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id="toc-Signs_and_symptoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acute_poisoning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acute_poisoning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Acute poisoning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acute_poisoning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronic_poisoning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronic_poisoning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Chronic poisoning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronic_poisoning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Effects on children </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_organ_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_organ_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 By organ system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_organ_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kidneys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kidneys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Kidneys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kidneys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cardiovascular_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardiovascular_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Cardiovascular system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardiovascular_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproductive_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproductive_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Reproductive system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproductive_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nervous_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nervous_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.4 Nervous system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nervous_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure_routes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure_routes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Exposure routes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Exposure_routes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Exposure routes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Exposure_routes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Occupational_exposure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupational_exposure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Occupational exposure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupational_exposure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Food </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cannabis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cannabis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Cannabis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cannabis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paint" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paint"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Paint </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paint-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Soil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Water </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gasoline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gasoline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Gasoline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gasoline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lead-containing_products" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lead-containing_products"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Lead-containing products </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lead-containing_products-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bullets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bullets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Bullets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bullets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Opium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicokinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicokinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Toxicokinetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxicokinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toxicodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxicodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Toxicodynamics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Toxicodynamics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Toxicodynamics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Toxicodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Enzymes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enzymes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Enzymes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enzymes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Neurons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reference_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Reference levels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Prevention </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prevention subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Screening" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Screening"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Screening </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Screening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Treatment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Epidemiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Epidemiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notable_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notable cases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex-specific_susceptibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex-specific_susceptibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Sex-specific susceptibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex-specific_susceptibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prognosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prognosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Prognosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Prognosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Prognosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reversibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reversibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Reversibility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reversibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encephalopathy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encephalopathy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Encephalopathy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encephalopathy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Long-term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Long-term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Violence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Other species </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_species-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other species subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wildlife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildlife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Wildlife </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildlife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Lead poisoning</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" > 43 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%85_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%B5" title="تسمم بالرصاص – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تسمم بالرصاص" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Атручванне свінцом – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Атручванне свінцом" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Сатурнизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сатурнизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otrovanje_olovom" title="Otrovanje olovom – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Otrovanje olovom" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnisme" title="Saturnisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Saturnisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blyforgiftning" title="Blyforgiftning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Blyforgiftning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleivergiftung" title="Bleivergiftung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bleivergiftung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnismo" title="Saturnismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Saturnismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbovenenado" title="Plumbovenenado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Plumbovenenado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnismo" title="Saturnismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Saturnismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%A8" title="مسمومیت با سرب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مسمومیت با سرب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnisme" title="Saturnisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Saturnisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimhi%C3%BA_luaidhe" title="Nimhiú luaidhe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Nimhiú luaidhe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%82%A9_%EC%A4%91%EB%8F%85" title="납 중독 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="납 중독" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BE_%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Կապարով թունավորում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կապարով թունավորում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8" title="सीस विषाक्ततन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सीस विषाक्ततन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keracunan_timbal" title="Keracunan timbal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keracunan timbal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%BDeitrun" title="Blýeitrun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Blýeitrun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturnismo" title="Saturnismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Saturnismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%AA" title="הרעלת עופרת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הרעלת עופרת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%A6_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86" title="ಸೀಸದ ವಿಷವೇರಿಕೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೀಸದ ವಿಷವೇರಿಕೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Сатурнизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сатурнизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Poisoning caused by lead in the body</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Lead poisoning</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Plumbism, colica pictorum, saturnism, <a href="/wiki/Devon_colic" title="Devon colic">Devon colic</a>, painter's colic</td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_PoisoningRadio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lead_PoisoningRadio.jpg/220px-Lead_PoisoningRadio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="412" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Lead_PoisoningRadio.jpg/330px-Lead_PoisoningRadio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Lead_PoisoningRadio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="731" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">An X-ray demonstrating the characteristic finding of lead poisoning in humans—dense <a href="/wiki/Metaphyseal" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphyseal">metaphyseal</a> lines</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">Intellectual disability</a>, abdominal pain, <a href="/wiki/Constipation" title="Constipation">constipation</a>, headaches, irritability, memory problems, <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">inability to have children</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">tingling</a> in the hands and feet<a href="#cite_note-CDC2013Sym-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">Anemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2013Sym-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data">Exposure to <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> via contaminated air, water, dust, food, consumer products<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Young age, <a href="/wiki/Pica_(disorder)" title="Pica (disorder)">pica</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Blood_lead_level" title="Blood lead level">Blood lead level</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">Differential diagnosis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron deficiency anemia">Iron deficiency anemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malabsorption" title="Malabsorption">malabsorption</a>, <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anxiety_disorder" title="Anxiety disorder">anxiety disorder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyneuropathy" title="Polyneuropathy">polyneuropathy</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prevention</th><td class="infobox-data">Removing lead from the home, improved monitoring and education in the workplace, laws that ban lead in products<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-CDC2016Prev-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a><a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dimercaprol" title="Dimercaprol">Dimercaprol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edetate_calcium_disodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Edetate calcium disodium">edetate calcium disodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Succimer" title="Succimer">succimer</a><a href="#cite_note-Gra2007-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data">540,000 (2016)<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Lead poisoning, also known as plumbism and saturnism, is a type of <a href="/wiki/Metal_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal poisoning">metal poisoning</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> in the body.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> Symptoms may include abdominal pain, <a href="/wiki/Constipation" title="Constipation">constipation</a>, headaches, irritability, memory problems, <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">tingling</a> in the hands and feet.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2013Sym-1">[1]</a> It causes almost 10% of <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a> of otherwise unknown cause and can result in behavioral problems.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> Some of the effects are permanent.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> In severe cases, <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coma" title="Coma">coma</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> may occur.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2013Sym-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> Exposure to lead can occur by contaminated air, water, dust, food, or consumer products.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> Lead poisoning poses a significantly increased risk to children as they are far more likely to ingest lead indirectly by chewing on toys or other objects that are coated in <a href="/wiki/Lead_paint" title="Lead paint">lead paint</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> Additionally, children absorb greater quantities of lead from ingested sources than adults. Exposure at work is a common cause of lead poisoning in adults with certain occupations at particular risk.<a href="#cite_note-Gra2007-7">[7]</a> Diagnosis is typically by measurement of the <a href="/wiki/Blood_lead_level" title="Blood lead level">blood lead level</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (US) has set the upper limit for blood lead for adults at 10 μg/dL (10 μg/100 g) and for children at 3.5 μg/dL;<a href="#cite_note-CDC2021-8">[8]</a> before October 2021 the limit was 5 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Elevated lead may also be detected by changes in <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> or dense lines in the bones of children as seen on <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a> Lead poisoning is preventable.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> This includes individual efforts such as removing lead-containing items from the home,<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> workplace efforts such as improved ventilation and monitoring,<a href="#cite_note-CDC2016Prev-6">[6]</a> state and national policies that ban lead in products such as paint, gasoline, ammunition, wheel weights, and fishing weights, reduce allowable levels in water or soil, and provide for cleanup of contaminated soil.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a> Workers' education could be helpful as well.<a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> The major treatments are removal of the source of lead and the use of medications that bind lead so it can be <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">eliminated from the body</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">chelation therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a> Chelation therapy in children is recommended when blood levels are greater than 40–45 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Medications used include <a href="/wiki/Dimercaprol" title="Dimercaprol">dimercaprol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edetate_calcium_disodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Edetate calcium disodium">edetate calcium disodium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Succimer" title="Succimer">succimer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gra2007-7">[7]</a> In 2013, lead is believed to have resulted in 853,000 deaths worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> It occurs most commonly in the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> There also are numerous cases in the developed world, with there being thousands of American communities with higher lead burdens than seen during the peak of the <a href="/wiki/Flint_water_crisis" title="Flint water crisis">Flint water crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Those who are poor are at greater risk.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a> Lead is believed to result in 0.6% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">disease burden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> According to a study, half of the US population has been exposed to substantially detrimental lead levels in early childhood – mainly from car exhaust, from which lead pollution peaked in the 1970s and caused widespread loss in cognitive ability.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">globalize</a>] People have been mining and using lead for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a> Descriptions of lead poisoning date to at least 200 BC,<a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a> while efforts to limit lead's use date back to at least the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> Concerns for low levels of exposure began in the 1970s with there being no safe threshold for lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2016-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dap2014-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-NeedlemanDentineLead-16">[16]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> Classically, "lead poisoning" or "lead intoxication" has been defined as exposure to high levels of lead typically associated with severe health effects.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-785-17">[17]</a> Poisoning is a pattern of symptoms that occur with toxic effects from mid to high levels of exposure; toxicity is a wider spectrum of effects, including <a href="/wiki/Subclinical" class="mw-redirect" title="Subclinical">subclinical</a> ones (those that do not cause symptoms).<a href="#cite_note-Guidotti07-PedClin-18">[18]</a> However, professionals often use "lead poisoning" and "lead toxicity" interchangeably, and official sources do not always restrict the use of "lead poisoning" to refer only to symptomatic effects of lead.<a href="#cite_note-Guidotti07-PedClin-18">[18]</a> The amount of lead in the blood and tissues, as well as the time course of exposure, determine toxicity.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson03-19">[19]</a> Lead poisoning may be acute (from intense exposure of short duration) or chronic (from repeat low-level exposure over a prolonged period), but the latter is much more common.<a href="#cite_note-Trevor07-479-20">[20]</a> Diagnosis and treatment of lead exposure are based on blood lead level (the amount of lead in the blood), measured in <a href="/wiki/Microgram" title="Microgram">micrograms</a> of lead per <a href="/wiki/Deciliter" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciliter">deciliter</a> of blood (μg/dL). Urine lead levels may be used as well, though less commonly. In cases of chronic exposure, lead often sequesters in the highest concentrations first in the bones, then in the kidneys. If a provider is performing a provocative excretion test, or "chelation challenge", a measurement obtained from urine rather than blood is likely to provide a more accurate representation of total lead burden to a skilled interpreter.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-21">[21]</a> The US <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> state that a blood lead level of 10 μg/dL or above is a cause for concern; however, lead may impair development and have harmful health effects even at lower levels, and there is no known safe exposure level.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barbosa-23">[23]</a> Authorities such as the American Academy of Pediatrics define lead poisoning as blood lead levels higher than 10 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Ragan09-JAAPA-24">[24]</a> Lead forms a variety of compounds and exists in the environment in various forms.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-761-25">[25]</a> Features of poisoning differ depending on whether the agent is an <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a> (one that contains carbon), or an <a href="/wiki/Inorganic" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic">inorganic</a> one.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> Organic lead poisoning is now very rare, because countries across the world have phased out the use of organic <a href="/wiki/Gasoline#Tetraethyl_lead" title="Gasoline">lead compounds as gasoline additives</a>, but such compounds are still used in industrial settings.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> Organic lead compounds, which cross the skin and respiratory tract easily, affect the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> predominantly.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_(raster).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png/290px-Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="450" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png/435px-Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png/580px-Symptoms_of_lead_poisoning_%28raster%29.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3883" /></a><figcaption>Symptoms of lead poisoning</figcaption></figure> Lead poisoning can cause a variety of <a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_sign" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical sign">signs</a> which vary depending on the individual and the duration of lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-825-28">[28]</a> Symptoms are nonspecific and may be subtle, and someone with elevated lead levels may have no symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-463-29">[29]</a> Symptoms usually develop over weeks to months as lead builds up in the body during a chronic exposure, but acute symptoms from brief, intense exposures also occur.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> Symptoms from exposure to organic lead, which is probably more toxic than inorganic lead due to its lipid solubility, occur rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-Timbrell08-31">[31]</a> Poisoning by organic lead compounds has symptoms predominantly in the central nervous system, such as <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_deficit" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive deficit">cognitive deficits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tremor" title="Tremor">tremor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hallucinations" class="mw-redirect" title="Hallucinations">hallucinations</a>, and convulsions.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> Symptoms may be different in adults and children; the main symptoms in adults are headache, <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_pain" title="Abdominal pain">abdominal pain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memory_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory loss">memory loss</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>, male reproductive problems, and weakness, pain, or tingling in the extremities.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> Early symptoms of lead poisoning in adults are commonly nonspecific and include depression, loss of appetite, intermittent abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, and <a href="/wiki/Myalgia" title="Myalgia">muscle pain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Merrill07-33">[33]</a> Other early signs in adults include <a href="/wiki/Malaise" title="Malaise">malaise</a>, fatigue, decreased <a href="/wiki/Libido" title="Libido">libido</a>, and problems with sleep.<a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a> An unusual taste in the mouth and personality changes are also early signs.<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In adults, symptoms can occur at levels above 40 μg/dL, but are more likely to occur only above 50–60 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a> Symptoms begin to appear in children generally at around 60 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> However, the lead levels at which symptoms appear vary widely depending on unknown characteristics of each individual.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger04-Pedi-36">[36]</a> At blood lead levels between 25 and 60 μg/dL, <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychiatric" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropsychiatric">neuropsychiatric</a> effects such as delayed <a href="/wiki/Reaction_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction time">reaction times</a>, irritability, and difficulty concentrating, as well as slowed <a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">motor nerve</a> conduction and headache can occur.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-240-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">Anemia</a> may appear at blood lead levels higher than 50 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Merrill07-33">[33]</a> In adults, abdominal <a href="/wiki/Colic" title="Colic">colic</a>, involving <a href="/wiki/Paroxysmal_attack" title="Paroxysmal attack">paroxysms</a> of pain, may appear at blood lead levels greater than 80 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-825-28">[28]</a> Signs that occur in adults at blood lead levels exceeding 100 μg/dL include <a href="/wiki/Wrist_drop" title="Wrist drop">wrist drop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foot_drop" title="Foot drop">foot drop</a>, and signs of <a href="/wiki/Encephalopathy" title="Encephalopathy">encephalopathy</a> (a condition characterized by <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_edema" title="Cerebral edema">brain swelling</a>), such as those that accompany increased <a href="/wiki/Intracranial_pressure" title="Intracranial pressure">pressure within the skull</a>, delirium, coma, <a href="/wiki/Seizures" class="mw-redirect" title="Seizures">seizures</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Headache" title="Headache">headache</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig061314-38">[38]</a> In children, signs of encephalopathy such as bizarre behavior, discoordination, and apathy occur at lead levels exceeding 70 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig061314-38">[38]</a> For both adults and children, it is rare to be asymptomatic if blood lead levels exceed 100 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-825-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acute_poisoning">Acute poisoning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Acute poisoning">edit</a>]</div> In acute poisoning, typical neurological signs are pain, muscle weakness, <a href="/wiki/Paresthesia" title="Paresthesia">numbness and tingling</a>, and, rarely, symptoms associated with <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">inflammation of the brain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation are other acute symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> Lead's effects on the mouth include <a href="/wiki/Astringent" title="Astringent">astringency</a> and a metallic taste.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal problem">Gastrointestinal problems</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Constipation" title="Constipation">constipation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poor_appetite" class="mw-redirect" title="Poor appetite">poor appetite</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a>, are common in acute poisoning. Absorption of large amounts of lead over a short time can cause <a href="/wiki/Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">shock</a> (insufficient fluid in the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a>) due to loss of water from the gastrointestinal tract.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hemolysis" title="Hemolysis">Hemolysis</a> (the rupture of <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Red blood cells">red blood cells</a>) due to acute poisoning can cause <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobinuria" title="Hemoglobinuria">hemoglobin in the urine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> Damage to kidneys can cause changes in urination such as acquired <a href="/wiki/Fanconi_syndrome" title="Fanconi syndrome">Fanconi syndrome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oliguria" title="Oliguria">decreased urine output</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> People who survive acute poisoning often go on to display symptoms of chronic poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronic_poisoning">Chronic poisoning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chronic poisoning">edit</a>]</div> Chronic poisoning usually presents with symptoms affecting multiple systems,<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> but is associated with three main types of symptoms: <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal">gastrointestinal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromuscular">neuromuscular</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neurological" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological">neurological</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">Central nervous system</a> and neuromuscular symptoms usually result from intense exposure, while gastrointestinal symptoms usually result from exposure over longer periods.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> Signs of chronic exposure include loss of <a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">short-term memory</a> or concentration, depression, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of coordination, and numbness and tingling in the extremities.<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source?</a>] Fatigue, problems with sleep, headaches, stupor, slurred speech, and anemia are also found in chronic lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> A "lead hue" of the skin with <a href="/wiki/Pallor" title="Pallor">pallor</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Lividity" class="mw-redirect" title="Lividity">lividity</a> is another feature.<a href="#cite_note-Andrews-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-El_SafouryAbd_El_Fatah2009-41">[41]</a> A blue line along the gum with bluish black edging to the teeth, known as a <a href="/wiki/Burton_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Burton line">Burton line</a>, is another indication of chronic lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Rambousek08-177-42">[42]</a> Children with chronic poisoning may refuse to play or may have <a href="/wiki/Hyperkinetic_disorder" title="Hyperkinetic disorder">hyperkinetic</a> or aggressive behavior disorders.