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class="minerva-search-form"> <div class="search-box"> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"/> <input class="search skin-minerva-search-trigger" id="searchInput" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> </div> <button id="searchIcon" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet skin-minerva-search-trigger"> Search </button> </form> <nav class="minerva-user-navigation" aria-label="User navigation"> </nav> </div> </header> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <div class="banner-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="pre-content heading-holder"> <div class="page-heading"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Stratovolcano</h1> <div class="tagline"></div> </div> <ul id="p-associated-pages" class="minerva__tab-container"> <li class="minerva__tab selected mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Stratovolcano" rel="" data-event-name="tabs.main">Article</a> </li> <li class="minerva__tab mw-list-item"> <a class="minerva__tab-text" href="/wiki/Talk:Stratovolcano" rel="discussion" data-event-name="tabs.talk">Talk</a> </li> </ul> <nav class="page-actions-menu"> <ul id="p-views" class="page-actions-menu__list"> <li id="language-selector" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" href="#p-lang" data-mw="interface" data-event-name="menu.languages" title="Language" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet language-selector"> Language </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-watch" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-watch" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Stratovolcano" data-event-name="menu.watch" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet menu__item--page-actions-watch"> Watch </a> </li> <li id="page-actions-edit" class="page-actions-menu__list-item"> <a role="button" id="ca-edit" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> Edit </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a typically <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_cone" title="Volcanic cone">conical</a> <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcano</a> built up by many alternating layers (<a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a>) of hardened <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra">tephra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Unlike <a href="/wiki/Shield_volcano" title="Shield volcano">shield volcanoes</a>, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and explosive eruptions.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Some have collapsed summit craters called <a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">calderas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and solidifies before spreading far, due to high <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> forming this lava is often <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">felsic</a>, having high to intermediate levels of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> (as in <a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">rhyolite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">dacite</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">andesite</a>), with lesser amounts of less viscous <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Extensive <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">felsic</a> lava flows are uncommon, but can travel as far as 8 km (5 mi).<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rainier20200906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rainier20200906.jpg/300px-Rainier20200906.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rainier20200906.jpg/450px-Rainier20200906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Rainier20200906.jpg/600px-Rainier20200906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5611" data-file-height="3741"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rainier" title="Mount Rainier">Mount Rainier</a>, a 4,392 m (14,411 ft) stratovolcano, the highest point in the US state of Washington</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broken_Top_rock_layers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Broken_Top_rock_layers.jpg/300px-Broken_Top_rock_layers.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Broken_Top_rock_layers.jpg/450px-Broken_Top_rock_layers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Broken_Top_rock_layers.jpg/600px-Broken_Top_rock_layers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000"></a><figcaption>Exposed internal structure of alternating layers of <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock" title="Pyroclastic rock">pyroclastic rock</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">eroded</a> <a href="/wiki/Broken_Top" title="Broken Top">Broken Top</a> stratovolcano in <a href="/wiki/Oregon" title="Oregon">Oregon</a></figcaption></figure> The term composite volcano is used because strata are usually mixed and uneven instead of neat layers.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> They are among the most common types of volcanoes;<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[7]</a> more than 700 stratovolcanoes have erupted lava during the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_Epoch" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocene Epoch">Holocene Epoch</a> (the last 11,700 years),<a href="#cite_note-GVP_Holocene_Composite-8">[8]</a> and many older, now extinct, stratovolcanoes erupted lava as far back as <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> times.<a href="#cite_note-GVP_Pleistocene_Composite-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Stratovolcanoes are typically found in <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zones</a> but they also occur in other geological settings. Two examples of stratovolcanoes famous for catastrophic eruptions are <a href="/wiki/Krakatoa" title="Krakatoa">Krakatoa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> (which erupted in <a href="/wiki/1883_eruption_of_Krakatoa" title="1883 eruption of Krakatoa">1883</a> claiming 36,000 lives)<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and Mount <a href="/wiki/Vesuvius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesuvius">Vesuvius</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> (which erupted in <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79" class="mw-redirect" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79">79</a> A.D killing an estimated 2,000 people).