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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attestations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Attestations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Attestations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Attestations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Attestations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loanwords" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loanwords"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Loanwords</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loanwords-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proto-Germanic_to_Proto-Norse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Germanic_to_Proto-Norse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Proto-Germanic to Proto-Norse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Germanic_to_Proto-Norse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto-Norse_to_Old_Norse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Norse_to_Old_Norse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Proto-Norse to Old Norse</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Norse_to_Old_Norse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input 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<input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_proton%C3%B3rdicu" title="Idioma protonórdicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma protonórdicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="قدیم نورس دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قدیم نورس دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentnorseg" title="Kentnorseg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kentnorseg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton%C3%B2rdic" title="Protonòrdic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Protonòrdic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urnordisk_(sprog)" title="Urnordisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Urnordisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urnordische_Sprache" title="Urnordische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Urnordische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muinasp%C3%B5hja_keel" title="Muinaspõhja keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Muinaspõhja keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_proton%C3%B3rdico" title="Idioma protonórdico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma protonórdico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praskandinava_lingvo" title="Praskandinava lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Praskandinava lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="زبان نیانورس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان نیانورس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-norrois" title="Proto-norrois – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Proto-norrois" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Proto-Nordik" title="Bahasa Proto-Nordik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Proto-Nordik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumnorr%C3%A6na" title="Frumnorræna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumnorræna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_protonorrena" title="Lingua protonorrena – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua protonorrena" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Protonordica" title="Lingua Protonordica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Protonordica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skandinav%C5%B3_prokalb%C4%97" title="Skandinavų prokalbė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Skandinavų prokalbė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oernoords" title="Oernoords – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oernoords" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8E%E3%83%AB%E3%83%89%E7%A5%96%E8%AA%9E" title="ノルド祖語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ノルド祖語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urnordisk" title="Urnordisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Urnordisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urnordisk" title="Urnordisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Urnordisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_pranordyjski" title="Język pranordyjski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język pranordyjski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton%C3%B3rdico" title="Protonórdico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Protonórdico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_protonordic%C4%83" title="Limba protonordică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba protonordică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasever%C4%8Dina" title="Praseverčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Praseverčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Пранордијски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Пранордијски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kantaskandinaavi" title="Kantaskandinaavi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kantaskandinaavi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urnordiska" title="Urnordiska – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Urnordiska" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Праскандинавська мова – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Праскандинавська мова" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%A7%8B%E8%AB%BE%E6%96%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="原始諾斯語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="原始諾斯語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Norse">Proto-Norse</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Progenitor of Old Norse</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Norse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Norse (disambiguation)">Norse</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> or <a href="/wiki/Old_North_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Old North (disambiguation)">Old North</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Proto-Norse</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">2nd to 8th centuries</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Proto-Norse</b></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/1be">1be</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> </th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/qdl">qdl</a></code> "Runic" (perhaps <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> is intended)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/olde1239">olde1239</a></code>  Older Runic (perhaps)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Proto-Norse</b> was an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> language spoken in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> that is thought to have evolved as a northern dialect of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> in the first centuries CE. It is the earliest stage of a characteristically <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a> language, and the language <a href="/wiki/Attested_language" title="Attested language">attested</a> in the oldest Scandinavian <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a> inscriptions, spoken from around the 2nd to the 8th centuries CE (corresponding to the late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Iron Age">Roman Iron Age</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_Iron_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Iron Age">Germanic Iron Age</a>). 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:rgb(220,245,220);"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">Indo-European topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.gif" title="File:Indo-European migrations.gif"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/140px-Indo-European_migrations.