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3 Discovery and history of excavation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_and_history_of_excavation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Chronology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Harappan_era:_Mehrgarh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Harappan_era:_Mehrgarh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Pre-Harappan era: Mehrgarh </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Harappan_era:_Mehrgarh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Harappan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Harappan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Early Harappan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Harappan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mature_Harappan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mature_Harappan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Mature Harappan </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mature_Harappan-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mature Harappan subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mature_Harappan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Cities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Authority_and_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Authority_and_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Authority and governance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Authority_and_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metallurgy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metallurgy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Metallurgy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metallurgy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metrology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metrology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Metrology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metrology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arts_and_crafts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arts_and_crafts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Arts and crafts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arts_and_crafts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_statuettes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_statuettes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.1 Human statuettes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_statuettes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.2 Seals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_transportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_transportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Trade and transportation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_transportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Agriculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Food </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.9 Language </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Possible_writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Possible_writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.10 Possible writing system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Possible_writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.11 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Harappan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Harappan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Late Harappan </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_Harappan-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late Harappan subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_Harappan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aryan_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aryan_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Aryan migration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aryan_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_and_drought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_and_drought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Climate change and drought </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_and_drought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continuity_and_coexistence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuity_and_coexistence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Continuity and coexistence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuity_and_coexistence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Harappan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Harappan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Post-Harappan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Harappan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Indus Valley Civilisation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 107 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-107" aria-hidden="true" > 107 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indusvalleibeskawing" title="Indusvalleibeskawing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Indusvalleibeskawing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF" title="حضارة وادي السند – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حضارة وادي السند" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A8" title="Ինտուս հովիտին քաղաքակրթութիւնը – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ինտուս հովիտին քաղաքակրթութիւնը" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="সিন্ধু সভ্যতা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সিন্ধু সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura_del_valle_del_Indo" title="Cultura del valle del Indo – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cultura del valle del Indo" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dndo_avano%27%C3%B5" title="Índo avano'õ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Índo avano'õ" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hind_vadisi_m%C9%99d%C9%99niyy%C9%99ti" title="Hind vadisi mədəniyyəti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hind vadisi mədəniyyəti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="সিন্ধু সভ্যতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সিন্ধু সভ্যতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_b%C3%BBn-b%C3%AAng" title="Indus bûn-bêng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Indus bûn-bêng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Һинд цивилизацияһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Һинд цивилизацияһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Індская цывілізацыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Індская цывілізацыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibilisasyon_kan_Kababan_kan_Indo" title="Sibilisasyon kan Kababan kan Indo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Sibilisasyon kan Kababan kan Indo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Индска цивилизация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Индска цивилизация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Kuitua" title="Indus Kuitua – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Indus Kuitua" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizacija_doline_Inda" title="Civilizacija doline Inda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Civilizacija doline Inda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilitzaci%C3%B3_de_la_vall_de_l%27Indus" title="Civilització de la vall de l'Indus – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Civilització de la vall de l'Indus" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappsk%C3%A1_kultura" title="Harappská kultura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Harappská kultura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwareiddiad_Dyffryn_Indus" title="Gwareiddiad Dyffryn Indus – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwareiddiad Dyffryn Indus" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induskulturen" title="Induskulturen – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Induskulturen" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus-Kultur" title="Indus-Kultur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Indus-Kultur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0%DE%8B%DE%AA_%DE%88%DE%A7%DE%8B%DE%A9_%DE%83%DE%A6%DE%81%DE%B0%DE%88%DE%AC%DE%80%DE%A8%DE%86%DE%A6%DE%82%DE%B0" title="ސިންދު ވާދީ ރަށްވެހިކަން – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސިންދު ވާދީ ރަށްވެހިކަން" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induse_kultuur" title="Induse kultuur – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Induse kultuur" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B1%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Πολιτισμός της κοιλάδας του Ινδού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολιτισμός της κοιλάδας του Ινδού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizaci%C3%B3n_del_valle_del_Indo" title="Civilización del valle del Indo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Civilización del valle del Indo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induso-civilizo" title="Induso-civilizo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Induso-civilizo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coltura_el_Valli_el_Indu" title="Coltura el Valli el Indu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Coltura el Valli el Indu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_haraneko_zibilizazioa" title="Indus haraneko zibilizazioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Indus haraneko zibilizazioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF" title="تمدن دره سند – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تمدن دره سند" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilization" title="Indus Valley Civilization – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Indus Valley Civilization" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilisation_de_la_vall%C3%A9e_de_l%27Indus" title="Civilisation de la vallée de l'Indus – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Civilisation de la vallée de l'Indus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yndusbeskaving" title="Yndusbeskaving – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Yndusbeskaving" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizaci%C3%B3n_do_val_do_Indo" title="Civilización do val do Indo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Civilización do val do Indo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="古印度 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="古印度" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%A7%E0%AB%81_%E0%AA%96%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%A3%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%80_%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%83%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BF" title="સિંધુ ખીણની સંસ્કૃતિ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સિંધુ ખીણની સંસ્કૃતિ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B8%EB%8D%94%EC%8A%A4_%EB%AC%B8%EB%AA%85" title="인더스 문명 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="인더스 문명" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayewar_Kwarin_Indus" title="Wayewar Kwarin Indus – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Wayewar Kwarin Indus" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հարապպայի քաղաքակրթություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հարապպայի քաղաքակրթություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सिंधु घाटी सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizacija_doline_Inda" title="Civilizacija doline Inda – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Civilizacija doline Inda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peradaban_Lembah_Indus" title="Peradaban Lembah Indus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peradaban Lembah Indus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indusdalsmenningin" title="Indusdalsmenningin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Indusdalsmenningin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilt%C3%A0_della_valle_dell%27Indo" title="Civiltà della valle dell'Indo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Civiltà della valle dell'Indo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%A7_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A1" title="תרבות עמק האינדוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרבות עמק האינדוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabudayan_Lembah_Kali_Indhus" title="Kabudayan Lembah Kali Indhus – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kabudayan Lembah Kali Indhus" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A7%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%86" title="ಸಿಂಧೂತಟದ ನಾಗರೀಕತೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಿಂಧೂತಟದ ನಾಗರೀಕತೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინდის ცივილიზაცია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ინდის ცივილიზაცია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8B%D2%A3_%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96" title="Инд алабының өркениеті – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Инд алабының өркениеті" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ustaarabu_wa_Indus" title="Ustaarabu wa Indus – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ustaarabu wa Indus" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sivilizasyon_di_val%C3%A9_di_Indus" title="Sivilizasyon di valé di Indus – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Sivilizasyon di valé di Indus" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val_dl_Indus" title="Val dl Indus – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Val dl Indus" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultus_humanus_Vallis_Indi" title="Cultus humanus Vallis Indi – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cultus humanus Vallis Indi" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indas_ielejas_civiliz%C4%81cija" title="Indas ielejas civilizācija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Indas ielejas civilizācija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo_sl%C4%97nio_civilizacija" title="Indo slėnio civilizacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Indo slėnio civilizacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sivilia_de_la_Vale_de_Indo" title="Sivilia de la Vale de Indo – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Sivilia de la Vale de Indo" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus-v%C3%B6lgyi_civiliz%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Indus-völgyi civilizáció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Indus-völgyi civilizáció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="सिन्धु घाटी सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%81_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സിന്ധു നദീതടസംസ്കാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സിന്ധു നദീതടസംസ്കാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="हडप्पा संस्कृती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हडप्पा संस्कृती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ინდიშ ცივილიზაცია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ინდიშ ცივილიზაცია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamadun_Lembah_Indus" title="Tamadun Lembah Indus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tamadun Lembah Indus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebliza%C3%A7on_de_l_Bal_de_l_Ando" title="Ceblizaçon de l Bal de l Ando – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ceblizaçon de l Bal de l Ando" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indusbeschaving" title="Indusbeschaving – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Indusbeschaving" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%98%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="सिन्धु घाटीको सभ्यता – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सिन्धु घाटीको सभ्यता" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="सिन्धु स्वनिगः लहना – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सिन्धु स्वनिगः लहना" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%80%E3%82%B9%E6%96%87%E6%98%8E" title="インダス文明 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="インダス文明" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induskulturen" title="Induskulturen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Induskulturen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induskulturen" title="Induskulturen – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Induskulturen" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizacion_de_la_Vau_d%27Indus" title="Civilizacion de la Vau d'Indus – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Civilizacion de la Vau d'Indus" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B9%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%BE_%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%AD%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BE" title="ହରପ୍ପା ସଭ୍ୟତା – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ହରପ୍ପା ସଭ୍ୟତା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xarappa_madaniyati" title="Xarappa madaniyati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Xarappa madaniyati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%98%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸਿੰਧੂ ਘਾਟੀ ਸੱਭਿਅਤਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਿੰਧੂ ਘਾਟੀ ਸੱਭਿਅਤਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%88%D8%B3_%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%B0%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="انڈس تہذیب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انڈس تہذیب" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%90_%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86" title="د سیند درې تمدن – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د سیند درې تمدن" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Vali_Sivilizieshan" title="Indus Vali Sivilizieshan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Indus Vali Sivilizieshan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cywilizacja_doliny_Indusu" title="Cywilizacja doliny Indusu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cywilizacja doliny Indusu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civiliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o_do_Vale_do_Indo" title="Civilização do Vale do Indo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Civilização do Vale do Indo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civiliza%C8%9Bia_de_pe_Valea_Indului" title="Civilizația de pe Valea Indului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Civilizația de pe Valea Indului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Индская цивилизация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Индская цивилизация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83" title="सिन्धुसंस्कृतिः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सिन्धुसंस्कृतिः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%A9_%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%9C" title="ᱥᱤᱱᱫᱷᱩ ᱥᱚᱥᱱᱚᱜ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱥᱤᱱᱫᱷᱩ ᱥᱚᱥᱱᱚᱜ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tziviltade_de_sa_badde_de_s%27Indus" title="Tziviltade de sa badde de s'Indus – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tziviltade de sa badde de s'Indus" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qytet%C3%ABrimi_i_Lugin%C3%ABs_s%C3%AB_Indit" title="Qytetërimi i Luginës së Indit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Qytetërimi i Luginës së Indit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="ඉන්දු නිම්න ශිෂ්ටාචාරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉන්දු නිම්න ශිෂ්ටාචාරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" title="Indus Valley civilization – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Indus Valley civilization" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%8C%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%BF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A1%D9%8E_%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%B0%D9%8A%D8%A8" title="سنڌو ماٿريءَ جي تھذيب – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سنڌو ماٿريءَ جي تھذيب" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harappsk%C3%A1_kult%C3%BAra" title="Harappská kultúra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Harappská kultúra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indska_civilizacija" title="Indska civilizacija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Indska civilizacija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%86%DA%B5%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B3" title="شارستانیەتی دۆڵی ئیندوس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شارستانیەتی دۆڵی ئیندوس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%98%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Цивилизација долине Инда – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Цивилизација долине Инда" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilizacija_Doline_Inda" title="Civilizacija Doline Inda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Civilizacija Doline Inda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus-kulttuuri" title="Indus-kulttuuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Indus-kulttuuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induskulturen" title="Induskulturen – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Induskulturen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabihasnan_ng_Lambak_ng_Indo" title="Kabihasnan ng Lambak ng Indo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kabihasnan ng Lambak ng Indo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சிந்துவெளி நாகரிகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சிந்துவெளி நாகரிகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A7%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%A4" title="సింధు లోయ నాగరికత – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సింధు లోయ నాగరికత" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8" title="อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อารยธรรมลุ่มแม่น้ำสินธุ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ndus_Vadisi_Uygarl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="İndus Vadisi Uygarlığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İndus Vadisi Uygarlığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Індська цивілізація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Індська цивілізація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%94_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%BE_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%B0%DB%8C%D8%A8" title="وادیٔ سندھ کی تہذیب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وادیٔ 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semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indus_Valley_civilisation&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Bronze Age civilisation in South Asia</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Indus Valley Civilisation</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="IVC major sites" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/220px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/330px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/440px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="733" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alternative names</th><td class="infobox-data">Harappan civilisation ancient Indus Indus civilisation</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Geographical range</th><td class="infobox-data">Basins of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus river</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and the seasonal <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra river</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> and northwestern <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Period</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age#South_Asia" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age South Asia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Dates</th><td class="infobox-data"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> <a href="/wiki/3300_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="3300 BCE">3300</a> – c. <a href="/wiki/1300_BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="1300 BCE">1300 BCE</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Type_site" title="Type site">Type site</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Major sites</th><td class="infobox-data">Harappa, <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Followed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a> <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware" title="Black and red ware">Black and red ware</a> <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a> <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mohenjo-daro.jpg/220px-Mohenjo-daro.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mohenjo-daro.jpg/330px-Mohenjo-daro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Mohenjo-daro.jpg/440px-Mohenjo-daro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Excavated ruins of <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> province, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, showing the <a href="/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-daro" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro">Great Bath</a> in the foreground. Mohenjo-daro, on the right bank of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>, is a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>, the first site in South Asia to be so declared.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harappan_small_figures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Harappan_small_figures.jpg/220px-Harappan_small_figures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Harappan_small_figures.jpg/330px-Harappan_small_figures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Harappan_small_figures.jpg/440px-Harappan_small_figures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Miniature votive images or toy models from <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 BCE. <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">Terracotta</a> figurines indicate the yoking of <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">zebu</a> oxen for pulling a cart and the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Chicken" title="Chicken">chicken</a>, a domesticated jungle fowl.</figcaption></figure> The Indus Valley Civilisation<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilisation">civilisation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_South_Asia" title="Northwestern South Asia">northwestern regions</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, lasting from 3300 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a> to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20091-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[a]</a> Together with <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, it was one of three early civilisations of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">Southwest Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, and of the three, the most widespread, its sites spanning an area including much of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northwest_India" title="Northwest India">northwestern India</a> and northeast <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[b]</a> The civilisation flourished both in the <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plain</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a>-fed rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra</a>, a seasonal river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20091-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-6">[4]</a> The term Harappan is sometimes applied to the Indus Civilisation after its <a href="/wiki/Type_site" title="Type site">type site</a> <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a>, the first to be excavated early in the 20th century in what was then the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_Province_(British_India)" title="Punjab Province (British India)">Punjab province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Presidencies_and_provinces_of_British_India" title="Presidencies and provinces of British India">British India</a> and is now <a href="/wiki/Punjab,_Pakistan" title="Punjab, Pakistan">Punjab, Pakistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib201513-7">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[c]</a> The discovery of Harappa and soon afterwards <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> was the culmination of work that had begun after the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a> in 1861.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20092-9">[6]</a> There were earlier and later cultures called Early Harappan and Late Harappan in the same area. The early Harappan cultures were populated from <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> cultures, the earliest and best-known of which is named after <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a>, Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-Shaffer_1992_loc=I:441–464,_II:425–446-10">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991-11">[8]</a> Harappan civilisation is sometimes called Mature Harappan to distinguish it from the earlier cultures. The cities of the ancient Indus were noted for their <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baked_brick" class="mw-redirect" title="Baked brick">baked brick</a> houses, elaborate <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> systems, <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a> systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and techniques of handicraft and <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[d]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a> very likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals,<a href="#cite_note-14">[10]</a> and the civilisation may have contained between one and five million individuals during its florescence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008387-15">[11]</a> A gradual <a href="/wiki/Aridification" title="Aridification">drying</a> of the region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation. Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.<a href="#cite_note-Note-Brooke-16">[e]</a> Although over a thousand Mature Harappan sites have been reported and nearly a hundred excavated,<a href="#cite_note-reported_sites-17">[f]</a> there are five major urban centres:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015192-18">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[g]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> in the lower Indus Valley (declared a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO_World_Heritage_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="UNESCO World Heritage Site">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a> in 1980 as "Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro"), Harappa in the western <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab region</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganeriwala" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganeriwala">Ganeriwala</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cholistan_Desert" title="Cholistan Desert">Cholistan Desert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a> in western <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> (declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021 as "Dholavira: A Harappan City"), and <a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009107-20">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[h]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Harappan_language" title="Harappan language">Harappan language</a> is not directly attested, and its affiliations are uncertain, as the <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> has remained undeciphered.<a href="#cite_note-22">[14]</a> A relationship with the <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a> or <a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a> language family is favoured by a section of scholars.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatnagar2006a25-23">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[16]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The Indus civilisation is named after the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus</a> <a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(geomorphology)" title="Drainage system (geomorphology)">river system</a> in whose <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plains</a> the early sites of the civilisation were identified and excavated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright200910-25">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[i]</a> Following a tradition in archaeology, the civilisation is sometimes referred to as the Harappan, after its <a href="/wiki/Type_site" title="Type site">type site</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a>, the first site to be excavated in the 1920s; this is notably true of usage employed by the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a> after India's independence in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib200213–14-27">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[j]</a> The term "Ghaggar-Hakra" figures prominently in modern labels applied to the Indus civilisation on account of a good number of sites having been found along the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra River</a> in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–11]-29">[19]</a> The terms "Indus-Sarasvati Civilisation" and "Sindhu-Saraswati Civilisation" have also been employed in the literature by supporters of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a>, after a posited identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra with the river <a href="/wiki/Sarasvati_River" title="Sarasvati River">Sarasvati</a> described in the early chapters of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>, a collection of hymns in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">archaic Sanskrit</a> composed in the second-millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-30">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib200244-31">[21]</a> which are unrelated to the mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilization. Recent geophysical research suggests that unlike the Sarasvati, described in the Rigveda as a snow-fed river, the Ghaggar-Hakra was a system of perennial monsoon-fed rivers, which became seasonal around the time that the civilisation diminished, approximately 4,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[k]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extent">Extent</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IVC-major-sites-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/IVC-major-sites-2.jpg/220px-IVC-major-sites-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/IVC-major-sites-2.jpg/330px-IVC-major-sites-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/IVC-major-sites-2.jpg/440px-IVC-major-sites-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1259" data-file-height="1548" /></a><figcaption>Major sites and extent of the Indus Valley Civilisation</figcaption></figure> The Indus Valley Civilisation was roughly contemporary with the other riverine civilisations of the ancient world: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> in the lands watered by the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> in the drainage basin of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River" title="Yellow River">Yellow River</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze" title="Yangtze">Yangtze</a>. By the time of its mature phase, the civilisation had spread over an area larger than the others, which included a core of 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) up the alluvial plain of the Indus and its tributaries. In addition, there was a region with disparate flora, fauna, and habitats, up to ten times as large, which had been shaped culturally and economically by the Indus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201835-33">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[l]</a> Around 6500 BCE, agriculture emerged in <a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a>, on the margins of the Indus alluvium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201829-35">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[m]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201833-37">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[n]</a> In the following millennia, settled life made inroads into the Indus plains, setting the stage for the growth of rural and urban settlements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015138-39">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[o]</a> The more organized sedentary life, in turn, led to a net increase in the birth rate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201829-35">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[p]</a> The large urban centres of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa very likely grew to containing between 30,000 and 60,000 individuals, and during the civilisation's florescence, the population of the subcontinent grew to between 4–6 million people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201829-35">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[q]</a> During this period the death rate increased, as the close living conditions of humans and domesticated animals led to an increase in contagious diseases.