<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In modern times, <a href="/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a> (1980) in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington State</a>, US, and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a> (1991) in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> have erupted catastrophically, but with fewer deaths.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[7]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Distribution">1 Distribution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Formation">2 Formation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Hazards">3 Hazards</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Ash">3.1 Ash</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Lava">3.2 Lava</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Volcanic_bombs">3.3 Volcanic bombs</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Lahar">3.4 Lahar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Volcanic_gas">3.5 Volcanic gas</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="#Eruptions_that_affected_global_climate">4 Eruptions that affected global climate</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#List">5 List</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#References">7 References</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Distribution">Distribution</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Distribution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subduction-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/330px-Subduction-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="190" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="854"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 330px;height: 190px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/330px-Subduction-en.svg.png" data-width="330" data-height="190" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/495px-Subduction-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/660px-Subduction-en.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Cross-section of subduction zone and associated stratovolcanoes</figcaption></figure> Stratovolcanoes are common at <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zones, forming chains and clusters along <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonic</a> boundaries where an <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> plate is drawn under a <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> plate (continental arc volcanism, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Range" title="Cascade Range">Cascade Range</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Campanian_volcanic_arc" title="Campanian volcanic arc">Campania</a>) or another <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> plate (<a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a> volcanism, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>).<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Stratovolcanoes also occur in some other geological settings, for example as a result of <a href="/wiki/Intraplate_volcanism" title="Intraplate volcanism">intraplate volcanism</a> on oceanic islands far from plate boundaries. Examples are <a href="/wiki/Teide" title="Teide">Teide</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Cas_etal_2022-14">[14]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pico_do_Fogo" title="Pico do Fogo">Pico do Fogo</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carvalho_etal_2022-15">[15]</a> Stratovolcanoes have formed in continental <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rifts</a>. Examples in the <a href="/wiki/East_African_Rift" title="East African Rift">East African Rift</a> are <a href="/wiki/Ol_Doinyo_Lengai" title="Ol Doinyo Lengai">Ol Doinyo Lengai</a> in Tanzania,<a href="#cite_note-OlDoinyoGVP-16">[16]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longonot" class="mw-redirect" title="Longonot">Longonot</a> in Kenya.<a href="#cite_note-LongonotGVP-17">[17]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Formation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction zone</a> volcanoes form when <a href="/wiki/Hydrous" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrous">hydrous</a> <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> are pulled down into the mantle on the slab. These hydrous minerals, such as <a href="/wiki/Chlorite" title="Chlorite">chlorite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_subgroup" title="Serpentine subgroup">serpentine</a>, release their water into the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">mantle</a> which decreases its <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> by 60 to 100 °C. The release of water from <a href="/wiki/Hydrate" title="Hydrate">hydrated</a> minerals is termed "<a href="/wiki/Dewatering" title="Dewatering">dewatering</a>", and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> This allows the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">mantle</a> to partially melt and generate <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>. This is called <a href="/wiki/Flux_melting" title="Flux melting">flux melting</a>. The magma then rises through the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>, incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, leading to a final <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_composition" title="Intermediate composition">intermediate composition</a>. When the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a <a href="/wiki/Magma_chamber" title="Magma chamber">magma chamber</a> within the crust below the stratovolcano.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The processes that trigger the final eruption remain a question for further research. Possible mechanisms include:<a href="#cite_note-:3-20">[20]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igneous_differentiation" title="Igneous differentiation">Magma differentiation</a>, in which the lightest, most silica-rich magma and volatiles such as water, <a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">halogens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> accumulate in the uppermost part of the magma chamber. This can dramatically increase pressures.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fractional_crystallization_(geology)" title="Fractional crystallization (geology)">Fractional crystallization</a> of the magma. When <a href="/wiki/Anhydrous" title="Anhydrous">anhydrous</a> <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspar</a> crystallize out of the magma, this concentrates volatiles in the remaining liquid, which can lead to a second boiling that causes a <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">gas phase</a> (carbon dioxide or water) to separate from the liquid magma and raise magma chamber pressures.