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/210px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/280px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="598" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Extant</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Extinct</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Hypothetical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Balkanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Albanian" title="Graeco-Albanian">Graeco-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Grammar</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Other</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Norse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italo-Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italo-Celtic language">Proto-Italo-Celtic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Philology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language#Inscriptions" title="Messapic language">Messapic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin#Corpus" title="Old Latin">Latin epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish#Corpus" title="Gaulish">Gaulish epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">Runic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian" title="Bible translations into Armenian">Bible translations into Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish#Sources" title="Old Irish">Old Irish glosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanun_(Albania)" title="Kanun (Albania)">Albanian Kanun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Mainstream<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Alternative and fringe<br /></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland#Baltic_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Baltic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Archaeology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic (Copper Age)</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kurgan stelae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">Steppe cultures</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></span> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mikhaylovka_culture" title="Mikhaylovka culture">Mikhaylovka culture</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Novotitarovskaya_culture" title="Novotitarovskaya culture">Novotitarovskaya culture</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li></ul> <p><i>Eastern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper_culture" title="Middle Dnieper culture">Middle Dnieper</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a><br /></dt></dl> <p><i>Pontic Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">Multi-cordoned ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya</a></li></ul> <p><i>Northern/Eastern Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian</a></li></ul> <p><i>South Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Steppe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Cimmerian" title="Thraco-Cimmerian">Thraco-Cimmerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf</a></li></ul> <p><i>Caucasus</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchian_culture" title="Colchian culture">Colchian</a></li></ul> <p><i>India</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Peoples and societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_peoples" title="Anatolian peoples">Anatolian peoples</a> (<span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></span>) <br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> <p><i>Indo-Aryans</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranians</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a></li></ul> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></dt></dl> <p><i>East Asia</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li></ul> <p><i>Europe</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Albanians" title="Origin of the Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>/<a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Medieval Scandinavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul> <p><i>Indo-Aryan</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li></ul> <p><i>Iranian</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion and mythology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Reconstructed</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_paganism" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism">Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><i>Historical</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Aryan</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></span></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> <p><i>Others</i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li></ul> <p><i><a href="/wiki/European_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="European paganism">European</a></i><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albanian_paganism" title="Albanian paganism">Albanian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Practices</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship#Indo-European_religions" title="Fire worship">Fire rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">Winter solstice</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><i>Scholars</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Institutes</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Studies_in_Indo-European" title="Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European">Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i>Publications</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Indo-European_Studies" title="Journal of Indo-European Studies">Journal of Indo-European Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-European_topics" title="Template talk:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proto-Norse phonology probably did not differ substantially from that of Proto-Germanic. Although the phonetic realisation of several phonemes had probably changed over time, the overall system of phonemes and their distribution remained largely unchanged. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Proto-Norse consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>  </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Interdental_consonant" title="Interdental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant" title="Labial–velar consonant">Labial–velar</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">m</span> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">n</span> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋ</span>) </td> <td>(<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ŋʷ</span>) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">p</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">b</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">t</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">d</span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">k</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡ</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">kʷ</span>  <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɡʷ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɸ</span>  (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">β</span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">θ</span>  (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ð</span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">s</span> </td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">z</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">h</span>  (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɣ</span>) </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hʷ</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">r</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">j</span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">w</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">l</span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/</span> assimilated to a following velar consonant. It was <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>]</span> before a plain velar, and probably <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋʷ]</span> before a labial-velar consonant.</li> <li>Unlike its Proto-Germanic ancestor <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</span>, the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/</span> probably no longer had a velar place of articulation. It eventually disappeared except word-initially.</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>]</span> were allophones of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span>, and occurred in most word-medial positions. Plosives appeared when the consonants were lengthened (<a href="/wiki/Geminate" class="mw-redirect" title="Geminate">geminated</a>), and also after a nasal consonant. Word-finally, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a>]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a>]</span> were devoiced and merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/</span>.</li> <li>The exact realisation of the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/</span>, traditionally written as <b>ʀ</b> in transcriptions of runic Norse (not to be confused with the phonetic symbol <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_uvular_trill" title="Voiced uvular trill">ʀ</a>/</span> used in other languages), is unclear. While it was a simple alveolar sibilant in Proto-Germanic (as in Gothic), it eventually underwent <a href="/wiki/Rhotacism_(sound_change)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotacism (sound change)">rhotacization</a> and merged with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/</span> towards the end of the runic period. It may have been pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiced postalveolar fricative">ʒ</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a>]</span>, tending towards a <a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">trill</a> in the later period. The sound was still written with its own letter in runic Old East Norse around the end of the first millennium.