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id="toc-Western_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Western Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Central Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Southeast Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southwest_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southwest_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Southwest Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southwest_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_medieval_European_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_medieval_European_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Late medieval European society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_medieval_European_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Military history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_conflict_and_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_conflict_and_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Christian conflict and reform</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Christian_conflict_and_reform-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Christian conflict and reform subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Christian_conflict_and_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Papal_Schism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Papal_Schism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>The Papal Schism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Papal_Schism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protestant_Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Protestant Reformation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Trade and commerce</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Arts and sciences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arts_and_sciences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arts and sciences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophy,_science_and_technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy,_science_and_technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Philosophy, science and technology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy,_science_and_technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visual_arts_and_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visual_arts_and_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Visual arts and architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visual_arts_and_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theatre" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theatre"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Theatre</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theatre-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>After the Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottomans_and_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottomans_and_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ottomans and Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottomans_and_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.1</span> <span>Surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specific_regions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specific_regions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.2</span> <span>Specific regions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_regions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.3</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Black_Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Black_Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.4</span> <span>The Black Death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Black_Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.5</span> <span>Warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.6</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.7</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_sciences_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_sciences_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14.8</span> <span>Arts and sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_sciences_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Late Middle Ages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">49 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="أواخر العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أواخر العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Meya_tardana" title="Edat Meya tardana – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Edat Meya tardana" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baxa_Ed%C3%A1_Media" title="Baxa Edá Media – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Baxa Edá Media" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Son_orta_%C9%99srl%C9%99r" title="Son orta əsrlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Son orta əsrlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%B5_%D0%A1%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%9E%D0%B5" title="Позняе Сярэдневякоўе – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Позняе Сярэдневякоўе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%8A%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Късно средновековие – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Късно средновековие" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baixa_edat_mitjana" title="Baixa edat mitjana – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Baixa edat mitjana" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pozdn%C3%AD_st%C5%99edov%C4%9Bk" title="Pozdní středověk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pozdní středověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oesoedd_Canol_Diweddar" title="Oesoedd Canol Diweddar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Oesoedd Canol Diweddar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senmiddelalder" title="Senmiddelalder – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Senmiddelalder" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%A4tmittelalter" title="Spätmittelalter – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spätmittelalter" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiliskeskaeg" title="Hiliskeskaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hiliskeskaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%8E%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9C%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B1%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ύστερος Μεσαίωνας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ύστερος Μεσαίωνας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baja_Edad_Media" title="Baja Edad Media – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Baja Edad Media" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fina_Mezepoko" title="Fina Mezepoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fina Mezepoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behe_Erdi_Aroa" title="Behe Erdi Aroa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Behe Erdi Aroa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%A3%D8%AE%D8%B1" title="قرون وسطای متأخر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قرون وسطای متأخر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moyen_%C3%82ge_tardif" title="Moyen Âge tardif – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Moyen Âge tardif" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basse_et%C3%A2t_di_mie%C3%A7" title="Basse etât di mieç – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Basse etât di mieç" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baixa_Idade_Media" title="Baixa Idade Media – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Baixa Idade Media" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A4%91%EC%84%B8_%ED%9B%84%EA%B8%B0" title="중세 후기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 후기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abad_Pertengahan_Akhir" title="Abad Pertengahan Akhir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Abad Pertengahan Akhir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medievie_Tard" title="Medievie Tard – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Medievie Tard" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AD%C3%B0mi%C3%B0aldir" title="Síðmiðaldir – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Síðmiðaldir" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basso_Medioevo" title="Basso Medioevo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Basso Medioevo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9C%D7%94%D7%99_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="שלהי ימי הביניים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שלהי ימי הביניים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="გვიანი შუა საუკუნეები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="გვიანი შუა საუკუნეები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Доцен среден век – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Доцен среден век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_middeleeuwen" title="Late middeleeuwen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Late middeleeuwen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E5%BE%8C%E6%9C%9F" title="中世後期 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世後期" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senmiddelalderen" title="Senmiddelalderen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Senmiddelalderen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seinmellomalderen" title="Seinmellomalderen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Seinmellomalderen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B3%C5%BAne_%C5%9Bredniowiecze" title="Późne średniowiecze – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Późne średniowiecze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baixa_Idade_M%C3%A9dia" title="Baixa Idade Média – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Baixa Idade Média" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evul_Mediu_t%C3%A2rziu" title="Evul Mediu târziu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Evul Mediu târziu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temp_medieval_tardiv" title="Temp medieval tardiv – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Temp medieval tardiv" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of European history between AD 1300 and 1500</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_in_the_14th_Century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Europe_in_the_14th_Century.jpg/250px-Europe_in_the_14th_Century.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Europe_in_the_14th_Century.jpg/500px-Europe_in_the_14th_Century.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1549" data-file-height="1134" /></a><figcaption>Europe and the Mediterranean region, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1354.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_famine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Great_famine.jpg/250px-Great_famine.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="363" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Great_famine.jpg/375px-Great_famine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Great_famine.jpg/500px-Great_famine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="1540" /></a><figcaption>From the Apocalypse in a <i><a href="/wiki/Biblia_Pauperum" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblia Pauperum">Biblia Pauperum</a></i> illuminated at <a href="/wiki/Erfurt" title="Erfurt">Erfurt</a> around the time of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a>. Death sits astride a lion whose long tail ends in a ball of flame (Hell). Famine points to her hungry mouth.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>late Middle Ages</b> or <b>late medieval period</b> was the <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">period</a> of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">European history</a> lasting from 1300 to 1500 AD. The late Middle Ages followed the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a> and preceded the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> (and in much of Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around 1350, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plagues</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine of 1315–1317</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, reduced the population to around half of what it had been before the calamities.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with depopulation came social unrest and <a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">endemic warfare</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the <a href="/wiki/Jacquerie" title="Jacquerie">Jacquerie</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a>, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict, the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> was temporarily shattered by the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a>. Collectively, those events are sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">crisis of the late Middle Ages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress in the arts and sciences. Following a renewed interest in ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> began. The absorption of Latin texts had started before the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a> through contact with Arabs during the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, but the availability of important Greek texts accelerated with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks</a>, when many <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated the dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. Those two things would later lead to the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>. Toward the end of the period, the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> began. The expansion of the Ottoman Empire cut off trading possibilities with the East. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the Spanish expedition under <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1492 and <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s voyage to Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations. </p><p>The changes brought about by these developments have led many scholars to view this period as the end of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">modern history</a> and of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">early modern Europe</a>. However, the division is somewhat artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As a result, there was <a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">developmental continuity</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient age</a> (via <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Modern_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern age">modern age</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the late Middle Ages at all but rather see the high period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance and the modern era.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-6"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography_and_periodization">Historiography and periodization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Historiography and periodization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <span style="font-size:120%">↑</span> <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a>) <span class="nowrap">  </span>(<i><b><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene epoch</a></b></i>)</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines</a><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic</a> – <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></b><br />(<a href="/wiki/10,000_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="10,000 BCE">10,000 BCE</a> – <a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">present</a>)</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_human_antiquity" title="Discovery of human antiquity">Age of the human race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">Earliest records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory" title="Protohistory">Protohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-writing" title="Proto-writing">Proto-writing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Antiquity" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Prehistory" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Europe</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Postclassical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#500_to_1800" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Americas</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Medieval_history" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East#Medieval_Near_East" title="History of the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_modern_period" title="Late modern period">Late modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_history" title="Contemporary history">Contemporary</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#Modern" title="History of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America#Modern" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America#Modern" title="History of South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oceania#Modern_age" title="History of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Asia#Modern" title="History of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history#Modern" title="Outline of South Asian history">South Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Modern" title="History of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe#From_revolution_to_imperialism_(1789–1914)" title="History of Europe">Europe</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> See also</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernity" title="Postmodernity">Postmodernity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futurology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span style="font-size:120%">↓</span> <a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a> <span class="nowrap">  </span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_history" title="Template:Human history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_history" title="Template talk:Human history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The term "late Middle Ages" refers to one of the three periods of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, along with the early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages. <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a> was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his <i>History of the Florentine People</i> (1442).<sup id="cite_ref-Hankins_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hankins-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flavio_Biondo" title="Flavio Biondo">Flavio Biondo</a> used a similar framework in <i>Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire</i> (1439–1453). Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Cellarius" title="Christoph Cellarius">Christoph Cellarius</a> published <i>Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, and New Period</i> (1683). </p><p>For 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The heart of this rediscovery lies in Italy, where, in the words of <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Burckhardt" title="Jacob Burckhardt">Jacob Burckhardt</a>, "Man became a spiritual individual and recognized himself as such."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This proposition was later challenged, and it was argued that the 12th century was a period of greater cultural achievement.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As economic and demographic methods were applied to the study of history, the trend was increasingly to see the late Middle Ages as a period of recession and crisis. <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgian</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Henri_Pirenne" title="Henri Pirenne">Henri Pirenne</a> continued the subdivision of <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High</a>, and late Middle Ages in the years around <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet it was his <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Dutch</a> colleague, <a href="/wiki/Johan_Huizinga" title="Johan Huizinga">Johan Huizinga</a>, who was primarily responsible for popularising the pessimistic view of the late Middle Ages, with his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Autumn_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="The Autumn of the Middle Ages">The Autumn of the Middle Ages</a></i> (1919).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To Huizinga, whose research focused on France and the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> rather than Italy, despair and decline were the main themes, not rebirth.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern historiography on the period has reached a consensus between the two extremes of innovation and crisis. It is now generally acknowledged that conditions were vastly different north and south of the Alps, and the term "late Middle Ages" is often avoided entirely within Italian historiography.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "Renaissance" is still considered useful for describing certain intellectual, cultural, or artistic developments but not as the defining feature of an entire European historical epoch.