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li> <li>Injection of fresh magma into the magma chamber, which mixes and heats the cooler magma already present. This could force volatiles out of solution and lower the density of the cooler magma, both of which increase pressure. There is considerable evidence for magma mixing just before many eruptions, including magnesium-rich <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a> crystals in freshly erupted silicic <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> that show no reaction rim. This is possible only if the <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> erupted immediately after mixing since olivine rapidly reacts with silicic magma to form a rim of <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li> <li>Progressive melting of the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Country_rock_(geology)" title="Country rock (geology)">country rock</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-20">[20]</a></li></ul> These internal triggers may be modified by external triggers such as <a href="/wiki/Sector_collapse" title="Sector collapse">sector collapse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Phreatomagmatic_eruption" title="Phreatomagmatic eruption">interactions with groundwater</a>. Some of these triggers operate only under limited conditions. For example, sector collapse (where part of the flank of a volcano collapses in a massive <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a>) can only trigger the eruption of a very shallow magma chamber. Magma differentiation and <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion" title="Thermal expansion">thermal expansion</a> also are ineffective as triggers for eruptions from deep magma chambers.<a href="#cite_note-:3-20">[20]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Hazards">Hazards</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Hazards" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_hazard" title="Volcanic hazard">Volcanic hazard</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etna_from_2900m.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Etna_from_2900m.jpg/220px-Etna_from_2900m.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Etna_from_2900m.jpg/220px-Etna_from_2900m.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Etna_from_2900m.jpg/330px-Etna_from_2900m.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Etna_from_2900m.jpg/440px-Etna_from_2900m.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mount Etna on the island of <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, in southern Italy</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg/200px-Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="125" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="798"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 125px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg/200px-Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="200" data-height="125" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg/300px-Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg/400px-Mt.Fuji_from_misaka_pass_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fugendake_04.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fugendake_04.JPG/200px-Fugendake_04.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 150px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fugendake_04.JPG/200px-Fugendake_04.JPG" data-alt="" data-width="200" data-height="150" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fugendake_04.JPG/300px-Fugendake_04.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fugendake_04.JPG/400px-Fugendake_04.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Mount_Fuji" title="Mount Fuji">Mount Fuji</a> on <a href="/wiki/Honshu" title="Honshu">Honshu</a> (top) and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Unzen" title="Mount Unzen">Mount Unzen</a> on <a href="/wiki/Kyushu" title="Kyushu">Kyushu</a> (bottom), two of <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>'s stratovolcanoes</div></div></div></div> In <a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">recorded history</a>, explosive eruptions at <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">convergent-boundary</a>) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction-zone</a> stratovolcanoes, such as <a href="/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Mount Etna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a>, typically erupt with explosive force because the <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> is too <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> to allow easy escape of <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">volcanic gases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> As a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain and intermingle in the pasty <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>. Following the breaching of the <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_vent" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic vent">vent</a> and the opening of the crater, the <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> degasses explosively. The magma and gases blast out with high speed and full force.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> Since 1600 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>, nearly 300,000 people have been killed by <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruptions">volcanic eruptions</a>. Most deaths were caused by <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">lahars</a>, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction-zone</a> stratovolcanoes.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> Pyroclastic flows are swift, avalanche-like, ground-sweeping, incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, fine <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">ash</a>, fragmented <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>, and superheated gases that can travel at speeds over 150 km/h (90 mph).<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> Around 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during the <a href="/wiki/1902_eruption_of_Mount_Pel%C3%A9e" title="1902 eruption of Mount Pelée">1902 eruption of Mount Pelée</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> During March and April 1982, <a href="/wiki/El_Chich%C3%B3n" title="El Chichón">El Chichón</a> in the State of <a href="/wiki/Chiapas" title="Chiapas">Chiapas</a> in southeastern <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, erupted 3 times, causing the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history and killied more than 2,000 people in pyroclastic flows.