh%29&rft.pub=%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81+%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B4%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%AA&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FFPmfkmfk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2014" class="citation book cs1">Anthony, Sean (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3553404">Crucifixion and Death as Spectacle: Umayyad Crucifixion in Its Late Antique Context</a>. 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University of Queensland Press. p. 184 n.8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-3564-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-3564-1"><bdi>978-0-7022-3564-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70257905">70257905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prisoners+of+the+Japanese%3A+literary+imagination+and+the+prisoner-of-war+experience&rft.pages=184+n.8&rft.pub=University+of+Queensland+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70257905&rft.isbn=978-0-7022-3564-1&rft.aulast=Bourke&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJpKAYepQJN4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOverton2001" class="citation news cs1">Overton, Iain (2001-04-17). "Revealed, the soldier who was crucified by Germans". International Express. p. 16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Revealed%2C+the+soldier+who+was+crucified+by+Germans&rft.pages=16&rft.date=2001-04-17&rft.aulast=Overton&rft.aufirst=Iain&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation episode cs1">"<a href="/wiki/The_Crucified_Soldier" title="The Crucified Soldier">The Crucified Soldier</a>". <a href="/wiki/Secret_History_(TV_documentary_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Secret History (TV documentary series)">Secret History</a>. Season 9. Episode 5. 2002-07-04. <a href="/wiki/Channel_4" title="Channel 4">Channel 4</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Secret+History&rft.series=Season+9.+Episode+5&rft.date=2002-07-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Max Hastings, Armageddon: the Battle for Germany 1944–45, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-330-49062-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-330-49062-7">978-0-330-49062-7</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTzaferis1970" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Vassilios_Tzaferis" title="Vassilios Tzaferis">Tzaferis, V</a> (1970). "Jewish Tombs at and near Giv'at ha-Mivtar". Israel Exploration Journal. 20: 18–32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Exploration+Journal&rft.atitle=Jewish+Tombs+at+and+near+Giv%27at+ha-Mivtar&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E18-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Tzaferis&rft.aufirst=V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Haas, Nicu. "Anthropological observations on the skeletal remains from Giv'at ha-Mivtar", Israel Exploration Journal 20 (1–2), 1970: 38–59; <a href="/wiki/Vassilios_Tzaferis" title="Vassilios Tzaferis">Tzaferis, Vassilios</a>. "Crucifixion – The Archaeological Evidence", Biblical Archaeology Review 11 (February, 1985): 44–53; Zias, Joseph. "The Crucified Man from Giv'at Ha-Mivtar: A Reappraisal", Israel Exploration Journal 35 (1), 1985: 22–27; <a href="/wiki/Martin_Hengel" title="Martin Hengel">Hengel, Martin</a>. Crucifixion in the ancient world and the folly of the message of the cross (Augsburg Fortress, 1977). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-1268-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-1268-X">0-8006-1268-X</a>. See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=__IOAAAAQAAJ">Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome, by Donald G. Kyle</a> p. 181, note 93 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFby_Paul_L._Maier1997" class="citation book cs1">by Paul L. 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No. 35. pp. 22–27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Israel+Exploration+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Crucified+Man+from+Giv%27at+ha-Mivtar%3A+A+Reappraisal.&rft.issue=35&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E22-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Zias+J.&rft.au=Sekeles%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Gualdi-Russo, E., Thun Hohenstein, U., Onisto, N. et al. A multidisciplinary study of calcaneal trauma in Roman Italy: a possible case of crucifixion?. Archaeol Anthropol Sci 11, 1783–1791 (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0631-9">https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-018-0631-9</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> First example of Roman crucifixion in UK discovered in Cambridgeshire village, Arkeonews, 9 December 2021, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://arkeonews.net/first-example-of-roman-crucifixion-in-uk-discovered-in-cambridgeshire-village/">https://arkeonews.net/first-example-of-roman-crucifixion-in-uk-discovered-in-cambridgeshire-village/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Ingham D., Duhig C. Crucifixion in the Fens: life & death in Roman Fenstanton. British Archaeology, January–February 2022, pp. 18–29 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.archaeologyuk.org/resource/free-access-to-crucifixion-in-the-fens-life-and-death-in-roman-fenstanton.html">https://www.archaeologyuk.org/resource/free-access-to-crucifixion-in-the-fens-life-and-death-in-roman-fenstanton.html</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4107524.stm">"Crucified nun dies in 'exorcism'"</a>. 2005-06-18. 