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradyxvii_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradyxvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period from the early 14th century up until – and sometimes including – the 16th century is rather seen as characterized by other trends: demographic and economic decline followed by recovery, the end of Western religious unity and the subsequent emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a>, and the expansion of European influence onto the rest of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradyxvii_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradyxvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The limits of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christian Europe</a> were still being defined in the 14th and 15th centuries. While the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</a> was beginning to repel the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongols</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian</a> kingdoms completed the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> of the peninsula and turned their attention outwards, the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> fell under the dominance of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-For_references,_see_below_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-For_references,_see_below-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the remaining nations of the continent were locked in almost constant international or internal conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The situation gradually led to the consolidation of central authority and the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BradyJones_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BradyJones-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The financial demands of war necessitated higher levels of taxation, resulting in the emergence of representative bodies – most notably the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_England" title="Parliament of England">English Parliament</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth of secular authority was further aided by the decline of the papacy with the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> and the coming of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northern_Europe">Northern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Northern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages" title="History of Denmark">Denmark in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Norway#Middle_Ages" title="History of Norway">Norway in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden_(800%E2%80%931521)#Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sweden (800–1521)">Sweden in the Middle Ages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></div> <p>After the failed union of <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> of 1319–1365, the pan-Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a> was instituted in 1397.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Swedes were reluctant members of the <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Danish</a>-dominated union from the start. In an attempt to subdue the Swedes, King <a href="/wiki/Christian_II_of_Denmark" title="Christian II of Denmark">Christian II of Denmark</a> had large numbers of the Swedish aristocracy killed in the <a href="/wiki/Stockholm_Bloodbath" title="Stockholm Bloodbath">Stockholm Bloodbath</a> of 1520. Yet this measure only led to further hostilities, and Sweden broke away for good in 1523.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Norway, on the other hand, became an inferior party of the union and remained united with Denmark until 1814. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> benefited from its relative isolation and was the last <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> country to be struck by the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the <a href="/wiki/Norse_Greenland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse Greenland">Norse colony in Greenland</a> died out, probably under extreme weather conditions in the 15th century.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These conditions might have been the effect of the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Northwest_Europe">Northwest Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Northwest Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">England in the Late Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Scotland in the Late Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Wales in the Late Middle Ages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">History of Ireland (1169–1536)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">Wars of Scottish Independence</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schlacht_von_Azincourt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Schlacht_von_Azincourt.jpg/250px-Schlacht_von_Azincourt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Schlacht_von_Azincourt.jpg/330px-Schlacht_von_Azincourt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Schlacht_von_Azincourt.jpg/500px-Schlacht_von_Azincourt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3501" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption>The Battle of Agincourt, 15th-century miniature, <a href="/wiki/Enguerrand_de_Monstrelet" title="Enguerrand de Monstrelet">Enguerrand de Monstrelet</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The death of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Scotland" title="Alexander III of Scotland">Alexander III of Scotland</a> in 1286 threw the country into a <a href="/wiki/Succession_crisis" title="Succession crisis">succession crisis</a>, and the English king, <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">Edward I</a>, was brought in to arbitrate. Edward claimed overlordship over Scotland, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Scottish_Independence" title="Wars of Scottish Independence">Wars of Scottish Independence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English were eventually defeated, and the Scots were able to develop a stronger state under the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Stuart" title="House of Stuart">Stewarts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1337, England's attention was largely directed towards France in the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Henry_V_of_England" title="Henry V of England">Henry V's</a> victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Battle of Agincourt</a> in 1415 briefly paved the way for a unification of the two kingdoms, but his son <a href="/wiki/Henry_VI_of_England" title="Henry VI of England">Henry VI</a> soon squandered all previous gains.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loss of France led to discontent at home. Soon after the end of the war in 1453, the dynastic struggles of the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a> (c. 1455–1485) began, involving the rival dynasties of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a> and <a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The war ended in the accession of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Tudor" title="House of Tudor">House of Tudor</a>, who continued the work started by the Yorkist kings of building a strong, centralized monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While England's attention was thus directed elsewhere, the <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Norman" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiberno-Norman">Hiberno-Norman</a> lords in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> were becoming gradually more assimilated into Irish society, and the island was allowed to develop virtual independence under English overlordship.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Western Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_France_1477-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Map_France_1477-en.svg/250px-Map_France_1477-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Map_France_1477-en.svg/330px-Map_France_1477-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Map_France_1477-en.svg/500px-Map_France_1477-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>France by 1477: a mosaic of feudal territories</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">House of Valois</a>, which followed the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Capet" title="House of Capet">House of Capet</a> in 1328, was at its outset marginalized in its own country, first by the English invading forces of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> and later by the powerful <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emergence of <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> as a military leader changed the course of war in favour of the French, and the initiative was carried further by King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bold" title="Charles the Bold">Charles the Bold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Duke of Burgundy">Duke of Burgundy</a>, met resistance in his attempts to consolidate his possessions, particularly from the <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederation</a> formed in 1291.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Charles was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Wars" title="Burgundian Wars">Burgundian Wars</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nancy" title="Battle of Nancy">Battle of Nancy</a> in 1477, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> was reclaimed by France.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy" title="County of Burgundy">County of Burgundy</a> and the wealthy <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a> came into the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> under <a href="/wiki/Habsburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Habsburg">Habsburg</a> control, setting up conflict for centuries to come.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_Europe">Central Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Central Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1348%E2%80%931526)" title="Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1348–1526)">Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1348–1526)</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Jagiellonian_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty">History of Poland during the Jagiellonian dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Old Swiss Confederacy">Old Swiss Confederacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_mine,_Kutna_Hora.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Silver_mine%2C_Kutna_Hora.jpg/220px-Silver_mine%2C_Kutna_Hora.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Silver_mine%2C_Kutna_Hora.jpg/330px-Silver_mine%2C_Kutna_Hora.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Silver_mine%2C_Kutna_Hora.jpg/440px-Silver_mine%2C_Kutna_Hora.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2276" data-file-height="3860" /></a><figcaption>Silver mining and processing in <a href="/wiki/Kutn%C3%A1_Hora" title="Kutná Hora">Kutná Hora</a>, Bohemia, 15th century</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a> prospered in the 14th century, and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Bull_of_1356" title="Golden Bull of 1356">Golden Bull of 1356</a> made the king of Bohemia first among the <a href="/wiki/Prince-elector" title="Prince-elector">imperial electors</a>, but the <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite revolution</a> threw the country into crisis.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> passed to the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">House of Habsburg</a> in 1438, where it remained until its <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire">dissolution</a> in 1806.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet in spite of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">extensive territories held by the Habsburgs</a>, the Empire itself remained fragmented, and much real power and influence lay with the individual principalities.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, financial institutions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fugger" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugger">Fugger</a> family, held great power, on both economic and political levels.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Kingdom of Hungary</a> experienced a golden age during the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular the reigns of the <a href="/wiki/Capetian_House_of_Anjou" title="Capetian House of Anjou">Angevin</a> kings <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Hungary" title="Charles I of Hungary">Charles Robert</a> (1308–42) and his son <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis the Great">Louis the Great</a> (1342–82) were marked by success.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The country grew wealthy as the main European supplier of gold and silver.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Louis the Great led successful campaigns from Lithuania to Southern Italy, and from Poland to Northern Greece. </p><p>He had the greatest military potential of the 14th century with his enormous armies (often over 100,000 men). Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025%E2%80%931385)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)">Poland</a>'s attention was turned eastwards, as the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a> with <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Lithuania</a> created an enormous entity in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The union, and the conversion of Lithuania, also marked the end of <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">paganism</a> in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beckov_Horne_nadvorie_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Beckov_Horne_nadvorie_01.jpg/220px-Beckov_Horne_nadvorie_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Beckov_Horne_nadvorie_01.jpg/330px-Beckov_Horne_nadvorie_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Beckov_Horne_nadvorie_01.jpg/440px-Beckov_Horne_nadvorie_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ruins" title="Ruins">Ruins</a> of <a href="/wiki/Beckov_Castle" title="Beckov Castle">Beckov Castle</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Louis did not leave a son as heir after his death in 1382. Instead, he named as his heir the young prince <a href="/wiki/Sigismund_of_Luxemburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigismund of Luxemburg">Sigismund of Luxemburg</a>. The Hungarian nobility did not accept his claim, and the result was an internal war. Sigismund eventually achieved total control of Hungary and established his court in Buda and Visegrád. Both palaces were rebuilt and improved, and were considered the richest of the time in Europe. Inheriting the throne of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund continued conducting his politics from Hungary, but he was kept busy fighting the <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, which was becoming a menace to Europe in the beginning of the 15th century. </p><p>King <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus" title="Matthias Corvinus">Matthias Corvinus</a> of Hungary led the largest army of mercenaries of the time, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Army_of_Hungary" title="Black Army of Hungary">Black Army of Hungary</a>, which he used to conquer <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a> and to fight the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> appeared.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the glory of the Kingdom ended in the early 16th century, when the King <a href="/wiki/Louis_II_of_Hungary" title="Louis II of Hungary">Louis II of Hungary</a> was killed in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a> in 1526 against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Hungary then fell into a serious crisis and was invaded, ending its significance in central Europe during the medieval era. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Europe">Eastern Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_in_1470.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Europe_in_1470.PNG/250px-Europe_in_1470.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Europe_in_1470.PNG/330px-Europe_in_1470.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Europe_in_1470.PNG/500px-Europe_in_1470.PNG 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Medieval <a href="/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine" title="List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine">Russian states</a> around 1470, including <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Tver" title="Principality of Tver">Tver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pskov_Republic" title="Pskov Republic">Pskov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ryazan" title="Principality of Ryazan">Ryazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rostov,_Yaroslavl_Oblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast">Rostov</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Moscow</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The state of <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a> fell during the 13th century in the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol invasion of Rus">Mongol invasion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Grand Duchy of Moscow</a> rose in power thereafter, winning a great victory against the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a> in 1380.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The victory did not end Tartar rule in the region, however, and its immediate beneficiary was the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy of Lithuania</a>, which extended its influence eastwards.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan the Great</a> (1462–1505), Moscow became a major regional power, and the annexation of the vast <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Novgorod">Republic of Novgorod</a> in 1478 laid the foundations for a Russian national state.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, the Russian princes started to see themselves as the heirs of the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. They eventually took on the imperial title of <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tzar</a>, and Moscow was described as the <a href="/wiki/Third_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Rome">Third Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Europe">Southeast Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Southeast Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albanian_principalities" title="Albanian principalities">Albanian principalities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Siegebelgrade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Siegebelgrade.jpg/250px-Siegebelgrade.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Siegebelgrade.jpg/500px-Siegebelgrade.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman miniature of the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1456)">siege of Belgrade</a> in 1456</figcaption></figure> <p>The Byzantine Empire had for a long time dominated the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a> in politics and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 14th century, however, it had almost entirely collapsed into a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire">tributary state of the Ottoman Empire</a>, centered on the city of Constantinople and a few enclaves in <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, the Byzantine Empire was permanently extinguished.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgarian Empire</a> was in decline by the 14th century, and the ascendancy of <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a> was marked by the Serbian victory over the Bulgarians in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Velbazhd" title="Battle of Velbazhd">Battle of Velbazhd</a> in 1330.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1346, the Serbian king <a href="/wiki/Stefan_Du%C5%A1an" title="Stefan Dušan">Stefan Dušan</a> had been proclaimed emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet Serbian dominance was short-lived; the Serbian army led by the <a href="/wiki/Lazar_Hrebeljanovic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lazar Hrebeljanovic">Lazar Hrebeljanovic</a> was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Army</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Battle of Kosovo</a> in 1389, where most of the <a href="/wiki/Serbian_nobility" title="Serbian nobility">Serbian nobility</a> was killed and the south of the country came under <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Serbia" title="Ottoman Serbia">Ottoman occupation</a>, as much of <a href="/wiki/Southern_Bulgaria" title="Southern Bulgaria">southern Bulgaria</a> had become Ottoman territory in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maritsa" title="Battle of Maritsa">Battle of Maritsa</a> 1371.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollister,_p_p._339_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollister,_p_p._339-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Northern remnants of Bulgaria were finally conquered by 1396, Serbia fell in 1459, Bosnia in 1463, and Albania was finally subordinated in 1479 only a few years after the death of <a href="/wiki/Skanderbeg" title="Skanderbeg">Skanderbeg</a>. <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a>, a Hungarian domain at the time, was the last large Balkan city to fall under Ottoman rule, in the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1521)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1521)">siege of Belgrade</a> of 1521. By the end of the medieval period, the entire <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkan</a> peninsula was annexed by, or became <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> to, the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-Hollister,_p_p._339_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hollister,_p_p._339-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southwest_Europe">Southwest Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Southwest Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Spain in the Middle Ages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portugal_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Portugal in the Middle Ages">Portugal in the Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Batalha_de_Aljubarrota_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Batalha_de_Aljubarrota_02.jpg/220px-Batalha_de_Aljubarrota_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Batalha_de_Aljubarrota_02.jpg/330px-Batalha_de_Aljubarrota_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Batalha_de_Aljubarrota_02.jpg/440px-Batalha_de_Aljubarrota_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5574" data-file-height="3250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aljubarrota" title="Battle of Aljubarrota">Battle of Aljubarrota</a> between Portugal and Castile, 1385</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a> was the seat of the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">papacy</a> from 1309 to 1376.