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> Visual disturbance may present with gradually progressing blurred vision as a result of central <a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">scotoma</a>, caused by toxic <a href="/wiki/Optic_neuritis" title="Optic neuritis">optic neuritis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_children">Effects on children</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Effects on children">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fewer_US_kids_Have_High_Levels_of_Lead.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Fewer_US_kids_Have_High_Levels_of_Lead.svg/310px-Fewer_US_kids_Have_High_Levels_of_Lead.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Fewer_US_kids_Have_High_Levels_of_Lead.svg/465px-Fewer_US_kids_Have_High_Levels_of_Lead.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Fewer_US_kids_Have_High_Levels_of_Lead.svg/620px-Fewer_US_kids_Have_High_Levels_of_Lead.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>As lead safety standards become more stringent, fewer children in the US are found to have elevated lead levels.</figcaption></figure> A pregnant woman who has elevated blood lead levels is at greater risk of a premature birth or with a low birth weight.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Children are more at risk for lead poisoning because their smaller bodies are in a continuous state of growth and development.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2002-45">[45]</a> Young children are much more vulnerable to lead poisoning, as they absorb 4 to 5 times more lead than an adult from a given source.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Furthermore, children, especially as they are learning to crawl and walk, are constantly on the floor and therefore more prone to ingesting and inhaling dust that is contaminated with lead.<a href="#cite_note-Woolf07-PedClin-47">[47]</a> The classic signs and symptoms in children are loss of appetite, abdominal pain, vomiting, weight loss, constipation, anemia, kidney failure, irritability, lethargy, learning disabilities, and behavioral problems.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-48">[48]</a> Slow development of normal childhood behaviors, such as talking and use of words, and permanent <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a> are both commonly seen. Although less common, it is possible for fingernails to develop <a href="/wiki/Leukonychia#Leukonychia_striata" title="Leukonychia">leukonychia striata</a> if exposed to abnormally high lead concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> On July 30, 2020, a report by <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pure_Earth" title="Pure Earth">Pure Earth</a> revealed that lead poisoning is affecting children on a "massive and previously unknown scale". According to the report, one in three children, up to 800 million globally, have blood lead levels at or above 5 micrograms per decilitre (μg/dL), which is the commonly-accepted threshold beyond which action is required.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_organ_system">By organ system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: By organ system">edit</a>]</div> Lead affects every one of the body's organ systems, especially the nervous system, but also the bones and teeth, the kidneys, and the <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">cardiovascular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">reproductive systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-White07-52">[52]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tooth_decay" title="Tooth decay">tooth decay</a> have been linked to lead exposure,<a href="#cite_note-Lanphear05EnvironHealth-53">[53]</a> as have <a href="/wiki/Cataracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataracts">cataracts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> Intrauterine and neonatal lead exposure promote tooth decay.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Aside from the developmental effects unique to young children, the health effects experienced by adults are similar to those in children, although the thresholds are generally higher.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kidneys">Kidneys</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Kidneys">edit</a>]</div> Kidney damage occurs with exposure to high levels of lead, and evidence suggests that lower levels can damage kidneys as well.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-789-63">[63]</a> The toxic effect of lead causes <a href="/wiki/Nephropathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nephropathy">nephropathy</a> and may cause <a href="/wiki/Fanconi_syndrome" title="Fanconi syndrome">Fanconi syndrome</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Proximal_tubule" title="Proximal tubule">proximal tubular</a> function of the kidney is impaired.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin08-267-64">[64]</a> Long-term exposure at levels lower than those that cause lead nephropathy have also been reported as <a href="/wiki/Nephrotoxicity" title="Nephrotoxicity">nephrotoxic</a> in patients from developed countries that had chronic kidney disease or were at risk because of hypertension or <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ekong06KidneyInt-65">[65]</a> Lead poisoning inhibits excretion of the waste product <a href="/wiki/Uric_acid" title="Uric acid">urate</a> and causes a predisposition for <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">gout</a>, in which urate builds up.<a href="#cite_note-Wright83JReum-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid8035397-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid10914856-68">[68]</a> This condition is known as saturnine gout. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cardiovascular_system">Cardiovascular system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cardiovascular system">edit</a>]</div> Evidence suggests lead exposure is associated with <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">high blood pressure</a>, and studies have also found connections between lead exposure and <a href="/wiki/Coronary_artery" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary artery">coronary</a> <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_rate_variability" title="Heart rate variability">heart rate variability</a>, and death from stroke, but this evidence is more limited.<a href="#cite_note-Navas-Acien06-69">[69]</a> People who have been exposed to higher concentrations of lead may be at a higher risk for cardiac <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_dysfunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomic dysfunction">autonomic dysfunction</a> on days when <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a> and fine particles are higher.<a href="#cite_note-Park09Epidem-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reproductive_system">Reproductive system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Reproductive system">edit</a>]</div> Lead affects both the male and female reproductive systems. In men, when blood lead levels exceed 40 μg/dL, <a href="/wiki/Sperm_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm count">sperm count</a> is reduced and changes occur in volume of sperm, their <a href="/wiki/Motility" title="Motility">motility</a>, and their <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-792-71">[71]</a> A pregnant woman's elevated blood lead level can lead to <a href="/wiki/Miscarriage" title="Miscarriage">miscarriage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">prematurity</a>, low <a href="/wiki/Birth_weight" title="Birth weight">birth weight</a>, and problems with development during childhood.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland08-72">[72]</a> Lead is able to pass through the <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a> and into breast milk, and blood lead levels in mothers and infants are usually similar.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> A fetus may be poisoned in utero if lead from the mother's bones is subsequently mobilized by the changes in metabolism due to pregnancy; increased calcium intake in pregnancy may help mitigate this phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger05BirthDef-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nervous_system">Nervous system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nervous system">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decreased_Brain_Volume_from_Lead_Exposure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Eight MRI views of a brain in black and white, with yellow, orange, and red areas overlaid in spots mainly toward the front." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Decreased_Brain_Volume_from_Lead_Exposure.jpg/220px-Decreased_Brain_Volume_from_Lead_Exposure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="393" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Decreased_Brain_Volume_from_Lead_Exposure.jpg/330px-Decreased_Brain_Volume_from_Lead_Exposure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Decreased_Brain_Volume_from_Lead_Exposure.jpg/440px-Decreased_Brain_Volume_from_Lead_Exposure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2033" data-file-height="3634" /></a><figcaption>The brains of adults who were exposed to lead as children show decreased volume, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex" title="Prefrontal cortex">prefrontal cortex</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a>. Areas of volume loss are shown in color over a template of a normal brain.<a href="#cite_note-Cecil08-74">[74]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_infographic_explaining_lead_poisoning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/An_infographic_explaining_lead_poisoning.jpg/220px-An_infographic_explaining_lead_poisoning.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/An_infographic_explaining_lead_poisoning.jpg/330px-An_infographic_explaining_lead_poisoning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/An_infographic_explaining_lead_poisoning.jpg/440px-An_infographic_explaining_lead_poisoning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>An infographic explaining lead poisoning</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></div> Lead affects the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/Motor_nerve" title="Motor nerve">motor nerves</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> Peripheral nervous system effects are more prominent in adults and central nervous system effects are more prominent in children.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger04-Pedi-36">[36]</a> Lead causes the <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">nerve cells</a> to degenerate and lose their <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> coats.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> Lead exposure in young children has been linked to <a href="/wiki/Learning_disability" title="Learning disability">learning disabilities</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Meyer-IntJHyge-75">[75]</a> and children with blood lead concentrations greater than 10 μg/dL are in danger of <a href="/wiki/Developmental_disability" title="Developmental disability">developmental disabilities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> Increased blood lead level in children has been correlated with decreases in <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">intelligence</a>, nonverbal reasoning, <a href="/wiki/Short-term_memory" title="Short-term memory">short-term memory</a>, attention, reading and arithmetic ability, <a href="/wiki/Fine_motor_skill" title="Fine motor skill">fine motor skills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emotional_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Emotional regulation">emotional regulation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_skill" class="mw-redirect" title="Social skill">social engagement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland08-72">[72]</a> The effect of lead on children's cognitive abilities takes place at very low levels.<a href="#cite_note-Lanphear05EnvironHealth-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cleveland08-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bellinger08-76">[76]</a> There is no apparent lower threshold to the <a href="/wiki/Dose-response_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Dose-response relationship">dose-response relationship</a> (unlike other heavy metals such as <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>).<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Reduced academic performance has been associated with lead exposure even at blood lead levels lower than 5 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Merrill07861-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Casarett07-944-79">[79]</a> Blood lead levels below 10 μg/dL have been reported to be associated with lower IQ and behavior problems such as aggression, in proportion with blood lead levels.<a href="#cite_note-Guidotti07-PedClin-18">[18]</a> Between the blood lead levels of 5 and 35 μg/dL, an IQ decrease of 2–4 points for each μg/dL increase is reported in children.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> However, studies that show associations between low-level lead exposure and health effects in children may be affected by <a href="/wiki/Confounding" title="Confounding">confounding</a> and overestimate the effects of low-level lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> High blood lead levels in adults are also associated with decreases in cognitive performance and with psychiatric symptoms such as depression and anxiety.<a href="#cite_note-Shih07-81">[81]</a> It was found in a large group of current and former inorganic lead workers in Korea that blood lead levels in the range of 20–50 μg/dL were correlated with neuro-cognitive defects.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett07EnvironHealthPers-82">[82]</a> Increases in blood lead levels from about 50 to about 100 μg/dL in adults have been found to be associated with persistent, and possibly permanent, impairment of central nervous system function.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-789-63">[63]</a> Lead exposure in children is also correlated with neuropsychiatric disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder" title="Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-social_behaviour" title="Anti-social behaviour">anti-social behaviour</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger08-76">[76]</a> Elevated lead levels in children are correlated with higher scores on aggression and delinquency measures.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> A correlation has also been found between prenatal and early childhood lead exposure and violent crime in adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland08-72">[72]</a> Countries with the highest air lead levels have also been found to have the highest murder rates, after adjusting for confounding factors.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> A May 2000 study by economic consultant <a href="/wiki/Rick_Nevin" title="Rick Nevin">Rick Nevin</a> theorizes that lead exposure explains 65% to 90% of the variation in violent crime rates in the US.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> A 2007 paper by the same author claims to show a strong association between preschool blood lead and subsequent crime rate trends over several decades across nine countries.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vedantam-86">[86]</a> Lead exposure in childhood appears to increase school suspensions and juvenile detention among boys.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> It is believed that the US ban on lead paint in buildings in the late 1970s, as well as the phaseout of leaded gasoline in the 1970s and 1980s, partially helped contribute to the decline of violent crime in the United States since the early 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-Vedantam-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exposure_routes">Exposure routes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Exposure routes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/220px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/440px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Lead is a common environmental pollutant.<a href="#cite_note-Ragan09-JAAPA-24">[24]</a> Causes of environmental contamination include lead-based paint that is deteriorating (e.g. peeling, chipping, chalking, cracking, damp or damage), <a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">renovation</a>, repair or painting activities (disturbing or <a href="/wiki/Demolishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Demolishing">demolishing</a> painted surfaces generate toxic lead dust ),<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> industrial use of lead, such as found in facilities that process lead-acid batteries or produce lead wire or pipes, metal recycling and foundries,<a href="#cite_note-Mañay08-89">[89]</a> and burning of joss paper.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Storage batteries and ammunition are made with the largest amounts of lead consumed in the economy each year, in the US as of 2013.<a href="#cite_note-Min2013-93">[93]</a> Children living near facilities that process lead, such as <a href="/wiki/Lead_smelter" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead smelter">lead smelters</a>, have been found to have unusually high blood lead levels.<a href="#cite_note-Sanborn-94">[94]</a> In August 2009, parents rioted in China after <a href="/wiki/2009_Chinese_lead_poisoning_scandal" title="2009 Chinese lead poisoning scandal">lead poisoning was found in nearly 2000 children</a> living near zinc and manganese smelters.<a href="#cite_note-Watts09-Lancet-95">[95]</a> Lead exposure can occur from contact with lead in air, household dust, soil, water, and commercial products.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leaded_gasoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaded gasoline">Leaded gasoline</a> has also been linked to increases in lead pollution.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Some research has suggested a link between leaded gasoline and crime rates.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Man-made lead pollution has been elevated in the air for the past 2000 years.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Lead pollution in the air is entirely due to human activity (mining and smelting, as well as in gasoline). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupational_exposure">Occupational exposure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Occupational exposure">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Recycling_lead_in_a_lead-acid_battery_recovery_facility.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A man in a hard hat with a clear face plate leans over a conveyor belt with a metal instrument. He is in a factory setting with heavy machinery in the background." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Recycling_lead_in_a_lead-acid_battery_recovery_facility.jpg/220px-Recycling_lead_in_a_lead-acid_battery_recovery_facility.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Recycling_lead_in_a_lead-acid_battery_recovery_facility.jpg/330px-Recycling_lead_in_a_lead-acid_battery_recovery_facility.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Recycling_lead_in_a_lead-acid_battery_recovery_facility.jpg/440px-Recycling_lead_in_a_lead-acid_battery_recovery_facility.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="663" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a> workers are at risk for lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Brodkin07-CMAJ-103">[103]</a> This worker ladles molten lead into billets in a lead-acid battery recovery facility.</figcaption></figure> In adults, occupational exposure is the main cause of lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> People can be exposed when working in facilities that produce a variety of lead-containing products; these include <a href="/wiki/Radiation_shield" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation shield">radiation shields</a>, ammunition, certain surgical equipment, developing dental X-ray films prior to digital X-rays (each film packet had a lead liner to prevent the radiation from going through), fetal monitors, plumbing, circuit boards, jet engines, and ceramic glazes.<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> In addition, lead miners and smelters, plumbers and fitters, auto mechanics, glass manufacturers, construction workers, battery manufacturers and <a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling#Lead–acid_batteries" title="Battery recycling">recyclers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firing_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Firing range">firing range</a> workers, and plastic manufacturers are at risk for lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Sanborn-94">[94]</a> Other occupations that present lead exposure risks include <a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">welding</a>, manufacture of rubber, printing, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> smelting, processing of <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a>, combustion of <a href="/wiki/Solid_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid waste">solid waste</a>, and production of paints and pigments.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041424-105">[105]</a> Lead exposure can also occur with intense use of <a href="/wiki/Gun_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Gun range">gun ranges</a>, regardless of whether these ranges are indoor or out.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Parents who are exposed to lead in the workplace can bring lead dust home on clothes or skin and expose their children.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041424-105">[105]</a> Occupational exposure to lead increases the risk of <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, in particular: <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, and <a href="/wiki/High_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="High blood pressure">high blood pressure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SBU2017-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food">Food</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Food">edit</a>]</div> Lead may be found in food when food is grown in soil that is high in lead, airborne lead contaminates the crops, animals eat lead in their diet, or lead enters the food either from what it was stored or cooked in.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Ingestion of lead paint and batteries is also a route of exposure for livestock, which can subsequently affect humans.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Milk produced by contaminated cattle can be diluted to a lower lead concentration and sold for consumption.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> In Bangladesh, <a href="/wiki/Lead_chromate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead chromate">lead chromate</a> has been added to <a href="/wiki/Turmeric" title="Turmeric">turmeric</a> to make it more yellow.<a href="#cite_note-Stan2019-111">[111]</a> This is believed to have started in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Stan2019-111">[111]</a> It was believed to have been one of the main sources of high lead levels in the country.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Following a 2019 report identifying adulterated turmeric as the main cause of lead poisoning in Bangladesh, the government began a rapid crackdown and public service campaign on it. By 2021, leaded turmeric had vanished from the Bangladeshi market, and blood lead levels in workers at turmeric mills had dropped by a median of 30%.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> In Hong Kong, the maximum allowed lead parts per million is 6 in solid foods and 1 in liquid foods.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In December 2022, 28 <a href="/wiki/Dark_chocolate" title="Dark chocolate">dark chocolate</a> brands were tested by <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Reports" title="Consumer Reports">Consumer Reports</a>, which found that 23 of them contained <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, lead or both.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> When cocoa beans are set outside near polluting industrial plants, they can be contaminated by dust containing lead.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cannabis">Cannabis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cannabis">edit</a>]</div> In 2007, a mass poisoning due to adulterated <a href="/wiki/Marijuana" class="mw-redirect" title="Marijuana">marijuana</a> was uncovered in Leipzig, Germany, where 29 young adults were hospitalized with lead poisoning for several months after having smoked marijuana that had been tainted with small lead particles. One hypothesis from the police was that lead, with its high specific gravity, was used to increase the weight of street marijuana sold by the gram, thereby maximizing the dealers' profits. The researchers estimated that the profit per kilogram increased by as much as $1,500 with the lead added. It is common for drugs to be cut with less-expensive substances to increase the profits of dealers or distributors (e.g., cocaine is routinely adulterated with sugars, talcum powder, magnesium salts, and even other drugs). It is thought that the adverse reactions to many of these drugs are a result of poor manufacturing rather than face-value overdoses.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Besides adulteration, <a href="/wiki/Cannabis" title="Cannabis">cannabis</a> plants have an inherent ability to absorb heavy metals from the soil. This makes them useful for remediating contaminated sites. But this may also make cannabis dangerous for consumers who ingest it. Some cannabis strains have been bred specifically to remove pollutants from soil, air or water, a method known as <a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">phytoremediation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> In 2022, around 40% of cannabis products sold at unlicensed storefronts in New York City were found to contain heavy metals (e.g., lead, nickel), pesticides, and bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paint">Paint</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Paint">edit</a>]</div> Some lead compounds are colorful and are used widely in paints,<a href="#cite_note-Henretig06-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> and lead paint is a major route of lead exposure in children.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert06-124">[124]</a> A study conducted in 1998–2000 found that 38 million housing units in the US had lead-based paint, down from a 1990 estimate of 64 million.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-125">[125]</a> Deteriorating lead paint can produce dangerous lead levels in household dust and soil.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041423-126">[126]</a> Deteriorating lead paint and lead-containing household dust are the main causes of chronic lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> The lead breaks down into the dust and since children are more prone to crawling on the floor, it is easily ingested.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-125">[125]</a> Many young children display <a href="/wiki/Pica_(disorder)" title="Pica (disorder)">pica</a>, eating things that are not food. Even a small amount of a lead-containing product such as a paint chip or a sip of glaze can contain tens or hundreds of milligrams of lead.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-241-127">[127]</a> Eating chips of lead paint presents a particular hazard to children, generally producing more severe poisoning than lead-contaminated dust.<a href="#cite_note-Chisolm04-222-128">[128]</a> Because removing lead paint from dwellings, e.g. by sanding or torching, creates lead-containing dust and fumes, it is generally safer to seal the lead paint under new paint (excepting moveable windows and doors, which create paint dust when operated).<a href="#cite_note-Salvato03-129">[129]</a> Alternatively, special precautions must be taken if the lead paint is to be removed.<a href="#cite_note-Salvato03-129">[129]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Oil_painting" title="Oil painting">oil painting</a>, it was once common for colours such as yellow or white to be made with lead carbonate. <a href="/wiki/Lead_paint#Oil_paints" title="Lead paint">Lead white</a> oil colour was the main white of oil painters until superseded by compounds containing <a href="/wiki/Zinc_oxide#Pigment" title="Zinc oxide">zinc</a> or <a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide#Pigment" title="Titanium dioxide">titanium</a> in the mid-20th century. It is speculated that the painter <a href="/wiki/Caravaggio" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Goya" title="Francisco Goya">Francisco Goya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh%27s_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Vincent van Gogh's health">Vincent Van Gogh</a> had lead poisoning due to overexposure or carelessness when handling this colour.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil">Soil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Soil">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gas_pump_lead_warning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a closeup of a red gasoline pump with a warning label that reads, "for use as a motor fuel only" (in larger writing) "contains lead" (in smaller writing) "(tetraethyl)"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Gas_pump_lead_warning.jpg/220px-Gas_pump_lead_warning.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Gas_pump_lead_warning.jpg/330px-Gas_pump_lead_warning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Gas_pump_lead_warning.jpg/440px-Gas_pump_lead_warning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>A lead warning on a fuel pump. <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">Tetraethyllead</a>, which used to be added to automotive gasoline (and still is added to some <a href="/wiki/Avgas" title="Avgas">aviation gasolines</a>), contributed to <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a>.</figcaption></figure> Residual lead in soil contributes to lead exposure in urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-Guidotti07-PedClin-18">[18]</a> It has been thought that the more polluted an area is with various contaminants, the more likely it is to contain lead. However, this is not always the case, as there are several other reasons for lead contamination in soil.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Lead content in soil may be caused by broken-down lead paint, residues from lead-containing gasoline, used engine oil, <a href="/wiki/Tire_balance#Environmental_consequences" title="Tire balance">tire weights</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> used in the past, <a href="/wiki/Contaminated_land" title="Contaminated land">contaminated landfills</a>, or from nearby industries such as <a href="/wiki/Foundry" title="Foundry">foundries</a> or smelters.<a href="#cite_note-Woolf07-PedClin-47">[47]</a> For example, in the <a href="/wiki/Montevideo" title="Montevideo">Montevideo</a> neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/La_Teja" title="La Teja">La Teja</a>, former industrial sites became important sources of exposure in local communities in the early 2000s.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Although leaded soil is less of a problem in countries that no longer have <a href="/wiki/Gasoline#Lead" title="Gasoline">leaded gasoline</a>, it remains prevalent, raising concerns about the safety of <a href="/wiki/Urban_agriculture" title="Urban agriculture">urban agriculture</a>;<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> eating food grown in contaminated soil can present a lead hazard.<a href="#cite_note-Yu05-188-134">[134]</a> Interfacial solar evaporation has been recently studied as a technique for remediating lead-contaminated sites, which involves the evaporation of heavy metal ions from moist soil.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_wheel_weight_and_dust.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Lead_wheel_weight_and_dust.jpg/220px-Lead_wheel_weight_and_dust.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Lead_wheel_weight_and_dust.jpg/330px-Lead_wheel_weight_and_dust.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Lead_wheel_weight_and_dust.jpg/440px-Lead_wheel_weight_and_dust.