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The system of vowels differed somewhat more from that of Proto-Germanic than the consonants. Earlier <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛː/</span> had been lowered to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span>, and unstressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑi/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑu/</span> had developed into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span>. Shortening of word-final vowels had eliminated the Proto-Germanic overlong vowels. </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Oral vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small>short</small> </th> <th><small>long</small> </th> <th><small>short</small> </th> <th><small>long</small> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">e</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑ</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑː</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <caption>Nasal vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><small>short</small> </th> <th><small>long</small> </th> <th><small>short</small> </th> <th><small>long</small> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ĩ</span>? </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ĩː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ũ</span>? </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ũː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ̃</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ̃ː</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑ̃</span>? </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɑ̃ː</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ol><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> had developed from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> through <a href="/wiki/A-mutation" class="mw-redirect" title="A-mutation"><i>a</i>-mutation</a>. It also occurred word-finally as a result of the shortening of Proto-Germanic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span>.</li> <li>The long nasal vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ̃ː/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ĩː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ũː/</span> occurred only before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>. Their presence was noted in the 12th-century <a href="/wiki/First_Grammatical_Treatise" title="First Grammatical Treatise">First Grammatical Treatise</a>, and they survive in modern <a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a>.</li> <li>All other nasal vowels occurred only word-finally, although it is unclear whether they had retained their nasality in Proto-Norse or had already merged with the oral vowels. The vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔ̃/</span> were contrastive, however, as the former eventually developed into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> (triggering <i>u</i>-mutation) while the latter was lowered to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ/</span>.</li> <li>The back vowels probably had central or front allophones when <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> followed, as a result of <a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation"><i>i</i>-mutation</a>: <ul><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑ/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[æː]</span></li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʉ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʉː]</span> (later <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/y/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/yː/</span>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span> > <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɞː]</span> (later <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[œː]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[øː]</span>)</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/o/</span> did not originally occur before <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, but it was later introduced by analogy (as can be seen on the Gallehus horns). Its allophone was probably <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɵ]</span>, later <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ø]</span>.</li></ul></li> <li>Towards the end of the Proto-Norse period, stressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> underwent <a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">breaking</a>, becoming a rising diphthong <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/jɑ/</span>.</li> <li>Also towards the end of the Proto-Norse period, <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Umlaut" title="Old Norse"><i>u</i>-mutation</a> began to take effect, which created rounded allophones of unrounded vowels.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accent">Accent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Accent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Old Norse had a <a href="/wiki/Stress_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress accent">stress accent</a> which fell on the first syllable, like its ancestor, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a>. Several scholars have proposed that Proto-Norse also had a separate <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a>, which was inherited from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> and has evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Tonal_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal accent">tonal accents</a> of modern <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a>, which in turn have evolved into the <a href="/wiki/St%C3%B8d" title="Stød">stød</a> of modern <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another recently advanced theory is that each Proto-Norse long syllable and every other short syllable received stress, marked by pitch, eventually leading to the development of the Swedish and Norwegian tonal accent distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, quite a number of linguists have assumed that even the first phonetic rudiments of the distinction did not appear until the <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attestations">Attestations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Attestations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Einangsteinen_inscription2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Einangsteinen_inscription2.jpg/350px-Einangsteinen_inscription2.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Einangsteinen_inscription2.jpg/525px-Einangsteinen_inscription2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Einangsteinen_inscription2.jpg/700px-Einangsteinen_inscription2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="228" /></a><figcaption>Composite photograph of the <a href="/wiki/Einang_stone" title="Einang stone">Einang stone</a> inscription (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 400</span>)</figcaption></figure> <p>All attestations of Proto-Norse are <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a> inscriptions. There are about 260 of these inscriptions in Proto-Norse, the earliest dating to the 2nd century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%98vre_Stabu_spearhead" title="Øvre Stabu spearhead">Øvre Stabu spearhead</a>, Oppland, Norway. Second century <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">raunijaz</i></span>, ON <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">raun</i></span> "tester", cf. <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <span title="Norwegian-language text"><i lang="no">røyne</i></span> "try, test". <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">rön</i></span> "finding" and <span title="Swedish-language text"><i lang="sv">utröna</i></span> "find out". The word formation with a suffix <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">ija</i></span> is evidence of <a href="/wiki/Sievers%27_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sievers' law">Sievers' law</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horns_of_Gallehus" title="Golden Horns of Gallehus">Golden Horn of Gallehus</a> 2, South Jutland, Denmark 400 CE, <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">ek hlewagastiz holtijaz horna tawido</i></span>, "I, Hlewagastis of Holt, made the horn." Note again the <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">ija</i></span> suffix</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tune_stone" title="Tune stone">Tune stone</a>, Østfold, Norway, 400 CE. <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">ek wiwaz after woduride witadahalaiban worahto. [me]z woduride staina þrijoz dohtriz dalidun arbija sijostez arbijano</i></span>, I, Wiwaz, after Woduridaz bread-warden wrought. For me Woduridaz, the stone, three daughters prepared, the most noble of heirs.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Einang_stone" title="Einang stone">Einang stone</a>, near Fagernes, Norway, is dated to the 4th century. It contains the message <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">[ek go]dagastiz runo faihido</i></span> ([I, Go]dguest drew the secret), in O–N <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">ek goðgestr rún fáða</i></span>. The first four letters of the inscription have not survived and are conjectured, and the personal name could well have been Gudagasti or something similar.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kragehul_I" title="Kragehul I">Kragehul spear</a>, Denmark, c. 500 CE. <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">ek erilaz asugisalas muha haite, gagaga ginuga, he...lija... hagala wijubi...