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the return of the Pope to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in 1378, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Papal State">Papal State</a> developed into a major secular power, culminating in the morally corrupt papacy of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Alexander VI</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> grew to prominence amongst the Italian city-states through financial business, and the dominant <a href="/wiki/Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici">Medici</a> family became important promoters of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> through their patronage of the arts.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other city-states in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">northern Italy</a> also expanded their territories and consolidated their power, primarily <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a> had by the early 14th century divided <a href="/wiki/Southern_Italy" title="Southern Italy">southern Italy</a> into an <a href="/wiki/House_of_Trast%C3%A1mara" title="House of Trastámara">Aragon</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> and an <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois-Anjou" title="House of Valois-Anjou">Anjou</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1442, the two kingdoms were effectively united under Aragonese control.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1469 marriage of <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella I of Castile</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand II of Aragon</a> and the 1479 death of <a href="/wiki/John_II_of_Aragon" title="John II of Aragon">John II of Aragon</a> led to the creation of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1492, <a href="/wiki/Granada" title="Granada">Granada</a> was captured from the <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a>, thereby completing the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> had during the 15th century – particularly under <a href="/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry the Navigator">Henry the Navigator</a> – gradually explored the coast of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, and in 1498, <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a> found the sea route to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish monarchs met the Portuguese challenge by financing the expedition of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> to find a western sea route to India, leading to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1492.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_medieval_European_society">Late medieval European society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Late medieval European society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">Crisis of the Late Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_octobre_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_octobre_detail.jpg/220px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_octobre_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_octobre_detail.jpg/330px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_octobre_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_octobre_detail.jpg/440px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_octobre_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2460" data-file-height="2850" /></a><figcaption>Peasants preparing the fields for the winter with a <a href="/wiki/Harrow_(tool)" title="Harrow (tool)">harrow</a> and sowing for the winter grain. The background shows the <a href="/wiki/Louvre_castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Louvre castle">Louvre castle</a> in Paris, c. 1410; October as depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_Duc_de_Berry" title="Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry">Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 1300–1350, the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a> gave way to the <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The colder climate resulted in agricultural crises, the first of which is known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine of 1315–1317</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The demographic consequences of this <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, however, were not as severe as the <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">plagues</a> that occurred later in the century, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates of the death rate caused by this epidemic range from one third to as much as sixty percent.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By around 1420, the accumulated effect of recurring plagues and famines had reduced the <a href="/wiki/Population_of_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Population of Europe">population of Europe</a> to perhaps no more than a third of what it was a century earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of natural disasters were exacerbated by armed conflicts; this was particularly the case in France during the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It took 150 years for the European population to regain similar levels of 1300.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the European population was severely reduced, land became more plentiful for the survivors, and labour was consequently more expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attempts by landowners to forcibly reduce wages, such as the English 1351 <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Laborers" class="mw-redirect" title="Statute of Laborers">Statute of Laborers</a>, were doomed to fail.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These efforts resulted in nothing more than fostering resentment among the peasantry, leading to rebellions such as the French <a href="/wiki/Jacquerie" title="Jacquerie">Jacquerie</a> in 1358 and the English <a href="/wiki/English_peasants%27_revolt_of_1381" class="mw-redirect" title="English peasants' revolt of 1381">Peasants' Revolt</a> in 1381.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The long-term effect was the virtual end of <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">serfdom</a> in Western Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, landowners were able to exploit the situation to force the peasantry into even more repressive bondage.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The upheavals caused by the Black Death left certain minority groups particularly vulnerable, especially the <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who were often blamed for the calamities. <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Anti-Jewish</a> <a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">pogroms</a> were carried out all over Europe; in February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> States were also guilty of discrimination against the Jews. Monarchs gave in to the demands of the people, and the Jews were expelled from England in 1290, from France in 1306, from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the Jews were suffering persecution, one group that probably experienced increased empowerment in the late Middle Ages was women. The great social changes of the period opened up new possibilities for women in the fields of commerce, learning, and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Klapisch-Zuber268_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klapisch-Zuber268-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet at the same time, women were also vulnerable to incrimination and persecution, as belief in <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> increased.<sup id="cite_ref-Klapisch-Zuber268_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klapisch-Zuber268-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The accumulation of social, environmental, and health-related problems also led to an increase in interpersonal violence in most parts of Europe. Population increase, religious intolerance, famine, and disease led to an increase in violent acts in vast parts of medieval society. One exception to this was North-Eastern Europe, whose population managed to maintain low levels of violence due to a more organized society resulting from extensive and successful trade.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Up until the mid-14th century, Europe had experienced steadily increasing <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cities were also decimated by the Black Death, but the role of urban areas as centres of learning, commerce, and government ensured continued growth.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1500, Venice, Milan, Naples, Paris, and <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> each probably had more than 100,000 inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-Allmand125_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allmand125-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twenty-two other cities were larger than 40,000; most of these were in Italy and the Iberian peninsula, but there were also some in France, the Empire, and the Low Countries, as well as London in England.<sup id="cite_ref-Allmand125_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allmand125-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_history">Military history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Military history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Medieval warfare</a></div> <table style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Medieval warfare</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg/250px-Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg/330px-Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg/500px-Battle_of_crecy_froissart.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1998" data-file-height="1755" /></a><figcaption> Miniature of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Battle of Crécy</a> (1346)<br /> Manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Froissart" title="Jean Froissart">Jean Froissart</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Froissart%27s_Chronicles" title="Froissart's Chronicles">Chronicles</a></i>.<br /> <hr /> The <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> saw many military innovations. </figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Through battles such as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Golden_Spurs" title="Battle of the Golden Spurs">Courtrai</a> (1302), <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn" title="Battle of Bannockburn">Bannockburn</a> (1314), and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Morgarten" title="Battle of Morgarten">Morgarten</a> (1315), it became clear to the great territorial princes of Europe that the military advantage of the feudal <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> was lost and that a well equipped <a href="/wiki/Infantry_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Infantry in the Middle Ages">infantry</a> was preferable.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through the <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Welsh Wars</a>, the English became acquainted with, and adopted, the highly efficient <a href="/wiki/English_longbow" title="English longbow">longbow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once properly managed, this weapon gave them a great advantage over the French in the Hundred Years' War.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The introduction of <a href="/wiki/Black_powder" class="mw-redirect" title="Black powder">gunpowder</a> affected the conduct of war significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though employed by the English as early as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cr%C3%A9cy" title="Battle of Crécy">Battle of Crécy</a> in 1346, <a href="/wiki/Firearms" class="mw-redirect" title="Firearms">firearms</a> initially had little effect in the field of battle.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was through the use of <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> as <a href="/wiki/Siege_engine" title="Siege engine">siege weapons</a> that major change was brought about; the new methods would eventually change the architectural structure of <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">fortifications</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Changes also took place within the recruitment and composition of armies. The use of the <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">national</a> or <a href="/wiki/Feudal_levy" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal levy">feudal levy</a> was gradually replaced by paid troops of domestic <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinues</a> or foreign <a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">mercenaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice was associated with <a href="/wiki/Edward_III_of_England" title="Edward III of England">Edward III of England</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Condottieri" class="mw-redirect" title="Condottieri">condottieri</a> of the Italian city-states.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All over Europe, <a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a> were in particularly high demand.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, the period also saw the emergence of the first permanent armies. It was in <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">Valois</a> France, under the heavy demands of the Hundred Years' War, that the armed forces gradually assumed a permanent nature.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parallel to the military developments emerged also a constantly more elaborate <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">chivalric</a> code of conduct for the warrior class.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This newfound ethos can be seen as a response to the diminishing military role of the aristocracy, and it gradually became almost entirely detached from its military origin.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spirit of chivalry was given expression through the new (<a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secular</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> type of <a href="/wiki/Chivalric_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Chivalric order">chivalric orders</a>; the first of these was the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Saint_George_(Kingdom_of_Hungary)" title="Order of Saint George (Kingdom of Hungary)">Order of St. George</a>, founded by <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Hungary" title="Charles I of Hungary">Charles I of Hungary</a> in 1325, while the best known was probably the English <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_Garter" title="Order of the Garter">Order of the Garter</a>, founded by Edward III in 1348.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christian_conflict_and_reform">Christian conflict and reform</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Christian conflict and reform"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Papal_Schism">The Papal Schism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The Papal Schism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></div> <p>The French crown's increasing dominance over the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">Papacy</a> culminated in the transference of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_See" title="Holy See">Holy See</a> to <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a> in 1309.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Pope returned to <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> (1378–1417).<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland, and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia, and most of the German princes.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> (1414–1418), the Papacy was once more united in Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though the unity of the Western Church was to last for another hundred years, and though the Papacy was to experience greater material prosperity than ever before, the Great Schism had done irreparable damage.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The internal struggles within the Church had impaired her claim to universal rule and promoted <a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">anti-clericalism</a> among the people and their rulers, paving the way for reform movements.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant_Reformation">Protestant Reformation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Protestant Reformation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lollardy" title="Lollardy">Lollardy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/180px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/270px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/360px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2880" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> burnt at the stake</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg/250px-Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg/500px-Lutherstadt_Wittenberg_09-2016_photo06.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3555" data-file-height="3555" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/All_Saints%27_Church,_Wittenberg" title="All Saints' Church, Wittenberg">All Saints' Church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> posted his <i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i>, giving rise to <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Though many of the events were outside the traditional time period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>) was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the medieval period.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradyxvii_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradyxvii-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> had long fought against heretic movements, but during the late Middle Ages, it started to experience demands for reform from within.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first of these came from <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford</a> professor <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> in England.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wycliffe held that the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> should be the only authority in religious questions, and he spoke out against <a href="/wiki/Transubstantiation" title="Transubstantiation">transubstantiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celibacy" title="Celibacy">celibacy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of influential supporters among the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> aristocracy, such as <a href="/wiki/John_of_Gaunt" title="John of Gaunt">John of Gaunt</a>, the movement was not allowed to survive. Though Wycliffe himself was left unmolested, his supporters, the <a href="/wiki/Lollards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollards">Lollards</a>, were eventually suppressed in England.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The marriage of <a href="/wiki/Richard_II_of_England" title="Richard II of England">Richard II of England</a> to <a href="/wiki/Anne_of_Bohemia" title="Anne of Bohemia">Anne of Bohemia</a> established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Czech_lands" title="Czech lands">Czech</a> priest <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the <a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hus gained a great following in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a> fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the <a href="/wiki/Czechs" title="Czechs">Czechs</a>, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, a German monk, started the <a href="/wiki/German_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="German Reformation">German Reformation</a> by posting <a href="/wiki/95_theses" class="mw-redirect" title="95 theses">95 theses</a> on the castle church of <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a> on October 31, 1517.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The immediate provocation spurring this act was <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a>'s renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a> in 1514.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a> in 1521.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire by <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Receiving the protection of <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Elector_of_Saxony" title="Frederick III, Elector of Saxony">Frederick the Wise</a>, he was then able to translate the Bible into <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To many secular rulers, the Protestant Reformation was a welcome opportunity to expand their wealth and influence.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Catholic Church met the challenges of the reforming movements with what has been called the Catholic Reformation, or <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Europe became split into northern <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> and southern Catholic parts, resulting in the Religious Wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trade_and_commerce">Trade and commerce</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Trade and commerce"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table style="float:right; width:222px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;">Medieval merchant routes </th></tr> <tr> <td> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg/500px-Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg/960px-Late_Medieval_Trade_Routes.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1457" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption> Main trade routes of late medieval Europe.<br /> <hr /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Black; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hansa</a><br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Blue; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetian</a><br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Red; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoese</a><br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Purple; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Venetian and Genoese<br /> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#6a6a6a; color:white;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> (<i>stippled</i>) Overland and river routes </figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The increasingly dominant position of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> presented an impediment to trade for the Christian nations of the west, who in turn started looking for alternatives.