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201833-37">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[r]</a> According to one estimate, the population of the Indus civilisation at its peak may have been between one and five million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008186–187-44">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[s]</a> During its height the civilisation extended from Balochistan in the west to western <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a> in the east, from northeastern Afghanistan in the north to <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> state in the south.<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-30">[20]</a> The largest number of sites are in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab region">Punjab region</a>, Gujarat, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, Uttar Pradesh, <a href="/wiki/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(state)" title="Jammu and Kashmir (state)">Jammu and Kashmir</a> states,<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-30">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, and Balochistan.<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-30">[20]</a> Coastal settlements extended from <a href="/wiki/Sutkagan_Dor" title="Sutkagan Dor">Sutkagan Dor</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[27]</a> in Western Baluchistan to <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[28]</a> in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the <a href="/wiki/Oxus_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus River">Oxus River</a> at <a href="/wiki/Shortugai" title="Shortugai">Shortugai</a> in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> which is the northernmost site of the Indus Valley Civilisation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199896-48">[29]</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gomal_River" title="Gomal River">Gomal River</a> valley in northwestern Pakistan,<a href="#cite_note-49">[30]</a> at <a href="/wiki/Manda,_Jammu" title="Manda, Jammu">Manda, Jammu</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Beas_River" title="Beas River">Beas River</a> near <a href="/wiki/Jammu" title="Jammu">Jammu</a>,<a href="#cite_note-50">[31]</a> and at <a href="/wiki/Alamgirpur" title="Alamgirpur">Alamgirpur</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Hindon_River" title="Hindon River">Hindon River</a>, only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi.<a href="#cite_note-51">[32]</a> The southernmost site of the Indus Valley Civilisation is <a href="/wiki/Daimabad" title="Daimabad">Daimabad</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>. <a href="/wiki/List_of_Indus_Valley_Civilisation_sites" title="List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites">Indus Valley sites</a> have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast,<a href="#cite_note-52">[33]</a> for example, Balakot (<a href="/wiki/Kot_Bala" title="Kot Bala">Kot Bala</a>),<a href="#cite_note-53">[34]</a> and on islands, for example, <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Discovery_and_history_of_excavation">Discovery and history of excavation</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_Cunningham_of_the_ASI_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Alexander_Cunningham_of_the_ASI_02.jpg/170px-Alexander_Cunningham_of_the_ASI_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Alexander_Cunningham_of_the_ASI_02.jpg/255px-Alexander_Cunningham_of_the_ASI_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Alexander_Cunningham_of_the_ASI_02.jpg/340px-Alexander_Cunningham_of_the_ASI_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1386" data-file-height="1859" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cunningham" title="Alexander Cunningham">Alexander Cunningham</a>, the first director general of the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a> (ASI), interpreted a Harappan <a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal" title="Stamp seal">stamp seal</a> in 1875.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyay.jpg/170px-Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyay.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyay.jpg/255px-Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Rakhaldas_Bandyopadhyay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="275" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/R._D._Banerji" title="R. D. Banerji">R. D. Banerji</a>, an officer of the ASI, visited Mohenjo-daro in 1919–1920, and again in 1922–1923, postulating the site's far-off antiquity.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Hubert_Marshall_-_Cyclopedia_of_India_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/John_Hubert_Marshall_-_Cyclopedia_of_India_1906.jpg/170px-John_Hubert_Marshall_-_Cyclopedia_of_India_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/John_Hubert_Marshall_-_Cyclopedia_of_India_1906.jpg/255px-John_Hubert_Marshall_-_Cyclopedia_of_India_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/John_Hubert_Marshall_-_Cyclopedia_of_India_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="306" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)" title="John Marshall (archaeologist)">John Marshall</a>, the director-general of the ASI from 1902 to 1928, who oversaw the excavations in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, shown in a 1906 photograph</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:16em; border-width: 1px; font-size: 85%; color: #202122;background-color: #F5DEB3;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "Three other scholars whose names I cannot pass over in silence, are the late Mr. <a href="/wiki/R._D._Banerji" title="R. D. Banerji">R. D. Banerji</a>, to whom belongs the credit of having discovered, if not Mohenjo-daro itself, at any rate its high antiquity, and his immediate successors in the task of excavation, Messrs. <a href="/wiki/Madho_Sarup_Vats" title="Madho Sarup Vats">M.S. Vats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kashinath_Narayan_Dikshit" title="Kashinath Narayan Dikshit">K.N. Dikshit</a>. ... no one probably except myself can fully appreciate the difficulties and hardships which they had to face in the three first seasons at Mohenjo-daro." </blockquote> <cite class="right-aligned" style=""> — From, John Marshall (ed), Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931x-55">[36]</a></cite> </div> The first modern accounts of the <a href="/wiki/Ruins" title="Ruins">ruins</a> of the Indus civilisation are those of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Masson" title="Charles Masson">Charles Masson</a>, a deserter from the <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>'s army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">[37]</a> In 1829, Masson traveled through the <a href="/wiki/Princely_state" title="Princely state">princely state</a> of Punjab, gathering useful intelligence for the Company in return for a promise of clemency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">[37]</a> An aspect of this arrangement was the additional requirement to hand over to the Company any historical artifacts acquired during his travels. Masson, who had versed himself in the <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a>, especially in the military campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, chose for his wanderings some of the same towns that had featured in Alexander's campaigns, and whose archaeological sites had been noted by the campaign's chroniclers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">[37]</a> Masson's major archaeological discovery in the Punjab was Harappa, a metropolis of the Indus civilisation in the valley of Indus's tributary, the <a href="/wiki/Ravi_River" title="Ravi River">Ravi river</a>. Masson made copious notes and illustrations of Harappa's rich historical artifacts, many lying half-buried. In 1842, Masson included his observations of Harappa in the book Narrative of Various Journeys in Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and the Punjab. He dated the Harappa ruins to a period of recorded history, erroneously mistaking it to have been described earlier during Alexander's campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">[37]</a> Masson was impressed by the site's extraordinary size and by several large mounds formed from long-existing erosion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[t]</a> Two years later, the Company contracted Alexander Burnes to sail up the Indus to assess the feasibility of water travel for its army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">[37]</a> Burnes, who also stopped in Harappa, noted the baked bricks employed in the site's ancient masonry, but noted also the haphazard plundering of these bricks by the local population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">[37]</a> Despite these reports, Harappa was raided even more perilously for its bricks after the <a href="/wiki/Second_Anglo-Sikh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Anglo-Sikh War">British annexation of the Punjab</a> in 1848–49. A considerable number were carted away as <a href="/wiki/Track_ballast" title="Track ballast">track ballast</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Track_(rail_transport)" class="mw-redirect" title="Track (rail transport)">railway lines</a> being laid in the Punjab.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20096-59">[39]</a> Nearly 160 km (100 mi) of railway track between <a href="/wiki/Multan" title="Multan">Multan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a>, laid in the mid-1850s, was supported by Harappan bricks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20096-59">[39]</a> In 1861, three years after the dissolution of the East India Company and the establishment of <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Crown rule in India</a>, archaeology on the subcontinent became more formally organised with the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_India" title="Archaeological Survey of India">Archaeological Survey of India</a> (ASI).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20096–7-60">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Cunningham" title="Alexander Cunningham">Alexander Cunningham</a>, the Survey's first director-general, who had visited Harappa in 1853 and had noted the imposing brick walls, visited again to carry out a survey, but this time of a site whose entire upper layer had been stripped in the interim.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20096–7-60">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015180-61">[41]</a> Although his original goal of demonstrating Harappa to be a lost Buddhist city mentioned in the seventh century CE travels of the Chinese visitor, <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>, proved elusive,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015180-61">[41]</a> Cunningham did publish his findings in 1875.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20097-62">[42]</a> For the first time, he interpreted a Harappan <a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal" title="Stamp seal">stamp seal</a>, with its unknown script, which he concluded to be of an origin foreign to India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20097-62">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunningham1875pp._[httpsarchiveorgstreaminernetdli20155472202015547220Archaeological-Surbeypagen115mode2up_105]–108_and_pl._32–33-63">[43]</a> Archaeological work in Harappa thereafter lagged until a new viceroy of India, <a href="/wiki/George_Curzon,_1st_Marquess_Curzon_of_Kedleston" title="George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston">Lord Curzon</a>, pushed through the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Monuments_Preservation_Act_1904" title="Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904">Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904</a>, and appointed <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)" title="John Marshall (archaeologist)">John Marshall</a> to lead the ASI.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098-64">[44]</a> Several years later, <a href="/wiki/Hiranand_Sastri" title="Hiranand Sastri">Hiranand Sastri</a>, who had been assigned by Marshall to survey Harappa, reported it to be of non-Buddhist origin, and by implication more ancient.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098-64">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Expropriation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expropriation">Expropriating</a> Harappa for the ASI under the Act, Marshall directed ASI archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Daya_Ram_Sahni" title="Daya Ram Sahni">Daya Ram Sahni</a> to excavate the site's two mounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098-64">[44]</a> Farther south, along the <a href="/wiki/Main_stem" title="Main stem">main stem</a> of the Indus in <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sind</a> province, the largely undisturbed site of <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> had attracted notice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098-64">[44]</a> Marshall deputed a succession of ASI officers to survey the site. These included <a href="/wiki/D._R._Bhandarkar" class="mw-redirect" title="D. R. Bhandarkar">D. R. Bhandarkar</a> (1911), <a href="/wiki/R._D._Banerji" title="R. D. Banerji">R. D. Banerji</a> (1919, 1922–1923), and <a href="/wiki/Madho_Sarup_Vats" title="Madho Sarup Vats">M. S. Vats</a> (1924).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098–9-65">[45]</a> In 1923, on his second visit to Mohenjo-daro, Baneriji wrote to Marshall about the site, postulating an origin in "remote antiquity", and noting a congruence of some of its artifacts with those of Harappa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20099-66">[46]</a> Later in 1923, Vats, also in correspondence with Marshall, noted the same more specifically about the seals and the script found at both sites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20099-66">[46]</a> On the weight of these opinions, Marshall ordered crucial data from the two sites to be brought to one location and invited Banerji and Sahni to a joint discussion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20099–10-67">[47]</a> By 1924, Marshall had become convinced of the significance of the finds, and on 24 September 1924, made a tentative but conspicuous public intimation in the Illustrated London News:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright200910-25">[17]</a> <blockquote> "Not often has it been given to archaeologists, as it was given to <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Schliemann" title="Heinrich Schliemann">Schliemann</a> at <a href="/wiki/Tiryns" title="Tiryns">Tiryns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mycenae" title="Mycenae">Mycenae</a>, or to <a href="/wiki/Aurel_Stein" title="Aurel Stein">Stein</a> in the deserts of <a href="/wiki/Turkestan" title="Turkestan">Turkestan</a>, to light upon the remains of a long forgotten civilisation. It looks, however, at this moment, as if we were on the threshold of such a discovery in the plains of the Indus."</blockquote> In the next issue, a week later, the British Assyriologist <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Archibald Sayce</a> was able to point to very similar seals found in Bronze Age levels in Mesopotamia and Iran, giving the first strong indication of their date; confirmations from other archaeologists followed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl20023_and_12-68">[48]</a> Systematic excavations began in Mohenjo-daro in 1924–25 with that of <a href="/wiki/Kashinath_Narayan_Dikshit" title="Kashinath Narayan Dikshit">K. N. Dikshit</a>, continuing with those of H. Hargreaves (1925–1926), and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_J._H._Mackay" title="Ernest J. H. Mackay">Ernest J. H. Mackay</a> (1927–1931).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098–9-65">[45]</a> By 1931, much of Mohenjo-daro had been excavated, but occasional excavations continued, such as the one led by <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a>, a new director-general of the ASI appointed in 1944, and including <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Dani" title="Ahmad Hasan Dani">Ahmad Hasan Dani</a>.<a href="#cite_note-joffe-69">[49]</a> After the partition of India in 1947, when most excavated sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation lay in territory awarded to Pakistan, the Archaeological Survey of India, its area of authority reduced, carried out large numbers of surveys and excavations along the Ghaggar-Hakra system in India.<a href="#cite_note-guha_mas_2005-70">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[u]</a> Some speculated that the Ghaggar-Hakra system might yield more sites than the Indus river basin.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert2017-72">[51]</a> According to archaeologist Ratnagar, many Ghaggar-Hakra sites in India and Indus Valley sites in Pakistan are actually those of local cultures; some sites display contact with Harappan civilisation, but only a few are fully developed Harappan ones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatnagar2006b7–8-73">[52]</a> As of 1977, about 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script seals and inscribed objects</a> discovered were found at sites in Pakistan along the Indus river, while other sites accounts only for the remaining 10%.<a href="#cite_note-74">[v]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[54]</a> By 2002, over 1,000 Mature Harappan cities and settlements had been reported, of which just under a hundred had been excavated,<a href="#cite_note-reported_sites-17">[f]</a> mainly in the general region of the <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a> and Ghaggar-Hakra rivers and their tributaries; however, there are only five major urban sites: <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganeriwala" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganeriwala">Ganeriwala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ConinghamYoung2015-77">[55]</a> As of 2008, about 616 sites have been reported in India,<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-30">[20]</a> whereas 406 sites have been reported in Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-30">[20]</a> Unlike India, in which after 1947, the ASI attempted to "Indianise" archaeological work in keeping with the new nation's goals of national unity and historical continuity, in Pakistan the national imperative was the promotion of Islamic heritage, and consequently archaeological work on early sites was left to foreign archaeologists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichon2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid675cCgAAQBAJpgPT44_44ff]-78">[56]</a> After the partition, Mortimer Wheeler, the Director of ASI from 1944, oversaw the establishment of archaeological institutions in Pakistan, later joining a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> effort tasked to conserve the site at Mohenjo-daro.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201585-79">[57]</a> Other international efforts at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have included the German <a href="/wiki/RWTH_Aachen_University" title="RWTH Aachen University">Aachen</a> Research Project Mohenjo-daro, the Italian Mission to Mohenjo-daro, and the US Harappa Archaeological Research Project (HARP) founded by <a href="/wiki/George_F._Dales" title="George F. Dales">George F. Dales</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright200914-80">[58]</a> Following a chance flash flood which exposed a portion of an archaeological site at the foot of the <a href="/wiki/Bolan_Pass" title="Bolan Pass">Bolan Pass</a> in <a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a>, excavations were carried out in <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a> by French archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Jarrige" title="Jean-François Jarrige">Jean-François Jarrige</a> and his team in the early 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015109-81">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology">Chronology</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Periodisation_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation">Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="padding-bottom:0.5em; font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/South_Asia#History" title="South Asia">History of South Asia</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:South_Asia_(orthographic_projection)_without_national_boundaries.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="South Asia (orthographic projection)"><img alt="South Asia (orthographic projection)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/150px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/225px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg/300px-South_Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29_without_national_boundaries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_South_Asian_history" title="Outline of South Asian history">Outline</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Palaeolithic</a> (2,500,000–250,000 BC)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madrasian_culture" title="Madrasian culture">Madrasian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Soanian" title="Soanian">Soanian culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/South_Asian_Stone_Age" title="South Asian Stone Age">Neolithic</a> (10,800–3300 BC)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7570–6200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (7000–3300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Edakkal_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Edakkal Caves">Edakkal culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (5000–3000 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a> (3500–1500 BC)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Anarta_tradition" title="Anarta tradition">Anarta tradition</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3950–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahar%E2%80%93Banas_culture" title="Ahar–Banas culture">Ahar-Banas culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (3000–1500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandu_culture" title="Pandu culture">Pandu culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–750 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Malwa_culture" title="Malwa culture">Malwa culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jorwe_culture" title="Jorwe culture">Jorwe culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1400–700 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_India" title="Bronze Age India">Bronze Age</a> (3300–1300 BC)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_Harappan">Early Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(3300–2600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Mature_Harappan">Mature Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2600–1900 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Late Harappan culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1900–1300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(2000–1600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Swat culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1600–500 BC)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age</a> (1500–200 BC)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic Civilisation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1500–500 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Janapada" title="Janapada">Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1500–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Black_and_red_ware" title="Black and red ware">Black and Red ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;">(1300–1000 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1200–600 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (700–200 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pradyota_dynasty" title="Pradyota dynasty">Pradyota dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (799–684 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (684–424 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Three_Crowned_Kings" title="Three Crowned Kings">Three Crowned Kingdoms</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600 BC – AD 1600)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Maha Janapadas</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600–300 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (550–330 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> Ror Dynasty</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (450 BC – AD 489)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (424–345 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (380–321 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (330–323 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (321–184 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (312–303 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sangam_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam period">Sangam period</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 BC – c. 300 AD)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 BC – AD 1345)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 BC – AD 1102)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 300 BC – AD 1279)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pallava_dynasty" title="Pallava dynasty">Pallava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 AD – AD 800)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mahameghavahana_dynasty" title="Mahameghavahana dynasty">Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 BC – c. AD 500)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (247 BC – AD 224)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle Kingdoms</a> (230 BC – AD 1206)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230 BC – AD 220)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kuninda_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuninda Kingdom">Kuninda Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (200 BC – AD 300)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mitra_dynasty_(Mathura)" title="Mitra dynasty (Mathura)">Mitra Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 150 – c. 50 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (185–73 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (180 BC – AD 10)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kanva_dynasty" title="Kanva dynasty">Kanva Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (75–26 BC)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Scythians" title="Indo-Scythians">Indo-Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (50 BC – AD 400)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 21 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 130)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Satraps" title="Western Satraps">Western Satrap Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 35–405 )</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (AD 60–240)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Bharshiva Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (170–350)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nagas_of_Padmavati" title="Nagas of Padmavati">Nagas of Padmavati</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (210–340)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (224–651)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Indo-Sassanid Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (230–360)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vakataka_dynasty" title="Vakataka dynasty">Vakataka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 – c. 500)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalabhra_dynasty" title="Kalabhra dynasty">Kalabhras Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 250 – c. 600)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (280–550)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kadamba_dynasty" title="Kadamba dynasty">Kadamba Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (345–525)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Ganga_dynasty" title="Western Ganga dynasty">Western Ganga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1000)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kamarupa" title="Kamarupa">Kamarupa Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (350–1100)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vishnukundina_dynasty" title="Vishnukundina dynasty">Vishnukundina Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (420–624)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maitraka_dynasty" title="Maitraka dynasty">Maitraka Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–767)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Huna_people" title="Huna people">Huna Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (475–576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rai_dynasty" title="Rai dynasty">Rai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (489–632)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Shahis" title="Hindu Shahis">Kabul Shahi Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500 – 1026)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (543–753)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maukhari_dynasty" title="Maukhari dynasty">Maukhari Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 550 – c. 700)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (606–647)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (618–841)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern Chalukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (624–1075)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (632–661)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (650–1036)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (661–750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mallabhum_kingdom" title="Mallabhum kingdom">Mallabhum kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (694–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhauma-Kara_dynasty" title="Bhauma-Kara dynasty">Bhauma-Kara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (736–916)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (750–1174)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta dynasty">Rashtrakuta Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (753–982)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Paramara_dynasty" title="Paramara dynasty">Paramara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (800–1327)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Seuna_(Yadava)_dynasty" title="Seuna (Yadava) dynasty">Yadava Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (850–1334)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Somavamshi_dynasty" title="Somavamshi dynasty">Somavamshi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (882–1110)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chaulukya_dynasty" title="Chaulukya dynasty">Chaulukya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (942–1244)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western Chalukya Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (973–1189)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Lohara_dynasty" title="Lohara dynasty">Lohara Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1003–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Hoysala_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoysala Empire">Hoysala Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1040–1347)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sena_dynasty" title="Sena dynasty">Sena Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1070–1230)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ganga_dynasty" title="Eastern Ganga dynasty">Eastern Ganga Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1078–1434)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kakatiya_dynasty" title="Kakatiya dynasty">Kakatiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1083–1323)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Zamorin" title="Zamorin">Zamorin Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1102–1766)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Tripuri" title="Kalachuris of Tripuri">Kalachuris of Tripuri</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (675–1210)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kalachuris_of_Kalyani" title="Kalachuris of Kalyani">Kalachuris of Kalyani</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1156–1184)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Chutia_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Chutia Kingdom">Chutiya Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1187–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deva_dynasty" title="Deva dynasty">Deva Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200 – c. 1300)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Late medieval period</a> (1206–1526)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (977–1186)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1170–1206)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_dynasty_(Delhi)" title="Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)">Mamluk Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1206–1290)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Khalji_dynasty" title="Khalji dynasty">Khalji Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1290–1320)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Tughlaq_dynasty" title="Tughlaq dynasty">Tughlaq Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1320–1414)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_dynasty" title="Sayyid dynasty">Sayyid Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1414–1451)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Lodi_dynasty" title="Lodi dynasty">Lodi Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1451–1526)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahom_kingdom" title="Ahom kingdom">Ahom Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1228–1826)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurga" title="Nayakas of Chitradurga">Chitradurga Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1300–1779)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Reddi_Kingdom" title="Reddi Kingdom">Reddy Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1325–1448)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1336–1646)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Sultanate" title="Bengal Sultanate">Bengal Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1352–1576)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Garhwal_Kingdom" title="Garhwal Kingdom">Garhwal Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1358–1803)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysore" title="Kingdom of Mysore">Mysore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1399–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gajapati_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Gajapati Empire">Gajapati Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1434–1541)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Namgyal_dynasty_of_Ladakh" title="Namgyal dynasty of Ladakh">Ladakh Kingdom </a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1470–1842)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Deccan_sultanates" title="Deccan sultanates">Deccan sultanates</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1596)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmadnagar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1636)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Berar_sultanate" title="Berar sultanate">Berar sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1490–1574)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bidar_Sultanate" title="Bidar Sultanate">Bidar Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1619)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijapur Sultanate">Bijapur Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1492–1686)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">  – <a href="/wiki/Golkonda_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Golkonda