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class="container-fluid"> <div class="row"> <div title="Definitions Frame"></div> <div id="extracted-content"> <div id="main-content"> <h1 class="title" id="page-title">copyright</h1>  <h2 class="element-invisible">Primary tabs</h2> <div id="content1"> <article about="/wex/copyright" class="node-6360 node node-wex-cck en view-mode-full clearfix" typeof="sioc:Item foaf:Document"> <header> <span class="rdf-meta element-hidden" content="copyright" property="dc:title"></span> </header> <div class="field field-name-body field-type-text-with-summary field-label-hidden"> <div class="field-items"> <div class="field-item even" property="content:encoded"><p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5">Copyright is the exclusive </span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/legal">legal</a> right to reproduce, publish, sell, or distribute the matter and form of something.</p> <h4 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440690-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Overview - U.S. Copyright Act</span></h4> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440691-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">The U.S. Copyright Act, (codified at聽</span><a aria-label="17 U.S.C. 搂搂 101 - 810" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex-cgi/wexlink?wexns=USC&wexname=17">17 U.S.C. 搂搂 101 - 810</a>), is <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/federal">federal</a> legislation which protects the writings of authors.聽Note that advancements in technology have led to an ever expanding understanding of the word "writings." The Copyright Act now reaches architectural design, software, the graphic arts, motion pictures, and sound recordings and more. All works of authorship <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/fixed_in_a_tangible_medium_of_expression#:~:text=A%20work%20first%20must%20be,through%20visual%20or%20audio%20means.">fixed in a tangible medium of expression</a> and within the subject matter of copyright were deemed to fall within the exclusive <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/jurisdiction#:~:text=definition,Marathon%20Oil%20Co.">jurisdiction</a> of the Copyright <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/act#:~:text=Primary%20tabs,a%20movement%20must%20be%20voluntary.">Act</a> regardless of whether the work was created before or after that date and whether published or unpublished.</p> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440692-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Under聽</span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/102">搂 102</a>, copyright protection exists in <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/original_work_of_authorship">original works of authorship</a> fixed in any tangible medium of expression from which they can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device.聽</p> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440693-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Derivative Works</span></h5> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440694-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Under聽</span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/106">搂 106</a>,聽the owner of a copyright has the exclusive right to reproduce, distribute, perform, display, license, and to prepare聽<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/derivative_work">derivative works</a>聽based on the copyrighted work.聽</p> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440695-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Fair Works</span></h5> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440696-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Under聽</span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/107">搂 107</a>, the exclusive rights of the copyright owner are subject to limitation by the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/doctrine#:~:text=A%20single%20important%20rule%20or,in%20a%20field%20of%20law.">doctrine</a> of "<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/fair_use">fair use</a>."聽Fair use of a copyrighted work for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, or research is not copyright infringement.聽To determine whether a particular use qualifies as fair use, courts apply the multi-factor <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/balancing_test#:~:text=A%20subjective%20test%20with%20which,to%20decide%20which%20interest%20prevails.">balancing test</a> from聽<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/107">搂 107</a>.</p> <h4 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440697-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Limits on Copyright Protection</span></h4> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440698-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Copyright protection does not extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation, concept, principle, or discovery. For example, if a book is written describing a new system of bookkeeping, copyright protection only extends to the author's description of the bookkeeping system; it does not protect the system itself. This view was expressed in聽</span><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/101/99/">Baker v. Selden, 101 U.S. 99 (1879)</a>.</p> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e9440699-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">In addition to being independently created by the author, to qualify for copyright protection a work must also exhibit a minimum of originality. In聽</span><a href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/499/340/">Feist聽Publications v. Rural Telephone Service, 499 U.S. 340 (1991)</a>,聽the <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/supreme_court">Supreme Court</a> held that a work must have "some minimal degree of creativity." Thus, a mere alphabetical聽list of data is not protected, but other original aspects of the work (page layout, design, format, or even the specific selection of data points) might be. This underscores the idea that information itself is not copyrightable, only the specific arrangements or presentations of it.</p> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e944069a-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Copyright Registration</span></h5> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e944069b-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">According to the Copyright Act of 1976, registration of copyright is voluntary and may take place at any time during the term of protection.