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Portuguese and Spanish explorers found new trade routes – south of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, as well as across the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> to <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetian</a> merchants opened up direct sea routes with <a href="/wiki/Flanders" title="Flanders">Flanders</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Champagne_fairs" title="Champagne fairs">Champagne fairs</a> lost much of their importance.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the same time, English wool export shifted from raw wool to processed cloth, resulting in losses for the cloth manufacturers of the Low Countries.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hanseatic_League" title="Hanseatic League">Hanseatic League</a> reached the peak of their power in the 14th century but started going into decline in the fifteenth.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a "commercial revolution".<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the innovations of the period were new forms of <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">partnership</a> and the issuing of <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a>, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the <a href="/wiki/Negotiable_instrument#Bill_of_exchange" title="Negotiable instrument">bill of exchange</a> and other forms of credit that circumvented the <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canonical laws</a> for <a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">gentiles</a> against <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">usury</a> and eliminated the dangers of carrying <a href="/wiki/Precious_metal" title="Precious metal">bullion</a>; and new forms of <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a>, in particular <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-entry bookkeeping system">double-entry bookkeeping</a>, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a>, while on a national level, special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like the English wool <a href="/wiki/The_staple" class="mw-redirect" title="The staple">Staple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the <a href="/wiki/Fugger_family" title="Fugger family">Fuggers</a> in Germany, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Medici" title="House of Medici">Medicis</a> in Italy, and the <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Suffolk" title="Duke of Suffolk">de la Poles</a> in England and individuals like <a href="/wiki/Jacques_C%C5%93ur" title="Jacques Cœur">Jacques Cœur</a> in France would help finance the wars of kings, achieving great political influence in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in <i>absolute</i> terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called "depression of the Renaissance".<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arts_and_sciences">Arts and sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Arts and sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 14th century, the predominant academic trend of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a> was challenged by the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanist</a> movement. Though primarily an attempt to revitalise the <a href="/wiki/Classical_language" title="Classical language">classical languages</a>, the movement also led to innovations within the fields of science, art, and literature, helped by impulses from <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> scholars who had to seek refuge in the west after the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In science, classical authorities like <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> were challenged for the first time since antiquity. Within the arts, humanism took the form of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. Though the 15th-century Renaissance was a highly localised phenomenon – limited mostly to the city-states of northern Italy – artistic developments were taking place also further north, particularly in the Netherlands.<sup id="cite_ref-For_references,_see_below_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-For_references,_see_below-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy,_science_and_technology"><span id="Philosophy.2C_science_and_technology"></span>Philosophy, science and technology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophy, science and technology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Middle Ages">History of science in the Middle Ages</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval technology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:European_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/European_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.png/250px-European_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/European_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.png/330px-European_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/European_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.png/500px-European_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.png 2x" data-file-width="1278" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption>European output of manuscripts 500–1500. The rising trend in medieval book production saw its continuation in the period.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Printing_towns_incunabula.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Printing_towns_incunabula.svg/300px-Printing_towns_incunabula.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Printing_towns_incunabula.svg/450px-Printing_towns_incunabula.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Printing_towns_incunabula.svg/600px-Printing_towns_incunabula.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1843" data-file-height="1995" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Global_spread_of_the_printing_press" title="Global spread of the printing press">Spread of printing</a> by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mainz" title="Mainz">Mainz</a> in Europe in the 15th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the <a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomistic</a> reconciliation of the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> with <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Condemnations_(University_of_Paris)#Condemnation_of_1277" class="mw-redirect" title="Condemnations (University of Paris)">Condemnation of 1277</a>, enacted at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical, restrictions that had implication for <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> thought.<sup id="cite_ref-SEP_1277_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEP_1277-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternative was presented by <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>, following the manner of the earlier Franciscan <a href="/wiki/John_Duns_Scotus" class="mw-redirect" title="John Duns Scotus">John Duns Scotus</a>, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Occam's razor</a> – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This maxim is, however, often misquoted. Occam was referring to his nominalism in this quotation. Essentially saying the theory of absolutes, or metaphysical realism, was unnecessary to make sense of the world. </p><p>This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of <a href="/wiki/Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a>, great advances were made, when such scholars as <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a> challenged the work of Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Buridan developed the theory of <i>impetus</i> as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The works of these scholars anticipated the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> worldview of <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> or <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> origin or unique European innovations – were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particular <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle not only affected military organisation but also helped advance the nation-state. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a> made possible not only the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a> but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. The <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, along with other innovations such as the <a href="/wiki/Cross-staff" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-staff">cross-staff</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">mariner's astrolabe</a>, and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the <a href="/wiki/World_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="World Ocean">World Oceans</a> and the early phases of <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as <a href="/wiki/Glasses" title="Glasses">eyeglasses</a> and the weight-driven <a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">clock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visual_arts_and_architecture">Visual arts and architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Visual arts and architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Medieval art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Medieval architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MZK_003_Nr_01_Fig_27_-_Holzwohnhaus_Halberstadt_Aufbau.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/MZK_003_Nr_01_Fig_27_-_Holzwohnhaus_Halberstadt_Aufbau.jpg/250px-MZK_003_Nr_01_Fig_27_-_Holzwohnhaus_Halberstadt_Aufbau.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="371" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/MZK_003_Nr_01_Fig_27_-_Holzwohnhaus_Halberstadt_Aufbau.jpg/330px-MZK_003_Nr_01_Fig_27_-_Holzwohnhaus_Halberstadt_Aufbau.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/MZK_003_Nr_01_Fig_27_-_Holzwohnhaus_Halberstadt_Aufbau.jpg/500px-MZK_003_Nr_01_Fig_27_-_Holzwohnhaus_Halberstadt_Aufbau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="2324" /></a><figcaption>Urban dwelling house, late 15th century, <a href="/wiki/Halberstadt" title="Halberstadt">Halberstadt</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <p>A precursor to <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> art can be seen already in the early 14th-century works of <a href="/wiki/Giotto_di_Bondone" class="mw-redirect" title="Giotto di Bondone">Giotto</a>. Giotto was the first painter since antiquity to attempt the representation of three-dimensional reality and endow his characters with true human emotions.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important developments, however, came in 15th-century Florence. The affluence of the merchant class allowed extensive patronage of the arts, and foremost among the patrons were the Medici.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">linear perspective</a> found in the work of <a href="/wiki/Masaccio" title="Masaccio">Masaccio</a> and later described by <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi" title="Filippo Brunelleschi">Brunelleschi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like <a href="/wiki/Donatello" title="Donatello">Donatello</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the <a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a> masters <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">da Vinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a> were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan van Eyck</a> was a champion of the new medium and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In northern European countries, <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a> remained the norm, and the Gothic cathedral was further elaborated.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Italy, on the other hand, architecture took a different direction, also here inspired by classical ideals. The crowning work of the period was the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_del_Fiore" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Maria del Fiore">Santa Maria del Fiore</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, with Giotto's clock tower, <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Ghiberti" title="Lorenzo Ghiberti">Ghiberti</a>'s baptistery gates, and <a href="/wiki/Filippo_Brunelleschi" title="Filippo Brunelleschi">Brunelleschi</a>'s cathedral <a href="/wiki/Dome" title="Dome">dome</a> of unprecedented proportions.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Medieval literature</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dante_Domenico_di_Michelino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Dante_Domenico_di_Michelino.jpg/250px-Dante_Domenico_di_Michelino.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Dante_Domenico_di_Michelino.jpg/330px-Dante_Domenico_di_Michelino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Dante_Domenico_di_Michelino.jpg/500px-Dante_Domenico_di_Michelino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1649" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> as portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Domenico_di_Michelino" title="Domenico di Michelino">Domenico di Michelino</a>, from a fresco painted in 1465</figcaption></figure> <p>The most important development of late medieval literature was the ascendancy of the <a href="/wiki/Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a> languages.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vernacular had been in use in England since the 8th century and France since the 11th century, where the most popular genres had been the <a href="/wiki/Chanson_de_geste" title="Chanson de geste">chanson de geste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadour lyrics</a>, and romantic epics, or the <a href="/wiki/Romance_(heroic_literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance (heroic literature)">romance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though Italy was later in evolving a native literature in the vernacular language, it was here that the most important developments of the period were to come.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a></i>, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval worldview with classical ideals.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another promoter of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a> was <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Boccaccio</a> with his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Decameron" title="The Decameron">Decameron</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> later (whose <i><a href="/wiki/Il_Canzoniere" title="Il Canzoniere">Canzoniere</a></i> also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern <a href="/wiki/Lyric_poem" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyric poem">lyric poems</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Together, the three poets established the <a href="/wiki/Tuscan_dialect" title="Tuscan dialect">Tuscan dialect</a> as the norm for the modern <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new literary style spread rapidly and in France, influenced such writers as <a href="/wiki/Eustache_Deschamps" title="Eustache Deschamps">Eustache Deschamps</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_de_Machaut" title="Guillaume de Machaut">Guillaume de Machaut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In England, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Chaucer" title="Geoffrey Chaucer">Geoffrey Chaucer</a> helped establish <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> as a literary language with his <i><a href="/wiki/The_Canterbury_Tales" title="The Canterbury Tales">Canterbury Tales</a></i>, which contained a wide variety of narrators and stories (including some translated from Boccaccio).<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spread of vernacular literature eventually reached as far as Bohemia and the Baltic, Slavic, and Byzantine worlds.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Medieval music</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vielle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Vielle.jpg/250px-Vielle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Vielle.jpg/330px-Vielle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Vielle.jpg/440px-Vielle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="632" /></a><figcaption>A musician plays the <a href="/wiki/Vielle" title="Vielle">vielle</a> in a 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">Medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscript</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities, it made up part of the <i><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a></i> of the liberal arts.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the <a href="/wiki/Motet" title="Motet">motet</a>, a composition with text in several parts.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the 1330s and onwards emerged the <a href="/wiki/Polyphony" title="Polyphony">polyphonic</a> style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the <a href="/wiki/Provence" title="Provence">Provençal</a> <a href="/wiki/Troubadour" title="Troubadour">troubadours</a>. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a>, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as <i><a href="/wiki/Ars_nova" title="Ars nova">ars nova</a></i> as opposed to <i><a href="/wiki/Ars_antiqua" title="Ars antiqua">ars antiqua</a></i>, were the composers <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Vitry" title="Philippe de Vitry">Philippe de Vitry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_de_Machaut" title="Guillaume de Machaut">Guillaume de Machaut</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of <a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Trecento" title="Music of the Trecento">trecento</a>, and the leading composers were <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Cascia" title="Giovanni da Cascia">Giovanni da Cascia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacopo_da_Bologna" title="Jacopo da Bologna">Jacopo da Bologna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Landini" title="Francesco Landini">Francesco Landini</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prominent reformer of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox music">Orthodox Church music</a> from the first half of the 14th century was <a href="/wiki/John_Kukuzelis" class="mw-redirect" title="John Kukuzelis">John Kukuzelis</a>; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> in the following centuries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theatre">Theatre</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Theatre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Medieval theatre</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>, plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular <a href="/wiki/Mystery_plays" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery plays">Mystery plays</a> were written in cycles of a large number of plays: <a href="/wiki/York_Mystery_Plays" title="York Mystery Plays">York</a> (48 plays), <a href="/wiki/Chester_Mystery_Plays" title="Chester Mystery Plays">Chester</a> (24), <a href="/wiki/Wakefield_Mystery_Plays" title="Wakefield Mystery Plays">Wakefield</a> (32), and <a href="/wiki/N-Town_Plays" title="N-Town Plays">Unknown</a> (42). A larger number of plays survive from <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> in this period, and some type of religious drama was performed in nearly every European country in the late Middle Ages. Many of these plays contained <a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">comedy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devil" title="Devil">devils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Villain" title="Villain">villains</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clown" title="Clown">clowns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Morality_plays" class="mw-redirect" title="Morality plays">Morality plays</a> emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550, an example being <i><a href="/wiki/The_Castle_of_Perseverance" title="The Castle of Perseverance">The Castle of Perseverance</a></i>, which depicts <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">mankind</a>'s progress from birth to death. Another famous morality play is <i><a href="/wiki/Everyman_(15th-century_play)" title="Everyman (15th-century play)">Everyman</a></i>. Everyman receives <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">Death</a>'s summons, struggles to escape, and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kindred</a>, <a href="/wiki/Good_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Good (economics)">Goods</a>, and Fellowship – only <a href="/wiki/Good_works" title="Good works">Good Deeds</a> goes with him to the grave. </p><p>At the end of the late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hall" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Hall">Great Hall</a> of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were <a href="/wiki/Mummers_Play" class="mw-redirect" title="Mummers Play">Mummers' plays</a>, performed during the <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a> season, and court <a href="/wiki/Masque" title="Masque">masques</a>. These masques were especially popular during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a> who had a House of Revels built and an <a href="/wiki/Master_of_the_Revels" title="Master of the Revels">Office of Revels</a> established in 1545.<sup id="cite_ref-BH101_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BH101-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, and the banning of religious plays in many countries. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> forbid all religious plays in 1558, and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> in 1539, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> in 1547, and <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.<sup id="cite_ref-BH101_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BH101-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_the_Middle_Ages">After the Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: After the Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></div> <p>After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin an <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">era of world discovery</a>. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a>' travel to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1492, and <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s circumnavigation of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a> in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ottomans_and_Europe">Ottomans and Europe</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Ottomans and Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman wars in Europe</a></div> <table style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="color:#black; background:#f8eaba; font-size:100%; text-align:center;" colspan="2">Ottomans and Europe </th></tr> <tr> <td> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg/250px-Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg/500px-Battle_of_Nandorfehervar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1407" data-file-height="1074" /></a><figcaption> Saint <a href="/wiki/John_of_Capistrano" title="John of Capistrano">John of Capistrano</a> and the Hungarian armies fighting the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1456)">siege of Belgrade</a> in 1456 </figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_(1458-1490).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png/250px-The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png/330px-The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png/500px-The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="1707" /></a><figcaption> King <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus" title="Matthias Corvinus">Matthias Corvinus</a>'s Black Army campaigns. </figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>By the end of the 15th century, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> had advanced all over <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">Southeast Europe</a>, eventually conquering the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the death of the young king <a href="/wiki/Vladislaus_I_of_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladislaus I of Hungary">Vladislaus I of Hungary</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna</a> in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of Count <a href="/wiki/John_Hunyadi" title="John Hunyadi">John Hunyadi</a>, who became Hungary's regent-governor (1446–1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: Pope <a href="/wiki/Pius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius II">Pius II</a> awarded him the title of <i><a href="/wiki/Athleta_Christi" title="Athleta Christi">Athleta Christi</a></i>, or Champion of Christ, for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe. </p><p>Hunyadi succeeded during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1456)">siege of Belgrade</a> in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscan</a> friar Saint <a href="/wiki/John_of_Capistrano" title="John of Capistrano">John of Capistrano</a>, who came from Italy predicating him holy war. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian lord left <a href="/wiki/Pannonia" title="Pannonia">Pannonia</a> defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as <a href="/wiki/King_of_Hungary" title="King of Hungary">king of Hungary</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_nobility" title="Hungarian nobility">Hungarian nobility</a>. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned. </p><p>King <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus" title="Matthias Corvinus">Matthias Corvinus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick III of Habsburg</a>, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the <a href="/wiki/Black_Army_of_Hungary" title="Black Army of Hungary">Black Army</a> of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Moh%C3%A1cs" title="Battle of Mohács">Battle of Mohács</a>, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and <a href="/wiki/Louis_II_of_Hungary" title="Louis II of Hungary">Louis II of Hungary</a> drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of medieval times. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Timeline">Timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline of the Middle Ages</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_dxuf8cn0eo0xr6t8dpr5p0bbx15x3vy"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" coords="346,244,498,265" title="Mississippian culture" alt="Mississippian culture" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Islamic_empires_in_India" coords="362,228,482,248" title="Islamic empires in India" alt="Islamic empires in India" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Joseon_Dynasty" coords="553,212,622,233" title="Joseon Dynasty" alt="Joseon Dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Goryeo" coords="193,212,262,233" title="Goryeo" alt="Goryeo" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Muromachi_period" coords="444,197,530,217" title="Muromachi period" alt="Muromachi period" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kenmu_restoration" coords="154,197,218,217" title="Kenmu restoration" alt="Kenmu restoration" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kamakura_period" coords="81,197,162,217" title="Kamakura period" alt="Kamakura period" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ming_Dynasty" coords="515,181,574,202" title="Ming Dynasty" alt="Ming Dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Yuan_Dynasty" coords="155,181,214,202" title="Yuan Dynasty" alt="Yuan Dynasty" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" coords="251,158,353,179" title="Golden Horde" alt="Golden Horde" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" coords="240,169,365,190" title="Chagatai Khanate" alt="Chagatai Khanate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" coords="385,150,459,171" title="Mamluk Sultanate" alt="Mamluk Sultanate" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" coords="336,134,472,155" title="Kingdom of Georgia" alt="Kingdom of Georgia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" coords="542,119,622,139" title="Ottoman Empire" alt="Ottoman Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" coords="246,119,360,139" title="Serbian Empire" alt="Serbian Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" coords="69,119,217,139" title="Second Bulgarian Empire" alt="Second Bulgarian Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Renaissance" coords="373,96,471,117" title="Renaissance" alt="Renaissance" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" coords="348,107,496,128" title="Italian Renaissance" alt="Italian Renaissance" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" coords="703,88,839,108" title="German Renaissance" alt="German Renaissance" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" coords="346,88,476,108" title="Holy Roman Empire" alt="Holy Roman Empire" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Renaissance" coords="710,72,807,93" title="Renaissance" alt="Renaissance" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" coords="544,72,613,93" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow" alt="Grand Duchy of Moscow" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" coords="199,72,285,93" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania" alt="Grand Duchy of Lithuania" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Renaissance" coords="719,56,816,77" title="Renaissance" alt="Renaissance" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Reconquista" coords="359,56,456,77" title="Reconquista" alt="Reconquista" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" coords="354,41,490,61" title="Kingdom of England" alt="Kingdom of England" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" coords="551,25,653,46" title="Kalmar Union" alt="Kalmar Union" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" coords="179,25,305,46" title="Christianization of Scandinavia" alt="Christianization of Scandinavia" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Early_modern" coords="637,14,751,34" title="Early modern" alt="Early modern" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Modern" coords="659,3,729,23" title="Modern" alt="Modern" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" coords="84,10,220,30" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages" alt="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_dxuf8cn0eo0xr6t8dpr5p0bbx15x3vy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/dxuf8cn0eo0xr6t8dpr5p0bbx15x3vy.png" /></div> <p><i>Dates are approximate, consult particular articles for details</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffd880; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f2d97f; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Middle Ages themes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cccccc; color:black;border:1px solid silver;"> </span> Other themes </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history (field)</a></div> <p><b>14th century</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">14th century</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li>1305: <a href="/wiki/William_Wallace" title="William Wallace">William Wallace</a> was executed</li> <li>1307: The <a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> were destroyed</li> <li>1309: Beginning of <a href="/wiki/Avignon_papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Avignon papacy">Avignon papacy</a></li> <li>1310: <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a> began the <i><a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a></i></li> <li>1314: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn" title="Battle of Bannockburn">Battle of Bannockburn</a></li> <li>1315–1317 <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li> <li>1321–1328 <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_civil_war_of_1321%E2%80%9328" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine civil war of 1321–28">Byzantine civil war</a></li> <li>1328: <a href="/wiki/First_War_of_Scottish_Independence" title="First War of Scottish Independence">First War of Scottish Independence</a> ends</li> <li>1337: The <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> begins</li> <li>1346: <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Uro%C5%A1_IV_Du%C5%A1an_of_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia">Stephen Dušan</a> established a short-lived <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li>1347: The <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> begins</li> <li>1347: <a href="/wiki/Charles_University_in_Prague" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles University in Prague">University of Prague</a> was founded</li> <li>1348: <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Villani" title="Giovanni Villani">Giovanni Villani</a> finishes work on <i><a href="/wiki/Nuova_Cronica" title="Nuova Cronica">Nuova Cronica</a></i></li> <li>1348–1349: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Genoese_War_(1348%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine–Genoese War (1348–49)">Byzantine–Genoese War</a></li> <li>1362: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Blue_Waters" title="Battle of Blue Waters">Battle of Blue Waters</a></li></ul> <p>Lithuania defeats Golden Horde. Principality of Kiev becomes part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania </p> <ul><li>1364: <a href="/wiki/Jagiellonian_University" title="Jagiellonian University">Jagiellonian University</a> was founded</li> <li>1371: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maritsa" title="Battle of Maritsa">Battle of Maritsa</a>—first substantial Ottoman victory in Europe; partition of <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a></li> <li>1376: <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a> ended</li> <li>1380: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo" title="Battle of Kulikovo">Battle of Kulikovo</a></li> <li>1380: The <i><a href="/wiki/Canterbury_Tales" class="mw-redirect" title="Canterbury Tales">Canterbury Tales</a></i></li> <li>1381: <a href="/wiki/Peasants%27_Revolt" title="Peasants' Revolt">Peasants' Revolt</a> (England)</li> <li>1381: <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> translated the Bible</li> <li>1385: <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Krewo" title="Union of Krewo">Union of Krewo</a>, initiation of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_union" title="Polish–Lithuanian union">Polish–Lithuanian union</a></li> <li>1385: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aljubarrota" title="Battle of Aljubarrota">Battle of Aljubarrota</a></li> <li>1386: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Heidelberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Heidelberg">University of Heidelberg</a> was founded</li> <li>1389: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kosovo" title="Battle of Kosovo">Battle of Kosovo</a>—Serbian and Bosnian forces defeated by the Ottomans</li> <li>1342–1392: Partitioning of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rus">Kingdom of Rus</a> (Galicia) between Poland and Lithuania (<a href="/wiki/Galicia%E2%80%93Volhynia_Wars" title="Galicia–Volhynia Wars">Galicia–Volhynia Wars</a>)</li> <li>1396: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nicopolis" title="Battle of Nicopolis">Battle of Nicopolis</a> and first Ottoman conquest in Europe</li> <li>1397: <a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div> </div> <p><b>15th century</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/15th_century" title="15th century">15th century</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115" /><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ul><li>1402: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ankara" title="Battle of Ankara">Battle of Ankara</a></li> <li>1409: <a href="/wiki/Venetian_Dalmatia" title="Venetian Dalmatia">Venetian Dalmatia</a></li> <li>1410: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grunwald" title="Battle of Grunwald">Battle of Grunwald</a></li> <li>1415: <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Ceuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Ceuta">Conquest of Ceuta</a></li> <li>1415: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Agincourt" title="Battle of Agincourt">Battle of Agincourt</a></li> <li>1415: <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> was burned at the stake</li> <li>1417: The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a></li> <li>1419–1434: <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li>1429: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Orl%C3%A9ans" title="Siege of Orléans">Battle of Orléans</a></li> <li>1431: <a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a> was burned at the stake</li> <li>1434: The <a href="/wiki/Medici_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici family">Medici family</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a></li> <li>1439: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> first used movable type printing in Europe</li> <li>1444: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Varna" title="Battle of Varna">Battle of Varna</a></li> <li>1445: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suzdal" title="Battle of Suzdal">Battle of Suzdal</a></li> <li>1453: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Constantinople falls</a> to Ottoman conquest</li> <li>1455: <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a> printed in Mainz</li> <li>1456: <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1456)">Siege of Belgrade</a></li> <li>1461: The <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a> fell to the Turks</li> <li>1469: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li>1470: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lipnic" title="Battle of Lipnic">Battle of Lipnic</a></li> <li>1474–1477: <a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Wars" title="Burgundian Wars">Burgundian Wars</a></li> <li>1478: <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Moscow" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Duchy of Moscow">Muscovy</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Novgorod" class="mw-redirect" title="Novgorod">Novgorod</a></li> <li>1478: The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a></li> <li>1479: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Breadfield" title="Battle of Breadfield">Battle of Breadfield</a></li> <li>1480: <a href="/wiki/Great_Stand_on_the_Ugra_River" title="Great Stand on the Ugra River">Great Stand on the Ugra River</a>. The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke over the Russian principalities.</li> <li>1485: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malory" title="Thomas Malory">Thomas Malory</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Le_Morte_d%27Arthur" title="Le Morte d'Arthur">Le Morte d'Arthur</a></i>)</li> <li>1492: <a href="/wiki/Alhambra_Decree" title="Alhambra Decree">Alhambra Decree</a></li> <li>1492: <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> ended with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Granada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Granada">fall of Granada</a></li> <li>1492: <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> reached the "<a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>"</li> <li>1494: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li>1497–1498: Portuguese explorer <a href="/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama" title="Vasco da Gama">Vasco da Gama</a>'s first voyage reached India after circumnavigating Africa</li> <li>1499: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zonchio" title="Battle of Zonchio">Battle of Zonchio</a></li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_juin.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Peasants in fields Très Riches Heures."><img alt="Peasants in fields Très Riches Heures." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_juin.jpg/120px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_juin.jpg" decoding="async" width="74" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_juin.jpg/250px-Les_Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry_juin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1167" data-file-height="1884" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Peasants in fields<br /><i><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%A8s_Riches_Heures_du_duc_de_Berry" class="mw-redirect" title="Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry">Très Riches Heures</a></i>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joan of Arc (Hundred Years' War)"><img alt="Joan of Arc (Hundred Years' War)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg/120px-Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg/250px-Joan_of_Arc_miniature_graded.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1812" data-file-height="2700" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Joan_of_Arc" title="Joan of Arc">Joan of Arc</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chronicon_Pictum_I_Karoly_Robert.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Charles I (Kingdom of Hungary)"><img alt="Charles I (Kingdom of Hungary)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Chronicon_Pictum_I_Karoly_Robert.jpg/120px-Chronicon_Pictum_I_Karoly_Robert.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Chronicon_Pictum_I_Karoly_Robert.jpg/250px-Chronicon_Pictum_I_Karoly_Robert.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="858" data-file-height="1065" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Hungary" title="Charles I of Hungary">Charles I</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Kingdom of Hungary</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jan Hus (Bohemian Reformation)"><img alt="Jan Hus (Bohemian Reformation)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/80px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/120px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg/160px-Jan_Hus_at_the_Stake.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2880" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther,_1528_(Veste_Coburg).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Martin Luther (Protestantism)"><img alt="Martin Luther (Protestantism)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg/76px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="76" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg/114px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg/151px-Lucas_Cranach_d.%C3%84._-_Martin_Luther%2C_1528_%28Veste_Coburg%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2148" data-file-height="3400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a>)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/20px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG/40px-The_Metropolitan_M_Stamp.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="267" data-file-height="267" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/21px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/42px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_medieval_history_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of basic medieval history topics">List of basic medieval history topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Middle Ages">Timeline of the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and state in medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in the Middle Ages">Jews in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_book_illustration" title="Gothic book illustration">Gothic book illustration</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-For_references,_see_below-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-For_references,_see_below_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-For_references,_see_below_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">For references, see below.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 24em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wallace K. Ferguson, <i>Europe in transition, 1300–1520</i> (1962) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europeintransiti00ferg">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). <i>A pest in the land: new world epidemics in a global perspective</i>. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-2871-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-2871-7">0-8263-2871-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Cantor, <i>The Civilization of the Middle Ages</i> (1994) p. 480.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 594.