Sultanate">Golkonda Sultanate</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1518–1687)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Nayakas_of_Keladi" title="Nayakas of Keladi">Keladi Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1499–1763)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Koch_dynasty" title="Koch dynasty">Koch Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1515–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a> (1526–1858)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1526–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sur_Empire" title="Sur Empire">Sur Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1540–1556)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_dynasty" title="Madurai Nayak dynasty">Madurai Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1529–1736)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayak_kingdom" title="Thanjavur Nayak kingdom">Thanjavur Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1532–1673)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bhoi_dynasty" title="Bhoi dynasty">Bhoi dynasty</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1541–1804)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bengal_Subah" title="Bengal Subah">Bengal Subah</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1576–1757)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Ramnad_estate" title="Ramnad estate">Marava Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1600–1750)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sikkim" title="Kingdom of Sikkim">Sikkim Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1642–1975)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tondaiman" title="Tondaiman">Thondaiman Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1650–1948)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1674–1818)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Misl" class="mw-redirect" title="Misl">Sikh Confederacy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1707–1799)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Travancore" title="Travancore">Travancore Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1729–1947)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1799–1849)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_India" title="Colonial India">Colonial states</a> (1510–1961)</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_India" title="Portuguese India">Portuguese India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1510–1961)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_India" title="Dutch India">Dutch India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1605–1825)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Danish_India" title="Danish India">Danish India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1620–1869)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/French_India" title="French India">French India</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1759–1954)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">Company Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1757–1858)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> (1858–1947)</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">National histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)" title="History of India (1947–present)">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;text-align:left;padding-right:4em;;color: var(--color-base)">Regional histories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Assam" title="History of Assam">Assam</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Balochistan" title="History of Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bengal" title="History of Bengal">Bengal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bihar" title="History of Bihar">Bihar</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gujarat" title="History of Gujarat">Gujarat</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Himachal_Pradesh" title="History of Himachal Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kabul" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Kabul">Kabul</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Karnataka" title="History of Karnataka">Karnataka</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kashmir" title="History of Kashmir">Kashmir</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa" title="History of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa">Khyber Pakhtunkhwa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rajasthan" title="History of Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Maharashtra" title="History of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="History of Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Punjab" title="History of Punjab">Punjab</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Odisha" title="History of Odisha">Odisha</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sindh" title="History of Sindh">Sindh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_India" title="History of South India">South India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tamil_Nadu" title="History of Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a></li><li><a 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India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Pakistan_studies" title="Pakistan studies">Pakistan studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions#History" title="Indian religions">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Science and technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history" title="Timeline of Indian history">Timeline</a></li></ul></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_South_Asia" title="Template talk:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_South_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of South Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The cities of the ancient Indus had "social hierarchies, their writing system, their large planned cities and their long-distance trade [which] mark them to archaeologists as a full-fledged 'civilisation.'"<a href="#cite_note-Chandler_34–42-82">[60]</a> The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lasted from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600–1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor cultures – Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively – the entire Indus Valley Civilisation may be taken to have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. It is part of the Indus Valley Tradition, which also includes the pre-Harappan occupation of Mehrgarh, the earliest farming site of the Indus Valley.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201527-83">[61]</a> Several periodisations are employed for the IVC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201527-83">[61]</a> The most commonly used classifies the Indus Valley Civilisation into Early, Mature and Late Harappan Phase.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201525-84">[62]</a> An alternative approach by Shaffer divides the broader Indus Valley Tradition into four eras, the pre-Harappan "Early Food Producing Era", and the Regionalisation, Integration, and Localisation eras, which correspond roughly with the Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late Harappan phases.<a href="#cite_note-Shaffer_1992_loc=I:441–464,_II:425–446-10">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuel2010148-85">[63]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Dates (BCE) </th> <th>Main phase </th> <th>Mehrgarh phases </th> <th>Harappan phases </th> <th>Post-Harappan phases </th> <th>Era </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">7000–5500 </td> <th rowspan="1">Pre-Harappan </th> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana</a> (aceramic Neolithic) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th rowspan="1">Early Food Producing Era </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">5500–3300 </td> <th rowspan="1">Pre-Harappan/Early Harappan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199753-86">[64]</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;">Mehrgarh II–VI (ceramic Neolithic) </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <th rowspan="3">Regionalisation Era <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4000–2500/2300 (Shaffer)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManuel2010149-87">[65]</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5000–3200 (Coningham & Young)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015145-88">[66]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">3300–2800 </td> <th rowspan="2">Early Harappan<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199753-86">[64]</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2800 (Mughal)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991335-89">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199753-86">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola201517-90">[68]</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5000–2800 (Kenoyer)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199753-86">[64]</a> </th> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase; <a href="/wiki/Hakra_Ware_culture" title="Hakra Ware culture">Hakra Ware</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2800–2600 </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Mehrgarh VII </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2600–2450 </td> <th rowspan="3">Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilisation) </th> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Harappan 3A (Nausharo II) </td> <td> </td> <th rowspan="3">Integration Era </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2450–2200 </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Harappan 3B </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">2200–1900 </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Harappan 3C </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">1900–1700 </td> <th rowspan="2">Late Harappan </th> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Harappan 4 </td> <td rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H" class="mw-redirect" title="Cemetery H">Cemetery H</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991333-91">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991333-91">[69]</a> </td> <th rowspan="2">Localisation Era </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">1700–1300 </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;">Harappan 5 </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">1300–600 </td> <th rowspan="2">Post-Harappan <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age India</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Painted_Gray_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Painted Gray Ware">Painted Grey Ware</a> (1200–600) <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500) </td> <th>Regionalisation <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1200–300 (Kenoyer)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199753-86">[64]</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991336-92">[70]</a>–600 (Coningham & Young)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201528-93">[71]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center;">600–300 </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a> (Iron Age) (700–200) <a href="/wiki/Second_urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Second urbanisation">Second urbanisation</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 500–200) </td> <th>Integration<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201528-93">[71]</a> </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-Harappan_era:_Mehrgarh">Pre-Harappan era: Mehrgarh</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> (7000 BCE to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2500 BCE) mountain site in the Balochistan province of <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-94">[72]</a> which gave new insights on the emergence of the Indus Valley Civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-Chandler_34–42-82">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[w]</a> Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[74]</a> Mehrgarh was influenced by the Near Eastern Neolithic,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGangalSarsonShukurov2014-98">[75]</a> with similarities between "domesticated wheat varieties, early phases of farming, pottery, other archaeological artefacts, some domesticated plants and herd animals."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Sakshi2016-99">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-Near_East-100">[x]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Jarrige" title="Jean-François Jarrige">Jean-Francois Jarrige</a> argues for an independent origin of Mehrgarh. Jarrige notes "the assumption that farming economy was introduced full-fledged from Near-East to South Asia,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarrige2008a-101">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-Near_East-100">[x]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[y]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[z]</a> and the similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley, which are evidence of a "cultural continuum" between those sites. But given the originality of Mehrgarh, Jarrige concludes that Mehrgarh has an earlier local background, and is not a "'backwater' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarrige2008a-101">[77]</a> Lukacs and Hemphill suggest an initial local development of Mehrgarh, with a continuity in cultural development but a change in population. According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">chalcolithic</a> (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015114-117">[91]</a> which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015114-117">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[aa]</a> Mascarenhas et al. (2015) note that "new, possibly West Asian, body types are reported from the graves of Mehrgarh beginning in the Togau phase (3800 BCE)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMascarenhasRainaAstonSanghera20159-119">[92]</a> Gallego Romero et al. (2011) state that their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallego_Romero20119-120">[93]</a> They further note that "[t]he earliest evidence of cattle herding in South Asia comes from the Indus River Valley site of Mehrgarh and is dated to 7,000 <a href="/wiki/YBP" class="mw-redirect" title="YBP">YBP</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallego_Romero20119-120">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[ab]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Harappan">Early Harappan</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Early_Phase_(3300-2600_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Early_Phase_%283300-2600_BCE%29.png/220px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Early_Phase_%283300-2600_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Early_Phase_%283300-2600_BCE%29.png/330px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Early_Phase_%283300-2600_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Early_Phase_%283300-2600_BCE%29.png/440px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Early_Phase_%283300-2600_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Early Harappan Period, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2600 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Valle_dell%27indo,_barca_a_forma_di_toro,_periodo_kot-dijan,_2800-2600_ac_ca._(coll._priv.)_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Valle_dell%27indo%2C_barca_a_forma_di_toro%2C_periodo_kot-dijan%2C_2800-2600_ac_ca._%28coll._priv.%29_02.jpg/220px-Valle_dell%27indo%2C_barca_a_forma_di_toro%2C_periodo_kot-dijan%2C_2800-2600_ac_ca._%28coll._priv.%29_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Valle_dell%27indo%2C_barca_a_forma_di_toro%2C_periodo_kot-dijan%2C_2800-2600_ac_ca._%28coll._priv.%29_02.jpg/330px-Valle_dell%27indo%2C_barca_a_forma_di_toro%2C_periodo_kot-dijan%2C_2800-2600_ac_ca._%28coll._priv.%29_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Valle_dell%27indo%2C_barca_a_forma_di_toro%2C_periodo_kot-dijan%2C_2800-2600_ac_ca._%28coll._priv.%29_02.jpg/440px-Valle_dell%27indo%2C_barca_a_forma_di_toro%2C_periodo_kot-dijan%2C_2800-2600_ac_ca._%28coll._priv.%29_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2552" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption>Terracotta boat in the shape of a bull, and female figurines. <a href="/wiki/Kot_Diji" title="Kot Diji">Kot Diji</a> period (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800–2600 BC).</figcaption></figure> The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby <a href="/wiki/Ravi_River" title="Ravi River">Ravi River</a>, lasted from <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It started when farmers from the mountains gradually moved between their mountain homes and the lowland river valleys,<a href="#cite_note-123">[95]</a> and is related to the <a href="/wiki/Hakra_Ware_culture" title="Hakra Ware culture">Hakra Phase</a>, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the <a href="/wiki/Kot_Diji" title="Kot Diji">Kot Diji</a> Phase (2800–2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, Pakistan, near <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a>. The earliest examples of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> date to the 3rd millennium BCE.<a href="#cite_note-124">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[97]</a> The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by <a href="/wiki/Rehman_Dheri" title="Rehman Dheri">Rehman Dheri</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amri_(Pre-Harappa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amri (Pre-Harappa)">Amri</a> in Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-126">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Kot_Diji" title="Kot Diji">Kot Diji</a> represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at <a href="/wiki/Kalibangan" title="Kalibangan">Kalibangan</a> in India on the Hakra River.<a href="#cite_note-127">[99]</a> Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> and other materials for bead-making. By this time, villagers had domesticated numerous crops, including <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sesame_seed" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesame seed">sesame seeds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Date_(fruit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Date (fruit)">dates</a>, and cotton, as well as animals, including the <a href="/wiki/Domestic_buffalo" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic buffalo">water buffalo</a>. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature Harappan phase started. The latest research shows that Indus Valley people migrated from villages to cities.<a href="#cite_note-128">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[101]</a> The final stages of the Early Harappan period are characterised by the building of large walled settlements, the expansion of trade networks, and the increasing integration of regional communities into a "relatively uniform" material culture in terms of pottery styles, ornaments, and <a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal" title="Stamp seal">stamp seals</a> with <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a>, leading into the transition to the Mature Harappan phase.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer2006-130">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mature_Harappan">Mature Harappan</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Mature_Phase_(2600-1900_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/330px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/495px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png/660px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Mature_Phase_%282600-1900_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Mature Harappan Period, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2600–1900 BCE</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Mature Harappan</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:220px;max-width:220px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:163px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Another_view_of_Granary_and_Great_Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Another_view_of_Granary_and_Great_Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG/218px-Another_view_of_Granary_and_Great_Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG" decoding="async" width="218" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Another_view_of_Granary_and_Great_Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG/327px-Another_view_of_Granary_and_Great_Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Another_view_of_Granary_and_Great_Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG/436px-Another_view_of_Granary_and_Great_Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">View of Granary and Great Hall on Mound F in <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:103px;max-width:103px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:75px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG/101px-The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="101" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG/152px-The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG/202px-The_drainage_system_at_Lothal_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:75px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:DHOLAVIRA_SITE_(24).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg/113px-DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg/170px-DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg/226px-DHOLAVIRA_SITE_%2824%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4050" data-file-height="2700" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Gujarat, India">Gujarat, India</a>, is one of the largest cities of Indus Valley civilisation, with <a href="/wiki/Stepwell" title="Stepwell">stepwell</a> steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs.<a href="#cite_note-news-131">[103]</a></div></div></div></div></div> According to Giosan et al. (2012), the slow southward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the Indus Valley villages to develop by taming the floods of the Indus and its tributaries. Flood-supported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-6">[4]</a> Brooke further notes that the development of advanced cities coincides with a reduction in rainfall, which may have triggered a reorganisation into larger urban centres.<a href="#cite_note-brooke-2014-132">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Note-Brooke-16">[e]</a> According to J.G. Shaffer and D.A. Lichtenstein,<a href="#cite_note-133">[105]</a> the Mature Harappan civilisation was "a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Kot Diji traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley on the borders of India and Pakistan".<a href="#cite_note-possehl-134">[106]</a> Also, according to a more recent summary by Maisels (2003), "The Harappan oecumene formed from a Kot Dijian/<a href="/wiki/Amri_culture" title="Amri culture">Amri-Nal</a> synthesis". He also says that, in the development of complexity, the site of Mohenjo-daro has priority, along with the Hakra-Ghaggar cluster of sites, "where Hakra wares actually precede the Kot Diji related material". He sees these areas as "catalytic in producing the fusion from Hakra, Kot Dijian and Amri-Nal cultural elements that resulted in the gestalt we recognize as Early Harappan (Early Indus)."<a href="#cite_note-135">[107]</a> By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turned into large urban centres. Such urban centres include <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganeriwala" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganeriwala">Ganeriwala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> in modern-day Pakistan, and <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibangan" title="Kalibangan">Kalibangan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rupar" class="mw-redirect" title="Rupar">Rupar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a> in modern-day India.<a href="#cite_note-re-enters-136">[108]</a> In total, more than 1,000 settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.<a href="#cite_note-reported_sites-17">[f]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cities">Cities</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Harappan_architecture" title="Harappan architecture">Harappan architecture</a></div> A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilisation, making them the first urban centre in the region. The quality of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a> and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on <a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">hygiene</a>, or, alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA193_193ff]-137">[109]</a> As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] partially excavated <a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a>, this urban plan included the world's first known <a href="/wiki/Sanitation_of_the_Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitation of the Indus Valley civilisation">urban sanitation systems</a>. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">wells</a>. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">waste water</a> was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner <a href="/wiki/Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyards</a> and smaller lanes. The housebuilding in some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the housebuilding of the Harappans.<a href="#cite_note-139">[ac]</a> The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:BALANCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:BALANCE">unbalanced opinion?</a>] The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their dockyards, <a href="/wiki/Granary" title="Granary">granaries</a>, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidwhBEAgAAQBAJpgPA31_31]-140">[111]</a> The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilisation's contemporaries, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples.<a href="#cite_note-141">[112]</a> Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath (the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-daro" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro">Great Bath</a>"), which may have been a public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the <a href="/wiki/Artifact_(archaeology)" title="Artifact (archaeology)">artefacts</a> discovered were beautiful glazed <a href="/wiki/Fa%C3%AFence" class="mw-redirect" title="Faïence">faïence</a> beads. <a href="/wiki/Steatite" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatite">Steatite</a> seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other types of inscriptions, including the yet un-deciphered <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">writing system of the Indus Valley Civilisation</a>. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods. Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilisation cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>. All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a society with relatively low <a href="/wiki/Wealth_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth concentration">wealth concentration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-green-142">[113]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Authority_and_governance">Authority and governance</h3></div> Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a centre of power or for depictions of people in power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented. For instance, the majority of the cities were constructed in a highly uniform and well-planned grid pattern, suggesting they were planned by a central authority; extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and bricks;<a href="#cite_note-143">[114]</a> presence of public facilities and monumental architecture;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1997-144">[115]</a> heterogeneity in the mortuary symbolism and in grave goods (items included in burials).<a href="#cite_note-145">[116]</a> These are some major theories:[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <ul><li>There was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.</li> <li>There was no single ruler but several cities like Mohenjo-daro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so forth.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</h3></div> Harappans evolved some new techniques in <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> and produced copper, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, lead, and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A <a href="/wiki/Touchstone_(assaying_tool)" title="Touchstone (assaying tool)">touchstone</a> bearing gold streaks was found in <a href="/wiki/Banawali" title="Banawali">Banawali</a>, which was probably used for testing the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).<a href="#cite_note-possehl-134">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metrology">Metrology</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Harappan_(Indus_Valley)_Balance_%26_Weights.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Harappan_%28Indus_Valley%29_Balance_%26_Weights.jpg/200px-Harappan_%28Indus_Valley%29_Balance_%26_Weights.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Harappan_%28Indus_Valley%29_Balance_%26_Weights.jpg/300px-Harappan_%28Indus_Valley%29_Balance_%26_Weights.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Harappan_%28Indus_Valley%29_Balance_%26_Weights.jpg/400px-Harappan_%28Indus_Valley%29_Balance_%26_Weights.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Harappan weights found in the Indus Valley, (<a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_New_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, New Delhi">National Museum, New Delhi</a>)<a href="#cite_note-146">[117]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics#Prehistory" title="Indian mathematics">Indian mathematics § Prehistory</a></div> The people of the Indus civilisation achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Dubious" title="Talk:Indus Valley Civilisation">discuss</a>] A comparison of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a> in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their <a href="/wiki/Hexahedron" title="Hexahedron">hexahedron</a> weights.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] These <a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">chert</a> weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English <a href="/wiki/Imperial_units#Mass_and_weight" title="Imperial units">Imperial ounce</a> or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871 . However, as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights and measures later used in <a href="/wiki/Kautilya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kautilya">Kautilya</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a> (4th century BCE) are the same as those used in <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arts_and_crafts">Arts and crafts</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pottery_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Pottery in the Indian subcontinent">Pottery in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> Many <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus Valley seals</a> and items in <a href="/wiki/Indian_Pottery" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Pottery">pottery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a> have been found, along with a very few stone sculptures and some gold jewellery and bronze vessels. Some anatomically detailed figurines in <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a>, bronze, and steatite have been found at excavation sites, the former probably mostly toys.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008248-148">[119]</a> The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a> (with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-daro.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELal200289-149">[120]</a> The terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.<a href="#cite_note-Keay,_John_2000-150">[121]</a> Many crafts including, "shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite bead making" were practised and the pieces were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan culture. Some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1997-144">[115]</a> Some make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai), the use of <a href="/wiki/Collyrium" title="Collyrium">collyrium</a> and a special three-in-one toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in modern India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELal200282-151">[122]</a> Terracotta female figurines were found (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800–2600 BCE) which had red colour applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELal200282-151">[122]</a> Archeological remains from 2000 to 3000 BC have been found from the city of <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a> of pieces on a board that resemble chess.<a href="#cite_note-152">[123]</a> The finds from Mohenjo-daro were initially deposited in the <a href="/wiki/Lahore_Museum" title="Lahore Museum">Lahore Museum</a>, but later moved to the ASI headquarters at New Delhi, where a new "Central Imperial Museum" was being planned for the new capital of the British Raj, in which at least a selection would be displayed. It became apparent that Indian independence was approaching, but the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a> was not anticipated until late in the process. The new Pakistani authorities requested the return of the Mohenjo-daro pieces excavated on their territory, but the Indian authorities refused. Eventually an agreement was reached, whereby the finds, totalling some 12,000 objects (most <a href="/wiki/Sherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherd">sherds</a> of pottery), were split equally between the countries; in some cases this was taken very literally, with some necklaces and girdles having their beads separated into two piles. In the case of the "two most celebrated sculpted figures", Pakistan asked for and received the <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro_Priest-King" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohenjo-daro Priest-King">so-called Priest-King figure</a>, while India retained the much smaller <a href="/wiki/Dancing_Girl_(prehistoric_sculpture)" title="Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)">Dancing Girl</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[124]</a> Though written considerably later, the arts treatise <a href="/wiki/Natya_Shastra" title="Natya Shastra">Natya Shastra</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 200 BCE – 200 CE) classifies musical instruments into four groups based on their means of acoustical production—strings, membranes, solid materials and air—and it is probable that such instruments had existed since the IVC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlora2000319-154">[125]</a> Archeological evidence indicates the use of simple <a href="/wiki/Rattle_(percussion_instrument)" title="Rattle (percussion instrument)">rattles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vessel_flute" title="Vessel flute">vessel flutes</a>, while iconographical evidence suggests early harps and drums were also used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlora2000319–320-155">[126]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">ideogram</a> in the IVC contains the earliest known depiction of an <a href="/wiki/Arched_harp" title="Arched harp">arched harp</a>, dated sometime before 1800 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-156">[127]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ceremonial vessel; 2600–2450 BC; terracotta with black paint; 49.53 × 25.4 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (US)"><img alt="Ceremonial vessel; 2600–2450 BC; terracotta with black paint; 49.53 × 25.4 cm; Los Angeles County Museum of Art (US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg/125px-Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg/188px-Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg/251px-Ceremonial_Vessel_LACMA_AC1997.93.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="627" data-file-height="850" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ceremonial vessel; 2600–2450 BC; terracotta with black paint; 49.53 × 25.4 cm; <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Museum_of_Art" title="Los Angeles County Museum of Art">Los Angeles County Museum of Art</a> (US)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Poids_cubiques_harapp%C3%A9ens_-_BM.