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="1840" /></a><figcaption>Lead wheel weight eroding on road</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water">Water</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Water">edit</a>]</div> Lead from the atmosphere or soil can end up in groundwater and surface water.<a href="#cite_note-Yu05-136">[136]</a> It is also potentially in <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>, e.g. from plumbing and fixtures that are either made of lead or have lead solder.<a href="#cite_note-Chisolm04-222-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-Menkes06-703-137">[137]</a> Since acidic water breaks down lead in plumbing more readily, chemicals can be added to municipal water to increase the <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> and thus reduce the <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosivity</a> of the public <a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">water supply</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Chisolm04-222-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Monochloramine" title="Monochloramine">Chloramines</a>, which were adopted as a substitute for <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> <a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">disinfectants</a> due to fewer health concerns, increase corrositivity.<a href="#cite_note-Maas2005-138">[138]</a> In the US, 14–20% of total lead exposure is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Maas2005-138">[138]</a> In 2004, a team of seven reporters from <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Lead_contamination_in_Washington,_D.C._drinking_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead contamination in Washington, D.C. drinking water">high levels of lead in the drinking water in Washington, DC</a>, and won an award for <a href="/wiki/Investigative_reporting" class="mw-redirect" title="Investigative reporting">investigative reporting</a> for a series of articles about this contamination.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Flint_water_crisis" title="Flint water crisis">water crisis in Flint, Michigan</a>, a switch to a more corrosive municipal water source caused elevated lead levels in domestic tap water.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Like Flint, Michigan, and Washington, D.C., a similar situation affects the state of Wisconsin, where estimates call for replacement of up to 176,000 underground pipes made of lead known as <a href="/wiki/Lead_service_line" title="Lead service line">lead service lines</a>. The City of <a href="/wiki/Madison,_Wisconsin" title="Madison, Wisconsin">Madison, Wisconsin</a>, addressed the issue and replaced all of their lead service lines, but there are still other cities that have yet to follow suit. While there are chemical methods that could help reduce the amount of lead in the water distributed, a permanent fix would be to replace the pipes completely. While the state may replace the pipes below ground, homeowners must replace the pipes on their property, at an average cost of $3,000.<a href="#cite_note-wpr.org-143">[143]</a> Experts say that if the city were to replace their pipes and the citizens were to keep the old pipes located within their homes, there would be a potential for more lead to dissolve into their drinking water.<a href="#cite_note-wpr.org-143">[143]</a> The US Congress authorized the EPA to dedicate funds to assist states and nonprofits with the costs of lead service line removal under Section 50105 of the <a href="/wiki/Safe_Drinking_Water_Act" title="Safe Drinking Water Act">Safe Drinking Water Act</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Collected rainwater from roof runoff used as potable water may contain lead, if there are lead contaminants on the roof or in the storage tank.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> The Australian Drinking Water Guidelines allow a maximum of 0.01 mg/L (10 ppb) lead in water.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> Lead wheel weights have been found to accumulate on roads and interstates and erode in traffic entering the water runoff through drains. Leaded fishing weights accumulate in rivers, streams, ponds, and lakes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gasoline">Gasoline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gasoline">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">Tetraethyllead</a> was first added to gasoline in 1923, as it helped prevent <a href="/wiki/Engine_knocking" title="Engine knocking">engine knocking</a>. Automotive exhaust represented a major way for lead to be inhaled, invade the bloodstream and pass into the brain.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The use of lead in gasoline peaked in the 1970s. By the next decade most high-income countries prohibited the use of leaded petrol. As late as 2002, almost all low- and middle-income countries, including some <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> members, still used it. The <a href="/wiki/UN_Environment_Programme" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Environment Programme">UN Environment Programme</a> (UNEP) thus launched a campaign in 2002 to eliminate its use, leading to Algeria being the last country to stop its use in July 2021.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lead-containing_products">Lead-containing products</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Lead-containing products">edit</a>]</div> Lead can be found in products such as <a href="/wiki/Kohl_(cosmetics)" title="Kohl (cosmetics)">kohl</a>, an ancient cosmetic from the Middle East, South Asia, and parts of Africa that has many other names; and from some toys.<a href="#cite_note-Guidotti07-PedClin-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/2007_Chinese_export_recalls" title="2007 Chinese export recalls">In 2007, millions of toys made in China were recalled</a> from multiple countries owing to safety hazards including lead paint.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Vinyl mini-blinds, found especially in older housing, may contain lead.<a href="#cite_note-Ragan09-JAAPA-24">[24]</a> Lead is commonly incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Herbalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbalism">herbal remedies</a> such as Indian <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic</a> preparations and remedies of Chinese origin.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a> There are also risks of elevated blood lead levels caused by folk remedies like azarcon and greta, powders containing lead tetroxide and lead oxide, respectively, which each contain about 95% lead.<a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Ingestion of metallic lead, such as small lead fishing lures, increases blood lead levels and can be fatal.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Ingestion of lead-contaminated food is also a threat. Ceramic glaze often contains lead, and dishes that have been improperly fired can leach the metal into food, potentially causing severe poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Salvato03-117-153">[153]</a> In some places, the solder in cans used for food contains lead.<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a> When manufacturing medical instruments and hardware, solder containing lead may be present.<a href="#cite_note-indium-154">[154]</a> People who eat animals hunted with lead bullets may be at risk for lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-155">[155]</a> Bullets lodged in the human body rarely cause significant levels of lead,<a href="#cite_note-Spitz08-ArqNeruo-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> but bullets lodged in the joints are the exception, as they deteriorate and release lead into the body over time.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> In May 2015, Indian food safety regulators in the state of Uttar Pradesh found that samples of <a href="/wiki/Maggi" title="Maggi">Maggi</a> 2 Minute Noodles <a href="/wiki/Maggi_noodles_safety_concerns_in_India" title="Maggi noodles safety concerns in India">contained lead</a> up to 17 times beyond permissible limits.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> On 3 June 2015, the <a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a> Government banned the sale of Maggi noodles in New Delhi stores for 15 days because it was found to contain lead beyond the permissible limit.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> FDA on 4 June 2015 banned the noodles for 30 days after 27 out of 39 samples were detected with objectionable levels of metallic lead, among other things.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Some of India's biggest retailers like <a href="/wiki/Future_Group" title="Future Group">Future Group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Big_Bazaar" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Bazaar">Big Bazaar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Easyday" class="mw-redirect" title="Easyday">Easyday</a>, and Nilgiris have imposed a nationwide ban on Maggi noodles.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Many other states too have banned Maggi noodles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bullets">Bullets</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bullets">edit</a>]</div> Contact with ammunition is a source of lead exposure. As of 2013, lead-based ammunition production is the second largest annual use of lead in the US, accounting for over 84,800 metric tons in 2013,<a href="#cite_note-Min2013-93">[93]</a> second only to the manufacture of storage batteries.<a href="#cite_note-Min2013-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) cannot regulate cartridges and shells, as a matter of law.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Lead <a href="/wiki/Birdshot" class="mw-redirect" title="Birdshot">birdshot</a> is banned in some areas, but this is primarily for the benefit of the birds and their predators, rather than humans.<a href="#cite_note-lead-ban-168">[168]</a> Contamination from heavily used gun ranges is of concern to those who live near by.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Non-lead alternatives include <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>-<a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>-<a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth</a>-<a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>, and polymer blends such as tungsten-polymer and copper-polymer. Because game animals can be shot using lead bullets, the potential for lead ingestion from game meat consumption has been studied clinically and epidemiologically. In a recent study conducted by the CDC,<a href="#cite_note-Iqbal2009-170">[170]</a> a cohort from North Dakota was enrolled and asked to self-report historical consumption of game meat, and participation in other activities that could cause lead exposure. The study found that participants' age, sex, housing age, current hobbies with potential for lead exposure, and game consumption were all associated with blood lead level (PbB). According to a study published in 2008, 1.1% of the 736 persons consuming wild game meat tested had PbB ≥5 μg/dL<a href="#cite_note-Iqbal-171">[171]</a> In November 2015 the US Health and Human Services (HHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) designated 5 μg/dL (five micrograms per deciliter) of whole blood, in a venous blood sample, as the reference blood lead level for adults. An elevated blood lead level (BLL) is defined as a BLL ≥5 μg/dL. This case definition is used by the <a href="/wiki/Adult_Blood_Lead_Epidemiology_and_Surveillance" title="Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance">Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance</a> (ABLES) program, the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and CDC's National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). Previously (i.e. from 2009 until November 2015), the case definition for an elevated BLL was a BLL ≥10 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-NIOSH2015-172">[172]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:45_Auto_Rim_comparison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/45_Auto_Rim_comparison.jpg/220px-45_Auto_Rim_comparison.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/45_Auto_Rim_comparison.jpg/330px-45_Auto_Rim_comparison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/45_Auto_Rim_comparison.jpg/440px-45_Auto_Rim_comparison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>Jacketed ammunition (left), bare lead (right)</figcaption></figure> To virtually eliminate the potential for lead contamination, some researchers have suggested the use of lead-free copper non-fragmenting bullets.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-155">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> is an element used as a lead-replacement for shotgun pellets used in waterfowl hunting although shotshells made from bismuth are nearly ten times the cost of lead. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opium">Opium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Opium">edit</a>]</div> Lead-contaminated <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> has been the source of poisoning in Iran and other Middle Eastern countries. This has also appeared in the illicit narcotic supply in North America, resulting in confirmed lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toxicokinetics">Toxicokinetics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Toxicokinetics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tera-ethyl-lead-chemical.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two chemical diagrams of tetra-ethyl lead, or (CH3CH2)4Pb. On the left one, carbon and hydrogen are labeled, on the right they are shown as lines only." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tera-ethyl-lead-chemical.png/220px-Tera-ethyl-lead-chemical.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tera-ethyl-lead-chemical.png/330px-Tera-ethyl-lead-chemical.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Tera-ethyl-lead-chemical.png/440px-Tera-ethyl-lead-chemical.png 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="211" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">Tetraethyllead</a>, still used as an additive in some fuels, can be absorbed through the skin.<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source?</a>] </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Toxicokinetics" title="Toxicokinetics">Toxicokinetics</a> describes how the body handles the toxin over time, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Exposure occurs through <a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">inhalation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ingestion" title="Ingestion">ingestion</a>, or occasionally skin contact. Lead may be taken in through direct contact with mouth, nose, and eyes (mucous membranes), and through breaks in the skin. <a href="/wiki/Tetraethyllead" title="Tetraethyllead">Tetraethyllead</a>, which was a gasoline additive and is still used in <a href="/wiki/Aviation_gasoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Aviation gasoline">aviation gasoline</a>, passes through the skin; and other forms of lead, including inorganic lead<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> are also absorbed through skin.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> The main sources of absorption of inorganic lead are from ingestion and inhalation.<a href="#cite_note-Merrill07-33">[33]</a> In adults, about 35–40% of inhaled lead dust is deposited in the lungs, and about 95% of that goes into the bloodstream.<a href="#cite_note-Merrill07-33">[33]</a> Of ingested inorganic lead, about 15% is absorbed, but this percentage is higher in children, pregnant women, and people with deficiencies of calcium, zinc, or iron.<a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a> Infants may absorb about 50% of ingested lead, but little is known about absorption rates in children.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-767-176">[176]</a> The main body tissues that store lead are the blood, soft tissues, and bone; the half-life of lead in these tissues is measured in weeks for blood, months for soft tissues, and years for bone.<a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a> Lead in the bones, teeth, hair, and nails is bound tightly and not available to other tissues, and is generally thought not to be harmful.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin08-177">[177]</a> In adults, 94% of absorbed lead is deposited in the bones and teeth, but children only store 70% in this manner, a fact which may partially account for the more serious health effects on children.<a href="#cite_note-Barbosa-23">[23]</a> The half-life of lead in bone has been estimated as years to decades, and bone can introduce lead into the bloodstream long after the initial exposure is gone.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_Lead_Biomonitoring_Summary-178">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosnett_et_al.,_JAMA_1994-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rabinowitz,_Env_Health_Persp_1991-180">[180]</a> The half-life of lead in the blood in men is about 40 days, but it may be longer in children and pregnant women, whose bones are undergoing <a href="/wiki/Bone_remodeling" title="Bone remodeling">remodeling</a>, which allows the lead to be continuously re-introduced into the bloodstream.<a href="#cite_note-Barbosa-23">[23]</a> Also, if lead exposure takes place over years, clearance is much slower, partly due to the re-release of lead from bone.<a href="#cite_note-Hu07-181">[181]</a> Many other tissues store lead, but those with the highest concentrations (other than blood, bone, and teeth) are the brain, spleen, kidneys, liver, and lungs.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> Lead is removed from the body very slowly, mainly through urine.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson03-19">[19]</a> Smaller amounts of lead are also eliminated through the feces, and very small amounts in hair, nails, and sweat.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-238-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Toxicodynamics">Toxicodynamics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Toxicodynamics">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Toxicodynamics" title="Toxicodynamics">Toxicodynamics</a> describes how the toxin affects the body, including the mechanisms causing its symptoms. Lead has no known physiologically necessary role in the body,<a href="#cite_note-White07-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mañay08-89">[89]</a> and its harmful effects are myriad. Lead and other heavy metals create reactive <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">radicals</a> which damage cell structures including <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Flora08-183">[183]</a> Lead also interferes with <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">DNA transcription</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> that help in the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>, and enzymes that maintain the integrity of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> Anemia may result when the cell membranes of <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> become more fragile as the result of damage to their membranes.<a href="#cite_note-Yu05-193-184">[184]</a> Lead interferes with metabolism of bones and teeth<a href="#cite_note-Casarett07-946-185">[185]</a> and alters the permeability of blood vessels and <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> Lead may also be harmful to the developing <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>, causing production of excessive <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammatory</a> proteins; this mechanism may mean that lead exposure is a risk factor for <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> in children.<a href="#cite_note-Casarett07-946-185">[185]</a> Lead exposure has also been associated with a decrease in activity of immune cells such as <a href="/wiki/Polymorphonuclear_leukocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphonuclear leukocyte">polymorphonuclear leukocytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Casarett07-946-185">[185]</a> Lead also interferes with the normal metabolism of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_in_biology" title="Calcium in biology">calcium in cells</a> and causes it to build up within them.<a href="#cite_note-Chisolm04-222-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enzymes">Enzymes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Enzymes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:196-Lead_Poisoning-1qnv.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/196-Lead_Poisoning-1qnv.tif/lossy-page1-220px-196-Lead_Poisoning-1qnv.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/196-Lead_Poisoning-1qnv.tif/lossy-page1-330px-196-Lead_Poisoning-1qnv.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/196-Lead_Poisoning-1qnv.tif/lossy-page1-440px-196-Lead_Poisoning-1qnv.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2232" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Delta-aminolevulinic_acid_dehydratase" title="Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase">ALAD enzyme</a> with lead bound (<a href="/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank" title="Protein Data Bank">PDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcsb.org/structure/1QNV">1QNV</a>)</figcaption></figure> The primary cause of lead's toxicity is its interference with a variety of enzymes because it binds to <a href="/wiki/Sulfhydryl_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfhydryl group">sulfhydryl groups</a> found on many enzymes.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson03-19">[19]</a> Part of lead's toxicity results from its ability to mimic other metals that take part in biological processes, which act as <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactors</a> in many enzymatic reactions, displacing them at the enzymes on which they act.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> Lead is able to bind to and interact with many of the same <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> as these metals but, due to its differing chemistry, does not properly function as a cofactor, thus interfering with the enzyme's ability to catalyze its normal reaction or reactions. Among the essential metals which lead displaces in this way are calcium, iron, and zinc.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-238-182">[182]</a> The lead ion has a <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone pair</a> in its electronic structure, which can result in a distortion in the <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">coordination</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligands</a>, and in 2007 was hypothesized to be important in lead poisoning's effects on enzymes (see <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair#Unusual_lone_pairs" title="Lone pair">Lone pair § Unusual lone pairs</a>).<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> One of the main causes for the pathology of lead is that it interferes with the activity of an essential enzyme called <a href="/wiki/Delta-aminolevulinic_acid_dehydratase" title="Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase">delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase</a>, or ALAD (see image of the enzyme structure), which is important in the biosynthesis of <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme</a>, the cofactor found in <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Lead also inhibits the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Ferrochelatase" title="Ferrochelatase">ferrochelatase</a>, another enzyme involved in the formation of heme.<a href="#cite_note-Barbosa-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid12498316-190">[190]</a> Ferrochelatase catalyzes the joining of <a href="/wiki/Protoporphyrin" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoporphyrin">protoporphyrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe2+</a> to form heme.<a href="#cite_note-Barbosa-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dart041426-30">[30]</a> Lead's interference with heme synthesis results in production of <a href="/wiki/Zinc_protoporphyrin" title="Zinc protoporphyrin">zinc protoporphyrin</a> and the development of <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-462-191">[191]</a> Another effect of lead's interference with heme synthesis is the buildup of heme precursors, such as <a href="/wiki/Aminolevulinic_acid" title="Aminolevulinic acid">aminolevulinic acid</a>, which may be directly or indirectly harmful to neurons.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-822-192">[192]</a> Elevation of aminolevulinic acid results in lead poisoning having symptoms similar to <a href="/wiki/Porphyria#Acute_porphyrias" title="Porphyria">acute porphyria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurons">Neurons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Neurons">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead-exposed_rat_hippocampi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two black-and-white photos; one shows dark, fairly regular rings on a lighter background, and the other shows irregular, smaller, and not as dark clusters." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lead-exposed_rat_hippocampi.jpg/220px-Lead-exposed_rat_hippocampi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lead-exposed_rat_hippocampi.jpg/330px-Lead-exposed_rat_hippocampi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lead-exposed_rat_hippocampi.jpg/440px-Lead-exposed_rat_hippocampi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="595" data-file-height="868" /></a><figcaption>Lead exposure damages cells in the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>, a part of the brain involved in memory. Hippocampi of lead-exposed rats (bottom) show structural damage such as irregular nuclei (IN) and denaturation of <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> (DMS) compared to controls (top).<a href="#cite_note-Xu09-198">[198]</a></figcaption></figure> The brain is the organ most sensitive to lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Cecil08-74">[74]</a> Lead is able to pass through the endothelial cells at the <a href="/wiki/Blood_brain_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood brain barrier">blood brain barrier</a> because it can substitute for <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium ions</a> and be taken up by <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane_Ca2%2B_ATPase" title="Plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase">calcium-ATPase pumps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> Lead poisoning interferes with the normal development of a child's brain and <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>; therefore children are at greater risk of lead <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">neurotoxicity</a> than adults are.<a href="#cite_note-Sanders09-200">[200]</a> In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> formation in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurochemical" title="Neurochemical">neurochemical</a> development (including that of neurotransmitters), and organization of <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-462-191">[191]</a> It causes loss of neurons' <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelin</a> sheaths, reduces numbers of neurons, interferes with neurotransmission, and decreases neuronal growth.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson03-19">[19]</a> Lead ions (Pb2+), like magnesium ions (Mg2+), block <a href="/wiki/NMDA_receptor" title="NMDA receptor">NMDA receptors</a>. Therefore, an increase in Pb2+ concentration will effectively inhibit ongoing <a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a> (LTP), and lead to an abnormal increase in <a href="/wiki/Long-term_depression" title="Long-term depression">long-term depression</a> (LTD) on <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> in the affected parts of <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">the nervous system</a>. These abnormalities lead to the indirect <a href="/wiki/Downregulation_and_upregulation" title="Downregulation and upregulation">downregulation</a> of NMDA-receptors, effectively initiating a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback#In_biology" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback-loop</a> for LTD.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> The targeting of NMDA receptors is thought to be one of the main causes for lead's <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">toxicity to neurons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Xu09-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> Diagnosis includes determining the clinical signs and the medical history, with inquiry into possible routes of exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig061316-202">[202]</a> <a href="/wiki/Medical_toxicology" title="Medical toxicology">Clinical toxicologists</a>, medical specialists in the area of poisoning, may be involved in diagnosis and treatment. The main tool in diagnosing and assessing the severity of lead poisoning is laboratory analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Blood_lead_level" title="Blood lead level">blood lead level</a> (BLL).<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-463-29">[29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_poisoning_-_blood_film.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="dozens of pink circular bodies with white centers on a white background. Arrows point to three of the cells; two are speckled with dark purple dots, and the third has an irregular outer border" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Lead_poisoning_-_blood_film.jpg/220px-Lead_poisoning_-_blood_film.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Lead_poisoning_-_blood_film.jpg/330px-Lead_poisoning_-_blood_film.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Lead_poisoning_-_blood_film.jpg/440px-Lead_poisoning_-_blood_film.jpg 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Basophilic_stippling" title="Basophilic stippling">Basophilic stippling</a> (arrows) of red <a href="/wiki/Blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood cells">blood cells</a> in a 53-year-old who had elevated blood lead levels due to drinking repeatedly from glasses decorated with lead paint.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Blood_film" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood film">Blood film</a> examination may reveal <a href="/wiki/Basophilic_stippling" title="Basophilic stippling">basophilic stippling</a> of red <a href="/wiki/Blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood cells">blood cells</a> (dots in red blood cells visible through a microscope), as well as the changes normally associated with iron-deficiency anemia (<a href="/wiki/Microcytosis" title="Microcytosis">microcytosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypochromic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypochromic">hypochromasia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Rubin08-267-64">[64]</a> This may be known as <a href="/wiki/Sideroblastic_anemia" title="Sideroblastic anemia">sideroblastic anemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> However, basophilic stippling is also seen in unrelated conditions, such as megaloblastic anemia caused by <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a> B12 (colbalamin) and <a href="/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">folate</a> deficiencies.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Contrary to other sideroblastic anemia, there are no ring sideroblasts in a bone marrow smear.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Exposure to lead also can be evaluated by measuring <a href="/wiki/Zinc_protoporphyrin" title="Zinc protoporphyrin">erythrocyte protoporphyrin</a> (EP) in blood samples.<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source?</a>] EP is a part of red blood cells known to increase when the amount of lead in the blood is high, with a delay of a few weeks.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-825-28">[28]</a> Thus EP levels in conjunction with blood lead levels can suggest the time period of exposure; if blood lead levels are high but EP is still normal, this finding suggests exposure was recent.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-825-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-240-37">[37]</a> However, the EP level alone is not sensitive enough to identify elevated blood lead levels below about 35 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source?