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hankins-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hankins_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leonardo Bruni, James Hankins, <i>History of the Florentine people</i>, Volume 1, Books 1–4, (2001), p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brady <i>et al.</i>, p. xiv; Cantor, p. 529.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurckhardt1860" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Burckhardt" title="Jacob Burckhardt">Burckhardt, Jacob</a> (1860). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilizationofre00burc_2/page/121"><i>The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy</i></a>. Harper & Row. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilizationofre00burc_2/page/121">121</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-090460-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-090460-7"><bdi>0-06-090460-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civilization+of+the+Renaissance+in+Italy&rft.pages=121&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1860&rft.isbn=0-06-090460-7&rft.aulast=Burckhardt&rft.aufirst=Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilizationofre00burc_2%2Fpage%2F121&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHaskins1927" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Homer_Haskins" title="Charles Homer Haskins">Haskins, Charles Homer</a> (1927). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/renaissanceoftw00char"><i>The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century</i></a></span>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821934-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821934-2"><bdi>0-19-821934-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Renaissance+of+the+Twelfth+Century&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1927&rft.isbn=0-19-821934-2&rft.aulast=Haskins&rft.aufirst=Charles+Homer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frenaissanceoftw00char&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Les périodes de l'histoire du capitalisme", <i>Académie Royale de Belgique. Bulletin de la Classe des Lettres</i>, 1914.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuizinga1924" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johan_Huizinga" title="Johan Huizinga">Huizinga, Johan</a> (1924). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/waningofmiddle00huiz"><i>The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought and Art in France and the Netherlands in the XIVth and XVth Centuries</i></a>. London: E. Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-85540-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-85540-0"><bdi>0-312-85540-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Waning+of+the+Middle+Ages%3A+A+Study+of+the+Forms+of+Life%2C+Thought+and+Art+in+France+and+the+Netherlands+in+the+XIVth+and+XVth+Centuries&rft.place=London&rft.pub=E.+Arnold&rft.date=1924&rft.isbn=0-312-85540-0&rft.aulast=Huizinga&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwaningofmiddle00huiz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllmand1998" class="citation book cs1">Allmand, ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=PA299"><i>The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 7: c. 1415 – c. 1500</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 299. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521382960" title="Special:BookSources/9780521382960"><bdi>9780521382960</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240610000439/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qzc8OeuSXFMC&pg=PA299#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-12-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History%2C+vol.+7%3A+c.+1415+%E2%80%93+c.+1500&rft.pages=299&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780521382960&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQzc8OeuSXFMC%26pg%3DPA299&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman Cantor, <i>The Civilization of the Middle Ages</i> (1994) p. 530.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Le Goff, p. 154. See e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNajemy2004" class="citation book cs1">Najemy, John M. (2004). <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-870040-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-870040-7"><bdi>0-19-870040-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italy+in+the+Age+of+the+Renaissance%3A+1300%E2%80%931550&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-870040-7&rft.aulast=Najemy&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradyxvii-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bradyxvii_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradyxvii_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bradyxvii_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brady <i>et al.</i>, p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 3; Holmes, p. 294; Koenigsberger, pp. 299–300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BradyJones-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BradyJones_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brady et al., p. xvii; Jones, p. 21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 29; Cantor, p. 514; Koenigsberger, pp. 300–303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brady et al., p. xvii; Holmes, p. 276; Ozment, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 366; Jones, p. 722.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 703</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 673.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlan_Cutler1997" class="citation news cs1">Alan Cutler (1997-08-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191022092543/http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102/text/extlittleice.htm">"The Little Ice Age: When global cooling gripped the world"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ircamera.as.arizona.edu/NatSci102/NatSci102/text/extlittleice.htm">the original</a> on 2019-10-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Little+Ice+Age%3A+When+global+cooling+gripped+the+world&rft.date=1997-08-13&rft.au=Alan+Cutler&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fircamera.as.arizona.edu%2FNatSci102%2FNatSci102%2Ftext%2Fextlittleice.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, pp. 348–349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, pp. 350–351; Koenigsberger, p. 232; McKisack, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 351.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 458; Koenigsberger, p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 458; Nicholas, pp. 32–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 353; Jones, pp. 488–492.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKisack, pp. 228–229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 355; Holmes, pp. 288–289; Koenigsberger, p. 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duby, pp. 288–293; Holmes, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 450–455; Jones, pp. 528–529.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 455; Hollister, p. 355; Koenigsberger, p. 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 455; Hollister, p. 363; Koenigsberger, pp. 306–307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmes, pp. 311–312; Wandycz, p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 362; Holmes, p. 280.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 507; Hollister, p. 362.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 152–153; Cantor, p. 508; Koenigsberger, p. 345.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wandycz, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wandycz, p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 737.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 318; Wandycz, p. 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaldmanFarbaky2011" class="citation book cs1">Waldman, Louis A.; Farbaky, Péter (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l-OKuQAACAAJ"><i>Italy & Hungary: Humanism and Art in the Early Renaissance</i></a>. Villa I Tatti. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06346-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06346-4"><bdi>978-0-674-06346-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240610000505/https://books.google.com/books?id=l-OKuQAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-06-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italy+%26+Hungary%3A+Humanism+and+Art+in+the+Early+Renaissance&rft.pub=Villa+I+Tatti&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06346-4&rft.aulast=Waldman&rft.aufirst=Louis+A.&rft.au=Farbaky%2C+P%C3%A9ter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl-OKuQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, pp. 100–101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 322; Jones, p. 793; Martin, pp. 236–237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 754; Koenigsberger, p. 323.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand, p. 769; Hollister, p. 368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 771–774; Mango, p. 248.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 99; Koenigsberger, p. 340.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, pp. 796–797.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 875.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hollister,_p_p._339-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hollister,_p_p._339_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hollister,_p_p._339_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 360; Koenigsberger, p. 339.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 338.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 586; Hollister, p. 339; Holmes, p. 260.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand, pp. 150, 155; Cantor, p. 544; Hollister, p. 326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 547; Hollister, p. 363; Holmes, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 511; Hollister, p. 264; Koenigsberger, p. 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 577.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 356; Koenigsberger, p. 314</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 162; Hollister, p. 99; Holmes, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 192; Cantor, 513.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, 513; Holmes, pp. 266–267.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrove2003" class="citation book cs1">Grove, Jean M. (2003). <i>The Little Ice Age</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-01449-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-01449-2"><bdi>0-415-01449-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Little+Ice+Age&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-01449-2&rft.aulast=Grove&rft.aufirst=Jean+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHarvey1991" class="citation book cs1">Harvey, Barbara F. (1991). "Introduction: The 'Crisis' of the Early Fourteenth Century". In Campbell, B.M.S. (ed.). <i>Before the Black Death: Studies in The 'Crisis' of the Early Fourteenth Century</i>. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-3208-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-3208-3"><bdi>0-7190-3208-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+%27Crisis%27+of+the+Early+Fourteenth+Century&rft.btitle=Before+the+Black+Death%3A+Studies+in+The+%27Crisis%27+of+the+Early+Fourteenth+Century&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-7190-3208-3&rft.aulast=Harvey&rft.aufirst=Barbara+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, pp. 136–8;Cantor, p. 482.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herlihy (1997), p. 17; Jones, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 347.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do;jsessionid=649DA1AEFC71F2AB21FD38D0A9C3E1FD.omni_as07?p=WHIC&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX3426200028&asid=1537416000000~a9206f91">"World History in Context - Document - The Late Middle Ages"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240610000509/https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Bjsessionid%3D649DA1AEFC71F2AB21FD38D0A9C3E1FD.omni_as07%3Fp%3DWHIC%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3426200028%26asid%3D1537416000000%7Ea9206f91&prodId=WHIC">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+History+in+Context+-+Document+-+The+Late+Middle+Ages&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgo.galegroup.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Bjsessionid%3D649DA1AEFC71F2AB21FD38D0A9C3E1FD.omni_as07%3Fp%3DWHIC%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CCX3426200028%26asid%3D1537416000000~a9206f91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duby, p. 270; Koenigsberger, p. 284; McKisack, p. 334.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 484; Hollister, p. 332; Holmes, p. 303.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 564; Hollister, pp. 332–333; Koenigsberger, p. 285.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, pp. 332–333; Jones, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chazan, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 330; Holmes, p. 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brady et al., pp. 266–267; Chazan, pp. 166, 232; Koenigsberger, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Klapisch-Zuber268-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Klapisch-Zuber268_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klapisch-Zuber268_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Klapisch-Zuber, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBatenSteckel2019" class="citation journal cs1">Baten, Joerg; Steckel, Richard H. (2019). "The History of Violence in Europe: Evidence from Cranial and Postcranial Bone Traumata". <i>The Backbone of Europe: Health, Diet, Work and Violence over Two Millennia</i>: <span class="nowrap">300–</span>324.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Backbone+of+Europe%3A+Health%2C+Diet%2C+Work+and+Violence+over+Two+Millennia&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Violence+in+Europe%3A+Evidence+from+Cranial+and+Postcranial+Bone+Traumata&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E300-%3C%2Fspan%3E324&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Baten&rft.aufirst=Joerg&rft.au=Steckel%2C+Richard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 323; Holmes, p. 304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 164; Koenigsberger, p. 343.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Allmand125-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Allmand125_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Allmand125_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 125</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 350; McKisack, p. 39; Verbruggen, p. 111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1988), p. 59; Cantor, p. 467.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McKisack, p. 240, Verbruggen, pp. 171–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contamine, pp. 139–40; Jones, pp. 11–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contamine, pp. 198–200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 169; Contamine, pp. 200–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 515.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contamine, pp. 150–65; Holmes, p. 261; McKisack, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contamine, pp. 124, 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Contamine, pp. 165–72; Holmes, p. 300.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 349; Holmes, pp. 319–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03691a.htm">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Chivalry"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180109062419/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03691a.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-01-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+Chivalry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F03691a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 537; Jones, p. 209; McKisack, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 496.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 497; Hollister, p. 338; Holmes, p. 309.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 338; Koenigsberger, p. 326; Ozment, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 498; Ozment, p. 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, pp. 327–8; MacCulloch, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, p. 339; Holmes, p. 260; Koenigsberger, pp. 327–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A famous account of the nature and suppression of a heretic movement is <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Le_Roy_Ladurie" title="Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie">Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie</a>'s <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEmmanuel_Le_Roy_Ladurie.1978" class="citation book cs1">Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie. (1978). <i>Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village, 1294–1324</i>. London: Scolar Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85967-403-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-85967-403-7"><bdi>0-85967-403-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Montaillou%3A+Cathars+and+Catholics+in+a+French+Village%2C+1294%E2%80%931324&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Scolar+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-85967-403-7&rft.au=Emmanuel+Le+Roy+Ladurie.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacCulloch, p. 34–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 15; Cantor, pp. 499–500; Koenigsberger, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 15–6; MacCulloch, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holmes, p. 312; MacCulloch, pp. 35–6; Ozment, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 16; Cantor, p. 500.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 377; Koenigsberger, p. 332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 332; MacCulloch, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 353; Hollister, p. 344; Koenigsberger, p. 332–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacCulloch, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacCulloch, pp. 70, 117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacCulloch, p. 127; Ozment, p. 245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacCulloch, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ozment, p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 16–7; Cantor, pp. 500–1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacCulloch, p. 107; Ozment, p. 397.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacCulloch, p. 266; Ozment, pp. 259–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 159–60; Pounds, pp. 467–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollister, pp. 334–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cipolla (1976), p. 275; Koenigsberger, p. 295; Pounds, p. 361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cipolla (1976), p. 283; Koenigsberger, p. 297; Pounds, pp. 378–81.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cipolla (1976), p. 275; Cipolla (1994), p. 203, 234; Pounds, pp. 387–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 226; Pounds, p. 407.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cipolla (1976), pp. 318–29; Cipolla (1994), pp. 160–4; Holmes, p. 235; Jones, pp. 176–81; Koenigsberger, p. 226; Pounds, pp. 407–27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 121; Pearl, pp. 299–300; Koenigsberger, pp. 286, 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 150–3; Holmes, p. 304; Koenigsberger, p. 299; McKisack, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, p. 483.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCipolla1964" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Maria_Cipolla" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlo Maria Cipolla">Cipolla, C.M.</a> (1964). "Economic depression of the Renaissance?". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Economic_History_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The Economic History Society">Economic History Review</a></i>. <b>xvi</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">519–</span>24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2592852">10.2307/2592852</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2592852">2592852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=Economic+depression+of+the+Renaissance%3F&rft.volume=xvi&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E519-%3C%2Fspan%3E24&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2592852&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2592852%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cipolla&rft.aufirst=C.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pounds, pp. 484–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 243–54; Cantor, p. 594; Nicholas, p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the “Rise of the West”: Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", <i>The Journal of Economic History</i>, Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 42; Koenigsberger, p. 242.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SEP_1277-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SEP_1277_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHans_Thijssen2003" class="citation web cs1">Hans Thijssen (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/">"Condemnation of 1277"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170311030803/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/condemnation/">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-03-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Condemnation+of+1277&rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Hans+Thijssen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcondemnation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, p. 142; Nicholas, p. 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, pp. 100–3, 149, 164–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, pp. 95–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, pp. 112–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, pp. 11–2; Koenigsberger, pp. 297–8; Nicholas, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, p. 160; Koenigsberger, p. 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 433; Koenigsberger, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 155; Brotton, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burke, p. 24; Koenigsberger, p. 363; Nicholas, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 253; Cantor, p. 556.