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cubical weights, standardised throughout the Indus cultural zone; 2600–1900 BC; chert; British Museum (London)"><img alt="Cubical weights, standardised throughout the Indus cultural zone; 2600–1900 BC; chert; British Museum (London)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Poids_cubiques_harapp%C3%A9ens_-_BM.jpg/170px-Poids_cubiques_harapp%C3%A9ens_-_BM.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Poids_cubiques_harapp%C3%A9ens_-_BM.jpg/255px-Poids_cubiques_harapp%C3%A9ens_-_BM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Poids_cubiques_harapp%C3%A9ens_-_BM.jpg/340px-Poids_cubiques_harapp%C3%A9ens_-_BM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5847" data-file-height="3899" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cubical weights, standardised throughout the Indus cultural zone; 2600–1900 BC; chert; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Harappan_carnelian_and_terracotta_beads_-_Mohenjo-daro.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mohenjo-daro beads; 2600–1900 BC; carnelian and terracotta; British Museum"><img alt="Mohenjo-daro beads; 2600–1900 BC; carnelian and terracotta; British Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Harappan_carnelian_and_terracotta_beads_-_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/170px-Harappan_carnelian_and_terracotta_beads_-_Mohenjo-daro.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Harappan_carnelian_and_terracotta_beads_-_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/255px-Harappan_carnelian_and_terracotta_beads_-_Mohenjo-daro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Harappan_carnelian_and_terracotta_beads_-_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/340px-Harappan_carnelian_and_terracotta_beads_-_Mohenjo-daro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4707" data-file-height="3468" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> beads; 2600–1900 BC; <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terracotta" title="Terracotta">terracotta</a>; British Museum</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Oiseau_a_tete_de_belier_monte_sur_roues_Indus_Guimet.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ram-headed bird mounted on wheels, probably a toy; 2600–1900 BC; terracotta; Guimet Museum (Paris)"><img alt="Ram-headed bird mounted on wheels, probably a toy; 2600–1900 BC; terracotta; Guimet Museum (Paris)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oiseau_a_tete_de_belier_monte_sur_roues_Indus_Guimet.jpg/165px-Oiseau_a_tete_de_belier_monte_sur_roues_Indus_Guimet.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oiseau_a_tete_de_belier_monte_sur_roues_Indus_Guimet.jpg/247px-Oiseau_a_tete_de_belier_monte_sur_roues_Indus_Guimet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Oiseau_a_tete_de_belier_monte_sur_roues_Indus_Guimet.jpg/330px-Oiseau_a_tete_de_belier_monte_sur_roues_Indus_Guimet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3601" data-file-height="3714" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ram-headed bird mounted on wheels, probably a toy; 2600–1900 BC; terracotta; <a href="/wiki/Guimet_Museum" title="Guimet Museum">Guimet Museum</a> (Paris)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_statuettes">Human statuettes</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dancing_Girl_(prehistoric_sculpture)" title="Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)">Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)</a></div> A handful of realistic statuettes have been found at IVC sites, of which much the most famous[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view/FAQ#Assert_facts,_not_opinions" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view/FAQ">opinion</a>] is the <a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">lost-wax casting</a> <a href="/wiki/Bronze_sculpture" title="Bronze sculpture">bronze</a> statuette of a slender-limbed <a href="/wiki/Dancing_Girl_(prehistoric_sculpture)" title="Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)">Dancing Girl</a> adorned with bangles, found in Mohenjo-daro. Two other realistic incomplete statuettes have been found in Harappa in proper stratified excavations, which display near-<a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical</a> treatment of the human shape: the <a href="/wiki/File:Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg" title="File:Harappa 13 grey stone male dancer statuette.jpg">statuette of a dancer</a> who seems to be male, and the Harappa Torso, a <a href="/wiki/File:Harappa_red_jasper_male_torso.jpg" title="File:Harappa red jasper male torso.jpg">red jasper male torso</a>, both now in the Delhi National Museum. <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)" title="John Marshall (archaeologist)">Sir John Marshall</a> reacted with surprise when he saw these two statuettes from Harappa:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015722pagen82_45]-157">[128]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art, and culture. Modelling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged ... Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015722pagen82_45]-157">[128]</a></blockquote> These statuettes remain controversial, due to their advanced style in representing the human body. Regarding the red jasper torso, the discoverer, <a href="/wiki/Madho_Sarup_Vats" title="Madho Sarup Vats">Vats</a>, claims a Harappan date, but Marshall considered this statuette is probably historical, dating to the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a> period, comparing it to the much later <a href="/wiki/Lohanipur_torso" title="Lohanipur torso">Lohanipur torso</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpmAuAsi4ePICpgPA111_111]–[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpmAuAsi4ePICpgPA112_112]-158">[129]</a> A second rather similar grey stone torso of a dancing male was also found about 150 meters away in a secure Mature Harappan stratum. Overall, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Possehl" title="Gregory Possehl">Gregory Possehl</a> tends to consider that these statuettes probably form the pinnacle of Indus art during the Mature Harappan period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002111-159">[130]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Reclining_mouflon_MET_DT252770.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reclining mouflon; 2600–1900 BC; marble; length: 28 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Reclining mouflon; 2600–1900 BC; marble; length: 28 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Reclining_mouflon_MET_DT252770.jpg/170px-Reclining_mouflon_MET_DT252770.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Reclining_mouflon_MET_DT252770.jpg/255px-Reclining_mouflon_MET_DT252770.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Reclining_mouflon_MET_DT252770.jpg/340px-Reclining_mouflon_MET_DT252770.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3793" data-file-height="3037" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reclining mouflon; 2600–1900 BC; marble; length: 28 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Priest-King; 2400–1900 BC; low fired steatite; height: 17.5 cm; National Museum of Pakistan (Karachi)"><img alt="The Priest-King; 2400–1900 BC; low fired steatite; height: 17.5 cm; National Museum of Pakistan (Karachi)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/132px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg" decoding="async" width="132" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/197px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg/263px-Mohenjo-daro_Priesterk%C3%B6nig.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="754" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Priest-king_(sculpture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Priest-king (sculpture)">Priest-King</a>; 2400–1900 BC; low fired steatite; height: 17.5 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Pakistan" title="National Museum of Pakistan">National Museum of Pakistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Male dancing torso; 2400–1900 BC; limestone; height: 9.9 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)"><img alt="Male dancing torso; 2400–1900 BC; limestone; height: 9.9 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg/104px-Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg" decoding="async" width="104" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg/156px-Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg/208px-Harappa_13_grey_stone_male_dancer_statuette.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1945" data-file-height="3172" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Male dancing torso; 2400–1900 BC; limestone; height: 9.9 cm; <a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_New_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, New Delhi">National Museum</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Dancing Girl; 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)"><img alt="The Dancing Girl; 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/109px-Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg" decoding="async" width="109" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/163px-Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg/218px-Dancing_girl_of_Mohenjo-daro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2257" data-file-height="3518" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Dancing_Girl_(prehistoric_sculpture)" title="Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)">Dancing Girl</a>; 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seals">Seals</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndusValleySeals.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/IndusValleySeals.JPG/200px-IndusValleySeals.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/IndusValleySeals.JPG/300px-IndusValleySeals.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/IndusValleySeals.JPG/400px-IndusValleySeals.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1483" data-file-height="1029" /></a><figcaption>Stamp seals and (right) impressions, some of them with <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a>; probably made of steatite; <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (London)</figcaption></figure> Thousands of <a href="/wiki/Steatite" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatite">steatite</a> seals have been recovered, and their physical character is fairly consistent. In size they range from squares of side <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>2 to 4 cm (3⁄4 to 1+1⁄2 in). In most cases they have a pierced boss at the back to accommodate a cord for handling or for use as personal adornment. In addition a large number of sealings have survived, of which only a few can be matched to the seals. The great majority of examples of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> are short groups of signs on seals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002127-160">[131]</a> Seals have been found at <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> depicting a figure standing on its head, and another, on the <a href="/wiki/Pashupati_seal" title="Pashupati seal">Pashupati seal</a>, sitting cross-legged in what some[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] call a <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>-like pose (see image, the so-called Pashupati, below). This figure has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.<a href="#cite_note-161">[132]</a> A <a href="/wiki/File:Indus_bull-man_fighting_beast.jpg" title="File:Indus bull-man fighting beast.jpg">human deity with the horns, hooves and tail of a bull</a> also appears in the seals, in particular in a fighting scene with a horned tiger-like beast. This deity has been compared to the Mesopotamian bull-man <a href="/wiki/Enkidu" title="Enkidu">Enkidu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Littleton-162">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDs_hazstxY4CpgPA389_389]-163">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearson-164">[135]</a> Several seals also show a man fighting two lions or tigers, a "<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Animals" title="Master of Animals">Master of Animals</a>" motif common to civilisations in Western and South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-164">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[136]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:MET_1984_482_237872.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal; 3000–1500 BC; baked steatite; 2 × 2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)"><img alt="Seal; 3000–1500 BC; baked steatite; 2 × 2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/MET_1984_482_237872.jpg/157px-MET_1984_482_237872.jpg" decoding="async" width="157" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/MET_1984_482_237872.jpg/235px-MET_1984_482_237872.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/MET_1984_482_237872.jpg/314px-MET_1984_482_237872.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="1210" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seal; 3000–1500 BC; baked <a href="/wiki/Steatite" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatite">steatite</a>; 2 × 2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Stamp_seal_and_modern_impression-_unicorn_and_incense_burner_(%3F)_MET_DP23101_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?); 2600–1900 BC; burnt steatite; 3.8 × 3.8 × 1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?); 2600–1900 BC; burnt steatite; 3.8 × 3.8 × 1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Stamp_seal_and_modern_impression-_unicorn_and_incense_burner_%28%3F%29_MET_DP23101_%28cropped%29.jpg/170px-Stamp_seal_and_modern_impression-_unicorn_and_incense_burner_%28%3F%29_MET_DP23101_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Stamp_seal_and_modern_impression-_unicorn_and_incense_burner_%28%3F%29_MET_DP23101_%28cropped%29.jpg/255px-Stamp_seal_and_modern_impression-_unicorn_and_incense_burner_%28%3F%29_MET_DP23101_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Stamp_seal_and_modern_impression-_unicorn_and_incense_burner_%28%3F%29_MET_DP23101_%28cropped%29.jpg/340px-Stamp_seal_and_modern_impression-_unicorn_and_incense_burner_%28%3F%29_MET_DP23101_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1406" data-file-height="708" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stamp seal and modern impression: unicorn and incense burner (?); 2600–1900 BC; burnt steatite; 3.8 × 3.8 × 1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 x 3.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)"><img alt="Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 x 3.2 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg/170px-Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg/255px-Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg/340px-Clevelandart_1973.160.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="3134" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seal with two-horned bull and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.2 x 3.2 cm; <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cleveland,_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleveland, Ohio">Cleveland, Ohio</a>, US)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Clevelandart_1973.161.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal with unicorn and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.5 x 3.6 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art"><img alt="Seal with unicorn and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.5 x 3.6 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Clevelandart_1973.161.jpg/170px-Clevelandart_1973.161.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Clevelandart_1973.161.jpg/255px-Clevelandart_1973.161.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Clevelandart_1973.161.jpg/340px-Clevelandart_1973.161.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="3126" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seal with unicorn and inscription; 2010 BC; steatite; overall: 3.5 x 3.6 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Constitution_Page1_Rammanohar.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seal painted on the first page of Constitution of India"><img alt="Seal painted on the first page of Constitution of India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Constitution_Page1_Rammanohar.jpg/170px-Constitution_Page1_Rammanohar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Constitution_Page1_Rammanohar.jpg/255px-Constitution_Page1_Rammanohar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Constitution_Page1_Rammanohar.jpg/340px-Constitution_Page1_Rammanohar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7016" data-file-height="4961" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Seal painted on the first page of Constitution of India</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_transportation">Trade and transportation</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shortugai" title="Shortugai">Shortugai</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_Age_IVC_Trade_Route.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bronze_Age_IVC_Trade_Route.png/220px-Bronze_Age_IVC_Trade_Route.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bronze_Age_IVC_Trade_Route.png/330px-Bronze_Age_IVC_Trade_Route.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bronze_Age_IVC_Trade_Route.png/440px-Bronze_Age_IVC_Trade_Route.png 2x" data-file-width="1568" data-file-height="1564" /></a><figcaption>Archaeological discoveries suggest that trade routes between <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and the Indus were active during the 3rd millennium BCE, leading to the development of <a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JR12-166">[137]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Disha_Kaka_Boat_with_Direction_Finding_Birds,_model_of_Mohenjo-Daro_seal,_3000_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Disha_Kaka_Boat_with_Direction_Finding_Birds%2C_model_of_Mohenjo-Daro_seal%2C_3000_BCE.jpg/220px-Disha_Kaka_Boat_with_Direction_Finding_Birds%2C_model_of_Mohenjo-Daro_seal%2C_3000_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Disha_Kaka_Boat_with_Direction_Finding_Birds%2C_model_of_Mohenjo-Daro_seal%2C_3000_BCE.jpg/330px-Disha_Kaka_Boat_with_Direction_Finding_Birds%2C_model_of_Mohenjo-Daro_seal%2C_3000_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Disha_Kaka_Boat_with_Direction_Finding_Birds%2C_model_of_Mohenjo-Daro_seal%2C_3000_BCE.jpg/440px-Disha_Kaka_Boat_with_Direction_Finding_Birds%2C_model_of_Mohenjo-Daro_seal%2C_3000_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3359" data-file-height="1788" /></a><figcaption>Boat with direction-finding birds to find land.<a href="#cite_note-167">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathew2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu0IwDwAAQBAJpgPT32_32]-168">[139]</a> Model of <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> tablet, 2500–1750 BCE.(<a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_New_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, New Delhi">National Museum, New Delhi</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1AJO2A-CbccCpgPA158_158]–[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1AJO2A-CbccCpgPA159_159]-169">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllchinAllchin1982pp._188–189,_listing_of_figures_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidr4s-YsP6vcICpgPR10_p.x]-170">[141]</a> Flat-bottomed river row-boats appear in two Indus seals, but their seaworthiness is debatable.<a href="#cite_note-robinson-171">[142]</a></figcaption></figure> The Indus Valley civilisation may have had <a href="/wiki/Bullock_cart" title="Bullock cart">bullock carts</a> identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today;. An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered by H.-P. Francfort.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH3lUIIYxWkECpgPA157_157]-172">[143]</a> During 4300–3200 BCE of the <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">chalcolithic</a> period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilisation area shows ceramic similarities with southern <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> and northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200–2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines, ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade with <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[144]</a> Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artefacts, the trade networks economically integrated a huge area, including portions of <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, the coastal regions of <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persia</a> connected by the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Oman" title="Gulf of Oman">Gulf of Oman</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a>, northern and <a href="/wiki/Western_India" title="Western India">western India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, leading to the development of <a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a>. Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried at Harappa suggest that some residents had migrated to the city from beyond the Indus Valley.<a href="#cite_note-174">[145]</a> Ancient DNA studies of graves at Bronze Age sites at <a href="/wiki/Gonur_Depe" title="Gonur Depe">Gonur Depe</a>, Turkmenistan, and <a href="/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh" title="Shahr-e Sukhteh">Shahr-e Sukhteh</a>, Iran, have identified 11 individuals of South Asian descent, who are presumed to be of mature Indus Valley origin.<a href="#cite_note-175">[146]</a> There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilisations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from <a href="/wiki/Dilmun" title="Dilmun">Dilmun</a>" (modern <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Failaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Failaka">Failaka</a> located in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>).<a href="#cite_note-176">[147]</a> Such long-distance sea trade became feasible with the development of plank-built watercraft, equipped with a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.<a href="#cite_note-Maurizio_Tosi_1993,_pp._745-61-177">[148]</a> However, the evidence of sea-borne trade involving the Harappan civilisation is not firm. In their book Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan archaeologists <a href="/wiki/Bridget_Allchin" title="Bridget Allchin">Bridget Allchin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Allchin" title="Raymond Allchin">Raymond Allchin</a> write: <blockquote>... (p. 173) the settlement at Lothal ... along the east side was a brick basin. It is claimed by its excavator to have been a dockyard, connected by channels to a neighbouring estuary. ... On its edge the excavator discovered several heavily-pierced stones, similar to modern anchor stones employed by traditional seafaring communities of Western India. This interpretation, however, has been challenged, and indeed the published levels of the basin and its entrance relative to the modern sea level seem to argue against it. Leshnik has cogently suggested that it was a tank for the reception of sweet water, channelled from higher ground inland to an area where the local water supplies were anciently, as still today, saline. We regard either interpretation as still unproven, but favour the latter. ... (p. 188–189) The discussion of trade focuses attention upon methods of transport. Several representations of ships are found on seals and graffiti at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (Figs. 7.15–7.16], etc, and a terracotta model of a ship, with a stick impressed socket for the mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging comes from Lothal. We have already seen above that the great brick tank, interpreted by Rao as a dock at Lothal, cannot yet be certainly identified. The evidence of sea trade and contact during the Harappan period is largely circumstantial, or derived from inferences from the Mesopotamian texts, as detailed above. (Figure 7. 15 had caption: Mohenjo-daro: representation of ship on a stone seal (length 4.3 cm) (after Mackay). Figure 7.16 Mohenjo-daro: representation of ship on terracotta amulet (length 4.5 cm) after Dales)</blockquote> Daniel T. Potts writes: <blockquote> It is generally assumed that most trade between the Indus Valley (ancient Meluhha?) and western neighbors proceeded up the Persian Gulf rather than overland. Although there is no incontrovertible proof that this was indeed the case, the distribution of Indus-type artifacts on the Oman peninsula, on Bahrain and in southern Mesopotamia makes it plausible that a series of maritime stages linked the Indus Valley and the Gulf region. If this is accepted, then the presence of <a href="/wiki/Etched_carnelian_beads" title="Etched carnelian beads">etched carnelian beads</a>, a Harappan-style cubical stone weight, and a Harappan-style cylinder seal at Susa (Amiet 1986a, Figs. 92-94) may be evidence of maritime trade between Susa and the Indus Valley in the late 3rd millennium BCE. On the other hand, given that similar finds, particularly etched carnelian beads, are attested at landlocked sites including Tepe Hissar (Tappe Heṣār), Shah Tepe (Šāh-Tappe), Kalleh Nisar (Kalla Nisār), Jalalabad (Jalālābād), Marlik (Mārlik) and Tepe Yahya (Tappe Yaḥyā) (Possehl 1996, pp. 153-54), other mechanisms, including overland traffic by peddlers or caravans, may account for their presence at Susa.<a href="#cite_note-178">[149]</a></blockquote> In the 1980s, important archaeological discoveries were made at <a href="/wiki/Ras_al-Jinz" title="Ras al-Jinz">Ras al-Jinz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>), demonstrating maritime Indus Valley connections with the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Maurizio_Tosi_1993,_pp._745-61-177">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[151]</a> Dennys Frenez recently regards that: <blockquote>Indus-type and Indus-related artifacts were found over a large and differentiated <a href="/wiki/Ecumene" title="Ecumene">ecumene</a>, encompassing Central Asia, the Iranian Plateau, Mesopotamia and the northern Levant, the Persian Gulf, and the Oman Peninsula. The discovery of Indus trade tools (seals, weights, and containers) across the entire Middle Asia, complemented by information from Mesopotamian cuneiform texts, shows that entrepreneurs from the Indus Valley regularly ventured into these regions to transact with the local socioeconomic and political entities. However, Indus artifacts were also exchanged beyond this core region, eventually reaching as far [as] the Nile River valley, Anatolia, and the Caucasus. On the contrary, only a handful of exotic trade tools and commodities have been found at sites in the Greater Indus Valley. The success of Indus trade in Central and Western Asia did not only rely on the dynamic entrepreneurialism of Indus merchants and the exotic commodities they offered. Specific products were proactively designed and manufactured in the Indus Valley to fulfill the particular needs of foreign markets, and Indus craftspeople moved beyond their native cultural sphere adapting their distinctive productions to the taste of foreign elites or reworking indigenous models. The adoption of specific seals and iconographies to regulate external trade activities suggests a conscious attempt at implementing a coordinated supraregional marketing strategy[...]<a href="#cite_note-181">[152]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-west India, but there is also "good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">zebu</a> cattle at Mehrgarh."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGangalSarsonShukurov2014-98">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gangal-182">[ad]</a> According to Jean-Francois Jarrige, farming had an independent local origin at Mehrgarh, which he argues is not merely a "'backwater' of the Neolithic culture of the Near East", despite similarities between Neolithic sites from eastern Mesopotamia and the western Indus valley which are evidence of a "cultural continuum" between those sites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarrige2008a-101">[77]</a> Archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Jim_G._Shaffer" title="Jim G. Shaffer">Jim G. Shaffer</a> writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanisation and complex social organisation in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not isolated, cultural developments".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShaffer1999245-183">[153]</a> Jarrige notes that the people of <a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a> used domesticated wheats and <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a>,<a href="#cite_note-184">[154]</a> while Shaffer and Liechtenstein note that the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row barley.<a href="#cite_note-185">[155]</a> Gangal agrees that "Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than 90% barley," noting that "there is good evidence for the local domestication of barley." Yet, Gangal also notes that the crop also included "a small amount of wheat," which "are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGangalSarsonShukurov2014-98">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[ae]</a> The cattle that are often portrayed on Indus seals are humped <a href="/wiki/Indian_aurochs" title="Indian aurochs">Indian aurochs</a> (Bos primigenius namadicus), which are similar to <a href="/wiki/Zebu" title="Zebu">Zebu</a> cattle. Zebu cattle are still common in India, and in Africa. They are different from European cattle (Bos primigenius taurus), and are believed to have been independently domesticated on the Indian subcontinent, probably in the <a href="/wiki/Baluchistan,_Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluchistan, Pakistan">Baluchistan region</a> of Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallego_Romero2011-187">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGangalSarsonShukurov2014-98">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gangal-182">[ad]</a> Research by J. Bates et al. (2016) confirms that Indus populations were the earliest people to use complex multi-cropping strategies across both seasons, growing foods during summer (rice, millets and beans) and winter (wheat, barley and pulses), which required different watering regimes.<a href="#cite_note-188">[157]</a> Bates et al. (2016) also found evidence for an entirely separate domestication process of rice in ancient South Asia, based around the wild species Oryza nivara. This led to the local development of a mix of "wetland" and "dryland" agriculture of local Oryza sativa indica rice agriculture, before the truly "wetland" rice Oryza sativa japonica arrived around 2000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-189">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food">Food</h3></div> According to archeological finds, the Indus Valley civilisation had a diet dominated by meats of animals such as cattle, buffalo, goat, pig and chicken.<a href="#cite_note-190">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[160]</a> Remnants of dairy products were also discovered. According to Akshyeta Suryanarayan et al.,<a href="#cite_note-192">[af]</a> available evidence indicates culinary practices to be common over the region; food-constituents were dairy products (in low proportion), ruminant carcass meat, and either non-ruminant adipose fats, plants, or mixtures of these products.<a href="#cite_note-:2-193">[161]</a> The dietary pattern remained same throughout the decline.<a href="#cite_note-:2-193">[161]</a> Seven food-balls ("<a href="/wiki/Laddu" title="Laddu">laddus</a>") were found in intact form, along with two figurines of bulls and a hand-held copper adze, during excavations in 2017 from western Rajasthan.<a href="#cite_note-:0-194">[162]</a> Dated to about 2600 BCE, they were likely composed of legumes, primarily <a href="/wiki/Mung_bean" title="Mung bean">mung</a>, and cereals.<a href="#cite_note-:0-194">[162]</a> The authors speculated the food-balls to be of a ritualistic significance, given the finds of bull figurines, <a href="/wiki/Adze" title="Adze">adze</a> and a seal in immediate vicinity.<a href="#cite_note-:0-194">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-195">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Substratum_in_Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit">Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harappan_language" title="Harappan language">Harappan language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_peoples#Origins" title="Dravidian peoples">Origins of Dravidian peoples</a></div> It has often been suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to <a href="/wiki/Proto-Dravidian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Dravidian">proto-Dravidians</a> linguistically, the break-up of proto-Dravidian corresponding to the break-up of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Harappan" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Harappan">Late Harappan</a> culture.<a href="#cite_note-196">[164]</a> Finnish Indologist <a href="/wiki/Asko_Parpola" title="Asko Parpola">Asko Parpola</a> concludes that the uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people.<a href="#cite_note-197">[165]</a> Today, the <a href="/wiki/Dravidian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dravidian language">Dravidian language</a> family is concentrated mostly in <a href="/wiki/Southern_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern India">southern India</a> and northern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, but pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the <a href="/wiki/Brahui_language" title="Brahui language">Brahui language</a>), which lends credence to the theory. According to Heggarty and Renfrew, Dravidian languages may have spread into the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> with the spread of farming.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeggartyRenfrew2014-198">[166]</a> According to David McAlpin, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[ag]</a> In earlier publications, <a href="/wiki/Colin_Renfrew,_Baron_Renfrew_of_Kaimsthorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Colin Renfrew, Baron Renfrew of Kaimsthorn">Renfrew</a> also stated that proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECavalli-SforzaMenozziPiazza1994221–222-200">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjeeNebelOppenheimMajumder2001-201">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDerenko2013-202">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-Renfrew-203">[ah]</a> but more recently Heggarty and Renfrew note that "a great deal remains to be done in elucidating the prehistory of Dravidian." They also note that "McAlpin's analysis of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeggartyRenfrew2014-198">[166]</a> Heggarty and Renfrew conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeggartyRenfrew2014-198">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[aj]</a> In a 2021 study, Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay presented a linguistic analysis to posit a Proto-Dravidian presence in the ancient Indus area, using Dravidian root words for tooth, toothbrush and elephant in various contemporary ancient civilisations.<a href="#cite_note-210">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Possible_writing_system">Possible writing system</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg/300px-The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg/450px-The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="173" /></a><figcaption>Ten <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus characters</a> from the northern gate of <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a>, dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Dholavira#Sign_board" title="Dholavira">Dholavira signboard</a></figcaption></figure> Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols<a href="#cite_note-211">[175]</a> have been found on <a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal" title="Stamp seal">stamp seals</a>, small tablets, ceramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical <a href="/wiki/Indus_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus inscriptions">Indus inscriptions</a> are around five characters in length,<a href="#cite_note-212">[176]</a> most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are tiny; the longest on any single object (inscribed on a <a href="/wiki/Indian_copper_plate_inscriptions" title="Indian copper plate inscriptions">copper plate</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[177]</a>) has a length of 34 symbols. While the Indus Valley Civilisation is generally characterised as a literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)<a href="#cite_note-214">[178]</a> who argue that the Indus system did not encode language, but was instead similar to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East and other societies, to symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass-produced in <a href="/wiki/Moulding_(process)" class="mw-redirect" title="Moulding (process)">moulds</a>. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilisations.<a href="#cite_note-215">[179]</a> In a 2009 study by P.N. Rao et al. published in <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>, computer scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various linguistic scripts and non-linguistic systems, including DNA and a computer programming language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that of spoken words, supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language.<a href="#cite_note-216">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[181]</a> Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually compare the Indus signs with "real-world non-linguistic systems" but rather with "two wholly artificial systems invented by the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly ordered signs and another of 200,000 fully ordered signs, that they spuriously claim represent the structures of all real-world non-linguistic sign systems".<a href="#cite_note-218">[182]</a> Farmer et al. have also demonstrated that a comparison of a non-linguistic system like <a href="/wiki/Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval">medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Heraldry" title="Heraldry">heraldic signs</a> with <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a> yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with Indus signs. They conclude that the method used by Rao et al. cannot distinguish linguistic systems from non-linguistic ones.<a href="#cite_note-RAO-219">[183]</a> The messages on the seals have proved to be too short to be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each sequence to provide a sufficient context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambiguity and subjectivity.<a href="#cite_note-RAO-219">[183]</a>: 69  Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991, 2010), edited by <a href="/wiki/Asko_Parpola" title="Asko Parpola">Asko Parpola</a> and his colleagues. The most recent volume republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades; formerly, researchers had to supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg/220px-Shiva_Pashupati.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg/330px-Shiva_Pashupati.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Shiva_Pashupati.jpg/440px-Shiva_Pashupati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="926" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pashupati_seal" title="Pashupati seal">Pashupati seal</a>, showing a seated figure surrounded by animals</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG/220px-IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG/330px-IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/IndusValleySeals_swastikas.JPG 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="237" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a> seals of Indus Valley Civilisation in <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization">Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric religion</a></div> The religion and belief system of the Indus Valley people has received considerable attention, especially from the view of identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a> that later developed in the area. However, due to the sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view from a much later Hindu perspective.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009281–282-220">[184]</a> Early and influential work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of archaeological evidence from the Harappan sites<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERatnagar2004-221">[185]</a> was that of <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)" title="John Marshall (archaeologist)">John Marshall</a>, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; a symbolic representation of the phallus (<a href="/wiki/Linga" class="mw-redirect" title="Linga">linga</a>) and vulva (<a href="/wiki/Yoni" title="Yoni">yoni</a>); and, use of baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall193148–78-222">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA154_141–156]-223">[187]</a> One Indus Valley seal shows a seated figure with a horned headdress, possibly <a href="/wiki/Tricephalic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tricephalic">tricephalic</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Ithyphallic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ithyphallic">ithyphallic</a>, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a>), who is associated with <a href="/wiki/Asceticism#Hinduism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoga" title="Yoga">yoga</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lingam" title="Lingam">linga</a>; regarded as a <a href="/wiki/Pashupati" title="Pashupati">lord of animals</a>, and often depicted as having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Pashupati_Seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashupati Seal">Pashupati Seal</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Pashupati" title="Pashupati">Pashupati</a> (lord of all animals), an epithet of Shiva.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall193148–78-222">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002141–144-224">[188]</a> While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. <a href="/wiki/Doris_Meth_Srinivasan" title="Doris Meth Srinivasan">Doris Srinivasan</a> has argued that the figure does not have three faces or yogic posture and that in <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic literature</a> Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1975-225">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1997180–181-226">[190]</a> Herbert Sullivan and <a href="/wiki/Alf_Hiltebeitel" title="Alf Hiltebeitel">Alf Hiltebeitel</a> also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding animals with <a href="/wiki/Vahana" title="Vahana">vahanas</a> (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan1964-227">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2011399–432-228">[192]</a> Writing in 2002, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_L._Possehl" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory L. Possehl">Gregory L. Possehl</a> concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would be going too far.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002141–144-224">[188]</a> Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, it has been interpreted as the <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankara</a> <a href="/wiki/Rishabhanatha" title="Rishabhanatha">Rishabhanatha</a> by some scholars of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> like <a href="/wiki/Vilas_Sangave" class="mw-redirect" title="Vilas Sangave">Vilas Sangave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[193]</a> Historians such as <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Zimmer" title="Heinrich Zimmer">Heinrich Zimmer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_McEvilley" title="Thomas McEvilley">Thomas McEvilley</a> believe that there is a connection between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabhanatha and the Indus Valley Civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-230">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[195]</a> Marshall hypothesised the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several female figurines and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of <a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a>. However the function of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002141–145-232">[196]</a> Some of the <a href="/wiki/Baetyl" title="Baetyl">baetyls</a> interpreted by Marshall to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead, while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to be architectural features used to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008286–287-233">[197]</a> Many Indus Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show <a href="/wiki/Chimera_(mythology)" title="Chimera (mythology)">chimeric creations</a>. One seal from Mohenjo-daro shows a half-human, a half-buffalo monster attacking a tiger, which may be a reference to the <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian myth</a> of such a monster created by goddess <a href="/wiki/Aruru_(goddess)" title="Aruru (goddess)">Aruru</a> to fight <a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall193167-234">[198]</a> In contrast to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Mesopotamian</a> civilisations, Indus Valley lacks any monumental palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl200218-235">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThapar200485-236">[200]</a> This may suggest that religious ceremonies if any, may have been largely confined to individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later scholars as possibly devoted to religious purposes, but at present only the <a href="/wiki/Great_Bath" title="Great Bath">Great Bath</a> at Mohenjo-daro is widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002141–145-232">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008275–277,_292-237">[201]</a> The funerary practices of the Harappan civilisation are marked by fractional burial (in which the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment), and even cremation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002152,_157–176-238">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008293–299-239">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Harappan">Late Harappan</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indus_Valley_Civilization,_Late_Phase_(1900-1300_BCE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Late_Phase_%281900-1300_BCE%29.png/330px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Late_Phase_%281900-1300_BCE%29.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Late_Phase_%281900-1300_BCE%29.png/495px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Late_Phase_%281900-1300_BCE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Late_Phase_%281900-1300_BCE%29.png/660px-Indus_Valley_Civilization%2C_Late_Phase_%281900-1300_BCE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption>Late Harappan Period, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900–1300 BCE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coach_driver_Indus_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Coach_driver_Indus_01.jpg/220px-Coach_driver_Indus_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Coach_driver_Indus_01.jpg/330px-Coach_driver_Indus_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Coach_driver_Indus_01.jpg/440px-Coach_driver_Indus_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2553" data-file-height="2016" /></a><figcaption>Bronze Late Harappan figures from a hoard at <a href="/wiki/Daimabad" title="Daimabad">Daimabad</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2000 BCE (<a href="/wiki/Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Maharaj_Vastu_Sangrahalaya" title="Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya">Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay</a>)<a href="#cite_note-240">[204]</a></figcaption></figure> Around 1900 BCE signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around 1700 BCE most of the cities had been abandoned. Examination of human skeletons from the site of Harappa in the 2010s demonstrated that the end of the Indus civilisation saw an increase in inter-personal violence and in infectious diseases like <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schug2012-241">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schug2013-242">[206]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Upinder Singh</a>, "the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH3lUIIYxWkECpgPA181_181]-243">[207]</a> During the period of approximately 1900 to 1700 BCE, multiple regional cultures emerged within the area of the Indus civilisation. The <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a> was in <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Western Uttar Pradesh">Western Uttar Pradesh</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jhukar_phase" title="Jhukar phase">Jhukar culture</a> was in <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Rangpur,_Gujarat" title="Rangpur, Gujarat">Rangpur culture</a> (characterised by Lustrous Red Ware pottery) was in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-244">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1AJO2A-CbccCpgPR14_Map_4]-245">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH3lUIIYxWkECpgPA211_211]-246">[210]</a> Other sites associated with the Late phase of the Harappan culture are <a href="/wiki/Pirak" title="Pirak">Pirak</a> in <a href="/wiki/Balochistan,_Pakistan" title="Balochistan, Pakistan">Balochistan, Pakistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daimabad" title="Daimabad">Daimabad</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer2006-130">[102]</a> The largest Late Harappan sites are Kudwala in <a href="/wiki/Cholistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholistan">Cholistan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Punjab,Pakistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab,Pakistan">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bet_Dwarka" title="Bet Dwarka">Bet Dwarka</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daimabad" title="Daimabad">Daimabad</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maharashtra" title="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a>, which can be considered as urban, but they are smaller and few in number compared with the Mature Harappan cities. Bet Dwarka was fortified and continued to have contacts with the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> region, but there was a general decrease of long-distance trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008181,_223-247">[211]</a> On the other hand, the period also saw a diversification of the agricultural base, with a diversity of crops and the advent of <a href="/wiki/Double-cropping" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-cropping">double-cropping</a>, as well as a shift of rural settlement towards the east and the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008180–181-248">[212]</a> The pottery of the Late Harappan period is described as "showing some continuity with mature Harappan pottery traditions", but also distinctive differences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008211-249">[213]</a> Many sites continued to be occupied for some centuries, although their urban features declined and disappeared. Formerly typical artifacts such as stone weights and female figurines became rare. There are some circular <a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal" title="Stamp seal">stamp seals</a> with geometric designs, but lacking the <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a> which characterised the mature phase of the civilisation. Script is rare and confined to potsherd inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008211-249">[213]</a> There was also a decline in long-distance trade, although the local cultures show new innovations in <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a> and glass making, and carving of stone beads.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer2006-130">[102]</a> Urban amenities such as drains and the public bath were no longer maintained, and newer buildings were "poorly constructed". Stone sculptures were deliberately vandalised, valuables were sometimes concealed in <a href="/wiki/Hoard" title="Hoard">hoards</a>, suggesting unrest, and the corpses of animals and even humans were left unburied in the streets and in abandoned buildings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh200891,_98-250">[214]</a> During the later half of the 2nd millennium BCE, most of the post-urban Late Harappan settlements were abandoned altogether. Subsequent material culture was typically characterised by temporary occupation, "the campsites of a population which was nomadic and mainly pastoralist" and which used "crude handmade pottery".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllchin1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQ5kI02_zW70CpgPA36_36]-251">[215]</a> However, there is greater continuity and overlap between Late Harappan and subsequent cultural phases at sites in <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, and western <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, primarily small rural settlements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Upinder2008180–181-248">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllchin199537–38-252">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aryan_migration">Aryan migration</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">Indo-Aryan migrations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cemetery_H_Pottery.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Cemetery_H_Pottery.png/220px-Cemetery_H_Pottery.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Cemetery_H_Pottery.png/330px-Cemetery_H_Pottery.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Cemetery_H_Pottery.png/440px-Cemetery_H_Pottery.png 2x" data-file-width="1302" data-file-height="798" /></a><figcaption>Painted pottery urns from Harappa (<a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1900–1300 BCE), <a href="/wiki/National_Museum,_New_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum, New Delhi">National Museum, New Delhi</a></figcaption></figure> In 1953 Sir <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_Wheeler" title="Mortimer Wheeler">Mortimer Wheeler</a> proposed that the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia, the "<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration">Aryans</a>", caused the decline of the Indus civilisation. As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler's theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city's abandonment and none were found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_A._R._Kennedy" title="Kenneth A. R. Kennedy">Kenneth Kennedy</a> in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were caused by erosion, and not by violence.<a href="#cite_note-Bryant-253">[217]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a> (the late Harappan phase in the Punjab region), some of the designs painted on the funerary urns have been interpreted through the lens of <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic literature</a>: for instance, peacocks with hollow bodies and a small human form inside, which has been interpreted as the souls of the dead, and a hound that can be seen as the hound of <a href="/wiki/Yama" title="Yama">Yama</a>, the god of death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997102-254">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllchinAllchin1982246-255">[219]</a> This may indicate the introduction of new religious beliefs during this period, but the archaeological evidence does not support the hypothesis that the Cemetery H people were the destroyers of the Harappan cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997102–103-256">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_and_drought">Climate change and drought</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bond_event" title="Bond event">Bond event</a> and <a href="/wiki/4.2-kiloyear_event" title="4.2-kiloyear event">4.2-kiloyear event</a></div> Suggested contributory causes for the localisation of the IVC include changes in the course of the river,<a href="#cite_note-257">[221]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> that is also signaled for the neighboring areas of the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-258">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[223]</a> As of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indus_Valley_Civilisation&action=edit">[update]</a> many scholars believe that drought, and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, caused the collapse of the Indus civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-Science-260">[224]</a> The climate change which caused the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation was possibly due to "an abrupt and critical <a href="/wiki/4.2-kiloyear_event" title="4.2-kiloyear event">mega-drought and cooling 4,200 years ago</a>", which marks the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Meghalayan" title="Meghalayan">Meghalayan Age</a>, the present stage of the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-261">[225]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaggar-Hakra">Ghaggar-Hakra</a> system was rain-fed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECliftCarterGiosanDurcan2012-262">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[ak]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tripathi_2004-264">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[al]</a> and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus Valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> at that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-6">[4]</a> The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-6">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[229]</a> leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and scatter its population eastward.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMadellaFuller2006-268">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald2011-269">[231]</a><a href="#cite_note-brooke-2014-132">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-Note-Brooke-16">[e]</a> According to Giosan et al. (2012), the IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons leading to summer floods. As the monsoons kept shifting south, the floods grew too erratic for sustainable agricultural activities. The residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow the development of trade, and the cities died out.<a href="#cite_note-270">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[233]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continuity_and_coexistence">Continuity and coexistence</h3></div> Archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward.<a href="#cite_note-272">[234]</a> According to Possehl, after 1900 BCE the number of sites in today's India increased from 218 to 853. According to <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lawler" title="Andrew Lawler">Andrew Lawler</a>, "excavations along the Gangetic plain show that cities began to arise there starting about 1200 BCE, just a few centuries after Harappa was deserted and much earlier than once suspected."<a href="#cite_note-Science-260">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[am]</a> According to Jim Shaffer there was a continuous series of cultural developments, just as in most areas of the world. These link "the so-called two major phases of urbanisation in South Asia".<a href="#cite_note-Spodek-275">[236]</a> At sites such as <a href="/wiki/Bhagwanpura,_Haryana" title="Bhagwanpura, Haryana">Bhagwanpura</a> (in <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>), archaeological excavations have discovered an overlap between the final phase of Late Harappan pottery and the earliest phase of <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Painted Grey Ware">Painted Grey Ware</a> pottery, the latter being associated with the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic culture</a> and dating from around 1200 BCE. This site provides evidence of multiple social groups occupying the same village but using different pottery and living in different types of houses: "over time the Late Harappan pottery was gradually replaced by Painted Grey ware pottery," and other cultural changes indicated by archaeology include the introduction of the horse, iron tools, and new religious practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer2006-130">[102]</a> There is also a Harappan site called <a href="/wiki/Rojdi" title="Rojdi">Rojdi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rajkot" title="Rajkot">Rajkot</a> district of <a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_(region)" title="Saurashtra (region)">Saurashtra</a>. Its excavation started under an archaeological team from Gujarat State Department of Archaeology and the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania in 1982–83. In their report on archaeological excavations at Rojdi, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Possehl" title="Gregory Possehl">Gregory Possehl</a> and M.H. Raval write that although there are "obvious signs of cultural continuity" between the Harappan civilisation and later South Asian cultures, many aspects of the Harappan "sociocultural system" and "integrated civilization" were "lost forever," while the Second Urbanisation of India (beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a> culture, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600 BCE) "lies well outside this sociocultural environment".<a href="#cite_note-276">[237]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-Harappan">Post-Harappan</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_in_India" title="Iron Age in India">Iron Age in India</a></div> Previously, scholars believed that the decline of the Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus civilisation appear in later cultures. The <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a> may be the manifestation of the Late Harappan over a large area in the region of <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> and western <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a> its successor. David Gordon White cites three other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a> derives partially from the Indus Valley Civilisations.<a href="#cite_note-277">[238]</a> As of 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indus_Valley_Civilisation&action=edit">[update]</a>, archaeological data suggests that the material culture classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1000–900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Painted Grey Ware">Painted Grey Ware</a> culture.<a href="#cite_note-Spodek-275">[236]</a> Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of <a href="/wiki/Pirak" title="Pirak">Pirak</a>, which thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in 325 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-Science-260">[224]</a> In the aftermath of the Indus civilisation's localisation, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus civilisation. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the <a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a>. At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a> expanded from <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Gangetic_Plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Gangetic Plain">Gangetic Plain</a>. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for <a href="/wiki/Cremation" title="Cremation">cremation</a>; a practice dominant in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> today. The inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilisation migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of the Ganga-Yamuna basin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarkarMukherjeeBeraDas2016-278">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2></div> In 2019, a study of the genome sequence of a Harappan individual from a cemetery near Rakhigarhi dating to around 2,800-2,300 BCE was published. Analysis suggested that the majority of the genome was related to <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_hunter-gatherer" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherer">Caucasus hunter-gatherers and Iranian Neolithic Farmers</a>. The remaining portion of the genome was from a South Asian source, termed <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Ancestral_South_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Ancestral South Indians">Ancient Ancestral South Indians</a>, that is distantly related to the <a href="/wiki/Andamanese_peoples" title="Andamanese peoples">Andamanese peoples</a>. The genome completely lacked the <a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Steppe Herder">Western Steppe Herder</a>-related ancestry that is found in modern (particularly in northern) South Asians.<a href="#cite_note-279">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[242]</a> The genetic profile of IVC-related individuals is similar to the majority of the ancestry found in modern South Asians.<a href="#cite_note-282">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">History of Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">History of Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">History of India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">History of Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indus_Valley_Civilisation_sites" title="List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites">List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation">List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization">Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Indians" title="Early Indians">Early Indians</a> – 2018 book by Tony Joseph</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_of_the_Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanitation of the Indus Valley civilisation">Sanitation of the Indus Valley civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_engineering_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization">Hydraulic engineering of the Indus Valley Civilization</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Wright: "Mesopotamia and Egypt ... co-existed with the Indus civilization during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 BC."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20091-2">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Wright: "The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer-lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900 B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009-4">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Habib: "Harappa, in Sahiwal district of west Punjab, Pakistan, had long been known to archaeologists as an extensive site on the Ravi river, but its true significance as a major city of an early great civilization remained unrecognized until the discovery of Mohenjo-daro near the banks of the Indus, in the Larkana district of Sindh, by Rakhaldas Banerji in 1922. Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it 'Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib201513-7">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> These covered <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a> products, seal carving, work in <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>, lead, and tin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009115–125-12">[9]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Note-Brooke-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Note-Brooke_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Note-Brooke_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Note-Brooke_16-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrooke2014">Brooke (2014)</a>, p. 296. "The story in Harappan India was somewhat different (see Figure 111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the Indus Valley are something of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful monsoon rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanisation" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for 300 to 400 years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scattered villages in the eastern range of their territories, into Punjab and the Ganges Valley....' 17 (footnote): (a) <a href="#CITEREFGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012">Giosan et al. (2012)</a>; (b) <a href="#CITEREFPontonGiosanEglintonFuller2012">Ponton et al. (2012)</a>; (c) <a href="#CITEREFRashidEnglandThompsonPolyak2011">Rashid et al. (2011)</a>; (d) <a href="#CITEREFMadellaFuller2006">Madella & Fuller (2006)</a>; Compare with the very different interpretations in (e) <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl (2002)</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA239">237–245</a> (f) <a href="#CITEREFStaubwasserSirockoGrootesSegl2003">Staubwasser et al. (2003)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-reported_sites-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-reported_sites_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reported_sites_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-reported_sites_17-2">c</a> Reported sites: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, p. 20; <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002a">Possehl 2002a</a>: "There are 1,056 Mature Harappan sites that have been reported of which 96 have been excavated."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSingh,_Upinder2008">Singh, Upinder 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA137">137</a>: "Today, the count of Harappan sites has risen to about 1,022, of which 406 are in Pakistan and 616 in India. Of these, only 97 have so far been excavated."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFConinghamYoung2015">Coningham & Young 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA192">192</a>: "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137)"</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Coningham and Young: "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137), but there are only five significant urban sites at the peak of the settlement hierarchy (Smith, 2.006a: 110) (Figure 6.2).These are: Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus plain; Harappa in the western Punjab; Ganweriwala in Cholistan; Dholavira in western Gujarat; and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250 hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100 hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80 hectares each."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015192-18">[12]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Wright: "Five major Indus cities are discussed in this chapter. During the Urban period, the early town of Harappa expanded in size and population and became a major centre in the Upper Indus. Other cities emerging during the Urban period include Mohenjo-daro in the Lower Indus, Dholavira to the south on the western edge of peninsular India in Kutch, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, and a fifth city, Rakhigarhi, on the Ghaggar-Hakra. Rakhigarhi will be discussed briefly in view of the limited published material."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009107-20">[13]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Wright: "Unable to state the age of the civilization, he went on to observe that the Indus (which he (<a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)" title="John Marshall (archaeologist)">John Marshall</a>) named after the river system) artifacts differed from any known other civilizations in the region, ..."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright200910-25">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Habib: "Sir John Marshall, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India, used the term 'Indus civilization' for the culture discovered at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, a term doubly apt because of the geographical context implied in the name 'Indus' and the presence of cities implied in the word 'civilization'. Others, notably the Archaeological Survey of India after Independence, have preferred to call it 'Harappan', or 'Mature Harappan', taking Harappa to be its type-site."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib200213–14-27">[18]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Giosan (2012): "Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene. ... The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5,400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4,300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-6">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Fisher: "This was the same broad period that saw the rise of the civilisations of Mesopotamia (between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers), Egypt (along the Nile), and northeast China (in the Yellow River basin). At its peak, the Indus was the most extensive of these ancient civilisations, extending 1,500 km (900 mi) up the Indus plain, with a core area of 30,000 to 100,000 km2 (12,000 to 39,000 sq mi) and with more ecologically diverse peripheral spheres of economic and cultural influence extending out to ten times that area. The cultural and technological uniformity of the Indus cities is especially striking in light of the relatively great distances among them, with separations of about 280 km (170 mi) whereas the Mesopotamian cities, for example, only averaged about 20 to 25 km (12 to 16 mi) apart.