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> Two <a href="/wiki/Decade_Volcanoes" title="Decade Volcanoes">Decade Volcanoes</a> that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On 15 June, Mount Pinatubo erupted and caused an <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">ash cloud</a> to shoot 40 km (25 mi) into the air. It produced large <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_surge" title="Pyroclastic surge">pyroclastic surges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">lahar</a> floods that caused a lot of damage to the surrounding area.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> Mount Pinatubo, located in <a href="/wiki/Central_Luzon" title="Central Luzon">Central Luzon</a> just 90 km (56 mi) west-northwest of <a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a>, had been dormant for six centuries before the 1991 eruption. This eruption was one of the 2nd largest in the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> It produced a large <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a> cloud that affected global temperatures, lowering them in areas as much as .5 °C.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[27]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a> cloud consisted of 22 million tons of <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO2</a> which combined with water droplets to create <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> In 1991 Japan's <a href="/wiki/Mount_Unzen" title="Mount Unzen">Mount Unzen</a> also erupted, after 200 years of inactivity. It's located on the island of <a href="/wiki/Kyushu" title="Kyushu">Kyushu</a> about 40 km (25 mi) east of <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki" title="Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> Beginning in June, a newly formed lava dome repeatedly collapsed. This generated a pyroclastic flow that flowed down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as 200 km/h (120 mph).<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> The 1991 eruption of Mount Unzen was one of the worst volcanic disasters in Japan's history, once killing more than 15,000 people in 1792.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD" title="Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD">eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD</a> is the most famous example of a hazardous stratovolcano eruption. It completely smothered the nearby ancient cities of <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herculaneum" title="Herculaneum">Herculaneum</a> with thick deposits of <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_surge" title="Pyroclastic surge">pyroclastic surges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a> ranging from 6–7 meters deep. Pompeii had 10,000–20,000 inhabitants at the time of eruption.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius" title="Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a> is recognized as one of the most dangerous of the world's volcanoes, due to its capacity for <a href="/wiki/Plinian_eruption" title="Plinian eruption">powerful explosive eruptions</a> coupled with the high population density of the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_City_of_Naples" title="Metropolitan City of Naples">Metropolitan Naples</a> area (totaling about 3.6 million inhabitants).<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ash">Ash</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ash" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashfall_from_Pinatubo,_1991.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg/220px-Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="712" data-file-height="475"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg/220px-Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg/330px-Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg/440px-Ashfall_from_Pinatubo%2C_1991.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Snow-like blanket of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a>'s ashfall deposits in a parking lot on <a href="/wiki/Clark_Air_Base" title="Clark Air Base">Clark Air Base</a> (15 June 1991)</figcaption></figure> In addition to potentially affecting the climate, <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">volcanic ash</a> clouds from <a href="/wiki/Explosive_eruption" title="Explosive eruption">explosive eruptions</a> pose a serious hazard to <a href="/wiki/Aviation" title="Aviation">aviation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a> clouds consist of silt- or sand-sized pieces of rock, mineral, <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_glass" title="Volcanic glass">volcanic glass</a>. Volcanic ash grains are jagged, abrasive, and don't dissolve in water.<a href="#cite_note-:22-31">[31]</a> For example, during the 1982 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Galunggung" title="Galunggung">Galunggung</a> in <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Airways_Flight_9" class="mw-redirect" title="British Airways Flight 9">British Airways Flight 9</a> flew into the ash cloud, causing it to sustain temporary engine failure and structural damage.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Although no crashes have happened due to ash, more than 60, mostly <a href="/wiki/Commercial_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial aircraft">commercial aircraft</a>, have been damaged. Some of these incidents resulted in emergency landings.<a href="#cite_note-:05-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-dynearth-25">[25]</a> <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Ashfalls</a> are a threat to health when inhaled and are also a threat to property. A square yard of a 4-inch thick volcanic ash layer can weigh 120–200 pounds and can get twice as heavy when wet. Wet ash also poses a risk to electronics due to its <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductive</a> nature.<a href="#cite_note-:22-31">[31]</a> Dense clouds of hot volcanic ash can be expelled due to the collapse of an <a href="/wiki/Eruption_column" title="Eruption column">eruptive column</a>, or laterally due to the partial collapse of a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_edifice" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic edifice">volcanic edifice</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">lava dome</a> during <a href="/wiki/Explosive_eruption" title="Explosive eruption">explosive eruptions</a>. These clouds are known as <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_surge" title="Pyroclastic surge">pyroclastic surges</a> and in addition to volcanic ash, they contain hot <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">rock</a>, and volcanic gas. Pyroclastic surges flow at speeds over 50 mph and are at temperatures between 200 °C – 700 °C. These surges can cause major damage to property and people in their path.