</a>] Due to this higher threshold for detection and the fact that EP levels also increase in <a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron deficiency (medicine)">iron deficiency</a>, use of this method for detecting lead exposure has decreased.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-784-207">[207]</a> Blood lead levels are an indicator mainly of recent or current lead exposure, not of total <a href="/wiki/Body_burden" class="mw-redirect" title="Body burden">body burden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Vaziri08-AmJPhys-208">[208]</a> Lead in bones can be measured <a href="/wiki/Invasiveness_of_surgical_procedures" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasiveness of surgical procedures">noninvasively</a> by <a href="/wiki/X-ray_fluorescence" title="X-ray fluorescence">X-ray fluorescence</a>; this may be the best measure of cumulative exposure and total body burden.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-240-37">[37]</a> However, this method is not widely available and is mainly used for research rather than routine diagnosis.<a href="#cite_note-Brodkin07-CMAJ-103">[103]</a> Another radiographic sign of elevated lead levels is the presence of <a href="/wiki/Radiodensity" title="Radiodensity">radiodense</a> lines called lead lines at the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysis" title="Metaphysis">metaphysis</a> in the long bones of growing children, especially around the knees.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-464-209">[209]</a> These lead lines, caused by increased <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a> due to disrupted metabolism in the growing bones, become wider as the duration of lead exposure increases.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-464-209">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/X-rays" class="mw-redirect" title="X-rays">X-rays</a> may also reveal lead-containing foreign materials such as paint chips in the gastrointestinal tract.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-464-209">[209]</a> Fecal lead content that is measured over the course of a few days may also be an accurate way to estimate the overall amount of childhood lead intake. This form of measurement may serve as a useful way to see the extent of oral lead exposure from all the diet and environmental sources of lead.<a href="#cite_note-Gwiazda04-210">[210]</a> Lead poisoning shares symptoms with other conditions and may be easily missed.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> Conditions that present similarly and must be ruled out in diagnosing lead poisoning include <a href="/wiki/Carpal_tunnel_syndrome" title="Carpal tunnel syndrome">carpal tunnel syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guillain%E2%80%93Barr%C3%A9_syndrome" title="Guillain–Barré syndrome">Guillain–Barré syndrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renal_colic" title="Renal colic">renal colic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Appendicitis" title="Appendicitis">appendicitis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">encephalitis</a> in adults, and <a href="/wiki/Viral_gastroenteritis" class="mw-redirect" title="Viral gastroenteritis">viral gastroenteritis</a> in children.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig061316-202">[202]</a> Other <a href="/wiki/Differential_diagnosis" title="Differential diagnosis">differential diagnoses</a> in children include <a href="/wiki/Constipation" title="Constipation">constipation</a>, abdominal colic, iron deficiency, <a href="/wiki/Subdural_hematoma" title="Subdural hematoma">subdural hematoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">neoplasms</a> of the central nervous system, emotional and behavior disorders, and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_disability" title="Intellectual disability">intellectual disability</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-463-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_levels">Reference levels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Reference levels">edit</a>]</div> The current reference range for acceptable blood lead concentrations in healthy persons without excessive exposure to environmental sources of lead is less than 3.5 μg/dL for children.<a href="#cite_note-CDC2012-9">[9]</a> It was less than 25 μg/dL for adults.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Previous to 2012 the value for children was 10 (μg/dL).<a href="#cite_note-cdc.gov-212">[212]</a> Lead-exposed workers in the US are required to be removed from work when their level is greater than 50 μg/dL if they do construction and otherwise greater than 60 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> In 2015, the US Health and Human Services (HHS), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) designated 5 μg/dL (five micrograms per deciliter) of whole blood, in a venous blood sample, as the reference blood lead level for adults. An elevated blood lead level (BLL) is defined as a BLL ≥5 μg/dL. This case definition is used by the <a href="/wiki/Adult_Blood_Lead_Epidemiology_and_Surveillance" title="Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance">Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance</a> (ABLES) program, the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE), and CDC's National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). Previously (i.e. from 2009 until November 2015), the case definition for an elevated BLL was a BLL ≥10 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-NIOSH2015-172">[172]</a> The US national BLL geometric mean among adults was 1.2 μg/dL in 2009–2010.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Blood lead concentrations in poisoning victims have ranged from 30 to 80 μg/dL in children exposed to lead paint in older houses, 77–104 μg/dL in persons working with pottery glazes, 90–137 μg/dL in individuals consuming contaminated herbal medicines, 109–139 μg/dL in indoor shooting range instructors and as high as 330 μg/dL in those drinking fruit juices from glazed earthenware containers.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lead_testing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A box of cigarette-like white cylinders on the left, in the middle a white cylinder with a pink tip, on the right a paper with four circles, two blank and two pink" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Lead_testing.jpg/310px-Lead_testing.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Lead_testing.jpg/465px-Lead_testing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Lead_testing.jpg/620px-Lead_testing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="739" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption>Testing kits are commercially available for detecting lead. These swabs, when wiped on a surface, turn red in the presence of lead.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lead#Restriction_and_remediation" title="Lead">Lead § Restriction_and_remediation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lead_abatement_in_the_United_States" title="Lead abatement in the United States">Lead abatement in the United States</a></div> In most cases, lead poisoning is preventable<a href="#cite_note-Sanborn-94">[94]</a> by avoiding exposure to lead.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> Prevention strategies can be divided into individual (measures taken by a family), preventive medicine (identifying and intervening with high-risk individuals), and public health (reducing risk on a population level).<a href="#cite_note-Guidotti07-PedClin-18">[18]</a> Recommended steps by individuals to reduce the blood lead levels of children include increasing their frequency of hand washing and their intake of calcium and iron, discouraging them from putting their hands to their mouths, vacuuming frequently, and eliminating the presence of lead-containing objects such as blinds and jewellery in the house.<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> In houses with lead pipes or plumbing solder, these can be replaced.<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> Less permanent but cheaper methods include running water in the morning to flush out the most contaminated water, or adjusting the water's chemistry to prevent corrosion of pipes.<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> Lead testing kits are commercially available for detecting the presence of lead in the household.<a href="#cite_note-cr-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-Salvato03-117-153">[153]</a> Testing kit accuracy depends on the user testing all layers of paint and the quality of the kit; the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">US Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) only approves kits with an accuracy rating of at least 95%.<a href="#cite_note-jse-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Professional lead testing companies caution that DIY test kits can create health risks for users that do not understand their limitations and liability issues for employers with regard to worker protection.<a href="#cite_note-jse-218">[218]</a> As hot water is more likely than cold water to contain higher amounts of lead, only cold water from the tap should be used for drinking, cooking, and making baby formula. Since most of the lead in household water usually comes from plumbing in the house and not from the local water supply, using cold water can avoid lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-EPH-220">[220]</a> Measures such as dust control and household education do not appear to be effective in changing children's blood levels.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> Prevention measures also exist on national and municipal levels. Recommendations by health professionals for lowering childhood exposures include banning the use of lead where it is not essential and strengthening regulations that limit the amount of lead in soil, water, air, household dust, and products.<a href="#cite_note-Lanphear05EnvironHealth-53">[53]</a> Regulations exist to limit the amount of lead in paint; for example, a 1978 law in the US restricted the lead in paint for residences, furniture, and toys to 0.06% or less.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig06-122">[122]</a> In October 2008, the US EPA reduced the allowable lead level by a factor of ten to 0.15 micrograms per cubic meter of air, giving states five years to comply with the standards.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> The European Union's <a href="/wiki/Restriction_of_Hazardous_Substances_Directive" title="Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive">Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive</a> limits amounts of lead and other toxic substances in electronics and electrical equipment. In some places, remediation programs exist to reduce the presence of lead when it is found to be high, for example in drinking water.<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> As a more radical solution, entire towns located near former lead mines have been "closed" by the government, and the population resettled elsewhere, as was the case with <a href="/wiki/Picher,_Oklahoma" title="Picher, Oklahoma">Picher, Oklahoma</a>, in 2009.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Removing lead from <a href="/wiki/Airplane_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Airplane fuel">airplane fuel</a> would also be useful.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Screening">Screening</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Screening">edit</a>]</div> Screening may be an important method of prevention for those at high risk,<a href="#cite_note-Guidotti07-PedClin-18">[18]</a> such as those who live near lead-related industries.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-463-29">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Preventive_Services_Task_Force" title="United States Preventive Services Task Force">United States Preventive Services Task Force</a> (USPSTF) has stated that general screening of those without symptoms include children and pregnant women is of unclear benefit as of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_College_of_Obstetricians_and_Gynecologists" title="American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists">American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists</a> (ACOG) and <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a> (AAP), however, recommend asking about risk factors and testing those who have them.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> The education of workers on lead, its danger and how its workplace exposure can be decreased, especially when initial blood lead level and urine lead level are high, could help reduce the risk of lead poisoning in the workplace.<a href="#cite_note-:0-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:15px;"> <caption>CDC management guidelines for children with elevated blood levels<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-242-228">[228]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Blood lead level (μg/dL)</th> <th>Treatment </th></tr> <tr> <th>10–14 </th> <td>Education, repeat screening </td></tr> <tr> <th>15–19 </th> <td>Repeat screening, case management to abate sources </td></tr> <tr> <th>20–44 </th> <td>Medical evaluation, case management </td></tr> <tr> <th>45–69 </th> <td>Medical evaluation, chelation, case management </td></tr> <tr> <th>>69 </th> <td>Hospitalization, immediate chelation, case management </td></tr></tbody></table> The mainstays of treatment are removal from the source of lead and, for people who have significantly high blood lead levels or who have symptoms of poisoning, <a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">chelation therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig061321-229">[229]</a> Treatment of iron, <a href="/wiki/Hypocalcaemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypocalcaemia">calcium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zinc_deficiency" title="Zinc deficiency">zinc deficiencies</a>, which are associated with increased lead absorption, is another part of treatment for lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-465-230">[230]</a> When lead-containing materials are present in the gastrointestinal tract (as evidenced by abdominal X-rays), <a href="/wiki/Whole_bowel_irrigation" title="Whole bowel irrigation">whole bowel irrigation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cathartic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathartic (medicine)">cathartics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endoscopy" title="Endoscopy">endoscopy</a>, or even surgical removal may be used to eliminate it from the gut and prevent further exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Olson07-231">[231]</a> Lead-containing bullets and shrapnel may also present a threat of further exposure and may need to be surgically removed if they are in or near fluid-filled or <a href="/wiki/Synovial_membrane" title="Synovial membrane">synovial</a> spaces.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett06-241-127">[127]</a> If lead encephalopathy is present, <a href="/wiki/Anticonvulsant" title="Anticonvulsant">anticonvulsants</a> may be given to control seizures, and treatments to control <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_edema" title="Cerebral edema">swelling of the brain</a> include <a href="/wiki/Corticosteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Corticosteroids">corticosteroids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mannitol" title="Mannitol">mannitol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-832-232">[232]</a> Treatment of organic lead poisoning involves removing the lead compound from the skin, preventing further exposure, treating seizures, and possibly chelation therapy for people with high blood lead concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-949-233">[233]</a> Before the advent of organic chelating agents, salts of <a href="/wiki/Iodide" title="Iodide">iodide</a> were given orally, such as heavily popularized by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Melsens" title="Louis Melsens">Louis Melsens</a> and many nineteenth- and early twentieth-century doctors.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-KI_en-235">[235]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metal-EDTA.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a chemical diagram of [CH2N(CH2CO2-)2]2 (shown in black) with the four O- tails binding a metal ion (shown in red)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Metal-EDTA.svg/220px-Metal-EDTA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Metal-EDTA.svg/330px-Metal-EDTA.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Metal-EDTA.svg/440px-Metal-EDTA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption>EDTA, a <a href="/wiki/Chelation" title="Chelation">chelating agent</a>, binds a heavy metal, sequestering it.</figcaption></figure> A chelating agent is a molecule with at least two negatively charged groups that allow it to form complexes with metal ions with multiple positive charges, such as lead.<a href="#cite_note-Trevor07-480-236">[236]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chelate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelate">chelate</a> that is thus formed is nontoxic<a href="#cite_note-Lightfoot08-VetClin-237">[237]</a> and can be excreted in the urine, initially at up to 50 times the normal rate.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett05-822-192">[192]</a> The chelating agents used for treatment of lead poisoning are edetate disodium calcium (<a href="/wiki/Sodium_calcium_edetate" title="Sodium calcium edetate">CaNa2EDTA</a>), <a href="/wiki/Dimercaprol" title="Dimercaprol">dimercaprol</a> (BAL), which are injected, and <a href="/wiki/Dimercaptosuccinic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimercaptosuccinic acid">succimer</a> and d-<a href="/wiki/Penicillamine" title="Penicillamine">penicillamine</a>, which are administered orally.<a href="#cite_note-Menkes06-238">[238]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a> is used in cases of acute lead poisoning,<a href="#cite_note-Patrick06-34">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source?</a>] severe poisoning, and encephalopathy,<a href="#cite_note-Olson07-231">[231]</a> and is considered for people with blood lead levels above 25 μg/dL.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> While the use of chelation for people with symptoms of lead poisoning is widely supported, use in asymptomatic people with high blood lead levels is more controversial.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> Chelation therapy is of limited value for cases of chronic exposure to low levels of lead.<a href="#cite_note-Meyer08-MutatRes-239">[239]</a> Chelation therapy is usually stopped when symptoms resolve or when blood lead levels return to premorbid levels.<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> When lead exposure has taken place over a long period, blood lead levels may rise after chelation is stopped because lead is leached into blood from stores in the bone;<a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> thus repeated treatments are often necessary.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> People receiving dimercaprol need to be assessed for peanut allergies since the commercial formulation contains peanut oil. Calcium EDTA is also effective if administered four hours after the administration of dimercaprol. Administering dimercaprol, DMSA (Succimer), or <a href="/wiki/2,3-Dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic_acid" title="2,3-Dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid">DMPS</a> prior to calcium EDTA is necessary to prevent the redistribution of lead into the central nervous system.<a href="#cite_note-Flora2010-240">[240]</a> Dimercaprol used alone may also redistribute lead to the brain and testes.<a href="#cite_note-Flora2010-240">[240]</a> An adverse side effect of calcium EDTA is renal toxicity. Succimer (DMSA) is the preferred agent in mild to moderate lead poisoning cases. This may be the case in instances where children have a blood lead level >25 μg/dL. The most reported adverse side effect for succimer is gastrointestinal disturbances.<a href="#cite_note-Gra2007-7">[7]</a> It is also important to note that chelation therapy only lowers blood lead levels and may not prevent the lead-induced cognitive problems associated with lower lead levels in tissue. This may be because of the inability of these agents to remove sufficient amounts of lead from tissue or inability to reverse preexisting damage.<a href="#cite_note-Gra2007-7">[7]</a> Chelating agents can have <a href="/wiki/Adverse_medical_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse medical effect">adverse effects</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Brodkin07-CMAJ-103">[103]</a> for example, chelation therapy can lower the body's levels of necessary nutrients like zinc.<a href="#cite_note-Lightfoot08-VetClin-237">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> Chelating agents taken orally can increase the body's absorption of lead through the intestine.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson03-370-242">[242]</a> Chelation challenge, also known as provocation testing, is used to indicate an elevated and mobilizable body burden of heavy metals including lead.<a href="#cite_note-Brodkin07-CMAJ-103">[103]</a> This testing involves collecting urine before and after administering a one-off dose of chelating agent to mobilize heavy metals into the urine.<a href="#cite_note-Brodkin07-CMAJ-103">[103]</a> Then urine is analyzed by a laboratory for levels of heavy metals; from this analysis overall body burden is inferred.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> Chelation challenge mainly measures the burden of lead in soft tissues, though whether it accurately reflects long-term exposure or the amount of lead stored in bone remains controversial.<a href="#cite_note-who.int-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Katzung07-948-26">[26]</a> Although the technique has been used to determine whether chelation therapy is indicated and to diagnose heavy metal exposure, some evidence does not support these uses as blood levels after chelation are not comparable to the reference range typically used to diagnose heavy metal poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Brodkin07-CMAJ-103">[103]</a> The single chelation dose could also redistribute the heavy metals to more sensitive areas such as central nervous system tissue.<a href="#cite_note-Brodkin07-CMAJ-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> Since lead has been used widely for centuries, the effects of exposure are worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> Environmental lead is ubiquitous, and everyone has some measurable blood lead level.<a href="#cite_note-Karri08-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hu07-181">[181]</a> Atmospheric lead pollution increased dramatically beginning in the 1950s as a result of the widespread use of leaded gasoline.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Lead is one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Environmental_medicine" title="Environmental medicine">environmental medicine</a> problems in terms of numbers of people exposed and the public health toll it takes.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> Lead exposure accounts for about 0.2% of all deaths and 0.6% of <a href="/wiki/Disability_adjusted_life_years" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability adjusted life years">disability adjusted life years</a> globally.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Although regulation reducing lead in products has greatly reduced exposure in the developed world since the 1970s, lead is still allowed in products in many developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, as of June 2022, only 45% of countries had confirmed legally-binding controls on production and use of lead paint.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Significant disparities exist in the enactment of bans, with regions such as the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> currently the most likely to have countries lacking such measures. Despite phase out in many parts of the <a href="/wiki/Global_North" class="mw-redirect" title="Global North">Global North</a>, Global South exposure has increased by nearly three times.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> In all countries that have banned leaded gasoline, average blood lead levels have fallen sharply.<a href="#cite_note-Meyer08-MutatRes-239">[239]</a> However, some developing countries still allow leaded gasoline,<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> which is the primary source of lead exposure in most developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-Meyer-IntJHyge-75">[75]</a> Beyond exposure from gasoline, the frequent use of pesticides in developing countries adds a risk of lead exposure and subsequent poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> Poor children in developing countries are at especially high risk for lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Meyer-IntJHyge-75">[75]</a> Of North American children, 7% have blood lead levels above 10 μg/dL, whereas among Central and South American children, the percentage is 33–34%.<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> About one fifth of the world's <a href="/wiki/Disease_burden" title="Disease burden">disease burden</a> from lead poisoning occurs in the Western Pacific, and another fifth is in Southeast Asia.<a href="#cite_note-Payne08-216">[216]</a> In developed countries, people with low levels of education living in poorer areas are most at risk for elevated lead.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> In the US, the groups most at risk for lead exposure are the impoverished, city-dwellers, and immigrants.<a href="#cite_note-Cleveland08-72">[72]</a> African-American children and those living in old housing have also been found to be at elevated risk for high blood lead levels in the US.<a href="#cite_note-Jones09-250">[250]</a> Low-income people often live in old housing with lead paint, which may begin to peel, exposing residents to high levels of lead-containing dust. Risk factors for elevated lead exposure include alcohol consumption and smoking (possibly because of contamination of tobacco leaves with lead-containing pesticides).<a href="#cite_note-Hu07-181">[181]</a> Adults with certain risk factors might be more susceptible to toxicity; these include calcium and iron deficiencies, old age, disease of organs targeted by lead (e.g. the brain, the kidneys), and possibly genetic susceptibility.<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett07EnvironHealthPers-82">[82]</a> Differences in vulnerability to lead-induced neurological damage between males and females have also been found, but some studies have found males to be at greater risk, while others have found females to be.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger04-Pedi-36">[36]</a> In adults, blood lead levels steadily increase with increasing age.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> In adults of all ages, men have higher blood lead levels than women do.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> Children are more sensitive to elevated blood lead levels than adults are.<a href="#cite_note-Murata-251">[251]</a> Children may also have a higher intake of lead than adults; they breathe faster and may be more likely to have contact with and ingest soil.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041423-126">[126]</a> Children of ages one to three tend to have the highest blood lead levels, possibly because at that age they begin to walk and explore their environment, and they use their mouths in their exploration.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger04-Pedi-36">[36]</a> Blood levels usually peak at about 18–24 months old.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson03-19">[19]</a> In many countries including the US, household paint and dust are the major route of exposure in children.<a href="#cite_note-Dart041423-126">[126]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 224px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_showing_the_mean_blood_lead_levels_of_overall_adults_in_China_during_1980%E2%80%932018.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map showing the mean blood lead levels (BLLs) of adults in China during 1980–2018."><img alt="Map showing the mean blood lead levels (BLLs) of adults in China during 1980–2018." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Map_showing_the_mean_blood_lead_levels_of_overall_adults_in_China_during_1980%E2%80%932018.jpg/333px-Map_showing_the_mean_blood_lead_levels_of_overall_adults_in_China_during_1980%E2%80%932018.jpg" decoding="async" width="222" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Map_showing_the_mean_blood_lead_levels_of_overall_adults_in_China_during_1980%E2%80%932018.jpg/500px-Map_showing_the_mean_blood_lead_levels_of_overall_adults_in_China_during_1980%E2%80%932018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Map_showing_the_mean_blood_lead_levels_of_overall_adults_in_China_during_1980%E2%80%932018.jpg/666px-Map_showing_the_mean_blood_lead_levels_of_overall_adults_in_China_during_1980%E2%80%932018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1708" data-file-height="1309" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Map showing the mean blood lead levels (BLLs) of adults in China during 1980–2018.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 222px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 220px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Trend_of_blood_lead_levels_in_Chinese_adults_in_different_regions_from_1980_to_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Trend of blood lead levels (BLLs) in Chinese adults in different regions from 1980 to 2018. A decreasing trend was found in all regions except for South China.[252]"><img alt="Trend of blood lead levels (BLLs) in Chinese adults in different regions from 1980 to 2018. A decreasing trend was found in all regions except for South China.[252]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Trend_of_blood_lead_levels_in_Chinese_adults_in_different_regions_from_1980_to_2018.jpg/330px-Trend_of_blood_lead_levels_in_Chinese_adults_in_different_regions_from_1980_to_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Trend_of_blood_lead_levels_in_Chinese_adults_in_different_regions_from_1980_to_2018.jpg/496px-Trend_of_blood_lead_levels_in_Chinese_adults_in_different_regions_from_1980_to_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Trend_of_blood_lead_levels_in_Chinese_adults_in_different_regions_from_1980_to_2018.jpg/660px-Trend_of_blood_lead_levels_in_Chinese_adults_in_different_regions_from_1980_to_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3333" data-file-height="2575" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Trend of blood lead levels (BLLs) in Chinese adults in different regions from 1980 to 2018. A decreasing trend was found in all regions except for South China.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_cases">Notable cases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notable cases">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning_epidemics" title="Lead poisoning epidemics">Lead poisoning epidemics</a></div> Cases of mass lead poisoning can occur. In 2009, 15,000 people were planned to be relocated from <a href="/wiki/Jiyuan" title="Jiyuan">Jiyuan</a> in central <a href="/wiki/Henan_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Henan province">Henan province</a> to other locations after 1000 children living around China's largest smelter plant (owned and operated by Yuguang Gold and Lead) were found to have excess lead in their blood. The total cost of this project is estimated to around 1 billion yuan ($150 million). 70% of the cost was estimated to be paid by local government and the smelter company, while the rest would be paid by the residents themselves. The government suspended production at 32 of 35 lead plants.<a href="#cite_note-China_to_relocate_15,000_from_lead-poisoned_area-253">[253]</a> The affected area includes people from 10 different villages.<a href="#cite_note-China_to_move_residents_from_lead_smelter_base-report-254">[254]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] The <a href="/wiki/Zamfara_State_lead_poisoning_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Zamfara State lead poisoning epidemic">Zamfara State lead poisoning epidemic</a> occurred in Nigeria in 2010. As of 5 October 2010 at least 400 children have died from the effects of lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Aid_groups_say_lead_poisoning_has_killed_400_children_in_Nigeria-255">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sex-specific_susceptibility">Sex-specific susceptibility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Sex-specific susceptibility">edit</a>]</div> Neuroanatomical pathology due to lead exposure is more pronounced in males, suggesting that lead-related toxicity has a disparate impact across sexes.