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201835-33">[22]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Dyson: "The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000 years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500 years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201829-35">[23]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Fisher: "The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201833-37">[24]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Coningham and Young: "Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different to other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2800–2000 BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015138-39">[25]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> Dyson: "In the millennia which followed, farming developed and spread slowly into the Indus valley and adjacent areas. The transition to agriculture led to population growth and the eventual rise of the Indus civilisation. With the movement to settled agriculture, and the emergence of villages, towns and cities, there was probably a modest rise in the average death rate and a slightly greater rise in the birth rate."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201829-35">[23]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Dyson: "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilisation the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201829-35">[23]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Fisher: "Such an "agricultural revolution" enabled food surpluses that supported growing populations. Their, largely cereal diet did not necessarily make people healthier, however, since conditions like caries and protein deficiencies can increase. Further, infectious diseases spread faster with denser living conditions of both humans and domesticated animals (which can spread measles, influenza, and other diseases to humans)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201833-37">[24]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> McIntosh: "Population Growth and Distribution: "The prehistory of the Indo-Iranian borderlands shows a steady increase over time in the number and density of settlements based on farming and pastoralism. By contrast, the population of the Indus plains and adjacent regions lived mainly by hunting and gathering; the limited traces suggest their settlements were far fewer in number, and were small and widely scattered, though to some extent this apparent situation must reflect the difficulty of locating hunter-gatherer settlements. The presence of domestic animals in some hunter-gatherer settlements attests to contact with the people of the border-lands, probably in the context of pastoralists' seasonal movement from the hills into the plains. The potential for population expansion in the hills was severely limited, and so, from the fourth millennium into the third, settlers moved out from the borderlands into the plains and beyond into Gujarat, the first being pastoralists, followed later by farmers. The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008186–187-44">[26]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Masson: "A long march preceded our arrival at Haripah, through jangal of the closest description ... When I joined the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous brick castle. Behind us was a large circular mound, or eminence, and to the west was an irregular rocky height, crowned with the remains of buildings, in fragments of walls, with niches, after the eastern manner ... Tradition affirms the existence here of a city, so considerable that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen <a href="/wiki/Kos_(unit)" title="Kos (unit)">cosses</a> distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of Providence, brought down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson1842452–453-57">[38]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Guha: "The intense explorations to locate sites related to the Indus civilisation along the Ghaggar-Hakra, mostly by the Archaeological Survey of India immediately after Indian independence (from the 1950s through the 1970s), although ostensibly following Sir Aurel Stein's explorations in 1942, were to a large extent initiated by a patriotic zeal to compensate for the loss of this more ancient civilisation by the newly freed nation; as apart from Rangpur (Gujarat) and Kotla Nihang Khan (Punjab), the sites remained in Pakistan."<a href="#cite_note-guha_mas_2005-70">[50]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Number of Indus script inscribed objects and seals obtained from various Harappan sites: 1540 from Mohanjodaro, 985 from Harappa, 66 from Chanhudaro, 165 from Lothal, 99 from Kalibangan, 7 from Banawali, 6 from Ur in Iraq, 5 from Surkotada, 4 from Chandigarh </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Dani" title="Ahmad Hasan Dani">Ahmad Hasan Dani</a>, professor emeritus at <a href="/wiki/Quaid-e-Azam_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaid-e-Azam University">Quaid-e-Azam University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamabad" title="Islamabad">Islamabad</a>, the discovery of Mehrgarh "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilisation ... There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village life."<a href="#cite_note-Chandler_34–42-82">[60]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Near_East-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Near_East_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Near_East_100-1">b</a> According to Gangal et al. (2014), there is strong archeological and geographical evidence that neolithic farming spread from the Near East into north-west India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGangalSarsonShukurov2014-98">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh,_Sakshi2016-99">[76]</a> Gangal et al. (2014):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGangalSarsonShukurov2014-98">[75]</a> "There are several lines of evidence that support the idea of a connection between the Neolithic in the Near East and in the Indian subcontinent. The prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (modern Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site in the north-west Indian subcontinent, dated as early as 8500 BCE."<a href="#cite_note-102">[78]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than 90% barley and a small amount of wheat. There is good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarrige2008a-101">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostantini2008-103">[79]</a> but the wheat varieties are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFuller2006-104">[80]</a> A detailed satellite map study of a few archaeological sites in the Baluchistan and Khybar Pakhtunkhwa regions also suggests similarities in early phases of farming with sites in Western Asia.<a href="#cite_note-105">[81]</a> Pottery prepared by sequential slab construction, circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles, and large granaries are common to both Mehrgarh and many Mesopotamian sites.<a href="#cite_note-106">[82]</a> The postures of the skeletal remains in graves at Mehrgarh bear strong resemblance to those at <a href="/wiki/Ali_Kosh" title="Ali Kosh">Ali Kosh</a> in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarrige2008a-101">[77]</a> Clay figurines found in Mehrgarh resemble those discovered at <a href="/wiki/Teppe_Zagheh" title="Teppe Zagheh">Teppe Zagheh</a> on the Qazvin plain south of the Elburz range in Iran (the 7th millennium BCE) and <a href="/wiki/Jeitun" title="Jeitun">Jeitun</a> in Turkmenistan (the 6th millennium BCE).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJarrige2008b-107">[83]</a> Strong arguments have been made for the Near-Eastern origin of some domesticated plants and herd animals at Jeitun in Turkmenistan (pp. 225–227).<a href="#cite_note-Harris_DR_2010-108">[84]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> The Near East is separated from the Indus Valley by the arid plateaus, ridges and deserts of Iran and Afghanistan, where rainfall agriculture is possible only in the foothills and cul-de-sac valleys.<a href="#cite_note-Hiebert_FT_2002-110">[85]</a> Nevertheless, this area was not an insurmountable obstacle for the dispersal of the Neolithic. The route south of the Caspian sea is a part of the Silk Road, some sections of which were in use from at least 3,000 BCE, connecting Badakhshan (north-eastern Afghanistan and south-eastern Tajikistan) with Western Asia, Egypt and India.<a href="#cite_note-111">[86]</a> Similarly, the section from Badakhshan to the Mesopotamian plains (the <a href="/wiki/Great_Khorasan_Road" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Khorasan Road">Great Khorasan Road</a>) was apparently functioning by 4,000 BCE and numerous prehistoric sites are located along it, whose assemblages are dominated by the <a href="/wiki/Cheshmeh-Ali_(Shahr-e-Rey)" title="Cheshmeh-Ali (Shahr-e-Rey)">Cheshmeh-Ali</a> (Tehran Plain) ceramic technology, forms and designs.<a href="#cite_note-Hiebert_FT_2002-110">[85]</a> Striking similarities in figurines and pottery styles, and mud-brick shapes, between widely separated early Neolithic sites in the Zagros Mountains of north-western Iran (Jarmo and Sarab), the Deh Luran Plain in southwestern Iran (Tappeh Ali Kosh and Chogha Sefid), Susiana (Chogha Bonut and Chogha Mish), the Iranian Central Plateau (<a href="/wiki/Sang-i_Chakmak" title="Sang-i Chakmak">Tappeh-Sang-e Chakhmaq</a>), and Turkmenistan (Jeitun) suggest a common incipient culture.<a href="#cite_note-112">[87]</a> The Neolithic dispersal across South Asia plausibly involved migration of the population.<a href="#cite_note-113">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harris_DR_2010-108">[84]</a> This possibility is also supported by Y-chromosome and mtDNA analyses.<a href="#cite_note-114">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[90]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> They further noted that "the direct lineal descendents of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau," with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalcolithic <a href="/wiki/Inamgaon" title="Inamgaon">Inamgaon</a>, south of Mehrgarh, than with chalcolithic Mehrgarh.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015114-117">[91]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Gallego romero et al. (2011) refer to (Meadow 1993):<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallego_Romero20119-120">[93]</a> Meadow RH. 1993. Animal domestication in the Middle East: a revised view from the eastern margin. In: Possehl G, editor. Harappan civilization. New Delhi: Oxford University Press and India Book House. pp. 295–320.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallego_Romero201112-121">[94]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> It has been noted that the courtyard pattern and techniques of flooring of Harappan houses has similarities to the way house-building is still done in some villages of the region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELal200293–95-138">[110]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gangal-182">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gangal_182-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gangal_182-1">b</a> Gangal refers to <a href="#CITEREFJarrige2008a">Jarrige (2008a)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFCostantini2008">Costantini (2008)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Gangal refers to <a href="#CITEREFFuller2006">Fuller (2006)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> A large proportion of data however remains ambiguous. Reliable local isotopic references for fats and oils are unavailable, and lipid levels in IVC vessels are quite low. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> See: <ul><li>David McAlpin, "Toward Proto-Elamo-Dravidian", Language vol. 50 no. 1 (1974);</li> <li>David McAlpin: "Elamite and Dravidian, Further Evidence of Relationships", Current Anthropology vol. 16 no. 1 (1975);</li> <li>David McAlpin: "Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation", in Madhav M. Deshpande and Peter Edwin Hook: Aryan and Non-Aryan in India, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (1979);</li> <li>David McAlpin, "Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and its Implications", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society vol. 71 pt. 3, (1981)</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Renfrew-203"><a href="#cite_ref-Renfrew_203-0">^</a> See also: <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFMukherjeeNebelOppenheimMajumder2001">Mukherjee et al. (2001)</a>: "More recently, about 15,000–10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFDerenko2013">Derenko (2013)</a>: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent." Derenko refers to: * Renfrew (1987), Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins * Renfrew (1996), Language families and the spread of farming. In: Harris DR, editor, The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia, pp. 70–92 * <a href="#CITEREFCavalli-SforzaMenozziPiazza1994">Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi & Piazza (1994)</a>.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Kumar: "The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2004-206">[172]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Nevertheless, Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKivisildBamshadKaldmaMetspalu19991331-204">[170]</a> at c. 9,300±3,000 years before present,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKivisildBamshadKaldmaMetspalu19991333-205">[171]</a> which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>" and "lends credence to the suggested <a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">linguistic connection</a> between the Elamite and Dravidic populations."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKivisildBamshadKaldmaMetspalu19991333-205">[171]</a> According to Kumar (2004), referring to Quintan-Murci et al. (2001), "microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKumar2004-206">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[ai]</a> According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14 and U1a) and Y-chromosome haplogroup (<a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_L-M20" title="Haplogroup L-M20">L1</a>) in Dravidian populations indicates the spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalanichamy2015645-208">[173]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> Geological research by a group led by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Clift" title="Peter Clift">Peter Clift</a> investigated how the courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganisations caused the decline of the Harappan. Using U-Pb dating of zircon sand grains they found that sediments typical of the Beas, Sutlej, and Yamuna rivers (Himalayan tributaries of the Indus) are actually present in former Ghaggar-Hakra channels. However, sediment contributions from these glacial-fed rivers stopped at least by 10,000 years ago, well before the development of the Indus civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECliftCarterGiosanDurcan2012-262">[226]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> Tripathi et al. (2004) found that the isotopes of sediments carried by the Ghaggar-Hakra system over the last 20 thousand years do not come from the glaciated Higher Himalaya but have a sub-Himalayan source, and concluded that the river system was rain-fed. They also concluded that this contradicted the idea of a Harappan-time mighty "Sarasvati" river.<a href="#cite_note-Tripathi_2004-264">[227]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> Most sites of the <a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Painted Grey Ware">Painted Grey Ware</a> culture in the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain were small farming villages. However, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE in the more fully urban <a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a> culture.<a href="#cite_note-273">[235]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDyson2018">Dyson 2018</a>, p. vi </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20091-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20091_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20091_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20091_2-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2009_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2009_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012_6-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012_6-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012_6-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012_6-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012">Giosan et al. 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib201513-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHabib201513_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHabib201513_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHabib2015">Habib 2015</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20092-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20092_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Shaffer_1992_loc=I:441–464,_II:425–446-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shaffer_1992_loc=I:441–464,_II:425–446_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shaffer_1992_loc=I:441–464,_II:425–446_10-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFShaffer1992">Shaffer 1992</a>, I:441–464, II:425–446. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1991_11-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKenoyer1991">Kenoyer 1991</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009115–125-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2009115–125_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, pp. 115–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDyson2018">Dyson 2018</a>, p. 29 "Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may each have contained between 30,000 and 60,000 people (perhaps more in the former case). Water transport was crucial for the provisioning of these and other cities. That said, the vast majority of people lived in rural areas. At the height of the Indus valley civilization the subcontinent may have contained 4-6 million people." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008387-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008387_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcIntosh2008">McIntosh 2008</a>, p. 387: "The enormous potential of the greater Indus region offered scope for huge population increase; by the end of the Mature Harappan period, the Harappans are estimated to have numbered somewhere between 1 and 5 million, probably well below the region's carrying capacity." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015192-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015192_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015192_18-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFConinghamYoung2015">Coningham & Young 2015</a>, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009107-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2009107_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2009107_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463">"We are all Harappans"</a>. Outlook India. 4 February 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180805084042/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463">Archived</a> from the original on 5 August 2018. Retrieved 5 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=We+are+all+Harappans&rft.series=Outlook+India&rft.date=2022-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.outlookindia.com%2Fmagazine%2Fstory%2Fwe-are-all-harappans%2F300463&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatnagar2006a25-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatnagar2006a25_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRatnagar2006a">Ratnagar 2006a</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLockard,_Craig2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lockard, Craig (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u4VOYN0dmqMC">Societies, Networks, and Transitions</a>. Vol. 1: To 1500 (2nd ed.). India: Cengage Learning. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4390-8535-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4390-8535-6"><bdi>978-1-4390-8535-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Societies%2C+Networks%2C+and+Transitions&rft.place=India&rft.pages=40&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4390-8535-6&rft.au=Lockard%2C+Craig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du4VOYN0dmqMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright200910-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright200910_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright200910_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright200910_25-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib200213–14-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHabib200213–14_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHabib200213–14_27-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHabib2002">Habib 2002</a>, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–11]-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA8_8–11]_29-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–11</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Singh2008-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_30-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_30-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_30-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingh,_Upinder2008">Singh, Upinder 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA137">137</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHabib200244-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHabib200244_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHabib2002">Habib 2002</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201835-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher201835_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher201835_33-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisher2018">Fisher 2018</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDyson201829-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201829_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201829_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201829_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201829_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201829_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyson201829_35-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFDyson2018">Dyson 2018</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher201833-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher201833_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher201833_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher201833_37-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFisher201833_37-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFFisher2018">Fisher 2018</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015138-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015138_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015138_39-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFConinghamYoung2015">Coningham & Young 2015</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008186–187-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008186–187_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008186–187_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcIntosh2008">McIntosh 2008</a>, pp. 186–187. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDales1962" class="citation journal cs1">Dales, George F. (1962). "Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast". Antiquity. 36 (142): 86–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0003598X00029689">10.1017/S0003598X00029689</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-598X">0003-598X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164175444">164175444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquity&rft.atitle=Harappan+Outposts+on+the+Makran+Coast&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=142&rft.pages=86-92&rft.date=1962&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164175444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-598X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0003598X00029689&rft.aulast=Dales&rft.aufirst=George+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRao1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shikaripura_Ranganatha_Rao" title="Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao">Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha</a> (1973). Lothal and the Indus civilization. London: Asia Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-210-22278-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-210-22278-2"><bdi>978-0-210-22278-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lothal+and+the+Indus+civilization&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Asia+Publishing+House&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-210-22278-2&rft.aulast=Rao&rft.aufirst=Shikaripura+Ranganatha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199896-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKenoyer199896_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKenoyer1998">Kenoyer 1998</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDani1970–1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Hasan_Dani" title="Ahmad Hasan Dani">Dani, Ahmad Hassan</a> (1970–1971). "Excavations in the Gomal Valley". Ancient Pakistan (5): 1–177.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Pakistan&rft.atitle=Excavations+in+the+Gomal+Valley&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1-177&rft.date=1970%2F1971&rft.aulast=Dani&rft.aufirst=Ahmad+Hassan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoshiBala1982" class="citation book cs1">Joshi, J.P.; Bala, M. (1982). "Manda: A Harappan site in Jammu and Kashmir". In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XzeJQgAACAAJ">Harappan Civilization: A recent perspective</a>. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 185–195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120407794" title="Special:BookSources/9788120407794"><bdi>9788120407794</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231021121157/https://books.google.com/books?id=XzeJQgAACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Manda%3A+A+Harappan+site+in+Jammu+and+Kashmir&rft.btitle=Harappan+Civilization%3A+A+recent+perspective&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=185-195&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=9788120407794&rft.aulast=Joshi&rft.aufirst=J.P.&rft.au=Bala%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXzeJQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Ghosh" class="citation book cs1">A. Ghosh (ed.). "Excavations at Alamgirpur". Indian Archaeology, A Review (1958–1959). Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India. pp. 51–52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Excavations+at+Alamgirpur&rft.btitle=Indian+Archaeology%2C+A+Review+%281958%E2%80%931959%29&rft.place=Delhi&rft.pages=51-52&rft.pub=Archaeol.+Surv.+India&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRay2003" class="citation book cs1">Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01109-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01109-9"><bdi>978-0-521-01109-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Seafaring+in+Ancient+South+Asia&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01109-9&rft.aulast=Ray&rft.aufirst=Himanshu+Prabha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDales1979" class="citation book cs1">Dales, George F. (1979). "The Balakot Project: Summary of four years excavations in Pakistan". In Maurizio Taddei (ed.). South Asian Archaeology 1977. Naples: Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6. Instituto Universitario Orientate. pp. 241–274.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Balakot+Project%3A+Summary+of+four+years+excavations+in+Pakistan&rft.btitle=South+Asian+Archaeology+1977&rft.place=Naples&rft.pages=241-274&rft.pub=Seminario+di+Studi+Asiatici+Series+Minor+6.+Instituto+Universitario+Orientate&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Dales&rft.aufirst=George+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisht1989" class="citation book cs1">Bisht, R.S. (1989). "A new model of the Harappan town planning as revealed at Dholavira in Kutch: A surface study of its plan and architecture". In Chatterjee Bhaskar (ed.). History and Archaeology. New Delhi: Ramanand Vidya Bhawan. pp. 379–408. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85205-46-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-85205-46-5"><bdi>978-81-85205-46-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+new+model+of+the+Harappan+town+planning+as+revealed+at+Dholavira+in+Kutch%3A+A+surface+study+of+its+plan+and+architecture&rft.btitle=History+and+Archaeology&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=379-408&rft.pub=Ramanand+Vidya+Bhawan&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-81-85205-46-5&rft.aulast=Bisht&rft.aufirst=R.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931x-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931x_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarshall1931">Marshall 1931</a>, p. x. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6_56-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6_56-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6_56-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6_56-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20095–6_56-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasson1842452–453-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasson1842452–453_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMasson1842">Masson 1842</a>, pp. 452–453. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20096-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20096_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20096_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20096–7-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20096–7_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20096–7_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, pp. 6–7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015180-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015180_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015180_61-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFConinghamYoung2015">Coningham & Young 2015</a>, p. 180. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20097-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20097_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20097_62-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECunningham1875pp._[httpsarchiveorgstreaminernetdli20155472202015547220Archaeological-Surbeypagen115mode2up_105]–108_and_pl._32–33-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunningham1875pp._[httpsarchiveorgstreaminernetdli20155472202015547220Archaeological-Surbeypagen115mode2up_105]–108_and_pl._32–33_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCunningham1875">Cunningham 1875</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.547220/2015.547220.Archaeological-Surbey#page/n115/mode/2up">105</a>–108 and pl. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20098_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20098_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20098_64-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20098_64-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20098–9-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20098–9_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20098–9_65-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, pp. 8–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20099-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20099_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20099_66-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright20099–10-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright20099–10_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, pp. 9–10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl20023_and_12-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl20023_and_12_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, pp. 3 and 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-joffe-69"><a href="#cite_ref-joffe_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_Joffe2009" class="citation news cs1">Lawrence Joffe (30 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/mar/31/ahmad-hasan-dani">"Ahmad Hasan Dani: Pakistan's foremost archaeologist and author of 30 books"</a>. The Guardian (newspaper). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090405150624/http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2009/mar/31/ahmad-hasan-dani">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian+%28newspaper%29&rft.atitle=Ahmad+Hasan+Dani%3A+Pakistan%27s+foremost+archaeologist+and+author+of+30+books&rft.date=2009-03-30&rft.au=Lawrence+Joffe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.guardian.co.uk%2Fscience%2F2009%2Fmar%2F31%2Fahmad-hasan-dani&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-guha_mas_2005-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guha_mas_2005_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-guha_mas_2005_70-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuha2005" class="citation journal cs1">Guha, Sudeshna (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/txt_guha_indus.pdf">"Negotiating Evidence: History, Archaeology and the Indus Civilisation"</a> (PDF). Modern Asian Studies. 39 (2). Cambridge University Press: 399–426, 419. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X04001611">10.1017/S0026749X04001611</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145463239">145463239</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060524064941/http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/txt_guha_indus.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 May 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Negotiating+Evidence%3A+History%2C+Archaeology+and+the+Indus+Civilisation&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=399-426%2C+419&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X04001611&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145463239%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guha&rft.aufirst=Sudeshna&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.columbia.edu%2Fitc%2Fmealac%2Fpritchett%2F00generallinks%2Ftxt_guha_indus.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilbert2017-72"><a href="#cite_ref-Gilbert2017_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilbert2017" class="citation book cs1">Gilbert, Marc Jason (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7OQWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">South Asia in World History</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976034-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-976034-3"><bdi>978-0-19-976034-3</bdi></a>. <q>Immediately after the discovery of Harappan cities on the Indian side of the border, some nationalist-minded Indians began to speculate that the Ghaggar-Hakra riverbed may have more sites than neighboring Pakistan's Indus Valley. ... Such claims may prove to be valid, but modern nationalist arguments complicate the task of South Asian archaeologists who must deal with the poor condition of Harappan sites. The high water table means the oldest sites are under water or waterlogged and difficult to access.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Asia+in+World+History&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-976034-3&rft.aulast=Gilbert&rft.aufirst=Marc+Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7OQWDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatnagar2006b7–8-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatnagar2006b7–8_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRatnagar2006b">Ratnagar 2006b</a>, pp. 7–8, "If in an ancient mound we find only one pot and two bead necklaces similar to those of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, with the bulk of pottery, tools and ornaments of a different type altogether, we cannot call that site Harappan. It is instead a site with Harappan contacts. ... Where the Sarasvati valley sites are concerned, we find that many of them are sites of local culture (with distinctive pottery, <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> bangles, terracotta beads, and grinding stones), some of them showing Harappan contact, and comparatively few are full-fledged Mature Harappan sites." </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahadevan1977" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Iravatham_Mahadevan" title="Iravatham Mahadevan">Mahadevan, Iravatham</a> (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/masi77indusscripttextsconcordancestablesiravathammahadevanalt_443_h">MASI 77 Indus Script Texts Concordances & Tables</a>. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 6–7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MASI+77+Indus+Script+Texts+Concordances+%26+Tables&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=Archaeological+Survey+of+India&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Mahadevan&rft.aufirst=Iravatham&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmasi77indusscripttextsconcordancestablesiravathammahadevanalt_443_h&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Singh, Upinder</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA169">A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</a>. Pearson Education India. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0"><bdi>978-81-317-1120-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221129142938/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&lpg=PA211&pg=PA169">Archived</a> from the original on 29 November 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-317-1120-0&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Upinder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH3lUIIYxWkEC%26pg%3DPA169&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ConinghamYoung2015-77"><a href="#cite_ref-ConinghamYoung2015_77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConinghamYoung2015">Coningham & Young 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaJrCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA192">192</a>. "More than 1,000 settlements belonging to the Integrated Era have been identified (Singh, 2008: 137), but there are only five significant urban sites at the peak of the settlement hierarchy (Smith, 2.006a: 110) (Figure 6.2). These are Mohenjo-daro in the lower Indus plain, Harappa in the western Punjab, Ganweriwala in Cholistan, Dholavira in western Gujarat and Rakhigarhi in Haryana. Mohenjo-daro covered an area of more than 250 hectares, Harappa exceeded 150 hectares, Dholavira 100 hectares and Ganweriwala and Rakhigarhi around 80 hectares each." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichon2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid675cCgAAQBAJpgPT44_44ff]-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichon2015[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid675cCgAAQBAJpgPT44_44ff]_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichon2015">Michon 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=675cCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT44">44ff</a>: Quote: "After Partition, the archaeological work on the early historic period in India and Pakistan developed differently. In India, while the colonial administrative structure remained intact, the ASI made a concerted effort to Indianise' the field. The early historic period was understood as an important chapter in the long, unified history of the Indian subcontinent, and this understanding supported Indian goals of national unity. In Pakistan, however, the project of nation building was focused more on promoting the rich Islamic archaeological heritage within its borders, and most early historic sites, therefore, were left to the spades of foreign missions." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201585-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung201585_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConinghamYoung2015">Coningham & Young 2015</a>, p. 85: Quote: "At the same time he continued to spend part of the years 1949 and 1950 in Pakistan as an adviser to the Government, overseeing the establishment of the government's Department of Archaeology in Pakistan and the National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi ... He returned to Pakistan in 1958 to carry out excavations at Charsadda and then joined the UNESCO team concerned with the preservation and conservation of Mohenjo-daro during the 1960s. Mohenjo-daro was eventually inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright200914-80"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright200914_80-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015109-81"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConinghamYoung2015109_81-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFConinghamYoung2015">Coningham & Young 2015</a>, p. 109: Quote: "This model of population movement and agricultural diffusion, built on the evidence from Kili Gul Muhammad, was completely revised with the discovery of Mehrgarh at the entrance of the Bolan Pass in Baluchistan in the early 1970s by Jean-Francois Jarrige and his team (Jarrige, 1979). Noting an archaeological section exposed by flash flooding, they found a site covering two square kilometres which was occupied between circa 6500 and 2500 BCE." </li> <li id="cite_note-Chandler_34–42-82">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chandler_34–42_82-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chandler_34–42_82-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chandler_34–42_82-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChandler1999" class="citation journal cs1">Chandler, Graham (September–October 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070218235318/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199905/traders.of.the.plain.htm">"Traders of the Plain"</a>. Saudi Aramco World: 34–42. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199905/traders.of.the.plain.htm">the original</a> on 18 February 2007. 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Retrieved 2 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibres.uncg.edu%2Fir%2Funcg%2Ff%2FG_Robbins_Schug_Ritual_2020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artoffirstcities0000unse">Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/artoffirstcities0000unse/page/401">401</a>–402. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781588390431" title="Special:BookSources/9781588390431"><bdi>9781588390431</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Art+of+the+First+Cities%3A+The+Third+Millennium+B.C.+from+the+Mediterranean+to+the+Indus&rft.pages=401-402&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781588390431&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fartoffirstcities0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSergent1997" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sergent, Bernard (1997). Genèse de l'Inde (in French). Paris: Payot. p. 113. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-228-89116-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-228-89116-5"><bdi>978-2-228-89116-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gen%C3%A8se+de+l%27Inde&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Payot&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-2-228-89116-5&rft.aulast=Sergent&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008248-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008248_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcIntosh2008">McIntosh 2008</a>, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELal200289-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELal200289_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLal2002">Lal 2002</a>, p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-Keay,_John_2000-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Keay,_John_2000_150-0">^</a> Keay, John, India, a History. New York: Grove Press, 2000. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELal200282-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELal200282_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELal200282_151-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLal2002">Lal 2002</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="culin" class="citation book cs1">Greenberg, Henry J. (30 September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yjStCgAAQBAJ&dq=chaturanga+pieces+from+lothal&pg=PT9">The Anti-War Wargame: a Comprehensive Analysis of the Origins of the Game of Chess 1989-1990</a>. iUniverse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781491773536" title="Special:BookSources/9781491773536"><bdi>9781491773536</bdi></a>. Retrieved 21 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anti-War+Wargame%3A+a+Comprehensive+Analysis+of+the+Origins+of+the+Game+of+Chess+1989-1990&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.date=2015-09-30&rft.isbn=9781491773536&rft.aulast=Greenberg&rft.aufirst=Henry+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyjStCgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dchaturanga%2Bpieces%2Bfrom%2Blothal%26pg%3DPT9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> Singh (2015), 111-112 (112 quoted) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlora2000319-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlora2000319_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlora2000">Flora 2000</a>, p. 319. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlora2000319–320-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlora2000319–320_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlora2000">Flora 2000</a>, pp. 319–320. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeValeLawergren2001" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">DeVale, Sue Carole; <a href="/wiki/Bo_Lawergren" title="Bo Lawergren">Lawergren, Bo</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000045738">"Harp: IV. Asia"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Music_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Grove Music Online">Grove Music Online</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.45738">10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.45738</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56159-263-0"><bdi>978-1-56159-263-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211020214901/https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000045738">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 20 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Harp%3A+IV.+Asia&rft.btitle=Grove+Music+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.45738&rft.isbn=978-1-56159-263-0&rft.aulast=DeVale&rft.aufirst=Sue+Carole&rft.au=Lawergren%2C+Bo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmusiconline.com%2Fgrovemusic%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.001.0001%2Fomo-9781561592630-e-0000045738&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> (subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015722pagen82_45]-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015722pagen82_45]_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1931[httpsarchiveorgdetailsinernetdli2015722pagen82_45]_157-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarshall1931">Marshall 1931</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.722/page/n82">45</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpmAuAsi4ePICpgPA111_111]–[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpmAuAsi4ePICpgPA112_112]-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpmAuAsi4ePICpgPA111_111]–[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidpmAuAsi4ePICpgPA112_112]_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA111">111</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA112">112</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002111-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002111_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002127-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002127_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackay1928–1929" class="citation journal cs1">Mackay, Ernest John Henry (1928–1929). "Excavations at Mohenjodaro". Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India: 74–75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Report+of+the+Archaeological+Survey+of+India&rft.atitle=Excavations+at+Mohenjodaro&rft.pages=74-75&rft.date=1928%2F1929&rft.aulast=Mackay&rft.aufirst=Ernest+John+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Littleton-162"><a href="#cite_ref-Littleton_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleton2005" class="citation book cs1">Littleton, C. Scott (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u27FpnXoyJQC&pg=PA732">Gods, Goddesses, and Mythology</a>. Marshall Cavendish. p. 732. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761475651" title="Special:BookSources/9780761475651"><bdi>9780761475651</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182624/https://books.google.com/books?id=u27FpnXoyJQC&pg=PA732#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gods%2C+Goddesses%2C+and+Mythology&rft.pages=732&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780761475651&rft.aulast=Littleton&rft.aufirst=C.+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du27FpnXoyJQC%26pg%3DPA732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDs_hazstxY4CpgPA389_389]-163"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1996[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDs_hazstxY4CpgPA389_389]_163-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarshall1996">Marshall 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ds_hazstxY4C&pg=PA389">389</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Pearson-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearson_164-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2008" class="citation book cs1">Singh, Vipul (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wsiXwh_tIGkC&pg=PA35">The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Examination</a>. Pearson Education India. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788131717530" title="Special:BookSources/9788131717530"><bdi>9788131717530</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231223182624/https://books.google.com/books?id=wsiXwh_tIGkC&pg=PA35#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 23 December 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pearson+Indian+History+Manual+for+the+UPSC+Civil+Services+Preliminary+Examination&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9788131717530&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Vipul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwsiXwh_tIGkC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheIndusScript.TextConcordanceAndTablesIravathanMahadevan">The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheIndusScript.TextConcordanceAndTablesIravathanMahadevan/page/n111">76</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus+Script.+Text%2C+Concordance+And+Tables+Iravathan+Mahadevan&rft.pages=76&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FTheIndusScript.TextConcordanceAndTablesIravathanMahadevan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-JR12-166"><a href="#cite_ref-JR12_166-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuring-CaspersReade2008" class="citation book cs1">During-Caspers, GS Elisabeth; Reade, Julian E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/28245304">The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered</a>. Archaeopress. pp. 12–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0312-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0312-3"><bdi>978-1-4073-0312-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220114145706/https://www.academia.edu/28245304">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2022. Retrieved 5 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus-Mesopotamia+relationship+reconsidered&rft.pages=12-14&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-0312-3&rft.aulast=During-Caspers&rft.aufirst=GS+Elisabeth&rft.au=Reade%2C+Julian+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F28245304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenoyerHeuston2005" class="citation book cs1">Kenoyer, Jonathan M.; Heuston, Kimberley Burton (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&pg=PA66">The Ancient South Asian World</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-522243-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-522243-2"><bdi>978-0-19-522243-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220623163920/https://books.google.com/books?id=7CjvF88iEE8C&pg=PA66">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2022. <q>The molded terra-cotta tablet shows a flat-bottomed Indus boat with a central cabin. Branches tied to the roof may have been used for protection from bad luck, and travelers took a pet bird along to help them guide them to land.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+South+Asian+World&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-522243-2&rft.aulast=Kenoyer&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft.au=Heuston%2C+Kimberley+Burton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CjvF88iEE8C%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathew2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu0IwDwAAQBAJpgPT32_32]-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMathew2017[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidu0IwDwAAQBAJpgPT32_32]_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMathew2017">Mathew 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u0IwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT32">32</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1AJO2A-CbccCpgPA158_158]–[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1AJO2A-CbccCpgPA159_159]-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1AJO2A-CbccCpgPA158_158]–[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1AJO2A-CbccCpgPA159_159]_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcIntosh2008">McIntosh 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA158">158</a>–<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA159">159</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllchinAllchin1982pp._188–189,_listing_of_figures_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidr4s-YsP6vcICpgPR10_p.x]-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllchinAllchin1982pp._188–189,_listing_of_figures_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidr4s-YsP6vcICpgPR10_p.x]_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAllchinAllchin1982">Allchin & Allchin 1982</a>, pp. 188–189, listing of figures <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r4s-YsP6vcIC&pg=PR10">p.x</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-robinson-171"><a href="#cite_ref-robinson_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2015" class="citation cs2">Robinson, Andrew (2015), The Indus: Lost Civilizations, London: Reakton Books, pp. 89–91, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780235417" title="Special:BookSources/9781780235417"><bdi>9781780235417</bdi></a>, <q>To what extent such a reed-made river vessel would have been seaworthy is debatable. ... Did the flat-bottomed Indus river boats mutate into the crescent-shaped hull of Heyerdahl's reed boat before taking to the Arabian Sea? Did they reach as far as the coast of East Africa, as the Tigris did? 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Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies: 19–57. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1084-7561">1084-7561</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050207073634/http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 7 February 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Vedic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Collapse+of+the+Indus-Script+Thesis%3A+The+Myth+of+a+Literate+Harappan+Civilization&rft.pages=19-57&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=1084-7561&rft.au=Farmer%2C+Steve&rft.au=Sproat%2C+Richard&rft.au=Witzel%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.safarmer.com%2Ffsw2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> These and other issues are addressed in <a href="#CITEREFParpola2005">Parpola (2005)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaoYadavVahiaJoglekar2009" class="citation journal cs1">Rao, Rajesh P.N.; Yadav, Nisha; Vahia, Mayank N.; Joglekar, Hrishikesh; et al. 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Science. 324 (5931): 1165. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009Sci...324.1165R">2009Sci...324.1165R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1170391">10.1126/science.1170391</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19389998">19389998</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15565405">15565405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Entropic+Evidence+for+Linguistic+Structure+in+the+Indus+Script&rft.volume=324&rft.issue=5931&rft.pages=1165&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1170391&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15565405%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19389998&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009Sci...324.1165R&rft.aulast=Rao&rft.aufirst=Rajesh+P.N.&rft.au=Yadav%2C+Nisha&rft.au=Vahia%2C+Mayank+N.&rft.au=Joglekar%2C+Hrishikesh&rft.au=Adhikari%2C+R.&rft.au=Mahadevan%2C+Iravatham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.1170391&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newswise.com/articles/view/551380/">"Indus Script Encodes Language, Reveals New Study of Ancient Symbols"</a>. Newswise. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090811035516/http://newswise.com/articles/view/551380/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 August 2009. Retrieved 5 June 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Indus+Script+Encodes+Language%2C+Reveals+New+Study+of+Ancient+Symbols&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewswise.com%2Farticles%2Fview%2F551380%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.safarmer.com/Refutation3.pdf">A Refutation of the Claimed Refutation of the Non-linguistic Nature of Indus Symbols: Invented Data Sets in the Statistical Paper of Rao et al. (Science, 2009)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190717170734/http://www.safarmer.com/Refutation3.pdf">Archived</a> 17 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 19 September 2009.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-RAO-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RAO_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RAO_219-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.safarmer.com/more.on.Rao.pdf">'Conditional Entropy' Cannot Distinguish Linguistic from Non-linguistic Systems</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190717163301/http://www.safarmer.com/more.on.Rao.pdf">Archived</a> 17 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved on 19 September 2009.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2009281–282-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWright2009281–282_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWright2009">Wright 2009</a>, pp. 281–282. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERatnagar2004-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERatnagar2004_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRatnagar2004">Ratnagar 2004</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarshall193148–78-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall193148–78_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall193148–78_222-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarshall1931">Marshall 1931</a>, pp. 48–78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA154_141–156]-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXVgeAAAAQBAJpgPA154_141–156]_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154">141–156</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002141–144-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002141–144_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPossehl2002141–144_224-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPossehl2002">Possehl 2002</a>, pp. 141–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1975-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1975_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSrinivasan1975">Srinivasan 1975</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1997180–181-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESrinivasan1997180–181_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSrinivasan1997">Srinivasan 1997</a>, pp. 180–181. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan1964-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESullivan1964_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSullivan1964">Sullivan 1964</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2011399–432-228"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiltebeitel2011399–432_228-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHiltebeitel2011">Hiltebeitel 2011</a>, pp. 399–432. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVilas_Sangave2001" class="citation book cs1">Vilas Sangave (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2FGSGmP4jNcC">Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture</a>. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-839-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7154-839-2"><bdi>978-81-7154-839-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facets+of+Jainology%3A+Selected+Research+Papers+on+Jain+Society%2C+Religion%2C+and+Culture&rft.place=Mumbai&rft.pub=Popular+Prakashan&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-81-7154-839-2&rft.au=Vilas+Sangave&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2FGSGmP4jNcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer1969" class="citation book cs1">Zimmer, Heinrich (1969). Campbell, Joseph (ed.). Philosophies of India. 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International Journal of Paleopathology. 2 (2–3): 136–147. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijpp.2012.09.012">10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29539378">29539378</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3933522">3933522</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414132011/http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/G_Robbins_Schug_Peaceful_2012.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Paleopathology&rft.atitle=A+Peaceful+Realm%3F+Trauma+and+Social+Differentiation+at+Harappa&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=136-147&rft.date=2012-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3933522%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29539378&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijpp.2012.09.012&rft.au=Robbins-Schug%2C+G.&rft.au=Gray%2C+K.M.&rft.au=Mushrif%2C+V.&rft.au=Sankhyan%2C+A.R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibres.uncg.edu%2Fir%2Funcg%2Ff%2FG_Robbins_Schug_Peaceful_2012.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schug2013-242"><a href="#cite_ref-Schug2013_242-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobbins-Schug,_GwenBlevins,_K._ElaineCox,_BrettGray,_Kelsey2013" class="citation journal cs1">Robbins-Schug, Gwen; Blevins, K. 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Retrieved 17 November 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Indo-European+Culture&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9781884964985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzU3RIV2BWIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManuel2010" class="citation book cs1">Manuel, Mark (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/243477">"Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley"</a>. In Gunawardhana, P.; Adikari, G.; Coningham, R.A.E. (eds.). Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume. Battaramulla: Neptune Publication. pp. 145–152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789550028054" title="Special:BookSources/9789550028054"><bdi>9789550028054</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220605092756/https://www.academia.edu/243477">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 16 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chronology+and+Culture-History+in+the+Indus+Valley&rft.btitle=Sirinimal+Lakdusinghe+Felicitation+Volume&rft.place=Battaramulla&rft.pages=145-152&rft.pub=Neptune+Publication&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9789550028054&rft.aulast=Manuel&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F243477&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1931" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_(archaeologist)" title="John Marshall (archaeologist)">Marshall, John</a>, ed. 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BioMed Research International. 2015: 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2015%2F651415">10.1155/2015/651415</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4605215">4605215</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26491681">26491681</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioMed+Research+International&rft.atitle=Genetic+and+Cultural+Reconstruction+of+the+Migration+of+an+Ancient+Lineage&rft.volume=2015&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4605215%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26491681&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2015%2F651415&rft.aulast=Mascarenhas&rft.aufirst=Desmond+D.&rft.au=Raina%2C+Anupuma&rft.au=Aston%2C+Christopher+E.&rft.au=Sanghera%2C+Dharambir+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4605215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasson1842" class="citation book cs1">Masson, Charles (1842). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nqxUw0Ybq9EC">Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab: Including a Residence in Those Countries from 1826 to 1838, Volume 1</a>. 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L03704. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012GeoRL..39.3704P">2012GeoRL..39.3704P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011GL050722">10.1029/2011GL050722</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1912%2F5100">1912/5100</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8276">0094-8276</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200312214817/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1347997/1/2011GL050722.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Holocene+aridification+of+India&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=L03704&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1912%2F5100&rft.issn=0094-8276&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2011GL050722&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012GeoRL..39.3704P&rft.aulast=Ponton&rft.aufirst=Camilo&rft.au=Giosan%2C+Liviu&rft.au=Eglinton%2C+Tim+I.&rft.au=Fuller%2C+Dorian+Q.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Joel+E.&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Pushpendra&rft.au=Collett%2C+Tim+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdiscovery.ucl.ac.uk%2Fid%2Feprint%2F1347997%2F1%2F2011GL050722.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPossehl2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Possehl" title="Gregory Possehl">Possehl, Gregory L.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154">The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective</a>. Rowman Altamira. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-1642-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-1642-9"><bdi>978-0-7591-1642-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230120224137/https://books.google.com/books?id=XVgeAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus+Civilization%3A+A+Contemporary+Perspective&rft.pub=Rowman+Altamira&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-1642-9&rft.aulast=Possehl&rft.aufirst=Gregory+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXVgeAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPossehl2002a" class="citation book cs1">Possehl, Gregory L. (2002a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6IAUKE7xv_cC&pg=PA62">"Harappans and hunters: economic interaction and specialization in prehistoric India"</a>. In Morrison, Kathleen D.; Junker, Laura L. (eds.). Forager-Traders in South and Southeast Asia: Long-Term Histories. 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Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences. 22 (2): 215–228. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011TAOS...22..215R">2011TAOS...22..215R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3319%2FTAO.2010.09.17.02%28TibXS%29">10.3319/TAO.2010.09.17.02(TibXS)</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1017-0839">1017-0839</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160310145748/http://research.bpcrc.osu.edu/Icecore/publications/Rashid%20et%20al%20Terr%20Atmos%20Ocean%20Sci%202011v222p215.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 10 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Terrestrial%2C+Atmospheric+and+Oceanic+Sciences&rft.atitle=Late+Glacial+to+Holocene+Indian+Summer+Monsoon+Variability+Based+upon+Sediment+Records+Taken+from+the+Bay+of+Bengal&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=215-228&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=1017-0839&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3319%2FTAO.2010.09.17.02%28TibXS%29&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011TAOS...22..215R&rft.aulast=Rashid&rft.aufirst=Harunur&rft.au=England%2C+Emily&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Lonnie&rft.au=Polyak%2C+Leonid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearch.bpcrc.osu.edu%2FIcecore%2Fpublications%2FRashid%2520et%2520al%2520Terr%2520Atmos%2520Ocean%2520Sci%25202011v222p215.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatnagar2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ratnagar, Shereen (April 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5696/1/5696.pdf">"Archaeology at the Heart of a Political Confrontation The Case of Ayodhya"</a> (PDF). Current Anthropology. 45 (2): 239–259. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F381044">10.1086/381044</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/381044">10.1086/381044</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149773944">149773944</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180421033840/http://dro.dur.ac.uk/5696/1/5696.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 21 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Archaeology+at+the+Heart+of+a+Political+Confrontation+The+Case+of+Ayodhya&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=239-259&rft.date=2004-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149773944%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.1086%2F381044%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F381044&rft.aulast=Ratnagar&rft.aufirst=Shereen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdro.dur.ac.uk%2F5696%2F1%2F5696.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRatnagar2006a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shereen_Ratnagar" title="Shereen Ratnagar">Ratnagar, Shereen</a> (2006a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5tpQgAACAAJ">Trading Encounters: From the Euphrates to the Indus in the Bronze Age</a> (2nd ed.). 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New Delhi: Tulika Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89487-02-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-89487-02-7"><bdi>978-81-89487-02-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Harappa%3A+Civilization+in+the+Greater+Indus+Valley&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=Tulika+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-81-89487-02-7&rft.aulast=Ratnagar&rft.aufirst=Shereen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarkarMukherjeeBeraDas2016" class="citation journal cs1">Sarkar, Anindya; Mukherjee, Arati Deshpande; Bera, M. K.; Das, B.; et al. (May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879637">"Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization"</a>. Scientific Reports. 6 (1). 26555. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatSR...626555S">2016NatSR...626555S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep26555">10.1038/srep26555</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4879637">4879637</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27222033">27222033</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Oxygen+isotope+in+archaeological+bioapatites+from+India%3A+Implications+to+climate+change+and+decline+of+Bronze+Age+Harappan+civilization&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26555&rft.date=2016-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4879637%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27222033&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep26555&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatSR...626555S&rft.aulast=Sarkar&rft.aufirst=Anindya&rft.au=Mukherjee%2C+Arati+Deshpande&rft.au=Bera%2C+M.+K.&rft.au=Das%2C+B.&rft.au=Juyal%2C+Navin&rft.au=Morthekai%2C+P.&rft.au=Deshpande%2C+R.+D.&rft.au=Shinde%2C+V.+S.&rft.au=Rao%2C+L.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4879637&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaffer1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jim_G._Shaffer" title="Jim G. Shaffer">Shaffer, Jim G.</a> (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". In R.W. Ehrich (ed.). Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Indus+Valley%2C+Baluchistan+and+Helmand+Traditions%3A+Neolithic+Through+Bronze+Age&rft.btitle=Chronologies+in+Old+World+Archaeology&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Shaffer&rft.aufirst=Jim+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaffer1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jim_G._Shaffer" title="Jim G. Shaffer">Shaffer, Jim G.</a> (1999). "Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology". In Bronkhorst; Deshpande (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Cambridge: Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-888789-04-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-888789-04-1"><bdi>978-1-888789-04-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Migration%2C+Philology+and+South+Asian+Archaeology&rft.btitle=Aryan+and+Non-Aryan+in+South+Asia.&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University%2C+Dept.+of+Sanskrit+and+Indian+Studies&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-888789-04-1&rft.aulast=Shaffer&rft.aufirst=Jim+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Singh, Kavita, "The Museum Is National", Chapter 4 in: Mathur, Saloni and Singh, Kavita (eds), No Touching, No Spitting, No Praying: The Museum in South Asia, 2015, Routledge, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12710849/The_Museum_is_National">PDF on academia.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414001429/https://www.academia.edu/12710849/The_Museum_is_National">Archived</a> 14 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (nb this is different to the article by the same author with the same title in India International Centre Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 3/4, 2002, pp. 176–196, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005825">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210412205436/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005825">Archived</a> 12 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, which does not mention the IVC objects)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh,_Sakshi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Sakshi; et al. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4709632">"Dissecting the influence of Neolithic demic diffusion on Indian Y-chromosome pool through J2-M172 haplogroup"</a>. Scientific Reports. 6. 19157. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatSR...619157S">2016NatSR...619157S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsrep19157">10.1038/srep19157</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4709632">4709632</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26754573">26754573</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Dissecting+the+influence+of+Neolithic+demic+diffusion+on+Indian+Y-chromosome+pool+through+J2-M172+haplogroup&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=19157&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4709632%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26754573&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsrep19157&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatSR...619157S&rft.au=Singh%2C+Sakshi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4709632&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh,_Upinder2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Singh, Upinder</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC">A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</a>. Pearson Education India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1120-0"><bdi>978-81-317-1120-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240328162240/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC">Archived</a> from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-317-1120-0&rft.au=Singh%2C+Upinder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH3lUIIYxWkEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinivasan1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Doris_Meth_Srinivasan" title="Doris Meth Srinivasan">Srinivasan, Doris</a> (1975). "The so-called Proto-Śiva seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An iconological assessment". Archives of Asian Art. 29: 47–58. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20062578">20062578</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Asian+Art&rft.atitle=The+so-called+Proto-%C5%9Aiva+seal+from+Mohenjo-Daro%3A+An+iconological+assessment&rft.volume=29&rft.pages=47-58&rft.date=1975&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20062578%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Srinivasan&rft.aufirst=Doris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrinivasan1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Doris_Meth_Srinivasan" title="Doris Meth Srinivasan">Srinivasan, Doris Meth</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC">Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art</a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10758-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-10758-8"><bdi>978-90-04-10758-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230120224139/https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Many+Heads%2C+Arms+and+Eyes%3A+Origin%2C+Meaning+and+Form+in+Multiplicity+in+Indian+Art&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-04-10758-8&rft.aulast=Srinivasan&rft.aufirst=Doris+Meth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvZheP9dIX9wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaubwasserSirockoGrootesSegl2003" class="citation journal cs1">Staubwasser, M.; Sirocko, F.; Grootes, P. M.; Segl, M. (2003). "Climate change at the 4.2 ka BP termination of the Indus valley civilization and Holocene south Asian monsoon variability". Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (8): 1425. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003GeoRL..30.1425S">2003GeoRL..30.1425S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2002GL016822">10.1029/2002GL016822</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0094-8276">0094-8276</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129178112">129178112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Climate+change+at+the+4.2+ka+BP+termination+of+the+Indus+valley+civilization+and+Holocene+south+Asian+monsoon+variability&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1425&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2002GL016822&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129178112%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0094-8276&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003GeoRL..30.1425S&rft.aulast=Staubwasser&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Sirocko%2C+F.&rft.au=Grootes%2C+P.+M.&rft.au=Segl%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSullivan1964" class="citation journal cs1">Sullivan, Herbert P. (1964). "A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization". History of Religions. 4 (1): 115–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F462498">10.1086/462498</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061875">1061875</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162278147">162278147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Religions&rft.atitle=A+Re-Examination+of+the+Religion+of+the+Indus+Civilization&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=115-125&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162278147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1061875%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F462498&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Herbert+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Thapar, Romila</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=FA85">Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8"><bdi>978-0-520-24225-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230120224144/https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=FA85">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24225-8&rft.aulast=Thapar&rft.aufirst=Romila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-5irrXX0apQC%26pg%3DFA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThapar2006" class="citation book cs1">Thapar, Romila, ed. (2006). the Making of 'the Aryan'. New Delhi: National Book Trust.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=the+Making+of+%27the+Aryan%27&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pub=National+Book+Trust&rft.date=2006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rita_P._Wright" title="Rita P. Wright">Wright, Rita P.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gAgFPQAACAAJ">The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press_%26_Assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge University Press & Assessment">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57219-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57219-4"><bdi>978-0-521-57219-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Indus%3A+Urbanism%2C+Economy%2C+and+Society&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57219-4&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Rita+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgAgFPQAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllchin1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bridget_Allchin" title="Bridget Allchin">Allchin, Bridget</a> (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+a+Civilization%3A+The+Prehistory+and+Early+Archaeology+of+South+Asia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Allchin&rft.aufirst=Bridget&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAronovskyGopinath,_Sujata2005" class="citation book cs1">Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indus+Valley&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Heinemann&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Aronovsky&rft.aufirst=Ilona&rft.au=Gopinath%2C+Sujata&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBar-MatthewsAyalon2011" class="citation journal cs1">Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Ayalon, Avner (2011). "Mid-Holocene climate variations revealed by high-resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave, Israel and their correlation with cultural changes". 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European Journal of Human Genetics. 23 (1): 124–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fejhg.2014.50">10.1038/ejhg.2014.50</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1018-4813">1018-4813</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4266736">4266736</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24667786">24667786</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Journal+of+Human+Genetics&rft.atitle=The+phylogenetic+%26+geographic+structure+of+Y-chromosome+haplogroup+R1a&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=124-131&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4266736%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1018-4813&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24667786&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fejhg.2014.50&rft.aulast=Underhill&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4266736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2001" class="citation journal cs1">Wells, R.S. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC56946">"The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (18): 10244–10249. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...9810244W">2001PNAS...9810244W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.171305098">10.1073/pnas.171305098</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC56946">56946</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11526236">11526236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=The+Eurasian+Heartland%3A+A+continental+perspective+on+Y-chromosome+diversity&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=10244-10249&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC56946%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11526236&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.171305098&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...9810244W&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=R.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC56946&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilleyPhillips1958" class="citation book cs1">Willey; Phillips (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/methodtheoryinam1958will">Method and Theory in American Archaeology</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Method+and+Theory+in+American+Archaeology&rft.date=1958&rft.au=Willey&rft.au=Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmethodtheoryinam1958will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AIndus+Valley+Civilisation" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 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href="/wiki/Template:Indus_Valley_civilisation" title="Template:Indus Valley civilisation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indus_Valley_civilisation" title="Template talk:Indus Valley civilisation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indus_Valley_civilisation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indus Valley civilisation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indus_Valley_Civilisation" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">History and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodisation_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Periodisation of the Indus Valley Civilisation">Periodisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion of the Indus Valley Civilization">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulli_culture" title="Kulli culture">Kulli culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amri_culture" title="Amri culture">Amri culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bara_culture" title="Bara culture">Bara culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" title="Cemetery H culture">Cemetery H culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Art and architecture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dancing_Girl_(prehistoric_sculpture)" title="Dancing Girl (prehistoric sculpture)">Dancing Girl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashupati_seal" title="Pashupati seal">Pashupati seal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest-King_(sculpture)" title="Priest-King (sculpture)">Priest-king</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harappan_architecture" title="Harappan architecture">Harappan architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation">Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Bath,_Mohenjo-daro" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro">Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation">Inventions of the Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Language and script</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harappan_language" title="Harappan language">Harappan language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Indus Valley sites in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larkana" title="Larkana">Larkana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nausharo" title="Nausharo">Nausharo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanhudaro" title="Chanhudaro">Chanhudaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganweriwal" title="Ganweriwal">Ganweriwal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehrgarh" title="Mehrgarh">Mehrgarh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakhueen-jo-daro" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakhueen-jo-daro">Lakhueen-jo-daro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirak" title="Pirak">Pirak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kot_Bala" title="Kot Bala">Kot Bala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kot_Diji" title="Kot Diji">Kot Diji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehman_Dheri" title="Rehman Dheri">Rehman Dheri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amri_(Pre-Harappa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Amri (Pre-Harappa)">Amri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutkagan_Dor" title="Sutkagan Dor">Sutkagan Dor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokhta_Koh" title="Sokhta Koh">Sokhta Koh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharro_Hills" title="Tharro Hills">Tharro Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pir_Shah_Jurio" title="Pir Shah Jurio">Pir Shah Jurio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allahdino" title="Allahdino">Allahdino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balakot" title="Balakot">Balakot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganeriwala" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganeriwala">Ganeriwala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nindowari" title="Nindowari">Nindowari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeir-jo-daro" title="Judeir-jo-daro">Judeir-jo-daro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dabarkot" title="Dabarkot">Dabarkot</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Indus Valley sites in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gola_Dhoro" title="Gola Dhoro">Gola Dhoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagatrav" title="Bhagatrav">Bhagatrav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangpur,_Gujarat" title="Rangpur, Gujarat">Rangpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jognakhera" title="Jognakhera">Jognakhera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surkotada" title="Surkotada">Surkotada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalibangan" title="Kalibangan">Kalibangan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manda,_Jammu" title="Manda, Jammu">Manda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alamgirpur" title="Alamgirpur">Alamgirpur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daimabad" title="Daimabad">Daimabad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malwan" title="Malwan">Malwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunal,_Haryana" title="Kunal, Haryana">Kunal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupnagar" title="Rupnagar">Rupnagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupar" class="mw-redirect" title="Rupar">Rupar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulas" title="Hulas">Hulas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanmer" title="Kanmer">Kanmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriyo_timbo" title="Oriyo timbo">Oriyo timbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dher_Majra" title="Dher Majra">Dher Majra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lohari_Ragho" title="Lohari Ragho">Lohari Ragho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarka" title="Dwarka">Dwarka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuntasi" title="Kuntasi">Kuntasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loteshwar" title="Loteshwar">Loteshwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandi,_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Mandi, Uttar Pradesh">Mandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmana" title="Farmana">Farmana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganeshwar_Civilzation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganeshwar Civilzation">Ganeshwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sothi_(archaeology)" title="Sothi (archaeology)">Sothi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siswal" title="Siswal">Siswal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanauli" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanauli">Sanauli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanghol" title="Sanghol">Sanghol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pabumath" title="Pabumath">Pabumath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagwada" title="Nagwada">Nagwada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babar_Kot" title="Babar Kot">Babar Kot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balu,_Haryana" class="mw-redirect" title="Balu, Haryana">Balu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bara,_Punjab" title="Bara, Punjab">Bara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bargaon_(archaeological_site)" title="Bargaon (archaeological site)">Bargaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagwanpura,_Haryana" title="Bhagwanpura, Haryana">Bhagwanpura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhirrana" title="Bhirrana">Bhirrana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banawali" title="Banawali">Banawali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rojdi" title="Rojdi">Rojdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kotla_Nihang_Khan" title="Kotla Nihang Khan">Kotla Nihang Khan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerala-no-dhoro" title="Kerala-no-dhoro">Kerala-no-dhoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitathal" title="Mitathal">Mitathal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desalpur" class="mw-redirect" title="Desalpur">Desalpur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Indus Valley sites in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortugai" title="Shortugai">Shortugai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ochre_Coloured_Pottery_culture" title="Ochre Coloured Pottery culture">Ochre Coloured Pottery culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Sakman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_royal_ships" title="Ancient Egyptian royal ships">Solar ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uru_(boat)" title="Uru (boat)">Uru</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels#History" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_ship" title="Fire ship">Fire ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Mediterranean:   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo–Mesopotamia relations">Indo–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southeast_Asia#Early_historical_era" title="History of Southeast Asia">Austronesian network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece%E2%80%93Ancient_India_relations#Trade" title="Ancient Greece–Ancient India relations">Greco–Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo–Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Ra and Ra II</a></li></ul></li> <li>Austronesian replicas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa#Canoe" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)">Ivlia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, 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(Herodotus)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)">The Histories (Polybius)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bronze_Age" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bronze_Age_footer" title="Template:Bronze Age footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bronze_Age_footer" title="Template talk:Bronze Age footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bronze_Age_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bronze Age footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bronze_Age" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>↑ <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegean_civilization" title="Aegean civilization">Aegean civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armorican_Tumulus_culture" title="Armorican Tumulus culture">Armorican Tumulus culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Bronze_Age" title="Atlantic Bronze Age">Atlantic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Britain" title="Bronze Age Britain">Bronze Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_sites_in_China" title="List of Bronze Age sites in China">Chinese Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycladic_culture" title="Cycladic culture">Cycladic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deer_stones_culture" title="Deer stones culture">Deer stones culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deverel%E2%80%93Rimbury_culture" title="Deverel–Rimbury culture">Deverel–Rimbury culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elp_culture" title="Elp culture">Elp culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ewart_Park_Phase" title="Ewart Park Phase">Ewart Park Phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezero_culture" title="Ezero culture">Ezero culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glazkov_culture" title="Glazkov culture">Glazkov culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Argar" title="El Argar">Argaric culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helladic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Helladic period">Helladic period</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Indus Valley Civilisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_period" title="Jōmon period">Late Jomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karasuk_culture" title="Karasuk culture">Karasuk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liaoning_bronze_dagger_culture" title="Liaoning bronze dagger culture">Liaoning bronze dagger culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mumun_pottery_period" title="Mumun pottery period">Mumun pottery period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okunev_culture" title="Okunev culture">Okunev culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordos_culture" title="Ordos culture">Ordos culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penard_Period" title="Penard Period">Penard Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samus_culture" title="Samus culture">Samus culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South-Western_Iberian_Bronze" title="South-Western Iberian Bronze">South-Western Iberian Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture">Tagar culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wessex_culture" title="Wessex culture">Wessex culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilburton-Wallington_Phase" title="Wilburton-Wallington Phase">Wilburton-Wallington Phase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> (North Caucasus and Transcaucasia)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koban_culture" title="Koban culture">Koban</a></li> <li><a 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alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6df7948d6c-qdmxx","wgBackendResponseTime":232,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.549","walltime":"4.934","ppvisitednodes":{"value":32812,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":956544,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":60646,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":38,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":838605,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 4190.957 1 -total"," 24.75% 1037.204 2 Template:Reflist"," 20.37% 853.729 201 Template:Sfn"," 14.10% 591.011 73 Template:Cite_journal"," 13.85% 580.468 91 Template:Cite_book"," 8.39% 351.778 2 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[\"CITEREFCharles_Choi2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCliftCarterGiosanDurcan2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConinghamYoung2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostantini2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunningham1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDales1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDales1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDani1970–1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDani1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaniMohen,_J-P.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeValeLawergren2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDerenko2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDikshit2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixitHodellGiescheTandon2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuring-CaspersReade2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurrani1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDyson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwin_Bryant2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarmer,_SteveSproat,_RichardWitzel,_Michael2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisher2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlora2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrenez2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuller2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGallego_Romero2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGangalSarsonShukurov2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbert2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoring-MorrisBelfer-Cohen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuha2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabib2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHabib2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeggartyRenfrew2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeitzman2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiebertDyson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiltebeitel2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirst2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrige1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrige2008a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJarrige2008b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoshiBala1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKathiroli2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyer1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyer1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyerHeuston2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKivisildBamshadKaldmaMetspalu1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLahiri2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLal1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLal1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLal2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawler2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence_Joffe2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazaridis2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittleton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLockard,_Craig2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMackay1928–1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadellaFuller2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahadevan1977\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaierFlegontovFlegontovaIşıldak2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaisels2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalloryAdams1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMani2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManuel2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarris2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1931\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMascarenhasRainaAstonSanghera2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasson1842\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathew2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntosh2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntosh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichon2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMirabalRegueiroCadenasCavalli-Sforza2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMughal1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukherjeeNebelOppenheimMajumder2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukhopadhyay2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarasimhanAnthonyMalloryReich2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNarasimhanPattersonMoorjaniRohland2019\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNeyland1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalanichamy2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPamjavFehérNémethPádár2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_T._Daniels\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetrieThomas2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPittman1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPontonGiosanEglintonFuller2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossehl2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossehl2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossehl2002a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossehlRaval1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPotts2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoznik2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuintana-MurciChaixWellsBehar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQuintana-MurciKrauszZerjalSayar2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRachel_Nuwer2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRao1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRao1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaoYadavVahiaJoglekar2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRashidEnglandThompsonPolyak2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatnagar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatnagar2006a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRatnagar2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRay2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobbins-Schug,_G.Gray,_K.M.Mushrif,_V.Sankhyan,_A.R.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobbins-Schug,_GwenBlevins,_K._ElaineCox,_BrettGray,_Kelsey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkarMukherjeeBeraDas2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeminoPassarino_G2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSenguptaZhivotovskyKingMehdi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSergent1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaffer1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaffer1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaffer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaffer1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShafferLichtenstein1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShindeNarasimhanRohlandMallick2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShindeWillis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShuichi_Takezawa2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh,_Sakshi2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh,_Upinder2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivasan1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSrinivasan1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaubwasserSirockoGrootesSegl2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuryanarayanCubasCraigHeron2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTewari2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas_H._Maugh_II2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTripathiBock,_BarbaraRajamani,_V.Eisenhauer,_A.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnderhill2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnderhillMyresRootsiMetspalu2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValentine2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVilas_Sangave2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarrier\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWells2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilleyPhillips1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYelmenMondalMarnettoPathak2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer1969\"] = 1,\n [\"culin\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Ancient seafaring\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Bronze Age footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 24,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 91,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 73,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 13,\n [\"Col div\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 8,\n [\"Dubious\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Further information\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 1,\n [\"Grove Music subscription\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvc\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 11,\n [\"Harvp\"] = 14,\n [\"HistoryOfSouthAsia\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Indus Valley Civilization\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox archaeological culture\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 3,\n [\"Opinion\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Quote box\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 42,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 5,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 201,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Unbalanced opinion\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikivoyage\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","600","19.7"],["?","420","13.8"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","320","10.5"],["dataWrapper 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