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 554; Nichols, pp. 159–60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brotton, p. 67; Burke, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 269; Koenigsberger, p. 376.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 302; Cantor, p. 539.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burke, p. 250; Nicholas, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), pp. 300–1, Hollister, p. 375.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand (1998), p. 305; Cantor, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 346.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curtius, p. 387; Koenigsberger, p. 368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cantor, p. 546; Curtius, pp. 351, 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curtius, p. 396; Koenigsberger, p. 368; Jones, p. 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curtius, p. 26; Jones, p. 258; Koenigsberger, p. 368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 369.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Curtius, p. 35; Jones. p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jones, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand, p. 319; Grant, p. 14; Koenigsberger, p. 382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allmand, p. 322; Wilson, p. 229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, pp. 229, 289–90, 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 381; Wilson, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Koenigsberger, p. 383; Wilson, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, pp. 357–8, 361–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 86)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BH101-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BH101_175-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BH101_175-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brockett and Hildy (2003, 101-103)</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJones2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jones_(historian)" title="Michael Jones (historian)">Jones, Michael</a>, ed. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362900"><i>The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 6, c.1300–c.1415</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-13905574-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-13905574-1"><bdi>978-1-13905574-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History%2C+Volume+6%2C+c.1300%E2%80%93c.1415&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-13905574-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521362900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllmand1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Allmand" title="Christopher Allmand">Allmand, Christopher</a>, ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521382960"><i>The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 7, c.1415–c.1500</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-13905575-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-13905575-8"><bdi>978-1-13905575-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History%2C+Volume+7%2C+c.1415%E2%80%93c.1500&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-13905575-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521382960&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFObermanTracyBrady1994" class="citation book cs1">Oberman, Heiko Augustinus; Tracy, James D.; Brady, Thomas A., eds. (1994). <i>Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation</i>. Leiden, New York: E.J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09762-7" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09762-7"><bdi>90-04-09762-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+European+History%2C+1400%E2%80%931600%3A+Late+Middle+Ages%2C+Renaissance+and+Reformation&rft.place=Leiden%2C+New+York&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=90-04-09762-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCantor1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Cantor" title="Norman Cantor">Cantor, Norman</a> (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/civilizationofmi00cant"><i>The Civilization of the Middle Ages</i></a>. New York: Harper Perennial. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-017033-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-017033-6"><bdi>0-06-017033-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Civilization+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Perennial&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-06-017033-6&rft.aulast=Cantor&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcivilizationofmi00cant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ferguson, Wallace K. <i>Europe in transition, 1300-1520</i> (1962) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/europeintransiti00ferg">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHay1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denys_Hay" title="Denys Hay">Hay, Denys</a> (1988). <i>Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries</i> (2nd ed.). London: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-49179-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-49179-7"><bdi>0-582-49179-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+in+the+Fourteenth+and+Fifteenth+Centuries&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-582-49179-7&rft.aulast=Hay&rft.aufirst=Denys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHollister2005" class="citation book cs1">Hollister, C. Warren (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072346574/"><i>Medieval Europe: A Short History</i></a> (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-295515-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-295515-5"><bdi>0-07-295515-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Europe%3A+A+Short+History&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Higher+Education&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-07-295515-5&rft.aulast=Hollister&rft.aufirst=C.+Warren&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhighered.mcgraw-hill.com%2Fsites%2F0072346574%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2001" class="citation book cs1">Holmes, George, ed. (2001). <i>The Oxford History of Medieval Europe</i> (New ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280133-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280133-3"><bdi>0-19-280133-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-280133-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeen1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Keen" title="Maurice Keen">Keen, Maurice</a> (1991). <i>The Penguin History of Medieval Europe</i> (New ed.). London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-013630-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-013630-4"><bdi>0-14-013630-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=London&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-14-013630-4&rft.aulast=Keen&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Koenigsberger, H.G. <i>Medieval Europe 400 - 1500</i> (1987) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0582494036/ref=rdr_ext_tmb">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLe_Goff2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Le_Goff" title="Jacques Le Goff">Le Goff, Jacques</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/birthofeurope00lego"><i>The Birth of Europe: 400–1500</i></a>. WileyBlackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22888-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-22888-8"><bdi>0-631-22888-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Birth+of+Europe%3A+400%E2%80%931500&rft.pub=WileyBlackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-631-22888-8&rft.aulast=Le+Goff&rft.aufirst=Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbirthofeurope00lego&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaleyDenley2001" class="citation book cs1">Waley, Daniel; Denley, Peter (2001). <i>Later Medieval Europe: 1250–1520</i> (3rd ed.). London: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-25831-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-25831-6"><bdi>0-582-25831-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Later+Medieval+Europe%3A+1250%E2%80%931520&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-582-25831-6&rft.aulast=Waley&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Denley%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Specific_regions">Specific regions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Specific regions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAbulafia1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Abulafia" title="David Abulafia">Abulafia, David</a> (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westernmediterra0000abul"><i>The Western Mediterranean Kingdoms: The Struggle for Dominion, 1200-1500</i></a></span>. London: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-07820-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-07820-2"><bdi>0-582-07820-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Western+Mediterranean+Kingdoms%3A+The+Struggle+for+Dominion%2C+1200-1500&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-582-07820-2&rft.aulast=Abulafia&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesternmediterra0000abul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDuby1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Duby" title="Georges Duby">Duby, Georges</a> (1993). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/franceinmiddleag00geor"><i>France in the Middle Ages, 987–1460: From Hugh Capet to Joan of Arc</i></a></span> (New ed.). WileyBlackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-18945-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-18945-9"><bdi>0-631-18945-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France+in+the+Middle+Ages%2C+987%E2%80%931460%3A+From+Hugh+Capet+to+Joan+of+Arc&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=WileyBlackwell&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-631-18945-9&rft.aulast=Duby&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffranceinmiddleag00geor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFine1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Van_Antwerp_Fine_Jr." title="John Van Antwerp Fine Jr.">Fine, John V. A. Jr.</a> (1994) [1987]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LvVbRrH1QBgC"><i>The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest</i></a>. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08260-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-08260-4"><bdi>0-472-08260-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Late+Medieval+Balkans%3A+A+Critical+Survey+from+the+Late+Twelfth+Century+to+the+Ottoman+Conquest&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+Michigan&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-472-08260-4&rft.aulast=Fine&rft.aufirst=John+V.+A.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLvVbRrH1QBgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJacob1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._F._Jacob" title="E. F. Jacob">Jacob, E.F.</a> (1961). <i>The Fifteenth Century: 1399–1485</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821714-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821714-5"><bdi>0-19-821714-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fifteenth+Century%3A+1399%E2%80%931485&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=0-19-821714-5&rft.aulast=Jacob&rft.aufirst=E.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMcKisack1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/May_McKisack" title="May McKisack">McKisack, May</a> (1959). <i>The Fourteenth Century: 1307–1399</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-821712-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-821712-9"><bdi>0-19-821712-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fourteenth+Century%3A+1307%E2%80%931399&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=0-19-821712-9&rft.aulast=McKisack&rft.aufirst=May&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMango2002" class="citation book cs1">Mango, Cyril, ed. (2002). <i>The Oxford History of Byzantium</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814098-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814098-3"><bdi>0-19-814098-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Byzantium&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-19-814098-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMartin2007" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Janet (2007). <i>Medieval Russia, 980–1584</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85916-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85916-5"><bdi>978-0-521-85916-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Russia%2C+980%E2%80%931584&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-85916-5&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Janet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNajemy2004" class="citation book cs1">Najemy, John M., ed. (2004). <i>Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550</i> (New ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-870040-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-870040-7"><bdi>0-19-870040-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Italy+in+the+Age+of+the+Renaissance%3A+1300%E2%80%931550&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-19-870040-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWandycz2001" class="citation book cs1">Wandycz, Piotr (2001). <i>The Price of Freedom: A History of East Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the Present</i> (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25491-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-25491-4"><bdi>0-415-25491-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Price+of+Freedom%3A+A+History+of+East+Central+Europe+from+the+Middle+Ages+to+the+Present&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-415-25491-4&rft.aulast=Wandycz&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBehrens-Abouseif1994" class="citation book cs1">Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1994). <i>Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture</i> (Reprint ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08260-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-08260-4"><bdi>0-472-08260-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cairo+of+the+Mamluks%3A+A+History+of+Architecture+and+its+Culture&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-472-08260-4&rft.aulast=Behrens-Abouseif&rft.aufirst=Doris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChazan2006" class="citation book cs1">Chazan, Robert (2006). <i>The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom: 1000–1500</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-61664-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-61664-6"><bdi>0-521-61664-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+of+Medieval+Western+Christendom%3A+1000%E2%80%931500&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-521-61664-6&rft.aulast=Chazan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Herlihy" title="David Herlihy">Herlihy, David</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalhousehol00herl"><i>Medieval Households</i></a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-56375-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-56375-1"><bdi>0-674-56375-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Households&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts%3B+London&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-674-56375-1&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalhousehol00herl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy1968" class="citation book cs1">Herlihy, David (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalcultures00herl_0"><i>Medieval Culture and Society</i></a>. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88133-747-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-88133-747-1"><bdi>0-88133-747-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Culture+and+Society&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-88133-747-1&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalcultures00herl_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJordan1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Chester_Jordan" title="William Chester Jordan">Jordan, William Chester</a> (1996). <i>The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century</i>. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01134-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01134-6"><bdi>0-691-01134-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Famine%3A+Northern+Europe+in+the+Early+Fourteenth+Century&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-691-01134-6&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=William+Chester&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKlapisch-Zuber1994" class="citation book cs1">Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane (1994). <i>A history of women in the West</i> (New ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-40368-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-40368-1"><bdi>0-674-40368-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+women+in+the+West&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts%3B+London&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-674-40368-1&rft.aulast=Klapisch-Zuber&rft.aufirst=Christiane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Black_Death">The Black Death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: The Black Death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBenedictow2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ole_J%C3%B8rgen_Benedictow" title="Ole Jørgen Benedictow">Benedictow, Ole J.</a> (2004). <i>The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History</i>. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-943-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-943-5"><bdi>0-85115-943-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death+1346%E2%80%931353%3A+The+Complete+History&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-85115-943-5&rft.aulast=Benedictow&rft.aufirst=Ole+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerlihy1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Herlihy" title="David Herlihy">Herlihy, David</a> (1997). <i>The Black Death and the transformation of the West</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts; London: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-3202-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-3202-3"><bdi>0-7509-3202-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death+and+the+transformation+of+the+West&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts%3B+London&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-7509-3202-3&rft.aulast=Herlihy&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHorrox1994" class="citation book cs1">Horrox, Rosemary (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackdeathmanche00rose"><i>The Black Death</i></a>. Manchester: Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-3497-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-3497-3"><bdi>0-7190-3497-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-7190-3497-3&rft.aulast=Horrox&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackdeathmanche00rose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShillington2004" class="citation book cs1">Shillington, Kevin (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ftz_gtO-pngC&q=Cambridge+History+of+Egypt+Mamluk&pg=PA766"><i>Encyclopedia of African History, Volume 1</i></a> (1st ed.). Taylor & Francis, Inc.: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781579582456" title="Special:BookSources/9781579582456"><bdi>9781579582456</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+African+History%2C+Volume+1&rft.place=Taylor+%26+Francis%2C+Inc.&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781579582456&rft.aulast=Shillington&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFtz_gtO-pngC%26q%3DCambridge%2BHistory%2Bof%2BEgypt%2BMamluk%26pg%3DPA766&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZiegler2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Ziegler" title="Philip Ziegler">Ziegler, Philip</a> (2003). <i>The Black Death</i> (New ed.). Sutton: Sutton Publishing Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7509-3202-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7509-3202-3"><bdi>0-7509-3202-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death&rft.place=Sutton&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Sutton+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-7509-3202-3&rft.aulast=Ziegler&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Warfare">Warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAllmand1988" class="citation book cs1">Allmand, Christopher (1988). <i>The Hundred Years War: England and France at War c. 1300–c. 1450</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-31923-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-31923-4"><bdi>0-521-31923-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hundred+Years+War%3A+England+and+France+at+War+c.+1300%E2%80%93c.+1450&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-31923-4&rft.aulast=Allmand&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChase2003" class="citation book cs1">Chase, Kenneth (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=esnWJkYRCJ4C&pg=PA103"><i>Firearms: A Global History to 1700</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521822749" title="Special:BookSources/9780521822749"><bdi>9780521822749</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Firearms%3A+A+Global+History+to+1700&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780521822749&rft.aulast=Chase&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DesnWJkYRCJ4C%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFContamine1984" class="citation book cs1">Contamine, Philippe (1984). <i>War in the Middle Ages</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-13142-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-13142-6"><bdi>0-631-13142-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-631-13142-6&rft.aulast=Contamine&rft.aufirst=Philippe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurry1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anne_Curry" title="Anne Curry">Curry, Anne</a> (1993). <i>The Hundred Years War</i>. Basingstoke: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-53175-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-53175-2"><bdi>0-333-53175-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hundred+Years+War&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-333-53175-2&rft.aulast=Curry&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDavis2001" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Paul K. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nv73QlQs9ocC&q=Ain+Jalut+Mamluks&pg=PA141"><i>100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195143663" title="Special:BookSources/0195143663"><bdi>0195143663</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=100+Decisive+Battles%3A+From+Ancient+Times+to+the+Present&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0195143663&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnv73QlQs9ocC%26q%3DAin%2BJalut%2BMamluks%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKeen1984" class="citation book cs1">Keen, Maurice (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chivalry00keen"><i>Chivalry</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-03150-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-03150-5"><bdi>0-300-03150-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chivalry&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-300-03150-5&rft.aulast=Keen&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchivalry00keen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVerbruggen1997" class="citation book cs1">Verbruggen, J. F. (1997). <i>The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages: From the Eighth Century to 1340</i> (2nd ed.). Woodbridge: Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85115-630-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-85115-630-4"><bdi>0-85115-630-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Warfare+in+Western+Europe+during+the+Middle+Ages%3A+From+the+Eighth+Century+to+1340&rft.place=Woodbridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-85115-630-4&rft.aulast=Verbruggen&rft.aufirst=J.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy">Economy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCipolla1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Maria_Cipolla" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlo Maria Cipolla">Cipolla, Carlo M.</a> (1993). <i>Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy 1000–1700</i> (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-09005-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-09005-9"><bdi>0-415-09005-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+the+Industrial+Revolution%3A+European+Society+and+Economy+1000%E2%80%931700&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-415-09005-9&rft.aulast=Cipolla&rft.aufirst=Carlo+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCipolla1993" class="citation book cs1">Cipolla, Carlo M., ed. (1993). <i>The Fontana Economic History of Europe, Volume 1: The Middle Ages</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Fontana Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85527-159-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-85527-159-0"><bdi>0-85527-159-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fontana+Economic+History+of+Europe%2C+Volume+1%3A+The+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Fontana+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-85527-159-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPostan2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Postan" title="Michael Postan">Postan, M.M.</a> (2002). <i>Mediaeval Trade and Finance</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-52202-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-52202-1"><bdi>0-521-52202-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mediaeval+Trade+and+Finance&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-521-52202-1&rft.aulast=Postan&rft.aufirst=M.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPounds1994" class="citation book cs1">Pounds, N.J.P. (1994). <i>An Economic History of Medieval Europe</i> (2nd ed.). London and New York: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-21599-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-21599-4"><bdi>0-582-21599-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Economic+History+of+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-582-21599-4&rft.aulast=Pounds&rft.aufirst=N.J.P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKenny1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Kenny" title="Anthony Kenny">Kenny, Anthony</a> (1985). <i>Wyclif</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-287647-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-287647-3"><bdi>0-19-287647-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wyclif&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-19-287647-3&rft.aulast=Kenny&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMacCulloch2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Diarmaid_MacCulloch" title="Diarmaid MacCulloch">MacCulloch, Diarmaid</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reformation00diar_0"><i>The Reformation</i></a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-303538-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-303538-X"><bdi>0-14-303538-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reformation&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-14-303538-X&rft.aulast=MacCulloch&rft.aufirst=Diarmaid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freformation00diar_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOzment1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Ozment" title="Steven Ozment">Ozment, Steven E.</a> (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ageofreform125010000uozm"><i>The Age of Reform, 1250–1550: An Intellectual and Religious History of Late Medieval and Reformation Europe</i></a>. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-02477-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-02477-0"><bdi>0-300-02477-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Reform%2C+1250%E2%80%931550%3A+An+Intellectual+and+Religious+History+of+Late+Medieval+and+Reformation+Europe&rft.place=New+Haven+and+London&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-300-02477-0&rft.aulast=Ozment&rft.aufirst=Steven+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fageofreform125010000uozm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith1970" class="citation book cs1">Smith, John H. (1970). <i>The Great Schism, 1378</i>. London: Hamilton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-01520-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-241-01520-0"><bdi>0-241-01520-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Schism%2C+1378&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hamilton&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-241-01520-0&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=John+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSouthern1970" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Southern" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Southern">Southern, R.W.</a> (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westernsocietyc00sout"><i>Western society and the Church in the Middle Ages</i></a>. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-020503-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-020503-9"><bdi>0-14-020503-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+society+and+the+Church+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0-14-020503-9&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=R.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesternsocietyc00sout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts_and_sciences_2">Arts and sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Arts and sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrotton2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Brotton" title="Jerry Brotton">Brotton, Jerry</a> (2006). <i>The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280163-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280163-5"><bdi>0-19-280163-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Renaissance%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-280163-5&rft.aulast=Brotton&rft.aufirst=Jerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurke1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Burke_(historian)" title="Peter Burke (historian)">Burke, Peter</a> (1998). <i>The European Renaissance: Centres and Peripheries</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19845-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-19845-8"><bdi>0-631-19845-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Renaissance%3A+Centres+and+Peripheries&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-631-19845-8&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurtius1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Robert_Curtius" title="Ernst Robert Curtius">Curtius, Ernest Robert</a> (1991). <i>European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages</i> (New ed.). New York: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01899-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01899-5"><bdi>0-691-01899-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Literature+and+the+Latin+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-691-01899-5&rft.aulast=Curtius&rft.aufirst=Ernest+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGrant1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Grant" title="Edward Grant">Grant, Edward</a> (1996). <i>The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-56762-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-56762-9"><bdi>0-521-56762-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Modern+Science+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Their+Religious%2C+Institutional%2C+and+Intellectual+Contexts&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-521-56762-9&rft.aulast=Grant&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2004" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, James (2004). <i>Northern Renaissance Art: Painting, Sculpture, the Graphic Arts from 1350 to 1575</i> (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-189564-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-189564-8"><bdi>0-13-189564-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Renaissance+Art%3A+Painting%2C+Sculpture%2C+the+Graphic+Arts+from+1350+to+1575&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-13-189564-8&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWelch2000" class="citation book cs1">Welch, Evelyn (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artinrenaissance00evel"><i>Art in Renaissance Italy, 1350–1500</i></a> (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-284279-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-284279-X"><bdi>0-19-284279-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+in+Renaissance+Italy%2C+1350%E2%80%931500&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-284279-X&rft.aulast=Welch&rft.aufirst=Evelyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartinrenaissance00evel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWilson1990" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, David Fenwick (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/musicofmiddleage0000wils"><i>Music of the Middle Ages</i></a></span>. New York: Schirmer Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-872951-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-02-872951-X"><bdi>0-02-872951-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Music+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Schirmer+Books&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-02-872951-X&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David+Fenwick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmusicofmiddleage0000wils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALate+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> 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aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages448" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages448" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Principality of Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia" title="Duchy of Croatia">Duchy of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(1217%E2%80%931346)" title="Kingdom of Serbia (1217–1346)">Kingdom of Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Medieval_and_Early_Modern_European_Peasant_Wars" title="Template:Medieval and Early Modern European Peasant Wars">Peasant Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_archaeology" title="Medieval archaeology">Medieval archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/20px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/40px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Middle_Ages" title="Portal:Middle Ages">Portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages" title="Category:Middle Ages">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe117" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe117" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Western_world_and_culture240" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Western_world" title="Template:Western world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Western_world" title="Template talk:Western world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Western_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Western world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Western_world_and_culture240" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Roman legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">European Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">high</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">late</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_suffrage" title="Universal suffrage">Universal suffrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Post–Cold War era">Post–Cold War era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periods_in_Western_art_history" title="Periods in Western art history">Periods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_cuisine" title="European cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_pattern_diet" title="Western pattern diet">Diet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_tradition" title="Classical tradition">Classical tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dress_codes" title="Western dress codes">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_fashion" title="History of Western fashion">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_dance_(Europe_and_North_America)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western dance (Europe and North America)">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_education" title="Western education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Esotericism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_astrology" title="Western astrology">Astrology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_folklore" title="European folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_Western_world" title="Immigration to the Western world">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eurolinguistics" title="Eurolinguistics">Eurolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Average_European" title="Standard Average European">Standard Average European</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_literature" title="Western literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_canon" title="Western canon">Canon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_media" title="Western media">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chant" title="Chant">Chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_music" title="Classical music">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_folk_music_traditions" title="List of European folk music traditions">Folk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="European mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_painting" title="Western painting">Painting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th-century_Western_painting" title="20th-century Western painting">contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_physical_culture" title="Western physical culture">Physical culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_sports" title="Western sports">Sport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Christianity_in_the_Western_world" title="Decline of Christianity in the Western world">Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Ancient Roman philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Christian_ethics" title="Judeo-Christian ethics">Judeo-Christian ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_tolerance" title="Paradox of tolerance">Paradox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Peritrope" title="Peritrope">Peritrope</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanticism" title="Atlanticism">Atlanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereigntism" title="Sovereigntism">Sovereigntism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_values" title="Western values">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_values" title="European values">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankish mythology">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_paganism" title="Gothic paganism">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Old Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_law" title="Western law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equality_before_the_law" title="Equality before the law">Equality before the law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_life" title="Right to life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_thought" title="Freedom of thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_property" title="Right to property">Property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary<br />integration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ABCANZ_Armies" title="ABCANZ Armies">ABCANZ Armies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_European_Regions" title="Assembly of European Regions">AER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Portuguese_Alliance" title="Anglo-Portuguese Alliance">Anglo-Portuguese Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUK" title="ANZUK">ANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUKUS" title="AUKUS">AUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSCANNZUKUS" title="AUSCANNZUKUS">AUSCANNZUKUS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_Assembly" title="Baltic Assembly">Baltic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benelux" title="Benelux">Benelux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British%E2%80%93Irish_Council" title="British–Irish Council">British–Irish Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_the_Black_Sea_Economic_Cooperation" title="Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation">BSEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucharest_Nine" title="Bucharest Nine">Bucharest Nine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CANZUK" title="CANZUK">CANZUK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Baltic_Sea_States" title="Council of the Baltic Sea States">CBSS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_European_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="Central European Free Trade Agreement">CEFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craiova_Group" title="Craiova Group">Craiova Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_European_Group" title="Eastern European Group">Eastern European Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Partnership" title="Eastern Partnership">Eastern Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Area" title="European Economic Area">EEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Free_Trade_Association" title="European Free Trade Association">EFTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Political_Community" title="European Political Community">EPC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">ESA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">EU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Customs_Union" title="European Union Customs Union">EU Customs Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurozone" title="Eurozone">Eurozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EU%E2%80%93UK_Trade_and_Cooperation_Agreement" title="EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement">EU–UK TCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Eyes" title="Five Eyes">Five Eyes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G7" title="G7">G7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lancaster_House_Treaties" title="Lancaster House Treaties">Lancaster House Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lublin_Triangle" title="Lublin Triangle">Lublin Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Council" title="Nordic Council">Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">OAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Balkan" title="Open Balkan">Open Balkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe" title="Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe">OSCE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Forum" title="Pacific Islands Forum">Pacific Islands Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_for_the_Progress_and_Integration_of_South_America" title="Forum for the Progress and Integration of South America">PROSUR/PROSUL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-American_Treaty_of_Reciprocal_Assistance" title="Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance">Rio Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schengen_Area" title="Schengen Area">Schengen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Relationship" title="Special Relationship">Special Relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Seas_Initiative" title="Three Seas Initiative">Three Seas Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UKUSA_Agreement" title="UKUSA Agreement">UKUSA Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States%E2%80%93Mexico%E2%80%93Canada_Agreement" title="United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement">USMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visegr%C3%A1d_Group" title="Visegrád Group">Visegrád Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Nordic_Council" title="West Nordic Council">West Nordic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_European_and_Others_Group" title="Western European and Others Group">Western European and Others Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westernization" title="Westernization">Westernization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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