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lava">Lava</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lava" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">Lava</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mayon_0052.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Mayon_0052.jpg/220px-Mayon_0052.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1293" data-file-height="860"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 146px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Mayon_0052.jpg/220px-Mayon_0052.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="146" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Mayon_0052.jpg/330px-Mayon_0052.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Mayon_0052.jpg/440px-Mayon_0052.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mayon" title="Mayon">Mayon Volcano</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> extruding lava flows during its eruption on 29 December 2009</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">Lava flows</a> from stratovolcanoes are generally not a significant threat to humans or animals because the highly <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> moves slowly enough for everyone to evacuate. Most deaths attributed to lava are due to related causes such as <a href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">asphyxiation</a> from <a href="/wiki/Toxic_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic gas">toxic gas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">Lava flows</a> can bury homes and farms in thick <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">volcanic rock</a> which greatly reduces property value.<a href="#cite_note-:12-35">[35]</a> However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava. <a href="/wiki/Nyiragongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyiragongo">Nyiragongo</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Kivu" title="Lake Kivu">Lake Kivu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">central Africa</a>, is very dangerous because its <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> has an unusually low <a href="/wiki/Silicate" title="Silicate">silica content</a>, making it much less viscous than other stratovolcanoes. Low <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> lava can generate massive <a href="/wiki/Lava_fountain" class="mw-redirect" title="Lava fountain">lava fountains</a>, while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_plug" title="Volcanic plug">volcanic plug</a>. Volcanic plugs can trap <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">volcanic gas</a> and create pressure in the magma chamber, resulting in violent eruptions.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Lava is typically between 700 and 1,200 °C (1,300–2,200 °F).<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanic_bombs">Volcanic bombs</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Volcanic bombs" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_bomb" title="Volcanic bomb">Volcanic bomb</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_bomb" title="Volcanic bomb">Volcanic bombs</a> are masses of unconsolidated rock and lava that are ejected during an eruption. Volcanic bombs are classified as larger than 64mm (2.5 inches). Anything from 2 to 64mm is classified as <a href="/wiki/Lapilli" title="Lapilli">lapilli</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:03-38">[38]</a> When erupted, volcanic bombs are still molten and partially cool and solidify on their descent. They can form ribbon or oval shapes that can also flatten on impact with the ground.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Volcanic bombs are associated with <a href="/wiki/Strombolian_eruption" title="Strombolian eruption">Strombolian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulcanian_eruption" title="Vulcanian eruption">Vulcanian</a> eruptions and <a href="/wiki/Basaltic_lava" class="mw-redirect" title="Basaltic lava">basaltic lava</a>. Ejection velocities ranging from 200 to 400 m/s have been recorded causing volcanic bombs to be destructive.<a href="#cite_note-:03-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lahar">Lahar</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lahar" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">Lahar</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">Lahars</a> (from a <a href="/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese</a> term for volcanic mudflows) are a mixture of volcanic debris and water. Lahars can result from heavy rainfall during or before the eruption or interaction with ice and snow. Meltwater mixes with volcanic debris causing a fast moving mudflow. Lahars are typically about 60% sediment and 40% water.<a href="#cite_note-:04-40">[40]</a> Depending on the abundance of volcanic debris the lahar can be fluid or thick like concrete.<a href="#cite_note-:13-41">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">Lahars</a> have the strength and speed to flatten structures and cause great bodily harm, gaining speeds up to dozens of kilometers per hour.<a href="#cite_note-:04-40">[40]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Armero_tragedy" title="Armero tragedy">1985 eruption</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nevado_del_Ruiz" title="Nevado del Ruiz">Nevado del Ruiz</a> in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_surge" title="Pyroclastic surge">Pyroclastic surges</a> melted snow and ice atop the 5,321 m (17,457 ft) high Andean volcano. The ensuing lahar killed 25,000 people and flooded the city of <a href="/wiki/Armero" title="Armero">Armero</a> and nearby settlements.