</i></span> possibly, "I, Eril of Asgisl, was named Muha, ga-ga-ga mighty-ga (ga being most likely an abbreviation of indeterminable reference), (incomplete) <a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">hail</a> I consecrate."</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rketorp_Runestone" title="Björketorp Runestone">Björketorp Runestone</a>, Blekinge, Sweden, is one of three <a href="/wiki/Menhir" title="Menhir">menhirs</a>, but is the only one of them where, in the 6th century, someone wrote a curse: <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">haidʀ runo runu falh'k hedra ginnarunaʀ <a href="/wiki/Ergi" title="Ergi">argiu</a> hermalausʀ ... weladauþe saz þat brytʀ uþarba spa</i></span> (Here, I have hidden the secret of powerful runes, strong runes. The one who breaks this memorial will be eternally tormented by anger. Treacherous death will hit him. I foresee perdition.)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B6_runestone" title="Rö runestone">Rö runestone</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Bohusl%C3%A4n" title="Bohuslän">Bohuslän</a>, Sweden, was raised in the early 5th century and is the longest early inscription: <span title="Germanic languages romanization"><i lang="gem-Latn">Ek Hrazaz/Hraþaz satido [s]tain[a] ... Swabaharjaz s[a]irawidaz. ... Stainawarijaz fahido.</i></span> "I, Hrazaz/Hraþaz raised the stone ... Swabaharjaz with wide wounds. ... Stainawarijaz (Stoneguardian's) carved."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loanwords">Loanwords</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Loanwords"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerous early Germanic words have survived with relatively little change as borrowings in <a href="/wiki/Finnic_languages" title="Finnic languages">Finnic languages</a>. Some of these may be of Proto-Germanic origin or older still, but others reflect developments specific to Norse. Some examples (with the reconstructed Proto-Norse form): </p> <ul><li>Estonian <span title="Estonian-language text"><i lang="et">juust</i></span>, Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">juusto</i></span> "cheese" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">justaz</i></span> (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">ostr</i></span>)</li> <li>Estonian/Finnish <span title="Uralic languages collective text"><i lang="urj">kuningas</i></span> < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingship" title="Germanic kingship">kuningaz</a></i></span> "king" (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">kunungr</i></span>, <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">konungr</i></span>)</li> <li>Estonian/Finnish <span title="Uralic languages collective text"><i lang="urj">lammas</i></span> "sheep" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">lambaz</i></span> "lamb" (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">lamb</i></span>)</li> <li>Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">hurskas</i></span> "pious" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">hurskaz</i></span> "prudent, wise, quick-minded" (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">horskr</i></span>)</li> <li>Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">ruhtinas</i></span> "prince" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">druhtinaz</i></span> "lord" (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">dróttinn</i></span>)</li> <li>Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">runo</i></span> "poem, rune" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">rūno</i></span> "secret, mystery, rune" (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">rún</i></span>)</li> <li>Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">sairas</i></span> "sick" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">sairaz</i></span> "sore" (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">sárr</i></span>)</li> <li>Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">vaate</i></span> "garment" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">wādiz</i></span> (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">váð</i></span>)</li> <li>Finnish <span title="Finnish-language text"><i lang="fi">viisas</i></span> "wise" < *<span title="Germanic languages collective text"><i lang="gem">wīsaz</i></span> (Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">víss</i></span>)</li></ul> <p>A very extensive Proto-Norse loanword layer also exists in the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_languages" title="Sámi languages">Sámi languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some Proto-Norse names are found in Latin works, like tribal names like <i>Suiones</i> (*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">Sweoniz</i></span>, "<a href="/wiki/Swedes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedes (Germanic tribe)">Swedes</a>"). Others can be conjectured from manuscripts such as <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Germanic_to_Proto-Norse">Proto-Germanic to Proto-Norse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Proto-Germanic to Proto-Norse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The differences between attested Proto-Norse and unattested <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> are rather small. Separating Proto-Norse from Northwest Germanic can be said to be a matter of convention, as sufficient evidence from the remaining parts of the Germanic-speaking area (Northern Germany and the Netherlands) is lacking in a degree to provide sufficient comparison. Inscriptions found in Scandinavia are considered to be in Proto-Norse. Several scholars argue about this subject matter. Wolfgang von Krause sees the language of the runic inscriptions of the Proto-Norse period as an immediate precursor to Old Norse, but Elmer Antonsen views them as Northwest Germanic.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One early difference shared by the West Germanic dialects is the monophthongization of unstressed diphthongs. Unstressed <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ai</i></span> became <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ē</i></span>, as in <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">haitē</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Kragehul_I" title="Kragehul I">Kragehul I</a>) from Proto-Germanic <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">haitai</i></span>, and unstressed <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">au</i></span> likewise became <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ō</i></span>. Characteristic is also the Proto-Norse lowering of Proto-Germanic stressed <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">ē</i></span> to <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ā</i></span>, which is demonstrated by the pair <a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a> <span title="Gothic-language text"><i lang="got-Latn">mēna</i></span> and Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">máni</i></span> (English <i>moon</i>). Proto-Norse thus differs from the early West Germanic dialects, as West Germanic <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ē</i></span> was lowered to <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ā</i></span> regardless of stress; in Old Norse, earlier unstressed <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ē</i></span> surfaces as <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">i</i></span>. For example, the weak third-person singular past tense ending <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">-dē</i></span> appears in Old High German as <span title="Old High German (ca. 750-1050)-language text"><i lang="goh">-t<b>a</b></i></span>, with a low vowel, but in Old Norse as <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">-ð<b>i</b></i></span>, with a high vowel. </p><p>The time that <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">z</i></span>, a voiced apical alveolar fricative, represented in runic writing by the <a href="/wiki/Algiz" title="Algiz">algiz</a> rune, changed to <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ʀ</i></span>, an apical post-alveolar approximant, is debated. If the general Proto-Norse principle of devoicing of consonants in final position is taken into account, <span title="Proto-Germanic-language text">*<i lang="gem">z</i></span>, if retained, would have been devoiced to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>]</span> and would be spelled as such in runes. There is, however, no trace of that in the Elder Futhark runic inscriptions, so it can be safely assumed that the quality of this consonant must have changed before the devoicing, or the phoneme would not have been marked with a rune different from the <a href="/wiki/Sowil%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Sowilō">sowilō</a> rune used for <i>s</i>. The quality of the consonant can be conjectured, and the general opinion is that it was something between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>]</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>]</span>, the Old Norse reflex of the sound. In Old Swedish, the phonemic distinction between <i>r</i> and <i>ʀ</i> was retained into the 11th century, as shown by the numerous runestones from Sweden from then. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Norse_to_Old_Norse">Proto-Norse to Old Norse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Proto-Norse to Old Norse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 500 to 800, two great changes occurred within Proto-Norse. <a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Umlauts</a> appeared, which means that a vowel was influenced by the succeeding vowel or semivowel: Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gestr" class="extiw" title="wikt:gestr">gestr</a></i></span> (guest) came from PN <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">gastiz</i></span> (guest). Another sound change is known as <a href="/wiki/Vowel_breaking" title="Vowel breaking">vowel breaking</a> in which the vowel changed into a <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthong</a>: <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">hjarta</i></span> from *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">hertō</i></span> or <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">fjǫrðr</i></span> from *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">ferþuz</i></span>. </p><p>Umlauts resulted in the appearance of the new vowels <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">y</i></span> (like <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fylla" class="extiw" title="wikt:fylla">fylla</a></i></span> from *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">fullijaną</i></span>) and <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">œ</i></span> (like <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C5%93ma" class="extiw" title="wikt:dœma">dœma</a></i></span> from *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">dōmijaną</i></span>). The umlauts are divided into three categories: <i>a</i>-umlaut, <i>i</i>-umlaut and <i>u</i>-umlaut; the last was still productive in Old Norse. The first, however, appeared very early, and its effect can be seen already around 500, on the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horns_of_Gallehus" title="Golden Horns of Gallehus">Golden Horns of Gallehus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The variation caused by the umlauts was itself no great disruption in the language. It merely introduced new <a href="/wiki/Allophone" title="Allophone">allophones</a> of <a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back vowels</a> if certain vowels were in following syllables. However, the changes brought forth by <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonology)" title="Syncope (phonology)">syncope</a> made the umlaut-vowels a distinctive non-transparent feature of the morphology and phonology, phonemicising what were previously allophones. </p><p>Syncope shortened the long vowels of unstressed syllables; many shortened vowels were lost. Also, most short unstressed vowels were lost. As in PN, the stress accent lay on the first syllable words as PN *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">katilōz</i></span> became ON <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">katlar</i></span> (cauldrons), PN <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">horną</i></span> was changed into Old Norse <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">horn</i></span> (horn) and PN <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">gastiz</i></span> resulted in ON <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">gestr</i></span> (guest). Some words underwent even more drastic changes, like *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">habukaz</i></span> which changed into ON <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">haukr</i></span> (hawk). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKristensen1902" class="citation journal cs1">Kristensen, Marius (1 January 1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1791845">"Kock A. Die alt- und neuschwedische Akzentuierung· unter Berücksichtigung der andern nordischen Sprachen"</a>. <i>Indogermanische Forschungen</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 54–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fif-1902-0130">10.1515/if-1902-0130</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1613-0405">1613-0405</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170224007">170224007</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210817042632/https://zenodo.org/record/1791845">Archived</a> from the original on 17 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The Origin of Scandinavian Tone Accents". <i>Diachronica</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 63–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1075%2Fdia.15.1.04ria">10.1075/dia.15.1.04ria</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0176-4225">0176-4225</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diachronica&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Scandinavian+Tone+Accents&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-98&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1075%2Fdia.15.1.04ria&rft.issn=0176-4225&rft.aulast=Riad&rft.aufirst=Tomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKristoffersen2004" class="citation web cs1">Kristoffersen, Gjert (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110717233112/http://helmer.hit.uib.no/NTT/Cascais/0404ManusCascaisRevised.htm">"The development of tonal dialects in the Scandinavian languages. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+development+of+tonal+dialects+in+the+Scandinavian+languages.+Analysis+based+on+presentation+at+ESF-workshop+%27Typology+of+Tone+and+Intonation%27&rft.place=Cascais%2C+Portugal&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Kristoffersen&rft.aufirst=Gjert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhelmer.hit.uib.no%2FNTT%2FCascais%2F0404ManusCascaisRevised.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elstad, Kåre, 1980: Some Remarks on Scandinavian Tonogenesis. I: Nordlyd: Tromsø University Working Papers on Language and Linguistics 3. 61–77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÖhman1967" class="citation book cs1">Öhman, Sven (1967). <i>Word and sentence intonation : a quantitative model</i>. Speech Transmission Laboratory, Dept. of Speech Communication, Royal Institute of Technology. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/825888933">825888933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Word+and+sentence+intonation+%3A+a+quantitative+model&rft.pub=Speech+Transmission+Laboratory%2C+Dept.+of+Speech+Communication%2C+Royal+Institute+of+Technology&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F825888933&rft.aulast=%C3%96hman&rft.aufirst=Sven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBye2004" class="citation web cs1">Bye, Patrick (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080410051839/http://www.hum.uit.no/a/bye/Papers/pitch-accent-kluw.pdf">"Evolutionary typology and Scandinavian pitch accent"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>hum.uit.no</i>. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hum.uit.no/a/bye/Papers/pitch-accent-kluw.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 10 April 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=hum.uit.no&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+typology+and+Scandinavian+pitch+accent&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Bye&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hum.uit.no%2Fa%2Fbye%2FPapers%2Fpitch-accent-kluw.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheil2012" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Theil, Rolf (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/8439830">"Urnordiske lån i samisk"</a>. In Askedal, John Ole; Schmidt, Tom; Theil, Rolf (eds.). <i>Germansk filologi og norske ord. Festskrift til Harald Bjorvand på 70-årsdagen den 30. juli 2012</i> (in Norwegian). Oslo: Novus forlag. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818051732/https://www.academia.edu/8439830">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Urnordiske+l%C3%A5n+i+samisk&rft.btitle=Germansk+filologi+og+norske+ord.+Festskrift+til+Harald+Bjorvand+p%C3%A5+70-%C3%A5rsdagen+den+30.+juli+2012&rft.place=Oslo&rft.pub=Novus+forlag&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Theil&rft.aufirst=Rolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F8439830&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAikio2012" class="citation journal cs1">Aikio, Ante (2012). Grünthal, Riho; Kallio, Petri (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust266/sust266_aikio.pdf">"An Essay on Saami Ethnolinguistic Prehistory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne</i> (266, A Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe). Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society: 76. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201031225218/https://www.sgr.fi/sust/sust266/sust266_aikio.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 31 October 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=M%C3%A9moires+de+la+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+Finno-Ougrienne&rft.atitle=An+Essay+on+Saami+Ethnolinguistic+Prehistory&rft.issue=266%2C+A+Linguistic+Map+of+Prehistoric+Northern+Europe&rft.pages=76&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Aikio&rft.aufirst=Ante&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sgr.fi%2Fsust%2Fsust266%2Fsust266_aikio.