聽</span>See聽<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/chapter-4">搂 408</a>.聽 Although registration of a work with the Copyright Office is not a precondition for protection, under聽<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/411">搂 411</a>, an action for copyright infringement may not be commenced until the copyright has been formally registered with the Copyright Office.</p> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e944069c-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Deposit Requirement</span></h5> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e944069d-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Deposit of copies with the Copyright Office for use by the Library of Congress is a separate requirement from registration. Under聽</span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/407">搂 407</a>, failure to comply with the deposit requirement within three months of publication of the protected work may result in a <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/civil">civil</a> fine. The Register of Copyrights may exempt certain categories of material from the deposit requirement.</p> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e944069e-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Copyright Notice</span></h5> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e944069f-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">In 1989 the U.S. joined the聽</span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/treaties/berne/overview.html">Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works</a>. In accordance with the requirements of the Berne Convention,聽<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/copyright_notice">copyright notice聽</a>is no longer a condition of protection for works published after March 1, 1989. This change to the notice requirement applies only prospectively to copies of works publicly distributed after after March 1, 1989.</p> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a0-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">However, lack of notice might be a relevant factor in determining the merits of an innocent infringement defense.聽</span>See聽<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/17/401">搂聽401</a>(d).</p> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a1-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">The Berne Convention also modified the rule making copyright registration a precondition to commencing a </span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/lawsuit">lawsuit</a> for infringement. For works originating from a Berne Convention country, an infringement action may be initiated without registering the work with the U.S. Copyright Office.聽However, for works of U.S. origin, registration prior to <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/file#:~:text=To%20file%20means%20to%20deposit,placed%20into%20the%20official%20record.">filing</a> suit is still required.</p> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a2-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">The federal agency charged with administering the act is the Copyright Office of the Library of Congress.聽</span>See聽<a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex-cgi/wexlink?wexns=USC&wexname=17:701">搂 701</a>聽of the act. Its regulations are found in Parts 201 - 204 of title 37 of the Code of Federal Regulations.</p> <h4 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a3-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Federal Material</span></h4> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a4-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">U.S. Constitution and Federal Statutes</span></h5> <ul dir="ltr"> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a5-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/">U.S. Copyright Act</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a6-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/">CRS Annotated Constitution</a></span></li> </ul> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a7-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Federal Agency Regulations</span></h5> <ul dir="ltr"> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a8-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Code of Federal Regulations:聽</span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/37/chapter-II">37 C.F.R., Chapt. II</a>聽- Copyright Office</li> </ul> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406a9-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Federal Judicial Decisions</span></h5> <ul dir="ltr"> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406aa-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cases/copyrt.htm">Selected Historic Copyright Decisions</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406ab-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/search/site/copyright?f%5b0%5d=bundle%3Abulletin_cck">liibulletin Oral Argument Previews</a></span></li> </ul> <h4 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406ac-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">International Material</span></h4> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406ad-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Conventions and Treaties</span></h5> <ul dir="ltr"> <li> <h5 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406ae-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/treaties/berne/overview.html">Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works</a></span></h5> </li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406af-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=15381&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html">Universal Copyright Convention</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b0-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/phonograms/">Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b1-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001307/130729mb.pdf">International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b2-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips.pdf">GATT 1994 (including the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property)</a></span></li> </ul> <h4 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b3-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Federal Agencies:</span></h4> <ul dir="ltr"> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b4-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.copyright.gov/">U.S. Copyright