<a href="#cite_note-:13-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volcanic_gas">Volcanic gas</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Volcanic gas" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">Volcanic gas</a></div> As a volcano forms, several different <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">gases</a> mix with <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> in the volcanic chamber. During an eruption the gases are then released into the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> which can lead to toxic human exposure. The most abundant of these <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">gases</a> is <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">H2O</a> (<a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>) followed by <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a> (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO2</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">H2S</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">HF</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">hydrogen fluoride</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:04-40">[40]</a> If at concentrations of more than 3% in the air, when breathed in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a> can cause dizziness and difficulty breathing. At more than 15% concentration <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a> causes death. <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a> can settle into depressions in the land, leading to deadly, odorless pockets of gas.<a href="#cite_note-:06-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO2</a> classified as a respiratory, skin, and eye irritant if come into contact with. It is known for its pungent egg smell and role in ozone depletion and has the potential to cause acid rain downwind of an eruption.<a href="#cite_note-:06-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">H2S</a> has an even stronger odor than <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO2</a> as well as being even more toxic. Exposure for less than an hour at concentrations of over 500 ppm causes death.<a href="#cite_note-:06-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride" title="Hydrogen fluoride">HF</a> and similar species can coat <a href="/wiki/Ash" title="Ash">ash</a> particles and once deposited can poison soil and water.<a href="#cite_note-:06-42">[42]</a> Gases are also emitted during volcanic degassing, which is a passive release of <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a> during periods of dormancy.<a href="#cite_note-:06-42">[42]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Eruptions_that_affected_global_climate">Eruptions that affected global climate</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Eruptions that affected global climate" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg/220px-Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="261" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="665" data-file-height="790"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 261px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg/220px-Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="261" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg/330px-Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg/440px-Ausbruch_des_Pinatubo_1991.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Mount Pinatubo's 1991 eruption ash cloud seen from Clark Airbase. 12 June 1991</figcaption></figure> As per the above examples, while eruptions like <a href="/wiki/Mount_Unzen" title="Mount Unzen">Mount Unzen</a> have caused deaths and local damage, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a> was seen globally.<a href="#cite_note-:05-33">[33]</a> The eruptive columns reached heights of 40 km and dumped 17 megatons of SO2 into the lower <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:14-43">[43]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosols</a> that formed from the <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> (SO2), <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (CO2), and other <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">gases</a> dispersed around the world. The <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">SO2</a> in this cloud combined with water (both of volcanic and atmospheric origin) and formed <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, blocking a portion of the sunlight from reaching the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:05-33">[33]</a> This caused the global temperature to decrease by about 0.4 °C (0.72 °F) from 1992 to 1993. These <a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">aerosols</a> caused the <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a> to reach the lowest concentrations recorded at that time.<a href="#cite_note-:14-43">[43]</a> An eruption the size of Mount Pinatubo affected the weather for a few years; with warmer winters and cooler summers observed.<a href="#cite_note-:14-43">[43]</a> A similar phenomenon occurred in the April 1815, the eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tambora" title="Mount Tambora">Mount Tambora</a> on <a href="/wiki/Sumbawa" title="Sumbawa">Sumbawa</a> island in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. This eruption is recognized as the most powerful eruption in recorded history.<a href="#cite_note-:05-33">[33]</a> Its eruption cloud lowered global temperatures as much as 0.4 to 0.7 °C.<a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[44]</a> In the year following the eruption, most of the Northern Hemisphere experienced cooler temperatures during the summer. In the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">northern hemisphere</a>, 1816 was known as the "<a href="/wiki/Year_Without_a_Summer" title="Year Without a Summer">Year Without a Summer</a>". The eruption caused crop failures, food shortages, and floods that killed over 100,000 people across Europe, Asia, and North America.<a href="#cite_note-:2-44">[44]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="List">List</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: List" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_stratovolcanoes" title="List of stratovolcanoes">List of stratovolcanoes</a></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinder_cone" title="Cinder cone">Cinder cone</a> – Steep hill of pyroclastic fragments around a volcanic vent</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">Mountain formation</a> – Geological processes that underlie the formation of mountains</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">Orogeny</a> – The formation of mountain ranges</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_shield" title="Pyroclastic shield">Pyroclastic shield</a> – Shield volcano formed mostly of pyroclastic and highly explosive eruptions</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns 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data-height="12" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element">  This article incorporates <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usgs.gov/information-policies-and-instructions/copyrights-and-credits">public domain material</a> from <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html">Principal Types of Volcanoes</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a>. 