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDüwelNowak1998" class="citation book cs1">Düwel, Klaus; Nowak, Sean (1998). <i>Runeninschriften als Quellen interdisziplinärer Forschung : Abhandlungen des Vierten Internationalen Symposiums über Runen und Runeninschriften in Göttingen; Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on Runes and Runic Inscriptions in Göttingen, 4–9 August 1995</i>. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-015455-2" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-015455-2"><bdi>3-11-015455-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40365383">40365383</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Runeninschriften+als+Quellen+interdisziplin%C3%A4rer+Forschung+%3A+Abhandlungen+des+Vierten+Internationalen+Symposiums+%C3%BCber+Runen+und+Runeninschriften+in+G%C3%B6ttingen%3B+Proceedings+of+the+Fourth+International+Symposium+on+Runes+and+Runic+Inscriptions+in+G%C3%B6ttingen%2C+4%E2%80%939+August+1995&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40365383&rft.isbn=3-11-015455-2&rft.aulast=D%C3%BCwel&rft.aufirst=Klaus&rft.au=Nowak%2C+Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpurkland2005" class="citation book cs1">Spurkland, Terje (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1QDKqY-NWvUC"><i>Norwegian Runes and Runic Inscriptions</i></a>. Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-186-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-186-0"><bdi>978-1-84383-186-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230809085731/https://books.google.com/books?id=1QDKqY-NWvUC">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Norwegian+Runes+and+Runic+Inscriptions&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-186-0&rft.aulast=Spurkland&rft.aufirst=Terje&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1QDKqY-NWvUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Norse+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Michael Schulte: <i>Urnordisch. Eine Einführung</i> (2018). Praesens Verlag, Wien. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3706909518" title="Special:BookSources/978-3706909518">978-3706909518</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061006014953/http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~marisal/ie/ngmc.html">General information</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iki.fi/jschalin/?cat=4">Proto-Norse paradigms and links</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220116052128/http://www.iki.fi/jschalin/?cat=4">Archived</a> 16 January 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161201080143/http://tcoimom.suntuubi.com/?cat=4">archived copy</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Germanic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Germanic_languages" title="Template talk:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Germanic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Germanic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>According to contemporary <a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">philology</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="West" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Frisian_languages" title="Anglo-Frisian languages">Anglo-Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anglic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglic languages">Anglic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">dialects</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" title="Early Modern English">Early Modern English</a></i></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i>Irish Middle English</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fingallian" title="Fingallian">Fingallian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kildare_Poems#Linguistic_features" title="Kildare Poems">Kildare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yola_dialect" title="Yola dialect">Yola</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Scots" title="Early Scots">Early Scots</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Scots" title="Middle Scots">Middle Scots</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Frisian" title="Middle Frisian">Middle Frisian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_language" title="East Frisian language">East Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Ems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saterland_Frisian_language" title="Saterland Frisian language">Saterland Frisian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Weser</i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wangerooge_Frisian" title="Wangerooge Frisian">Wangerooge Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wursten_Frisian" title="Wursten Frisian">Wursten Frisian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harlingerland_Frisian" title="Harlingerland Frisian">Harlingerland Frisian</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Frisian_language" title="North Frisian language">North Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insular <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eiderstedt_Frisian" title="Eiderstedt Frisian">Eiderstedt</a></i></li> <li>Föhr–Amrum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6hr_North_Frisian" title="Föhr North Frisian">Föhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amrum_North_Frisian" title="Amrum North Frisian">Amrum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heligoland_Frisian" title="Heligoland Frisian">Heligolandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylt_North_Frisian" title="Sylt North Frisian">Sylt</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mainland <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B6kingharde_North_Frisian" title="Bökingharde North Frisian">Bökingharde</a> <ul><li>Mooring</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halligen_Frisian" title="Halligen Frisian">Halligen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goesharde_Frisian" title="Goesharde Frisian">Goesharde</a> <ul><li>Northern</li> <li>Central</li> <li><i>Southern</i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karrharde_Frisian" title="Karrharde Frisian">Karrharde</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Strand_Frisian" title="Strand Frisian">Strand</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiedingharde_Frisian" title="Wiedingharde Frisian">Wiedingharde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_languages" title="West Frisian languages">West Frisian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindeloopen_Frisian" title="Hindeloopen Frisian">Hindeloopen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schiermonnikoog_Frisian" title="Schiermonnikoog Frisian">Schiermonnikoog</a></li> <li>Westlauwers–Terschellings <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">Mainland West Frisian</a> <ul><li>Clay Frisian</li> <li>Wood Frisian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Westereendersk" title="Westereendersk">Westereendersk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terschelling_Frisian" title="Terschelling Frisian">Terschelling</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_German" title="Low German">Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Low_German" title="Middle Low German">Middle Low German</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Low_German" class="mw-redirect" title="West Low German">West Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxon" title="Dutch Low Saxon">Dutch Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellingwarfs_dialect" title="Stellingwarfs dialect">Stellingwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tweants_dialect" title="Tweants dialect">Tweants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gronings_dialect" title="Gronings dialect">Gronings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A8ents_dialects" title="Drèents dialects">Drèents</a></li> <li>Gelders-Overijssels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achterhooks" title="Achterhooks">Achterhooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallaans_dialect" title="Sallaans dialect">Sallaans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkers_dialect" title="Urkers dialect">Urkers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veluws_dialect" title="Veluws dialect">Veluws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Low_Saxon" title="Northern Low Saxon">Northern Low Saxon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Frisian_Low_Saxon" title="East Frisian Low Saxon">East Frisian Low Saxon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastphalian_language" title="Eastphalian language">Eastphalian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westphalian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Westphalian language">Westphalian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Low_German" title="East Low German">East Low German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch_dialect" title="Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch dialect">Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandenburgisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandenburgisch dialect">Brandenburgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Central_Pomeranian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Central Pomeranian (page does not