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Retrieved 29 October 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Casualty+on+Romania%27s+Road+Back+From+Atheism&rft.date=2005-07-03&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Craig+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F07%2F03%2Finternational%2Feurope%2F03romania.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FN2007-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FN2007_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/story/romanian-priest-gets-14-years-for-killing-nun-in-exorcism">"Romanian Priest Gets 14 Years for Killing Nun in Exorcism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fox_News" title="Fox News">Fox News</a>. Associated Press. 19 February 2007. Retrieved 17 February 2018. <q>Dozens of Corogeanu's supporters packed the courtroom and prayed for the priest, with several bursting into tears when the verdict was announced.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fox+News&rft.atitle=Romanian+Priest+Gets+14+Years+for+Killing+Nun+in+Exorcism&rft.date=2007-02-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fstory%2Fromanian-priest-gets-14-years-for-killing-nun-in-exorcism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReporter" class="citation web cs1">Reporter, Standard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001232359/south-sudan-continues-to-burn-as-the-world-watches">"South Sudan continues to burn as the world watches"</a>. The Standard. Retrieved 2024-09-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Standard&rft.atitle=South+Sudan+continues+to+burn+as+the+world+watches&rft.aulast=Reporter&rft.aufirst=Standard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.standardmedia.co.ke%2Farticle%2F2001232359%2Fsouth-sudan-continues-to-burn-as-the-world-watches&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters2005" class="citation book cs1">Peters, Rudolph (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7EAsmttzXjcC&pg=PA37">Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37–38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-44534-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-44534-4"><bdi>978-1-139-44534-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crime+and+Punishment+in+Islamic+Law&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-139-44534-4&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Rudolph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7EAsmttzXjcC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian-132"><a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_132-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAP2013" class="citation news cs1">AP (5 March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/mar/05/saudi-seven-crucifixion-armed-robbery">"Saudi seven face crucifixion and firing squad for armed robbery"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. Retrieved 3 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Saudi+seven+face+crucifixion+and+firing+squad+for+armed+robbery&rft.date=2013-03-05&rft.au=AP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Fmar%2F05%2Fsaudi-seven-crucifixion-armed-robbery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMar_18" class="citation news cs1">Mar 18, Ali AlAhmed Published on. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ipolitics.ca/2013/03/18/the-execution-of-the-saudi-seven/">"The execution of the Saudi Seven – iPolitics"</a>. 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CNN. Retrieved April 23, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Saudi+Arabia+executes+37+people%2C+crucifying+one%2C+for+terror-related+crimes&rft.date=2019-04-23&rft.aulast=Qiblawi&rft.aufirst=Tamara&rft.au=Alhenawi%2C+Ruba&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2019%2F04%2F23%2Fmiddleeast%2Fsaudi-executions-terror-intl%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/international/middle-east/1556032383-saudi-arabia-executes-dozens-on-terrorism-charges">"Saudi Arabia executes dozens on 'terrorism' charges"</a>. I24 News. April 23, 2019. 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Retrieved 2023-05-07. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriesen2006" class="citation book cs1">Friesen, Ilse E. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ul0CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32">The Female Crucifix: Images of St. Wilgefortis Since the Middle Ages</a>. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-939-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-939-8"><bdi>978-0-88920-939-8</bdi></a>. <q>Eulalia... was stripped, beaten, tormented with iron hooks, had her bosom mutilated, was burnt with torches, and was portrayed as hanging on a rack or X-shaped cross</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Female+Crucifix%3A+Images+of+St.+Wilgefortis+Since+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Wilfrid+Laurier+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-88920-939-8&rft.aulast=Friesen&rft.aufirst=Ilse+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-ul0CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACrucifixion" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060127005729/http://www.konnections.com/Kcundick/crucifix.html">Jesus's death on the cross, from a medical perspective</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120212185552/http://www.joezias.com/CrucifixionAntiquity.html">"Crucifixion in antiquity – The Anthropological evidence" by Joe Zias</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived February 12, 2012)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://media.wix.com/ugd/3089fd_df7187c57460442db5fc6d6ae7996df9.pdf">"Dishonour, Degradation and Display: Crucifixion in the Roman World" by Philip Hughes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=905&letter=C">Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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