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Retrieved 24 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Bomb+%7C+Explosive+Eruption%2C+Pyroclastic+Flow%2C+Ash+Cloud+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fbomb-volcanic-ejecta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratovolcano" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:04-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:04_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:04_40-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/earth-hazards/volcanoes/volcanic-hazards/">"Volcanic hazards"</a>. British Geological Survey. Retrieved 24 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Volcanic+hazards&rft.pub=British+Geological+Survey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bgs.ac.uk%2Fdiscovering-geology%2Fearth-hazards%2Fvolcanoes%2Fvolcanic-hazards%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratovolcano" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:13_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:13_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/tectonics.html">"Plate tectonics and people [This Dynamic Earth, USGS]"</a>. United States Geological Survey. 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Retrieved 24 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Volcanic+gases+can+be+harmful+to+health%2C+vegetation+and+infrastructure+%7C+U.S.+Geological+Survey&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usgs.gov%2Fprograms%2FVHP%2Fvolcanic-gases-can-be-harmful-health-vegetation-and-infrastructure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratovolcano" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:14_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_43-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:14_43-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/pinatubo/self/">"Self"</a>. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 25 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Self&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fpinatubo%2Fself%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratovolcano" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_44-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/news/day-history-mount-tambora-explosively-erupts-1815">"This Day In History: Mount Tambora Explosively Erupts in 1815"</a>. National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. 24 October 2024. Retrieved 25 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Environmental+Satellite%2C+Data%2C+and+Information+Service&rft.atitle=This+Day+In+History%3A+Mount+Tambora+Explosively+Erupts+in+1815&rft.date=2024-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nesdis.noaa.gov%2Fnews%2Fday-history-mount-tambora-explosively-erupts-1815&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStratovolcano" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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href="/w/index.php?title=Stratovolcano&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 12 January 2025, at 02:29 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkaan" title="Stratovulkaan – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Stratovulkaan" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%82%D9%8A" title="بركان طبقي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بركان طبقي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratovolc%C3%A1n" title="Estratovolcán – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Estratovolcán" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1q_vulkan" title="Qarışıq vulkan – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qarışıq vulkan" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunung_Api_Kojong" title="Gunung Api Kojong – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Gunung Api Kojong" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF" title="মিশ্র আগ্নেয়গিরি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিশ্র আগ্নেয়গিরি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%C3%A2%E2%81%BF-ch%C3%A2n_h%C3%B3e-soa%E2%81%BF" title="Chiâⁿ-chân hóe-soaⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chiâⁿ-chân hóe-soaⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратавулкан – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Стратавулкан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратавулькан – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Стратавулькан" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratobulkan" title="Estratobulkan – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Estratobulkan" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратовулкан – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Стратовулкан" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratovolc%C3%A0" title="Estratovolcà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Estratovolcà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulk%C3%A1n" title="Stratovulkán – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Stratovulkán" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkan" title="Stratovulkan – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Stratovulkan" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schichtvulkan" title="Schichtvulkan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Schichtvulkan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kihtvulkaan" title="Kihtvulkaan – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kihtvulkaan" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratovolc%C3%A1n" title="Estratovolcán – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estratovolcán" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkano" title="Stratovulkano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Stratovulkano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geruza-sumendi" title="Geruza-sumendi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geruza-sumendi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="آتشفشان چینه‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آتشفشان چینه‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcan" title="Stratovolcan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Stratovolcan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratofulkaan" title="Stratofulkaan – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Stratofulkaan" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratovolc%C3%A1n" title="Estratovolcán – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Estratovolcán" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EC%B8%B5_%ED%99%94%EC%82%B0" title="성층 화산 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성층 