exist)">Central Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Pomeranian" class="mw-redirect" title="East Pomeranian">East Pomeranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Prussian_dialect" title="Low Prussian dialect">Low Prussian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plautdietsch" title="Plautdietsch">Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Low_Franconian" title="Low Franconian">Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_language" title="Frankish language">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dutch" title="Old Dutch">Old Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dutch" title="Middle Dutch">Middle Dutch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">Standard variants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaaps" title="Kaaps">Kaaps</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West Low Franconian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Dutch_dialects" title="Central Dutch dialects">Central Dutch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hollandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hollandic dialect">Hollandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Flemish" title="West Flemish">West Flemish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_Flemish" title="French Flemish">French Flemish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeelandic" title="Zeelandic">Zeelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Flemish" title="East Flemish">East Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brabantian_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Brabantian dialect">Brabantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleverlandish" title="Kleverlandish">Kleverlandish</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surinamese_Dutch" title="Surinamese Dutch">Surinamese Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch_language" title="Jersey Dutch language">Jersey Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_Dutch" title="Mohawk Dutch">Mohawk Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stadsfries_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Stadsfries dialects">Stadsfries</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bildts" title="Bildts">Bildts</a>/<a href="/wiki/Amelands" title="Amelands">Amelands</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=Midslands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Midslands (page does not exist)">Midslands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Low_Franconian" title="South Low Franconian">East Low Franconian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limburgish" title="Limburgish">Limburgish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cover groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergish_dialects" title="Bergish dialects">Bergish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meuse-Rhenish" title="Meuse-Rhenish">Meuse-Rhenish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_German_languages" title="High German languages">High German</a> <br /> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_High_German" title="New High German">New High German</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_New_High_German" title="Early New High German">Early New High German</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Standard_German" title="German Standard German">German Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_German" title="Austrian German">Austrian Standard German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Standard_German" title="Swiss Standard German">Swiss Standard German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-<a href="/wiki/Standard_language" title="Standard language">standard variants</a><br /> and <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Namibian German">Namibian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Black_German" title="Namibian Black German">Namibian Black German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_German" title="Berlin German">Berlinerisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unserdeutsch" title="Unserdeutsch">Unserdeutsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barossa_German" title="Barossa German">Barossa German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotwelsch" title="Rotwelsch">Rotwelsch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yenish_language" title="Yenish language">Yenish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Eastern_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects#Western_Yiddish" title="Yiddish dialects">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Scotland#"Scots-Yiddish"" title="History of the Jews in Scotland">Scots Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Central_German" title="Central German">Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/West_Central_German" title="West Central German">West Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Franconian_languages" title="Central Franconian languages">Central Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ripuarian_language" title="Ripuarian language">Ripuarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colognian_dialect" title="Colognian dialect">Colognian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Limburgish_dialect" title="Southeast Limburgish dialect">Southeast Limburgish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moselle_Franconian_language" title="Moselle Franconian language">Moselle Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish" title="Luxembourgish">Luxembourgish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transylvanian_Saxon_dialect" title="Transylvanian Saxon dialect">Transylvanian Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunsr%C3%BCckisch_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hunsrückisch dialect">Hunsrückisch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunsrik" title="Hunsrik">Hunsrik</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhenish_Franconian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhenish Franconian languages">Rhine Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Franconian" title="Lorraine Franconian">Lorraine Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_German_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatine German language">Palatine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans#Language" title="Volga Germans">Volga German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Dutch_language" title="Pennsylvania Dutch language">Pennsylvania Dutch</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hessian_dialects" title="Hessian dialects">Hessian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Hessian" title="Central Hessian">Central Hessian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amana_German" title="Amana German">Amana German</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/East_Central_German" title="East Central German">East Central German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thuringian_dialect" title="Thuringian dialect">Thuringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Saxon_German" title="Upper Saxon German">Upper Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzgebirgisch" title="Erzgebirgisch">Erzgebirgisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_dialects" title="Lusatian dialects">Lusatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_German" title="Silesian German">Silesian German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Prussian_dialect" title="High Prussian dialect">High Prussian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wymysorys_language" title="Wymysorys language">Wymysorys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alzenau_dialect" title="Alzenau dialect">Halcnovian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_German" title="Upper German">Upper German</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alemannic_German" title="Alemannic German">Alemannic</a> in the broad sense <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_Alemannic_German" title="Low Alemannic German">Low Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_Tovar_dialect" title="Colonia Tovar dialect">Coloniero</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Alemannic_German" title="High Alemannic German">High Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_German" title="Swiss German">Swiss German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highest_Alemannic_German" title="Highest Alemannic German">Highest Alemannic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Walser_German" title="Walser German">Walser German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swabian_German" title="Swabian German">Swabian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_language" title="Bavarian language">Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Bavarian" title="Northern Bavarian">Northern Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bavarian" title="Central Bavarian">Central Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viennese_German" title="Viennese German">Viennese German</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Bavarian" title="Southern Bavarian">Southern Bavarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Tyrolean_dialect" title="South Tyrolean dialect">South