<a href="#cite_note-Cecil08-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prognosis">Prognosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Prognosis">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reversibility">Reversibility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Reversibility">edit</a>]</div> Outcome is related to the extent and duration of lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Chisolm04-223-256">[256]</a> Effects of lead on the physiology of the kidneys and blood are generally reversible; its effects on the central nervous system are not.<a href="#cite_note-Rubin08-267-64">[64]</a> While peripheral effects in adults often go away when lead exposure ceases, evidence suggests that most of lead's effects on a child's central nervous system are irreversible.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger04-Pedi-36">[36]</a> Children with lead poisoning may thus have adverse health, cognitive, and behavioral effects that follow them into adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-Woolf07-PedClin-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encephalopathy">Encephalopathy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Encephalopathy">edit</a>]</div> Lead encephalopathy is a medical emergency and causes permanent brain damage in 70–80% of children affected by it, even those that receive the best treatment.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-463-29">[29]</a> The mortality rate for people who develop cerebral involvement is about 25%, and of those who survive who had lead encephalopathy symptoms by the time chelation therapy was begun, about 40% have permanent neurological problems such as <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">cerebral palsy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brunton07-31-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Long-term">Long-term</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Long-term">edit</a>]</div> Exposure to lead may also decrease lifespan and have health effects in the long term.<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Death rates</a> from a variety of causes have been found to be higher in people with elevated blood lead levels; these include cancer, stroke, and heart disease, and general death rates from all causes.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> Lead is considered a possible human <a href="/wiki/Carcinogen" title="Carcinogen">carcinogen</a> based on evidence from <a href="/wiki/Animal_experimentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal experimentation">animal studies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Merrill07862-257">[257]</a> Evidence also suggests that age-related mental decline and psychiatric symptoms are correlated with lead exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Hu07-181">[181]</a> Cumulative exposure over a prolonged period may have a more important effect on some aspects of health than recent exposure.<a href="#cite_note-Hu07-181">[181]</a> Some health effects, such as <a href="/wiki/High_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="High blood pressure">high blood pressure</a>, are only significant risks when lead exposure is prolonged (over about one year).<a href="#cite_note-Kosnett07EnvironHealthPers-82">[82]</a> Furthermore, the neurological effects of lead exposure have been shown to be exacerbated and long lasting in low income children in comparison to those of higher economic standing.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> This does not imply that being wealthy can prevent lead from causing long-term mental health issues.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Violence">Violence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Violence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></div> Lead poisoning in children has been linked to changes in brain function that can result in low <a href="/wiki/Intelligence_quotient" title="Intelligence quotient">IQ</a> and increased impulsivity and aggression.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> These traits of childhood lead exposure are associated with crimes of passion, such as aggravated assault in young adults.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> An increase in lead exposure in children was linked to an increase in aggravated assault rates 22 years later.<a href="#cite_note-:1-262">[262]</a> For instance, the peak in <a href="/wiki/Leaded_gasoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaded gasoline">leaded gasoline</a> use in the late 1970s correlates with a peak in aggravated assault rates in the late 1990s in urban areas across the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-262">[262]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dioscorides01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="an ancient Greek black-and-white woodcut print of a middle aged bearded man. His left hand rests on a book and in his right he holds a plant." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Dioscorides01.jpg/170px-Dioscorides01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Dioscorides01.jpg/255px-Dioscorides01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Dioscorides01.jpg/340px-Dioscorides01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="493" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> noted lead's effect on the mind in the first century AD.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DSC00125_-_Tubi_di_piombo_romani_-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a block with two dull, dark gray metal spouts coming from the top. The spouts are chipped and very old-looking." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DSC00125_-_Tubi_di_piombo_romani_-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg/220px-DSC00125_-_Tubi_di_piombo_romani_-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DSC00125_-_Tubi_di_piombo_romani_-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg/330px-DSC00125_-_Tubi_di_piombo_romani_-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/DSC00125_-_Tubi_di_piombo_romani_-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg/440px-DSC00125_-_Tubi_di_piombo_romani_-_Foto_di_G._Dall%27Orto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Roman lead water pipes with taps</figcaption></figure> Lead poisoning was among the first known and most widely studied work-related <a href="/wiki/Environmental_hazard" title="Environmental hazard">environmental hazards</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Flora08-183">[183]</a> One of the first metals to be <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelted</a> and used,<a href="#cite_note-Henretig06-122">[122]</a> lead is thought to have been discovered and first <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mined</a> in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> around 6500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert06-124">[124]</a> Its density, workability, and corrosion resistance were among the metal's attractions.<a href="#cite_note-Flora08-183">[183]</a> In the 2nd century BC the Greek botanist <a href="/wiki/Nicander" title="Nicander">Nicander</a> described the <a href="/wiki/Colic" title="Colic">colic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a> seen in lead-poisoned people.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a>, a Greek physician who lived in the 1st century AD, wrote that lead makes the mind "give way".<a href="#cite_note-Henretig06-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-Needleman09-AnnEP-263">[263]</a> Lead was used extensively in <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Roman aqueducts</a> from about 500 BC to 300 AD.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert06-124">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>'s engineer, <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>, reported, "water is much more wholesome from <a href="/wiki/Earthenware" title="Earthenware">earthenware</a> pipes than from lead pipes. For it seems to be made injurious by lead, because <a href="/wiki/White_lead" title="White lead">white lead</a> is produced by it, and this is said to be harmful to the human body."<a href="#cite_note-Prioreschi98-264">[264]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gout" title="Gout">Gout</a>, prevalent in affluent Rome, is thought to be the result of lead, or leaded eating and drinking vessels. Sugar of lead (<a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_acetate" title="Lead(II) acetate">lead(II) acetate</a>) was used to sweeten wine, and the gout that resulted from this was known as "saturnine" gout.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> It is even hypothesized that lead poisoning may have contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Need2004-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Henretig06-122">[122]</a> a hypothesis thoroughly disputed: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The great disadvantage of lead has always been that it is poisonous. This was fully recognised by the ancients, and Vitruvius specifically warns against its use. Because it was nevertheless used in profusion for carrying drinking water, the conclusion has often been drawn that the Romans must therefore have suffered from lead poisoning; sometimes conclusions are carried even further and it is inferred that this caused infertility and other unwelcome conditions, and that lead plumbing was largely responsible for the decline and fall of Rome. Two things make this otherwise attractive hypothesis impossible. First, the <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> deposit that formed so thickly inside the <a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(watercourse)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqueduct (watercourse)">aqueduct</a> channels also formed inside the pipes, effectively insulating the water from the lead, so that the two never touched. Second, because the Romans had so few <a href="/wiki/Faucet" class="mw-redirect" title="Faucet">taps</a> and the water was constantly running, it was never inside the pipes for more than a few minutes, and certainly not long enough to become contaminated.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a></blockquote> However, recent research supports the idea that the lead found in the water came from the supply pipes, rather than another source of contamination. It was not unknown for locals to punch holes in the pipes to draw water off, increasing the number of people exposed to the lead. Romans also consumed lead through the consumption of <a href="/wiki/Defrutum" class="mw-redirect" title="Defrutum">defrutum, carenum, and sapa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">musts</a> made by boiling down fruit in lead cookware. Defrutum and its relatives were used in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">ancient Roman cuisine</a> and cosmetics, including as a <a href="/wiki/Food_preservative" class="mw-redirect" title="Food preservative">food preservative</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brighton-267">[267]</a> The use of leaden cookware, though popular, was not the general standard and copper cookware was used far more generally. There is also no indication how often sapa was added or in what quantity. In 1983, environmental chemist <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Nriagu" title="Jerome Nriagu">Jerome Nriagu</a> argued in a milestone paper that Roman civilization collapsed as a result of lead poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-pmid6338384-268">[268]</a> <a href="/wiki/Clair_Patterson" class="mw-redirect" title="Clair Patterson">Clair Patterson</a>, the scientist who convinced governments to ban lead from gasoline, enthusiastically endorsed this idea, which nevertheless triggered a volley of publications aimed at refuting it. In 1984, John Scarborough, a pharmacologist and classicist, criticized the conclusions drawn by Nriagu's book as "so full of false evidence, miscitations, typographical errors, and a blatant flippancy regarding primary sources that the reader cannot trust the basic arguments."<a href="#cite_note-pmid6389691-269">[269]</a> Although today lead is no longer seen as the prime culprit of Rome's demise, its status in the system of water distribution by lead pipes (fistulæ) still stands as a major public health issue. By measuring Pb isotope compositions of sediments from the Tiber River and the Trajanic Harbor, the present work shows that "tap water" from ancient Rome had 100 times more lead than local spring waters.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Classical_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Antiquity">antiquity</a>, mention of lead poisoning was absent from <a href="/wiki/Medical_literature" title="Medical literature">medical literature</a> until the end of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hernberg00-273">[273]</a> In 1656 the German physician <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Stockhausen" title="Samuel Stockhausen">Samuel Stockhausen</a> recognized dust and fumes containing lead compounds as the cause of disease, called since ancient Roman times morbi metallici, that were known to afflict miners, smelter workers, <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">potters</a>, and others whose work exposed them to the metal.<a href="#cite_note-Eisinger-colic-274">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gochfeld-history-275">[275]</a> The painter <a href="/wiki/Caravaggio" title="Caravaggio">Caravaggio</a> might have died of lead poisoning. Bones with high lead levels were recently found in a grave thought likely to be his.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> Paints used at the time contained high amounts of lead salts. Caravaggio is known to have exhibited violent behavior, a symptom commonly associated with lead poisoning. In 17th-century Germany, the physician <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_Gockel" title="Eberhard Gockel">Eberhard Gockel</a> discovered lead-contaminated wine to be the cause of an epidemic of <a href="/wiki/Colic" title="Colic">colic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eisinger-colic-274">[274]</a> He had noticed that monks who did not drink wine were healthy, while wine drinkers developed colic,<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> and traced the cause to sugar of lead, made by simmering <a href="/wiki/Litharge" title="Litharge">litharge</a> with vinegar.<a href="#cite_note-Eisinger-colic-274">[274]</a> As a result, <a href="/wiki/Eberhard_Ludwig,_Duke_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Eberhard Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg">Eberhard Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg</a> issued an <a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">edict</a> in 1696 banning the adulteration of wines with litharge.<a href="#cite_note-Eisinger-colic-274">[274]</a> In the 18th century lead poisoning was fairly frequent on account of the widespread drinking of <a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a>, which was made in <a href="/wiki/Still" title="Still">stills</a> with a lead component (the "worm"). It was a significant cause of mortality amongst slaves and sailors in the colonial West Indies.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Lead poisoning from rum was also noted in <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a>.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> suspected lead to be a risk in 1786.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> Also in the 18th century, "<a href="/wiki/Devonshire_colic" class="mw-redirect" title="Devonshire colic">Devonshire colic</a>" was the name given to the symptoms experienced by people of <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> who drank cider made in <a href="/wiki/Fruit_press" title="Fruit press">presses</a> that were lined with lead.<a href="#cite_note-Pearce07-EurNeurol-32">[32]</a> Lead was added to cheap wine illegally in the 18th and early 19th centuries as a sweetener.<a href="#cite_note-Mai06-JRColl-281">[281]</a> The composer <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_van_Beethoven" title="Ludwig van Beethoven">Beethoven</a>, a heavy wine drinker, had elevated lead levels (as later detected in his <a href="/wiki/Human_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Human hair">hair</a>) possibly due to this; lead poisoning is a contender as a factor to his <a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">hearing loss</a> and death (cause of which is still controversial).<a href="#cite_note-Mai06-JRColl-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> With the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> in the 19th century, lead poisoning became common in the work setting.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig06-122">[122]</a> The introduction of lead paint for residential use in the 19th century increased childhood exposure to lead; for millennia before this, most lead exposure had been <a href="/wiki/Occupational_disease" title="Occupational disease">occupational</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger04-Pedi-36">[36]</a> The first legislation in the UK to limit pottery workers' exposure to lead was included in the <a href="/wiki/Factory_Acts#Factories_Act_Extension_Act_1867" title="Factory Acts">Factories Act Extension Act in 1864</a>, with further introduced in 1899.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_James_Furnival&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William James Furnival (page does not exist)">William James Furnival</a> (1853–1928), research ceramist of City & Guilds London Institute, appeared before Parliament in 1901 and presented a decade's evidence to convince the nation's leaders to remove lead completely from the British ceramic industry. His 852-page treatise, Leadless Decorative Tiles, Faience, and Mosaic of 1904 published that campaign and provided recipes to promote lead-free ceramics.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> At the request of the Illinois state government in the US, <a href="/wiki/Alice_Hamilton" title="Alice Hamilton">Alice Hamilton</a> (1869–1970) documented lead toxicity in Illinois industry and in 1911 presented results to the 23rd Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> Hamilton was a founder of the field of <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational safety and health</a> and published the first edition of her manual, Industrial Toxicology, in 1934, yet in print in revised forms.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> An important step in the understanding of childhood lead poisoning occurred when <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> in children from lead paint was recognized in Australia in 1897.<a href="#cite_note-Henretig06-122">[122]</a> France, Belgium, and Austria banned white lead interior paints in 1909; the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> followed suit in 1922.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert06-124">[124]</a> However, in the United States, laws banning lead house paint were not passed until 1971, and it was phased out and not fully banned until 1978.<a href="#cite_note-Gilbert06-124">[124]</a> The 20th century saw an increase in worldwide lead exposure levels due to the increased widespread use of the metal.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-757-289">[289]</a> Beginning in the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Gasoline#Tetraethyl_lead" title="Gasoline">lead was added to gasoline</a> to improve its <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a>; lead from this <a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">exhaust</a> persists today in soil and dust in buildings.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> Midcentury ceramicist <a href="/wiki/Carol_Janeway" title="Carol Janeway">Carol Janeway</a> provides a case history of lead poisoning in an artist using lead glazes in decorating tiles in the 1940s; her monograph suggests that other artists' potential for lead poisoning be investigated, for example <a href="/wiki/Vally_Wieselthier" title="Vally Wieselthier">Vally Wieselthier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dora_Carrington" title="Dora Carrington">Dora Carrington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> Blood lead levels worldwide have been declining sharply since the 1980s, when leaded gasoline began to be phased out.<a href="#cite_note-Rossi09-22">[22]</a> In those countries that have banned lead in <a href="/wiki/Solder" title="Solder">solder</a> for food and drink cans and have banned leaded <a href="/wiki/Gasoline_additive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gasoline additive">gasoline additives</a>, blood lead levels have fallen sharply since the mid-1980s.<a href="#cite_note-Mycyk05-467-291">[291]</a> The levels found today in most people are orders of magnitude greater than those of <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">pre-industrial society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Merrill07861-78">[78]</a> Due to reductions of lead in products and the workplace, acute lead poisoning is rare in most countries today, but low-level lead exposure is still common.<a href="#cite_note-Chiras09-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> It was not until the second half of the 20th century that <a href="/wiki/Subclinical" class="mw-redirect" title="Subclinical">subclinical</a> lead exposure became understood to be a problem.<a href="#cite_note-Hernberg00-273">[273]</a> During the end of the 20th century, the blood lead levels deemed acceptable steadily declined.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-758-294">[294]</a> Blood lead levels once considered safe are now considered hazardous, with no known safe threshold.<a href="#cite_note-Sanborn-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> In the late 1950s through the 1970s <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Needleman" title="Herbert Needleman">Herbert Needleman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clair_Cameron_Patterson" title="Clair Cameron Patterson">Clair Cameron Patterson</a> did research trying to prove lead's toxicity to humans.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> In the 1980s Needleman was falsely accused of scientific misconduct by lead industry associates.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> In 2002 <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Thompson" title="Tommy Thompson">Tommy Thompson</a>, United States Secretary of Health and Human Services, appointed at least two persons with <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflicts of interest</a> to the CDC's Lead Advisory Committee.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> In 2014 a case by the State of California against a number of companies decided against <a href="/wiki/Sherwin-Williams" title="Sherwin-Williams">Sherwin-Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/NL_Industries" title="NL Industries">NL Industries</a> and <a href="/wiki/ConAgra" class="mw-redirect" title="ConAgra">ConAgra</a> and ordered them to pay $1.15 billion.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> The disposition of The People v. ConAgra Grocery Products Company et al. in the California 6th Appellate District Court on 14 November 2017 is that:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... the judgment is reversed, and the matter is remanded to the trial court with directions to (1) recalculate the amount of the abatement fund to limit it to the amount necessary to cover the cost of remediating pre-1951 homes, and (2) hold an evidentiary hearing regarding the appointment of a suitable receiver. The Plaintiff shall recover its costs on appeal.<a href="#cite_note-PeopleVsConagra-302">[302]</a></blockquote> On 6 December 2017, the petitions for rehearing from NL Industries, Inc., ConAgra Grocery Products Company and The Sherwin-Williams Company were denied.<a href="#cite_note-PeopleVsConagra-302">[302]</a> Studies have found a weak link between lead from leaded gasoline and crime rates.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> As of 2022<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit">[update]</a> in the United States lead paint in rental housing remains a hazard to children. Both landlords and insurance companies have adopted strategies which limit the chance of recovery for damages due to lead poisoning: insurance companies by excluding coverage for lead poisoning from policies and landlords by crafting barriers to collection of any money damages compensating plaintiffs for damage.<a href="#cite_note-NYT32922-304">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_species">Other species</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Other species">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animal_lead_poisoning" title="Animal lead poisoning">Animal lead poisoning</a></div> Humans are not alone in suffering from lead's effects; plants and animals are also affected by lead toxicity to varying degrees depending on species.<a href="#cite_note-Yu05-188-134">[134]</a> Animals experience many of the same effects of lead exposure as humans do, such as abdominal pain, peripheral <a href="/wiki/Neuropathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuropathy">neuropathy</a>, and behavioral changes such as increased aggression.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> Much of what is known about human lead toxicity and its effects is derived from animal studies.<a href="#cite_note-Bellinger04-Pedi-36">[36]</a> Animals are used to test the effects of treatments, such as chelating agents,<a href="#cite_note-Redig08-305">[305]</a> and to provide information on the pathophysiology of lead, such as how it is absorbed and distributed in the body.<a href="#cite_note-Grant09-768-71-306">[306]</a> Farm animals such as cows and horses<a href="#cite_note-Neathery-307">[307]</a> as well as pet animals are also susceptible to the effects of lead toxicity.<a href="#cite_note-Lightfoot08-VetClin-237">[237]</a> Sources of lead exposure in pets can be the same as those that present health threats to humans sharing the environment, such as paint and blinds, and there is sometimes lead in toys made for pets.<a href="#cite_note-Lightfoot08-VetClin-237">[237]</a> Lead poisoning in a pet dog may indicate that children in the same household are at increased risk for elevated lead levels.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildlife">Wildlife</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Wildlife">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Condor_de_Calofornie.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A large tan bird of prey with dark brown neck feathers and a bare red head sits on a dead cow in a desert with dead grass and scrub" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Condor_de_Calofornie.jpg/220px-Condor_de_Calofornie.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Condor_de_Calofornie.jpg/330px-Condor_de_Calofornie.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Condor_de_Calofornie.jpg/440px-Condor_de_Calofornie.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Turkey_vultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkey vultures">Turkey vultures</a> (Cathartes aura, shown), and <a href="/wiki/California_condor" title="California condor">California condors</a> can be poisoned when they eat carcasses of animals shot with lead pellets.</figcaption></figure> Lead, one of the leading causes of toxicity in waterfowl, has been known to cause die-offs of wild bird populations.<a href="#cite_note-Lightfoot08-VetClin-237">[237]</a> When hunters use <a href="/wiki/Lead_shot" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead shot">lead shot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waterfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterfowl">waterfowl</a> such as ducks can ingest the spent pellets later and be poisoned; predators that eat these birds are also at risk.<a href="#cite_note-Ferreyra09-308">[308]</a> Lead shot-related waterfowl poisonings were first documented in the US in the 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> By 1919, the spent lead pellets from waterfowl hunting was positively identified as the source of waterfowl deaths.<a href="#cite_note-FedCartridge-309">[309]</a> Lead shot has been banned for hunting waterfowl in several countries,<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> including the US in 1991 and Canada in 1997.<a href="#cite_note-Degernes08-VetClin-310">[310]</a> Other threats to wildlife include lead paint, sediment from lead mines and smelters, and lead weights from fishing lines.<a href="#cite_note-Degernes08-VetClin-310">[310]</a> Lead in some fishing gear has been banned in several countries.<a href="#cite_note-Pokras08-Ecohealth-54">[54]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Critically_endangered_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Critically endangered species">critically endangered</a> <a href="/wiki/California_condor" title="California condor">California condor</a> has also been affected by lead poisoning. As <a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">scavengers</a>, condors eat carcasses of game that have been shot but not retrieved, and with them the fragments from lead bullets; this increases their lead levels.<a href="#cite_note-Green08PLoS-311">[311]</a> Among condors around the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a>, lead poisoning due to eating lead shot is the most frequently diagnosed cause of death.<a href="#cite_note-Green08PLoS-311">[311]</a> In an effort to protect this species, in areas designated as the California condor's range the use of projectiles containing lead has been banned to hunt deer, feral pigs, elk, pronghorn antelope, coyotes, ground squirrels, and other non-game wildlife.<a href="#cite_note-leadout-312">[312]</a> Also, conservation programs exist which routinely capture condors, check their blood lead levels, and treat cases of poisoning.<a href="#cite_note-Green08PLoS-311">[311]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2015_incidents_of_lead_in_drinking_water_in_Hong_Kong" title="2015 incidents of lead in drinking water in Hong Kong">2015 incidents of lead in drinking water in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chocolate#Lead" title="Chocolate"> Lead in chocolate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_abatement" title="Lead abatement">Lead abatement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-based_paint_in_the_United_States" title="Lead-based paint in the United States">Lead-based paint in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead#Production" title="Lead"> Lead production and applications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_building_syndrome" title="Sick building syndrome">Sick building syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance-induced_psychosis" title="Substance-induced psychosis">Substance-induced psychosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_factors_of_schizophrenia" title="Risk factors of schizophrenia">Risk factors of schizophrenia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CDC2013Sym-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2013Sym_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2013Sym_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2013Sym_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC2013Sym_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/lead/health.html">"Lead Information for Workers"</a>. 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Current Medical Diagnosis and Treatment (46th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-147247-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-147247-0"><bdi>978-0-07-147247-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Poisoning&rft.btitle=Current+Medical+Diagnosis+and+Treatment&rft.edition=46th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-07-147247-0&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=KR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcurrentmedicaldi0046unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson03" class="citation book cs1">Pearson HA, Schonfeld DJ (2003). "Lead". In Rudolph CD (ed.). Rudolph's Pediatrics (21st ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-8285-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-8285-5"><bdi>978-0-8385-8285-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Lead&rft.btitle=Rudolph%27s+Pediatrics&rft.edition=21st&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-8285-5&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=HA&rft.au=Schonfeld%2C+DJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRambousek08" class="citation book cs1">Rambousek AJ, ed. (2008). "The symptoms and treatment of industrial poisoning". Industrial Poisoning from Fumes, Gases, and Poisons of Manufacturing Processes. READ BOOKS. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4086-7025-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4086-7025-5"><bdi>978-1-4086-7025-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+symptoms+and+treatment+of+industrial+poisoning&rft.btitle=Industrial+Poisoning+from+Fumes%2C+Gases%2C+and+Poisons+of+Manufacturing+Processes&rft.pub=READ+BOOKS&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4086-7025-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin08" class="citation book cs1">Rubin R, Strayer DS, eds. (2008). "Environmental and nutritional pathology". Rubin's Pathology: Clinicopathologic Foundations of Medicine (5th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-9516-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-9516-6"><bdi>978-0-7817-9516-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Environmental+and+nutritional+pathology&rft.btitle=Rubin%27s+Pathology%3A+Clinicopathologic+Foundations+of+Medicine&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-9516-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalvato03" class="citation book cs1">Salvato JA, Nemerow NL, Agardy FJ, eds. (2003). "Noninfectious and noncommunicable diseases and conditions associated with the environment, including air, water, and food". Environmental Engineering (5th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-41813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-41813-9"><bdi>978-0-471-41813-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Noninfectious+and+noncommunicable+diseases+and+conditions+associated+with+the+environment%2C+including+air%2C+water%2C+and+food&rft.btitle=Environmental+Engineering&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-41813-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrevor07" class="citation book cs1">Trevor AJ, Katzung BG, Masters SB, eds. (2007). "Heavy metals". Katzung & Trevor's Pharmacology: Examination & Board Review (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148869-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-148869-3"><bdi>978-0-07-148869-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Heavy+metals&rft.btitle=Katzung+%26+Trevor%27s+Pharmacology%3A+Examination+%26+Board+Review&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-07-148869-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu05" class="citation book cs1">Yu MH (2005). "Soil and water pollution: Environmental metals and metalloids". Environmental Toxicology: Biological and Health Effects of Pollutants. CRC Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-670-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56670-670-4"><bdi>978-1-56670-670-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Soil+and+water+pollution%3A+Environmental+metals+and+metalloids&rft.btitle=Environmental+Toxicology%3A+Biological+and+Health+Effects+of+Pollutants&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-56670-670-4&rft.aulast=Yu&rft.aufirst=MH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBinnsRicks" class="citation web cs1">Binns HJ, Ricks OB. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040505072838/http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/lead.html">"Helping Parents Prevent Lead Poisoning"</a>. ERIC Digest. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/lead.html">the original</a> on 2004-05-05. Retrieved 2004-06-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ERIC+Digest&rft.atitle=Helping+Parents+Prevent+Lead+Poisoning&rft.aulast=Binns&rft.aufirst=HJ&rft.au=Ricks%2C+OB&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ericdigests.org%2F2003-2%2Flead.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaralus2010" class="citation journal cs1">Karalus DE (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6m68b873">"Review: The Great Lead Water Pipe Disaster"</a>. Electronic Green Journal. 1 (29). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5070%2FG312910819">10.5070/G312910819</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Green+Journal&rft.atitle=Review%3A+The+Great+Lead+Water+Pipe+Disaster&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=29&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5070%2FG312910819&rft.aulast=Karalus&rft.aufirst=Daniel+E&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F6m68b873&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKüpper2017" class="citation book cs1">Küpper H (2017). "Chapter 15. Lead Toxicity in Plants". In Astrid S, Helmut S, Sigel RK (eds.). Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 17. de Gruyter. pp. 491–500. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110434330-015">10.1515/9783110434330-015</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-043433-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-043433-0"><bdi>978-3-11-043433-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28731308">28731308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15.+Lead+Toxicity+in+Plants&rft.btitle=Lead%3A+Its+Effects+on+Environment+and+Health&rft.series=Metal+Ions+in+Life+Sciences&rft.pages=491-500&rft.pub=de+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28731308&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110434330-015&rft.isbn=978-3-11-043433-0&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCpper&rft.aufirst=Hendrik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuHaoZengDai2013" class="citation journal cs1">Liu KS, Hao JH, Zeng Y, Dai FC, Gu PQ (September 2013). "Neurotoxicity and biomarkers of lead exposure: a review". Chin Med Sci J. 28 (3): 178–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1001-9294%2813%2960045-0">10.1016/s1001-9294(13)60045-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24074621">24074621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chin+Med+Sci+J&rft.atitle=Neurotoxicity+and+biomarkers+of+lead+exposure%3A+a+review&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=178-88&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1001-9294%2813%2960045-0&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24074621&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=KS&rft.au=Hao%2C+JH&rft.au=Zeng%2C+Y&rft.au=Dai%2C+FC&rft.au=Gu%2C+PQ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrdemannAustin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ordemann JM, Austin RN (June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fc5mt00300h">"Lead neurotoxicity: exploring the potential impact of lead substitution in zinc-finger proteins on mental health"</a>. Metallomics. 8 (6): 579–88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fc5mt00300h">10.1039/c5mt00300h</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26745006">26745006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metallomics&rft.atitle=Lead+neurotoxicity%3A+exploring+the+potential+impact+of+lead+substitution+in+zinc-finger+proteins+on+mental+health&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=579-88&rft.date=2016-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fc5mt00300h&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26745006&rft.aulast=Ordemann&rft.aufirst=JM&rft.au=Austin%2C+RN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1039%252Fc5mt00300h&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVorvolakosArseniouSamakouri2016" class="citation journal cs1">Vorvolakos T, Arseniou S, Samakouri M (2016). "There is no safe threshold for lead exposure: Α literature review". Psychiatriki. 27 (3): 204–214. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22365%2Fjpsych.2016.273.204">10.22365/jpsych.2016.273.204</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27837574">27837574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Psychiatriki&rft.atitle=There+is+no+safe+threshold+for+lead+exposure%3A+%CE%91+literature+review&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=204-214&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22365%2Fjpsych.2016.273.204&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27837574&rft.aulast=Vorvolakos&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Arseniou%2C+S&rft.au=Samakouri%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead_poisoning&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry2007" class="citation web cs1">Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (August 20, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.html">"Lead Toxicity"</a>. Environmental Health and Medicine Education. U.S. <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Health and Human Services">Department of Health and Human Services</a>. Course: WB 1105.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Health+and+Medicine+Education&rft.atitle=Lead+Toxicity&rft.date=2007-08-20&rft.au=Agency+for+Toxic+Substances+and+Disease+Registry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atsdr.cdc.gov%2Fcsem%2Fcsem.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry" class="citation web cs1">Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/MMG/MMGDetails.aspx?mmgid=1203&toxid=22">"Lead | Medical Management Guidelines | Toxic Substance Portal | ATSDR"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lead+%26%23124%3B+Medical+Management+Guidelines+%26%23124%3B+Toxic+Substance+Portal+%26%23124%3B+ATSDR&rft.au=Agency+for+Toxic+Substances+and+Disease+Registry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwwn.cdc.gov%2FTSP%2FMMG%2FMMGDetails.aspx%3Fmmgid%3D1203%26toxid%3D22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxProfiles/ToxProfiles.aspx?id=96&tid=22">"Toxicological Profile for Lead"</a>. ATSDR, CDC. 2020. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15620%2Fcdc%3A95222">10.15620/cdc:95222</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fmdp.39015026228240">2027/mdp.39015026228240</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:264640267">264640267</a>. Retrieved May 11, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Toxicological+Profile+for+Lead&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fmdp.39015026228240&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A264640267%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15620%2Fcdc%3A95222&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwwn.cdc.gov%2FTSP%2FToxProfiles%2FToxProfiles.aspx%3Fid%3D96%26tid%3D22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) Peer-reviewed profile that characterizes the toxicology and health effects information, identifies and reviews the key literature that describes lead's toxicological properties.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealth_and_Safety_Executive_UK" class="citation web cs1">Health and Safety Executive UK. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hse.gov.uk/lead/">"Lead"</a>. Working safely with lead. HSE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Working+safely+with+lead&rft.atitle=Lead&rft.au=Health+and+Safety+Executive+UK&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hse.gov.uk%2Flead%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2007" class="citation news cs1">Katz NL (June 26, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110603180052/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/2007/06/26/2007-06-26_12m_for_toxic_hell.html">"City payout to Brooklyn family largest ever in lead poisoning"</a>. NY Daily News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nydailynews.com/news/2007/06/26/2007-06-26_12m_for_toxic_hell.html">the original</a> on 2011-06-03. Retrieved 2009-09-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NY+Daily+News&rft.atitle=City+payout+to+Brooklyn+family+largest+ever+in+lead+poisoning&rft.date=2007-06-26&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=NL&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nydailynews.com%2Fnews%2F2007%2F06%2F26%2F2007-06-26_12m_for_toxic_hell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health2018" class="citation web cs1">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2018-06-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/lead/">"Lead"</a>. NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topics. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIOSH+Workplace+Safety+%26+Health+Topics&rft.atitle=Lead&rft.date=2018-06-20&rft.au=National+Institute+for+Occupational+Safety+and+Health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Ftopics%2Flead%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Pollutant_Inventory" class="citation web cs1">National Pollutant Inventory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120320030408/http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/lead/health.html">"Lead and compounds: Health effects"</a>. Fact Sheets. Canberra, Australia: Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.npi.gov.au/substances/lead/health.html">the original</a> on 2012-03-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fact+Sheets&rft.atitle=Lead+and+compounds%3A+Health+effects&rft.au=National+Pollutant+Inventory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.npi.gov.au%2Fsubstances%2Flead%2Fhealth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Safety_Council2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Safety_Council" title="National Safety Council">National Safety Council</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171222135408/http://www.nsc.org/NSCDocuments_Advocacy/Fact%20Sheets/Lead-Poisoning-Fact-Sheet.pdf">"Lead Poisoning"</a> (PDF). Fact Sheets. Itasca, Illinois, U.S.: National Safety Council. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsc.org/NSCDocuments_Advocacy/Fact%20Sheets/Lead-Poisoning-Fact-Sheet.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2017-12-22. Retrieved 2016-06-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Fact+Sheets&rft.atitle=Lead+Poisoning&rft.date=2008&rft.au=National+Safety+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsc.org%2FNSCDocuments_Advocacy%2FFact%2520Sheets%2FLead-Poisoning-Fact-Sheet.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Associated_Press2023" class="citation web cs1">The Associated Press (30 Nov 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/2023/11/30/1216034743/lead-pipe-rules-drinking-water-epa-flint">"Biden administration proposes strictest lead pipe rules in more than three decades"</a>. NPR. Retrieved 13 Mar 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Biden+administration+proposes+strictest+lead+pipe+rules+in+more+than+three+decades&rft.date=2023-11-30&rft.au=The+Associated+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2F2023%2F11%2F30%2F1216034743%2Flead-pipe-rules-drinking-water-epa-flint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavenport2023" class="citation web cs1">Davenport C (12 Jul 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/12/climate/epa-lead-dust-homes.html">"E.P.A. Proposes Tighter Limits on Lead Dust in Homes and Child Care Facilities"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 13 Mar 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=E.P.A.+Proposes+Tighter+Limits+on+Lead+Dust+in+Homes+and+Child+Care+Facilities&rft.date=2023-07-12&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=Coral&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2023%2F07%2F12%2Fclimate%2Fepa-lead-dust-homes.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALead+poisoning" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110315" class="extiw" title="d:Q110315">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/T56.0">T56.0</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=984.9">984.9</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007855">D007855</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb7307.htm">7307</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002473.htm">002473</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/815399-overview">article/815399</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_UK" title="Patient UK">Patient UK</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patient.info/doctor/Lead-Poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Orphanet" title="Orphanet">Orphanet</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orpha.net/consor/cgi-bin/OC_Exp.php?lng=en&Expert=330015">330015</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="*_Poisoning_*_Toxicity_*_Overdose" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Template:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Template talk:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Poisoning_and_toxicity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Poisoning and toxicity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="*_Poisoning_*_Toxicity_*_Overdose" class="hlist" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poisoning" title="Poisoning">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">Toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Overdose</a></li></ul> </div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_poison" title="History of poison">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">Metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toxic_metal" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic metal">Toxic metals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beryllium_poisoning" title="Beryllium poisoning">Beryllium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_poisoning" title="Cadmium poisoning">Cadmium</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel#Toxicity" title="Nickel">Nickel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallium_poisoning" title="Thallium poisoning">Thallium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_poisoning" title="Tin poisoning">Tin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dietary_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary mineral">Dietary minerals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_toxicity" title="Chromium toxicity">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_poisoning" title="Cobalt poisoning">Cobalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_toxicity" title="Copper toxicity">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_poisoning" title="Iron poisoning">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganism" title="Manganism">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_toxicity" title="Zinc toxicity">Zinc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other non-toxic metals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">Silver</a>1</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metalloid" title="Metalloid">Metalloids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">Arsenic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nonmetal_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonmetal (chemistry)">Nonmetals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid_poisoning" title="Sulfuric acid poisoning">Sulfuric acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium#Toxicity" title="Selenium">Selenium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine_gas_poisoning" title="Chlorine gas poisoning">Chlorine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoride_toxicity" title="Fluoride toxicity">Fluoride</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide_poisoning" title="Pesticide poisoning">Pesticides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_phosphide_poisoning" title="Aluminium phosphide poisoning">Aluminium phosphide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organophosphate_poisoning" title="Organophosphate poisoning">Organophosphates</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanide_poisoning" title="Cyanide poisoning">Cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotine_poisoning" title="Nicotine poisoning">Nicotine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dioxide_poisoning" title="Nitrogen dioxide poisoning">Nitrogen dioxide poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">CHO</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Short-term_effects_of_alcohol_consumption#Excessive_doses" title="Short-term effects of alcohol consumption">Ethanol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylene_glycol_poisoning" title="Ethylene glycol poisoning">Ethylene glycol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methanol_toxicity" title="Methanol toxicity">Methanol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toluene_toxicity" title="Toluene toxicity">Toluene</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">Pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Drug_overdoses" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drug_overdose" title="Drug overdose">Drug overdoses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_intoxication" title="Alcohol intoxication">Alcohol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticholinesterase_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Anticholinesterase poisoning">Anticholinesterase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspirin_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspirin poisoning">Aspirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbiturate_overdose" title="Barbiturate overdose">Barbiturates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_overdose" title="Benzodiazepine overdose">Benzodiazepines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_toxicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cocaine toxicity">Cocaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_toxicity" title="Lithium toxicity">Lithium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_overdose" title="Opioid overdose">Opioids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paracetamol_poisoning" title="Paracetamol poisoning">Paracetamol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin_syndrome" title="Serotonin syndrome">Serotonergic substances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricyclic_antidepressant_overdose" title="Tricyclic antidepressant overdose">Tricyclic antidepressants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular system">Cardiovascular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digoxin_toxicity" title="Digoxin toxicity">Digoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dipyridamole#Overdose" title="Dipyridamole">Dipyridamole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin poisoning">Vitamin poisoning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_A" title="Hypervitaminosis A">Vitamin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis D">Vitamin D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_E" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis E">Vitamin E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megavitamin-B6_syndrome" title="Megavitamin-B6 syndrome">Megavitamin-B6 syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Venomous_fish" title="Venomous fish">Fish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Seafood" title="Seafood">Seafood</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciguatera" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciguatera">Ciguatera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haff_disease" title="Haff disease">Haff disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyoallyeinotoxism" title="Ichthyoallyeinotoxism">Ichthyoallyeinotoxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scombroid_food_poisoning" title="Scombroid food poisoning">Scombroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amnesic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Amnesic shellfish poisoning">Amnesic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhetic_shellfish_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning">Diarrhetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurotoxic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning">Neurotoxic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralytic_shellfish_poisoning" title="Paralytic shellfish poisoning">Paralytic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poisonous_amphibian" title="Poisonous amphibian">Amphibian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batrachotoxin" title="Batrachotoxin">Batrachotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombesin" title="Bombesin">Bombesin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bufotenin" title="Bufotenin">Bufotenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physalaemin" title="Physalaemin">Physalaemin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_bird" title="Toxic bird">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coturnism" title="Coturnism">Coturnism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomous_mammal" title="Venomous mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venomous_snake" title="Venomous snake">Snakes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Snake_venom" title="Snake venom">Snake venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-Bungarotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Bungarotoxin">Alpha-Bungarotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancrod" title="Ancrod">Ancrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batroxobin" title="Batroxobin">Batroxobin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthropod_bites_and_stings" title="Arthropod bites and stings">Arthropod bites and stings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bee_sting" title="Bee sting">Bee sting</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apitoxin" title="Apitoxin">Bee venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apamin" title="Apamin">Apamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melittin" title="Melittin">Melittin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpion_venom" class="mw-redirect" title="Scorpion venom">Scorpion venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charybdotoxin" title="Charybdotoxin">Charybdotoxin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spider_bite" title="Spider bite">spider venom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latrotoxin" title="Latrotoxin">Latrotoxin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Latrodectism" title="Latrodectism">Latrodectism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loxoscelism" title="Loxoscelism">Loxoscelism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick_paralysis" title="Tick paralysis">Tick paralysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_plants" title="List of poisonous plants">Plants</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_fungus_species" title="List of poisonous fungus species">Fungi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinchonism" title="Cinchonism">Cinchonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergotism" title="Ergotism">Ergotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_toxins" title="Fish toxins">Fish toxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lathyrism" title="Lathyrism">Lathyrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locoweed" title="Locoweed">Locoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_poisoning" title="Mushroom poisoning">Mushroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strychnine_poisoning" title="Strychnine poisoning">Strychnine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite" title="Animal bite">Bite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stinger" title="Stinger">Stinger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stinging_plant" title="Stinging plant">plant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">Cnidocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_venomous_animals" title="List of venomous animals">Venomous animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_poisonous_animals" title="List of poisonous animals">Poisonous animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_deadly_fungus_species" title="List of deadly fungus species">Deadly fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxicology" title="Mycotoxicology">Mycotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances" title="EPA list of extremely hazardous substances">EPA list of hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_poisonings" title="Lists of poisonings">Lists of poisonings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_poison" title="List of types of poison">List of types of poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="1Silver_is_generally_non-toxic_metal,_but_in_large_doses_it_can_lead_to_argyria,_which_is_rare._2_including_venoms,_toxins,_foodborne_illnesses.">1<a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> is generally non-toxic metal, but in large doses it can lead to <a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">argyria</a>, which is rare. 2 including <a href="/wiki/Venom" title="Venom">venoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">foodborne illnesses</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Toxicology" title="Category:Toxicology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Toxicology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Toxicology">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Toxicology" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Toxicology">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Elements_in_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Elements_in_biology" title="Template:Elements in biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Elements_in_biology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Elements in biology (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Elements_in_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Elements in biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_in_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements in biology</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_in_biology" title="Sodium in biology">Sodium in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_in_biology" title="Magnesium in biology">Magnesium in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_in_biology" title="Potassium in biology">Potassium in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_in_biology" title="Calcium in biology">Calcium in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese_in_biology" title="Manganese in biology">Manganese in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_in_biology" title="Iron in biology">Iron in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_in_biology" title="Cobalt in biology">Cobalt in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_in_biology" title="Copper in biology">Copper in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_in_biology" title="Zinc in biology">Zinc in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium_in_biology" title="Selenium in biology">Selenium in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_in_biology" title="Molybdenum in biology">Molybdenum in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine_in_biology" title="Iodine in biology">Iodine in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_biochemistry" title="Arsenic biochemistry">Arsenic biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_aspects_of_fluorine" title="Biological aspects of fluorine">Biological aspects of fluorine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/CHONPS" class="mw-redirect" title="CHONPS">CHONPS</a> (Core six elements)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mineral_deficiency" title="Mineral deficiency">Deficiencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_deficiency" title="Chromium deficiency">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_deficiency" title="Copper deficiency">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency" title="Iron deficiency">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency" title="Iodine deficiency">Iodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">Potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese_deficiency_(medicine)" title="Manganese deficiency (medicine)">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_deficiency" title="Molybdenum deficiency">Molybdenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyponatremia" title="Hyponatremia">Sodium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium_deficiency" title="Selenium deficiency">Selenium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_deficiency" title="Zinc deficiency">Zinc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">Toxicity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">Argyria (Silver)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">Arsenic poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beryllium_poisoning" title="Beryllium poisoning">Beryllium poisoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_beryllium_poisoning" title="Acute beryllium poisoning">Acute beryllium poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berylliosis" title="Berylliosis">Berylliosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorine_gas_poisoning" title="Chlorine gas poisoning">Chlorine gas poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_toxicity" title="Chromium toxicity">Chromium toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobalt_poisoning" title="Cobalt poisoning">Cobalt poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_toxicity" title="Copper toxicity">Copper toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_poisoning" title="Cadmium