화산" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B0%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AD" title="Ստրատոհրաբուխ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ստրատոհրաբուխ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80" title="मिश्रित ज्वालामुखी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिश्रित ज्वालामुखी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkan" title="Stratovulkan – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Stratovulkan" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratobulkan" title="Estratobulkan – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Estratobulkan" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunung_berapi_kerucut" title="Gunung berapi kerucut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gunung berapi kerucut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldkeila" title="Eldkeila – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Eldkeila" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulcano" title="Stratovulcano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stratovulcano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratubulkan" title="Estratubulkan – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Estratubulkan" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="სტრატოვულკანი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სტრატოვულკანი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%83" title="Стратожанартау – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Стратожанартау" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B2lkan_konpozit" title="Vòlkan konpozit – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Vòlkan konpozit" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolkan" title="Stratovolkan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Stratovolkan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulk%C4%81ns" title="Stratovulkāns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Stratovulkāns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkanas" title="Stratovulkanas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Stratovulkanas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9tegvulk%C3%A1n" title="Rétegvulkán – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rétegvulkán" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратовулкан – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стратовулкан" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%99%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="სტრატოვულკანი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სტრატოვულკანი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolkano" title="Stratovolkano – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Stratovolkano" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkaan" title="Stratovulkaan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Stratovulkaan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%88%90%E5%B1%A4%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1" title="成層火山 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="成層火山" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkan" title="Stratovulkan – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Stratovulkan" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkan" title="Stratovulkan – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Stratovulkan" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratovolcan" title="Estratovolcan – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Estratovolcan" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratowulkan" title="Stratowulkan – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stratowulkan" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estratovulc%C3%A3o" title="Estratovulcão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estratovulcão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulcan" title="Stratovulcan – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Stratovulcan" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратовулкан – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Стратовулкан" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратовулкан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стратовулкан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" title="Stratovolcano – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Stratovolcano" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolcano" title="Stratovolcano – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Stratovolcano" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulk%C3%A1n" title="Stratovulkán – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stratovulkán" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkan" title="Stratovulkan – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Stratovulkan" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратовулкан – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Стратовулкан" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkan" title="Stratovulkan – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Stratovulkan" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerrostulivuori" title="Kerrostulivuori – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kerrostulivuori" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovulkan" title="Stratovulkan – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Stratovulkan" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88" title="சுழல் வடிவ எரிமலை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுழல் வடிவ எரிமலை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B1%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99" title="กรวยภูเขาไฟสลับชั้น – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กรวยภูเขาไฟสลับชั้น" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratovolkan" title="Stratovolkan – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Stratovolkan" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стратовулкан – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стратовулкан" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAi_l%E1%BB%ADa_d%E1%BA%A1ng_t%E1%BA%A7ng" title="Núi lửa dạng tầng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Núi lửa dạng tầng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%8D%E5%BC%8F%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1" title="复式火山 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="复式火山" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A4%87%E5%BC%8F%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1" title="複式火山 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="複式火山" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist 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