Tyrolean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimbrian_language" title="Cimbrian language">Cimbrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B2cheno_language" title="Mòcheno language">Mòcheno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterite_German" title="Hutterite German">Hutterite German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottscheerish" title="Gottscheerish">Gottscheerish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Franconian_German" title="South Franconian German">South Franconian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Franconian_German" title="East Franconian German">East Franconian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vogtlandian" title="Vogtlandian">Vogtlandian</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lombardic_language" title="Lombardic language">Langobardic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_and_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></i> <ul><li><i>Old West Norse</i></li> <li><i>Old East Norse</i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Gutnish" title="Old Gutnish">Old Gutnish</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">West</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_language" title="Norwegian language">Norwegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bergensk" title="Bergensk">Bergensk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebabnorsk" title="Kebabnorsk">Kebabnorsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sognam%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Sognamål dialect">Sognamål</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%B8ndersk" title="Trøndersk">Trøndersk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallingm%C3%A5l-Valdris" title="Hallingmål-Valdris">Valdris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestlandsk" title="Vestlandsk">Vestlandsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikv%C3%A6rsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Vikværsk">Vikværsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokm%C3%A5l" title="Bokmål">Bokmål</a> (written)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nynorsk" title="Nynorsk">Nynorsk</a> (written)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norwegian" title="Old Norwegian">Old Norwegian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Norwegian" title="Middle Norwegian">Middle Norwegian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_language" title="Faroese language">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse#Old_Icelandic" title="Old Norse">Old Icelandic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Icelandic#Middle_Icelandic_(1350–1550)" title="History of Icelandic">Middle Icelandic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Norse" title="Greenlandic Norse">Greenlandic Norse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Norn_language" title="Norn language">Norn</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinkeby_Swedish" title="Rinkeby Swedish">Rinkebysvenska</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Danish" title="Insular Danish">Insular Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jutlandic_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Jutlandic dialect">Jutlandic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Jutlandic" title="South Jutlandic">South Jutlandic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Danish" title="East Danish">East Danish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bornholm_dialect" title="Bornholm dialect">Bornholmsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanian_dialect" title="Scanian dialect">Scanian</a> (historically)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Schleswig_Danish" title="Southern Schleswig Danish">Southern Schleswig Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B8tudanskt_accent" title="Gøtudanskt accent">Gøtudanskt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perkerdansk" title="Perkerdansk">Perkerdansk</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Old Danish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Danish" title="History of Danish">Middle Danish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Dalecarlian language">Dalecarlian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elfdalian" title="Elfdalian">Elfdalian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Gutnish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gutnish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutnish language">Mainland Gutnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6m%C3%A5l_dialect" title="Fårömål dialect">Fårö Gutnish</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gothic_language" title="Gothic language">Gothic</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Gothic" title="Crimean Gothic">Crimean Gothic</a></i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Burgundians#Language" title="Burgundians">Burgundian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vandalic_language" title="Vandalic language">Vandalic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Philology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_philology" title="Germanic philology">Philology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Maurer_(linguist)" title="Friedrich Maurer (linguist)">Language subgroups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elbe_Germanic" title="Elbe Germanic">Elbe (Irminonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weser-Rhine_Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Weser-Rhine Germanic">Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Germanic" title="North Sea Germanic">North Sea (Ingvaeonic)</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Germanic" title="Northwest Germanic">Northwest</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gotho-Nordic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotho-Nordic">Gotho-Nordic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Germanic" title="South Germanic">South</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_grammar" title="Proto-Germanic grammar">Proto-Germanic grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_parent_language" title="Germanic parent language">Germanic parent language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diachronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verner%27s_law" title="Verner's law">Verner's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holtzmann%27s_law" title="Holtzmann's law">Holtzmann's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievers%27s_law" title="Sievers's law">Sievers's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kluge%27s_law" title="Kluge's law">Kluge's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Germanic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_gemination" title="West Germanic gemination">West Germanic gemination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_a-mutation" title="Germanic a-mutation">Germanic a-mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_umlaut" title="Germanic umlaut">Germanic umlaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_spirant_law" title="Germanic spirant law">Germanic spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingvaeonic_nasal_spirant_law" title="Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law">Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Vowel_Shift" title="Great Vowel Shift">Great Vowel Shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Synchronic features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Germanic verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammatischer_Wechsel" title="Grammatischer Wechsel">Grammatischer Wechsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Indo-European ablaut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&oldid=1258942138">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proto-Norse_language&oldid=1258942138</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:North_Germanic_languages" title="Category:North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Proto-Norse_language" title="Category:Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Prehistoric_Scandinavia" title="Category:Prehistoric Scandinavia">Prehistoric Scandinavia</a></li><li><a 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title="Category:Languages without ISO 639-3 code but with Glottolog code">Languages without ISO 639-3 code but with Glottolog code</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_articles_with_unreferenced_extinction_date" title="Category:Language articles with unreferenced extinction date">Language articles with unreferenced extinction date</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_plain_IPA" title="Category:Pages with plain IPA">Pages with plain IPA</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Old_Norse-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Old Norse-language text">Articles containing Old Norse-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Norwegian-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Norwegian-language text">Articles containing Norwegian-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Swedish-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Swedish-language text">Articles containing 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