poisoning">Cadmium poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoride_toxicity" title="Fluoride toxicity">Fluoride toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halotolerance" title="Halotolerance">Halotolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_poisoning" title="Iron poisoning">Iron poisoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_overload" title="Iron overload">Iron overload</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_toxicity" title="Lithium toxicity">Lithium toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_toxicity" title="Metal toxicity">Metal toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nickel_allergy" title="Nickel allergy">Nickel allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium#Toxicity" title="Selenium">Selenium toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallium_poisoning" title="Thallium poisoning">Thallium poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_poisoning" title="Tin poisoning">Tin poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_heavy_metal" title="Toxic heavy metal">Toxic heavy metal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_toxicity" title="Zinc toxicity">Zinc toxicity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Composition_of_the_human_body" title="Composition of the human body">Composition of the human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_(medication)" title="Lithium (medication)">Lithium (medication)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">Mineral (Essential element)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">Soil salinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_radon" title="Health effects of radon">Health effects of radon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pigmentation_disorders/Dyschromia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pigmentation_disorders" title="Template:Pigmentation disorders"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pigmentation_disorders" title="Template talk:Pigmentation disorders"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pigmentation_disorders" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pigmentation disorders"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pigmentation_disorders/Dyschromia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pigmentation_disorder" title="Pigmentation disorder">Pigmentation disorders</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dyschromia" title="Dyschromia">Dyschromia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypopigmentation" title="Hypopigmentation">Hypo-</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Leucism" title="Leucism">leucism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Loss of <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitiligo" title="Vitiligo">Vitiligo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quadrichrome_vitiligo" title="Quadrichrome vitiligo">Quadrichrome vitiligo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitiligo_ponctu%C3%A9" title="Vitiligo ponctué">Vitiligo ponctué</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Syndromic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alezzandrini_syndrome" title="Alezzandrini syndrome">Alezzandrini syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogt%E2%80%93Koyanagi%E2%80%93Harada_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome">Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Melanocyte development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piebaldism" title="Piebaldism">Piebaldism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waardenburg_syndrome" title="Waardenburg syndrome">Waardenburg syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tietz_syndrome" title="Tietz syndrome">Tietz syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Loss of <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Amelanism" title="Amelanism">amelanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Albinism" title="Albinism">Albinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculocutaneous_albinism" title="Oculocutaneous albinism">Oculocutaneous albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_albinism" title="Ocular albinism">Ocular albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinism_in_humans" title="Albinism in humans">in humans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">Melanosome</a> transfer</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hermansky%E2%80%93Pudlak_syndrome" title="Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome">Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A9diak%E2%80%93Higashi_syndrome" title="Chédiak–Higashi syndrome">Chédiak–Higashi syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome" title="Griscelli syndrome">Griscelli syndrome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elejalde_syndrome" title="Elejalde syndrome">Elejalde syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome_type_2" title="Griscelli syndrome type 2">Griscelli syndrome type 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griscelli_syndrome_type_3" title="Griscelli syndrome type 3">Griscelli syndrome type 3</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross_syndrome" title="Cross syndrome">Cross syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABCD_syndrome" title="ABCD syndrome">ABCD syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinism%E2%80%93deafness_syndrome" title="Albinism–deafness syndrome">Albinism–deafness syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic_guttate_hypomelanosis" title="Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis">Idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylloid_hypomelanosis" title="Phylloid hypomelanosis">Phylloid hypomelanosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_macular_hypomelanosis" title="Progressive macular hypomelanosis">Progressive macular hypomelanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leukoderma" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukoderma">Leukoderma</a> w/o hypomelanosis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasospastic_macule" title="Vasospastic macule">Vasospastic macule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woronoff%27s_ring" title="Woronoff's ring">Woronoff's ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevus_anemicus" title="Nevus anemicus">Nevus anemicus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nevus_depigmentosus" title="Nevus depigmentosus">Nevus depigmentosus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postinflammatory_hypopigmentation" title="Postinflammatory hypopigmentation">Postinflammatory hypopigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pityriasis_alba" title="Pityriasis alba">Pityriasis alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagabond%27s_leukomelanoderma" title="Vagabond's leukomelanoderma">Vagabond's leukomelanoderma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_deaf-blind_hypopigmentation_syndrome" title="Yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome">Yemenite deaf-blind hypopigmentation syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wende%E2%80%93Bauckus_syndrome" title="Wende–Bauckus syndrome">Wende–Bauckus syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hyperpigmentation" title="Hyperpigmentation">Hyper-</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Melanosis" title="Melanosis">Melanosis</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Melanism" title="Melanism">Melanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reticulated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dermatopathia_pigmentosa_reticularis" title="Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis">Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigmentatio_reticularis_faciei_et_colli" title="Pigmentatio reticularis faciei et colli">Pigmentatio reticularis faciei et colli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticulate_acropigmentation_of_Kitamura" title="Reticulate acropigmentation of Kitamura">Reticulate acropigmentation of Kitamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reticular_pigmented_anomaly_of_the_flexures" title="Reticular pigmented anomaly of the flexures">Reticular pigmented anomaly of the flexures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naegeli%E2%80%93Franceschetti%E2%80%93Jadassohn_syndrome" title="Naegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohn syndrome">Naegeli–Franceschetti–Jadassohn syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyskeratosis_congenita" title="Dyskeratosis congenita">Dyskeratosis congenita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-linked_reticulate_pigmentary_disorder" title="X-linked reticulate pigmentary disorder">X-linked reticulate pigmentary disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galli%E2%80%93Galli_disease" title="Galli–Galli disease">Galli–Galli disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revesz_syndrome" title="Revesz syndrome">Revesz syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diffuse/ circumscribed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lentigo" title="Lentigo">Lentigo</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lentiginosis" title="Lentiginosis">Lentiginosis</a>: <a href="/wiki/Lentigo_simplex" title="Lentigo simplex">Lentigo simplex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_spot" title="Liver spot">Liver spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrofacial_lentiginosis" title="Centrofacial lentiginosis">Centrofacial lentiginosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_lentiginosis" title="Generalized lentiginosis">Generalized lentiginosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inherited_patterned_lentiginosis_in_black_persons" class="mw-redirect" title="Inherited patterned lentiginosis in black persons">Inherited patterned lentiginosis in black persons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink_spot_lentigo" title="Ink spot lentigo">Ink spot lentigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lentigo_maligna" title="Lentigo maligna">Lentigo maligna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucosal_lentigines" title="Mucosal lentigines">Mucosal lentigines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_unilateral_lentiginosis" title="Partial unilateral lentiginosis">Partial unilateral lentiginosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PUVA_lentigines" title="PUVA lentigines">PUVA lentigines</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melasma" title="Melasma">Melasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythema_dyschromicum_perstans" title="Erythema dyschromicum perstans">Erythema dyschromicum perstans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_planus_pigmentosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lichen planus pigmentosus">Lichen planus pigmentosus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caf%C3%A9_au_lait_spot" title="Café au lait spot">Café au lait spot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poikiloderma" title="Poikiloderma">Poikiloderma</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poikiloderma_of_Civatte" title="Poikiloderma of Civatte">Poikiloderma of Civatte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poikiloderma_vasculare_atrophicans" title="Poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans">Poikiloderma vasculare atrophicans</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riehl_melanosis" title="Riehl melanosis">Riehl melanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incontinentia_pigmenti" title="Incontinentia pigmenti">Incontinentia pigmenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scratch_dermatitis" title="Scratch dermatitis">Scratch dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shiitake_mushroom_dermatitis" title="Shiitake mushroom dermatitis">Shiitake mushroom dermatitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other/ ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acanthosis_nigricans" title="Acanthosis nigricans">Acanthosis nigricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freckle" title="Freckle">Freckle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_progressive_hyperpigmentation" title="Familial progressive hyperpigmentation">Familial progressive hyperpigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallister%E2%80%93Killian_syndrome" title="Pallister–Killian syndrome">Pallister–Killian syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periorbital_hyperpigmentation" title="Periorbital hyperpigmentation">Periorbital hyperpigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoleukomelanodermatitis_of_Kobori" title="Photoleukomelanodermatitis of Kobori">Photoleukomelanodermatitis of Kobori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postinflammatory_hyperpigmentation" title="Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation">Postinflammatory hyperpigmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transient_neonatal_pustular_melanosis" title="Transient neonatal pustular melanosis">Transient neonatal pustular melanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other pigments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Iron</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iron_overload" title="Iron overload">Hemochromatosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_metallic_discoloration" title="Iron metallic discoloration">Iron metallic discoloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigmented_purpuric_dermatosis" title="Pigmented purpuric dermatosis">Pigmented purpuric dermatosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schamberg_disease" title="Schamberg disease">Schamberg disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majocchi%27s_disease" title="Majocchi's disease">Majocchi's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gougerot%E2%80%93Blum_syndrome" title="Gougerot–Blum syndrome">Gougerot–Blum syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doucas_and_Kapetanakis_pigmented_purpura" title="Doucas and Kapetanakis pigmented purpura">Doucas and Kapetanakis pigmented purpura</a>/<a href="/wiki/Eczematid-like_purpura_of_Doucas_and_Kapetanakis" class="mw-redirect" title="Eczematid-like purpura of Doucas and Kapetanakis">Eczematid-like purpura of Doucas and Kapetanakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_aureus" title="Lichen aureus">Lichen aureus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angioma_serpiginosum" title="Angioma serpiginosum">Angioma serpiginosum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemosiderin_hyperpigmentation" title="Hemosiderin hyperpigmentation">Hemosiderin hyperpigmentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other metals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argyria" title="Argyria">Argyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysiasis" title="Chrysiasis">Chrysiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_poisoning" title="Arsenic poisoning">Arsenic poisoning</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titanium_metallic_discoloration" title="Titanium metallic discoloration">Titanium metallic discoloration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carotenosis" title="Carotenosis">Carotenosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar_melanosis" title="Tar melanosis">Tar melanosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dyschromia" title="Dyschromia">Dyschromia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dyschromatosis_symmetrica_hereditaria" title="Dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria">Dyschromatosis symmetrica hereditaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyschromatosis_universalis_hereditaria" title="Dyschromatosis universalis hereditaria">Dyschromatosis universalis hereditaria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin color">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_whitening" title="Skin whitening">Skin whitening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_tanning" title="Sun tanning">Tanning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunless_tanning" title="Sunless tanning">Sunless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattoo" title="Tattoo">Tattoo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tattoo_removal" title="Tattoo removal">removal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depigmentation" title="Depigmentation">Depigmentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Consumer_food_safety" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Consumer_food_safety" title="Template:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Consumer_food_safety" title="Template talk:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Consumer_food_safety" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Consumer food safety"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Consumer_food_safety" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Consumer food safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adulterant" title="Adulterant">Adulterants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">food contaminants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3-MCPD" title="3-MCPD">3-MCPD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldicarb" title="Aldicarb">Aldicarb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">Antibiotic use in livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanide" title="Cyanide">Cyanide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formaldehyde" title="Formaldehyde">Formaldehyde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HGH_controversies" title="HGH controversies">HGH controversies</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melamine" title="Melamine">Melamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_in_fish" title="Mercury in fish">Mercury in fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudan_I" title="Sudan I">Sudan I</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Food additives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">Flavorings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">Monosodium glutamate (MSG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-fructose_corn_syrup" title="High-fructose corn syrup">High-fructose corn syrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetable_oil" title="Vegetable oil">Vegetable oil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_oil_misinformation" title="Seed oil misinformation">controversy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite_infection" title="Intestinal parasite infection">Intestinal parasites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic disease</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">Amoebiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisakiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisakiasis">Anisakiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptosporidiosis" title="Cryptosporidiosis">Cryptosporidiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclosporiasis" title="Cyclosporiasis">Cyclosporiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphyllobothriasis" title="Diphyllobothriasis">Diphyllobothriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinworm_infection" title="Pinworm infection">Enterobiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolopsiasis" title="Fasciolopsiasis">Fasciolopsiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasciolosis" title="Fasciolosis">Fasciolosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giardiasis" title="Giardiasis">Giardiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnathostomiasis" title="Gnathostomiasis">Gnathostomiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paragonimiasis" title="Paragonimiasis">Paragonimiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxocariasis" title="Toxocariasis">Toxocariasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxoplasmosis" title="Toxoplasmosis">Toxoplasmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichinosis" title="Trichinosis">Trichinosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichuriasis" title="Trichuriasis">Trichuriasis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botulism" title="Botulism">Botulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campylobacter_jejuni" title="Campylobacter jejuni">Campylobacter jejuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_perfringens" title="Clostridium perfringens">Clostridium perfringens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cronobacter" title="Cronobacter">Cronobacter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterovirus" title="Enterovirus">Enterovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O104:H4" title="Escherichia coli O104:H4">Escherichia coli O104:H4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli_O157:H7" title="Escherichia coli O157:H7">Escherichia coli O157:H7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_A" title="Hepatitis A">Hepatitis A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_E" title="Hepatitis E">Hepatitis E</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Listeria" title="Listeria">Listeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norovirus" title="Norovirus">Norovirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotavirus" title="Rotavirus">Rotavirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigatoxigenic_and_verotoxigenic_Escherichia_coli" title="Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli">Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic E. coli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrio_cholerae" title="Vibrio cholerae">Vibrio cholerae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorpyrifos" title="Chlorpyrifos">Chlorpyrifos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindane" title="Lindane">Lindane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malathion" title="Malathion">Malathion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methamidophos" title="Methamidophos">Methamidophos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preservative" title="Preservative">Preservatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzoic_acid" title="Benzoic acid">Benzoic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethylenediaminetetraacetic_acid" title="Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid">Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_benzoate" title="Sodium benzoate">Sodium benzoate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sugar_substitute" title="Sugar substitute">Sugar substitutes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acesulfame_potassium" title="Acesulfame potassium">Acesulfame potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame" title="Aspartame">Aspartame</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aspartame_controversy" title="Aspartame controversy">controversy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saccharin" title="Saccharin">Saccharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_cyclamate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodium cyclamate">Sodium cyclamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbitol" title="Sorbitol">Sorbitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sucralose" title="Sucralose">Sucralose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">environment pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aflatoxin" title="Aflatoxin">Aflatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_contamination_of_groundwater" title="Arsenic contamination of groundwater">Arsenic contamination of groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzene_in_soft_drinks" title="Benzene in soft drinks">Benzene in soft drinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bisphenol_A" title="Bisphenol A">Bisphenol A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dieldrin" title="Dieldrin">Dieldrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diethylstilbestrol" title="Diethylstilbestrol">Diethylstilbestrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioxin" title="Dioxin">Dioxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxin" title="Mycotoxin">Mycotoxins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonylphenol" title="Nonylphenol">Nonylphenol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellfish_poisoning" title="Shellfish poisoning">Shellfish poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Food fraud">Food fraud</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bread_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread fraud">Bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast_milk_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Breast milk fraud">Breast milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg fraud">Egg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olive_oil_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Olive oil fraud">Olive oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prawn_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Prawn fraud">Prawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafood_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafood fraud">Seafood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrimp_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Shrimp fraud">Shrimp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_fraud" class="mw-redirect" title="Tea fraud">Tea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Food processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4-Hydroxynonenal" title="4-Hydroxynonenal">4-Hydroxynonenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid-hydrolyzed_vegetable_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein">Acid-hydrolyzed vegetable protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrylamide" title="Acrylamide">Acrylamide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_additives" title="List of food additives">Food additives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterocyclic_amine" title="Heterocyclic amine">Heterocyclic amines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modified_starch" title="Modified starch">Modified starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrosamine" title="Nitrosamine">Nitrosamines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycyclic_aromatic_hydrocarbon" title="Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon">Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shortening" title="Shortening">Shortening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans_fat" title="Trans fat">Trans fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variant_Creutzfeldt%E2%80%93Jakob_disease" title="Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease">Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_contamination_incidents" title="List of food contamination incidents">Food contamination incidents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Devon_colic" title="Devon colic">Devon colic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swill_milk_scandal" title="Swill milk scandal">Swill milk scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esing_Bakery_incident" title="Esing Bakery incident">Esing Bakery incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1858_Bradford_sweets_poisoning" title="1858 Bradford sweets poisoning">1858 Bradford sweets poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_English_beer_poisoning" title="1900 English beer poisoning">1900 English beer poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morinaga_Milk_arsenic_poisoning_incident" title="Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident">Morinaga Milk arsenic poisoning incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minamata_disease" title="Minamata disease">Minamata disease</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Moroccan_oil_poisoning_disaster_1959&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959 (page does not exist)">Moroccan oil poisoning disaster 1959</a> [<a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8_1959" class="extiw" title="ar:كارثة الزيوت المسمومة في المغرب 1959">ar</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_Iraq_poison_grain_disaster" title="1971 Iraq poison grain disaster">1971 Iraq poison grain disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_oil_syndrome" title="Toxic oil syndrome">Toxic oil syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Austrian_diethylene_glycol_wine_scandal" title="1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal">1985 Austrian diethylene glycol wine scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_BSE_outbreak" title="United Kingdom BSE outbreak">United Kingdom BSE outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_meat_substitution_scandal" title="Australian meat substitution scandal">Australian meat substitution scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1993_Jack_in_the_Box_E._coli_outbreak" class="mw-redirect" title="1993 Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak">Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Odwalla_E._coli_outbreak" title="1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak">1996 Odwalla E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_North_American_E._coli_O157:H7_outbreaks" title="2006 North American E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks">2006 North American E. coli outbreaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICA_meat_repackaging_controversy" title="ICA meat repackaging controversy">ICA meat repackaging controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Canada_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak">2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Chinese_milk_scandal" title="2008 Chinese milk scandal">2008 Chinese milk scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Irish_pork_crisis" title="2008 Irish pork crisis">2008 Irish pork crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_United_States_salmonellosis_outbreak" title="2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak">2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Germany_E._coli_O104:H4_outbreak" title="2011 Germany E. coli O104:H4 outbreak">2011 Germany E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_United_States_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2011 United States listeriosis outbreak">2011 United States listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bihar_school_meal_poisoning_incident" title="Bihar school meal poisoning incident">Bihar school meal poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_horse_meat_scandal" title="2013 horse meat scandal">2013 horse meat scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique_funeral_beer_poisoning" title="Mozambique funeral beer poisoning">2015 Mozambique funeral beer poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Weak_Meat" title="Operation Weak Meat">2017 Brazil Operation Weak Meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_South_African_listeriosis_outbreak" title="2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak">2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018_Australian_strawberry_contamination" title="2018 Australian strawberry contamination">2018 Australian strawberry contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_United_Kingdom_Shigatoxigenic_E._coli_outbreak" title="2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak">2024 United Kingdom Shigatoxigenic E. coli outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kobayashi_red_yeast_rice_scandal" title="Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal">Kobayashi red yeast rice scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_China" title="Food safety incidents in China">Food safety incidents in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_incidents_in_Taiwan" title="Food safety incidents in Taiwan">Food safety incidents in Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Foodborne illness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks">outbreaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_by_death_toll" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks by death toll">death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foodborne_illness_outbreaks_in_the_United_States" title="List of foodborne illness outbreaks in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standards_organization" title="Standards organization">standards</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">watchdogs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acceptable_daily_intake" title="Acceptable daily intake">Acceptable daily intake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E_number" title="E number">E number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_labeling_regulations" title="List of food labeling regulations">Food labeling regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_libel_laws" title="Food libel laws">Food libel laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_Australia" title="Food safety in Australia">Food safety in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrition_facts_label" title="Nutrition