Office</a></span> <ul> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b5-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.copyright.gov/forms/">Forms</a></span></li> </ul> </li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b6-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.uspto.gov/">US Patent and Trademark Office</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b7-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://cendi.gov/pdf/FAQ_Copyright_30jan18.pdf">CENDI Copyright FAQ (Commerce, Energy, NASA, Defense Information Managers Group)</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b8-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.copyright.com/">Copyright Clearance Center</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406b9-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED387135">Report of NII Working Group on Intellectual Property</a></span></li> </ul> <h4 dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406ba-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc">Additional Resources:聽</span></h4> <ul dir="ltr"> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406bb-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.cni.org/">Coalition for Networked Information</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406bc-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.arl.org/focus-areas/copyright-ip#.V8XVgJgrI2x">Association of Research Libraries Copyright and Intellectual Policy</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406bd-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://ec.europa.eu/info/index_en">European Union Directives on Copyright and Related Material from the EU Legal Advisory Board</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406be-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.wipo.org/">World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406bf-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.wipo.int/wipolex/en/">Database of Intellectual Property Laws</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406c0-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.abanet.org/intelprop/home.html">ABA Section of Intellectual Property Law</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406c1-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://librarycopyright.net/resources/">Copyright Advisory Network Tools</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406c2-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://judiciary.senate.gov/">Senate Judiciary Committee</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406c3-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://judiciary.house.gov/">House Judiciary Committee</a></span>聽(includes information from Subcommittee on Courts and Intellectual Property)</li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406c4-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="http://www.aipla.org/">American Intellectual Property Law Association</a></span></li> <li><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406c5-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/disk.html">LII Downloads</a></span></li> </ul> <p dir="ltr"><span id="docs-internal-guid-ced9be5a-7fff-d5fa-e50c-d3544abdd5f5e94406c6-9083-11ef-b8c7-e9213680cfdc"><span id="docs-internal-guid-cee2b022-7fff-8bba-25bf-44df81c43e83">[Last updated in July of 2022 by the</span><a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/lii/about/lii_staff/wdt"> Wex Definitions Team</a></span>]</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-7 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above"> <ul> <li class="field-label">wex <ul class="field-items"> <li class="field-item even"><a aria-label="category: wex: PROPERTY" datatype="" href="/wex/category/property" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">PROPERTY</a></li> <li class="field-item odd"><a aria-label="category: wex: intellectual property" datatype="" href="/wex/category/intellectual_property_0" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">intellectual property</a></li> <li class="field-item even"><a aria-label="category: wex: copyright law" datatype="" href="/wex/category/copyright_law" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">copyright law</a></li> <li class="field-item odd"><a aria-label="category: wex: property law" datatype="" href="/wex/category/property_law" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">property law</a></li> <li class="field-item even"><a aria-label="category: wex: statutes" datatype="" href="/wex/category/statutes" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">statutes</a></li> <li class="field-item odd"><a aria-label="category: wex: wex articles" datatype="" href="/wex/category/wex_articles" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">wex articles</a></li> <li class="field-item even"><a aria-label="category: wex: wex definitions" datatype="" href="/wex/category/wex_definitions" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">wex definitions</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="field field-name-taxonomy-vocabulary-4 field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above"> <ul> <li class="field-label">Keywords <ul class="field-items"> <li class="field-item even"><a aria-label="category: Keywords: intellectual property" datatype="" href="/category/keywords/intellectual_property" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">intellectual property</a></li> <li class="field-item odd"><a aria-label="category: Keywords: COPYRIGHT" datatype="" href="/category/keywords/copyright" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">COPYRIGHT</a></li> <li class="field-item even"><a aria-label="category: Keywords: copyright infringement" datatype="" href="/category/keywords/copyright_infringement" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">copyright infringement</a></li> <li class="field-item odd"><a aria-label="category: Keywords: copyright law" datatype="" href="/category/keywords/copyright_law" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">copyright law</a></li> <li class="field-item even"><a aria-label="category: Keywords: Copyright Act" datatype="" href="/category/keywords/copyright_act" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" typeof="skos:Concept">Copyright Act</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="page-bottom" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="region region-bottom"> <div id="block-liidfp-2" class="block block-liidfp first last odd"> <div class="gfs"> <div id="div-gpt-ad-bottom" 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