facts label">Nutrition facts label</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_certification" title="Organic certification">Organic certification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_Assurance_International" title="Quality Assurance International">Quality Assurance International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_food_information_regulations" title="United Kingdom food information regulations">United Kingdom food information regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_safety_organisations" title="List of food safety organisations">Institutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Food_Safety" title="Centre for Food Safety">Centre for Food Safety</a> (Hong Kong)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Information_and_Control_Agency" title="Food Information and Control Agency">Food Information and Control Agency</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency" title="Food Standards Agency">Food Standards Agency</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Food_Safety_and_Health" title="Institute for Food Safety and Health">Institute for Food Safety and Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Food_Safety_Network" title="International Food Safety Network">International Food Safety Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Food_and_Drug_Safety" title="Ministry of Food and Drug Safety">Ministry of Food and Drug Safety</a> (South Korea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Agency_for_Food_Safety_and_Nutrition" title="Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition">Spanish Agency for Food Safety and Nutrition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curing_(food_preservation)" title="Curing (food preservation)">Curing (food preservation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_marketing" title="Food marketing">Food marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_politics" title="Food politics">Food politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">Food preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_quality" title="Food quality">Food quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">Conspiracy theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Foodlogo2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/16px-Foodlogo2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/24px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg/32px-Foodlogo2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="146" data-file-height="106" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Food" title="Portal:Food">Food portal</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/9px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/14px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg/19px-Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="239" data-file-height="408" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Drink" title="Portal:Drink">Drink portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety" title="Category:Food safety">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Food_safety" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Food safety">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikibooks page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Cookbook">Cookbook</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Food_and_drink" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Food and drink">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Occupational_safety_and_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Template:Occupational safety and health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Template talk:Occupational safety and health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Occupational safety and health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Occupational_safety_and_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_disease" title="Occupational disease">Occupational diseases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_injury" title="Occupational injury">injuries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrodynia" title="Acrodynia">Acrodynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asbestosis" title="Asbestosis">Asbestosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_asthma" title="Occupational asthma">Asthma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berylliosis" title="Berylliosis">Berylliosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">Brucellosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byssinosis" title="Byssinosis">Byssinosis ("brown lung")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_cardiovascular_disease" title="Occupational cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalicosis" title="Chalicosis">Chalicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_solvent-induced_encephalopathy" title="Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy">Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_stress" title="Chronic stress">Chronic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweeps%27_carcinoma" title="Chimney sweeps' carcinoma">Chimney sweeps' carcinoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalworker%27s_pneumoconiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalworker's pneumoconiosis">Coalworker's pneumoconiosis ("black lung")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concussions_in_sport" title="Concussions in sport">Concussions in sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Quervain_syndrome" title="De Quervain syndrome">De Quervain syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erethism" title="Erethism">Erethism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hazards_associated_with_exposure_to_human_nail_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational hazards associated with exposure to human nail dust">Exposure to human nail dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer%27s_lung" title="Farmer's lung">Farmer's lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiddler%27s_neck" title="Fiddler's neck">Fiddler's neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flock_worker%27s_lung" title="Flock worker's lung">Flock worker's lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassblower%27s_cataract" title="Glassblower's cataract">Glassblower's cataract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golfer%27s_elbow" title="Golfer's elbow">Golfer's elbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Hospital-acquired infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indium_lung" title="Indium lung">Indium lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_animal_allergy" title="Laboratory animal allergy">Laboratory animal allergy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Occupational_exposure">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_back_pain" title="Low back pain">Low back pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesothelioma" title="Mesothelioma">Mesothelioma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fume_fever" title="Metal fume fever">Metal fume fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mule_spinners%27_cancer" title="Mule spinners' cancer">Mule spinners' cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise-induced_hearing_loss" title="Noise-induced hearing loss">Noise-induced hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phossy_jaw" title="Phossy jaw">Phossy jaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumoconiosis" title="Pneumoconiosis">Pneumoconiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_jaw" title="Radium jaw">Radium jaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury" title="Repetitive strain injury">Repetitive strain injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">Silicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silo-filler%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Silo-filler's disease">Silo-filler's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_injury" title="Sports injury">Sports injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear" title="Surfer's ear">Surfer's ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_elbow" title="Tennis elbow">Tennis elbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writer%27s_cramp" title="Writer's cramp">Writer's cramp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Occupational hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hazard" title="Occupational hazard">Occupational hazard</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_hazard" title="Chemical hazard">Chemical hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_hazard" title="Physical hazard">Physical hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosocial_hazard" title="Psychosocial hazard">Psychosocial hazard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevention_through_design" title="Prevention through design">Prevention through design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_assessment" title="Exposure assessment">Exposure assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_exposure_limit" title="Occupational exposure limit">Occupational exposure limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_epidemiology" title="Occupational epidemiology">Occupational epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_health_surveillance" title="Workplace health surveillance">Workplace health surveillance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Occupational health nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapist" title="Occupational therapist">Occupational therapist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_occupational_safety_and_health_agencies" title="List of occupational safety and health agencies">Agencies</a> and organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Agency_for_Safety_and_Health_at_Work" title="European Agency for Safety and Health at Work">European Agency for Safety and Health at Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Centre_for_Occupational_Health_and_Safety" title="Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety">Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istituto_nazionale_per_l%27assicurazione_contro_gli_infortuni_sul_lavoro" title="Istituto nazionale per l'assicurazione contro gli infortuni sul lavoro">Istituto nazionale per l'assicurazione contro gli infortuni sul lavoro</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Safety_and_Health_at_Work" title="National Institute for Safety and Health at Work">National Institute for Safety and Health at Work</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">Health and Safety Executive</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (US)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accord_on_Fire_and_Building_Safety_in_Bangladesh" title="Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh">Bangladesh Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_45001" title="ISO 45001">ISO 45001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Convention,_1981" title="Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981">Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worker_Protection_Standard" title="Worker Protection Standard">Worker Protection Standard</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Environment_(Air_Pollution,_Noise_and_Vibration)_Convention,_1977" title="Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977">Working Environment Convention, 1977</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checklist" title="Checklist">Checklist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_practice" title="Code of practice">Code of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_plan" title="Contingency plan">Contingency plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety" title="Diving safety">Diving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_procedure" title="Emergency procedure">Emergency procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_evacuation" title="Emergency evacuation">Emergency evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard" title="Hazard">Hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_elimination" title="Hazard elimination">Hazard elimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_controls" title="Administrative controls">Administrative controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_controls" title="Engineering controls">Engineering controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_substitution" title="Hazard substitution">Hazard substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_safety_analysis" title="Job safety analysis">Job safety analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockout-tagout" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockout-tagout">Lockout-tagout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permit_To_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Permit To Work">Permit To Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_manual" title="Operations manual">Operations manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundancy (engineering)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_culture" title="Safety culture">Safety culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_operating_procedure" title="Standard operating procedure">Standard operating procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immediately_dangerous_to_life_or_health" title="Immediately dangerous to life or health">Immediately dangerous to life or health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_(United_States)" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States)">Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potty_parity" title="Potty parity">Potty parity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potty_parity_in_the_United_States" title="Potty parity in the United States">United States</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit_in_the_United_States" title="Right to sit in the United States">United States</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">Aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Break_(work)" title="Break (work)">Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Break_room" title="Break room">Break room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_overtime" title="Effects of overtime">Effects of overtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment,_health_and_safety" title="Environment, health and safety">Environment, health and safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_Fighter_Fatality_Investigation_and_Prevention_Program" title="Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program">Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawks_Nest_Tunnel_disaster" title="Hawks Nest Tunnel disaster">Hawks Nest Tunnel disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_work_environment" title="Hostile work environment">Hostile work environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Chemical_Safety_Card" class="mw-redirect" title="International Chemical Safety Card">International Chemical Safety Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_strain" title="Job strain">Job strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Day_of_Mourning_(Canadian_observance)" title="National Day of Mourning (Canadian observance)">National Day of Mourning (Canada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating" title="NIOSH air filtration rating">NIOSH air filtration rating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwork" title="Overwork">Overwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_safety" title="Process safety">Process safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_of_working_life" title="Quality of working life">Quality of working life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_data_sheet" title="Safety data sheet">Safety data sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_control_(respiratory_disease)" title="Source control (respiratory disease)">Source control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_tort" title="Toxic tort">Toxic tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_workplace" title="Toxic workplace">Toxic workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_compensation" title="Workers' compensation">Workers' compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_hazard_controls_for_COVID-19" title="Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19">Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_health_promotion" title="Workplace health promotion">Workplace health promotion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Category:Occupational safety and health">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_diseases" title="Category:Occupational diseases">Occupational diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health_journals" title="Category:Occupational safety and health journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health_organizations" title="Category:Occupational safety and health organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Occupational safety and health">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q110315#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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Template:Navbox"," 5.10% 130.910 1 Template:Harvnb"," 3.97% 101.875 2 Template:Short_description"," 3.69% 94.907 6 Template:Lang"," 3.47% 89.161 26 Template:Cite_news"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.708","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19646530,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry2007\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFAizerCurrie2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkshathaRukminiMamathaSadashiva_Rao2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllaouat2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmerican_Geophysical_Union2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarande_BerkerHolzbergThomas2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarbosaTanus-SantosGerlachParsons2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarltropStrehlowThorntonWebb1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaselt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBastow2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellinger2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellinger2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellinger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBillingsBerkowitzWatson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBinnsRicks\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlakemore2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlum2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBottomley2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradberryVale2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrands2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodkinCopesMattmanKennedy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrudevoldAasendenSrinivasianBakhos1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrudevoldSteadman1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrunton07\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBusseFiedlerLeichtleHentschel2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbellMossRaubertas2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarpenterNevin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasarett07\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasciani2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastellinoSannoloCastellino1994\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCecilBrubakerAdlerDietrich2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCenters_for_Disease_Control_Prevention_(CDC)2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChadha2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChhabra2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiras2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisamera2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisolm04\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClevelandMinterCobbScott2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCouper2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurryKristOwensBarry2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurtin1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDancygier2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDapulLaraque2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDart04\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavenport2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDegernes2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelileBlichert-ToftGoiranKeay2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDenworth2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDey2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiMaioDiMaioGarriottSimpson1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrum2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurlachLisovoskiGrossOstermann1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEisinger1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEkongJaarWeaver2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl_SafouryEl_FatahIbrahim2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllen_Gabler2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEricsonHuNashFerraro2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerreyraRomanoUhart2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerri2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFintak2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFioricaBrinker1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFischer2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloraMittalMehta2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloraPachauri2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForsythBakerNurunnaharIslam2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFredvan_Dijk\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFujitaNishitaniOgawa2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurnival1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGemmelTavaresAlperinSoncini2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiangThanhHienTan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilbertWeiss2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGochfeld2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGourlaouenParisel2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoyer1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraciaSnodgrass2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant09\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenHuntParishNewton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuidottiRagain2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGwiazdaCampbellSmith2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton1934\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHealth_and_Safety_Executive_UK\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenretig06\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHernberg2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHesamiSalimiGhaderian2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHodge1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiaoStanley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuShihRothenbergSchwartz2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphreysRamseur2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntWatsonOaksParish2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIANS2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIngraham2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIqbal\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIqbalBlumenthalKennedyYip2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobsClicknerZhouViet2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaffeMartinsLiKervinen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamesBergerElston2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenssen2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJha2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesHomaMeyerBrody2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKappy2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaralus2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarriSaperKales2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatz2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatzung07\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKington2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKolata2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKonradsenvan_der_HoekColeHutchinson2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosnett05\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosnett06Pois\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosnettBeckerOsterlohKelly1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKosnettWedeenRothenbergHipkins2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKüpper2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaborers\u0026#039;_Health_and_Safety_Fund_of_North_America2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaidlawFilippelliMielkeGulson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandriganSchechterLiptonFahs2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLanphearHornungKhouryYolton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeSchwartzStewartAhn1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiChenBuWang2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLidskySchneider2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLightfootYeager2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinHuang1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiuHaoZengDai2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowry2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLubran1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaasPatchMorganPandolfo2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadsenSkjødtJørgensenGrandjean1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMai2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkey2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshallBettsKanMcConnell2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMañayCousillasAlvarezHeller2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcFarlandHauerReuben2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLaughlin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMenkes06\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerofact_Awareness_Team2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerrill07\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyerBrownFalk2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyerMcGeehinFalk2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMielkeReagan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMielkeZahran2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiharaPremoElia2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoreSpauldingBohleberHandley2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMossLanphearAuinger1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurataIwataDakeishiKarita2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMycyk05\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Pollutant_Inventory\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNational_Safety_Council2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNavas-AcienGuallarSilbergeldRothenberg2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeatheryMiller1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedleman1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedleman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedleman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedleman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedlemanGunnoeLevitonReed1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedlemanSchellBellingerLeviton1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevin2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNevin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNiemeierMaierReichard2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNriagu1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNussbaumer-StreitMayrDobrescuWagner2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson07\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrdemannAustin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkO\u0026#039;NeillVokonasSparrow2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearce2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson03\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiper2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPokrasKneeland2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrioreschi1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabinowitz1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaganTurner2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRambousek08\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedigArent2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenfrew2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossi2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubin08\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalvato03\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSampson1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanbornAbelsohnCampbellWeir2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSancar2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandersLiuBuchnerTchounwou2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaulny2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScarborough1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchepFountainCoxPesola2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScinicarielloMurrayMoffettAbadin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShadickKimWeissLiang2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShihHuWeisskopfSchwartz2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpanierMcLaineGilden2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpitzLucatoHaddadBarbosa2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarlach\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThe_Associated_Press2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimbrell2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevor07\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsaiHuangCheng2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurns\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUniversity2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVannotti1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVarneyMurphy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaziri2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVedantam2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVorvolakosArseniouSamakouri2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangBissellAdamArdinger2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheeling2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhiteCory-SlechtaGilbertTiffany-Castiglioni2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsonWilson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoolfGoldmanBellinger2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrightSaylorCecere1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWuWuXuOwens2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuYanYangTong2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungChenPalatnickWong2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYu05\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Asof\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 46,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 131,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 26,\n [\"Cite video\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 79,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Consumer Food Safety\"] = 1,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Lead Poisoning\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Elements in biology\"] = 1,\n [\"Globalize-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"ICD10\"] = 1,\n [\"ICD9\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox medical condition (new)\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 6,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Medical resources\"] = 1,\n [\"Occupational safety and health\"] = 1,\n [\"PDB\"] = 1,\n [\"Pigmentation disorders\"] = 1,\n [\"Poisoning and toxicity\"] = 1,\n [\"Pollution sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 3,\n [\"Refend\"] = 3,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Section link\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sup\"] = 3,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Ums\"] = 6,\n [\"Update inline\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","320","18.0"],["?","220","12.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","10.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","160","9.0"],["recursiveClone 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